title: Supersymmetry

text: Supersymmetry appears in many related contexts of theoretical physics. It is possible to have multiple supersymmetries and also have supersymmetric extra dimensions.


title: Supersymmetry

text: It is possible to have more than one kind of supersymmetry transformation. Theories with more than one supersymmetry transformation are known as extended supersymmetric theories. The more supersymmetry a theory has, the more constrained are the field content and interactions. Typically the number of copies of a supersymmetry is a power of 2 (1, 2, 4, 8...). In four dimensions, a spinor has four degrees of freedom and thus the minimal number of supersymmetry generators is four in four dimensions and having eight copies of supersymmetry means that there are 32 supersymmetry generators.


title: Supersymmetry

text: The maximal number of supersymmetry generators possible is 32. Theories with more than 32 supersymmetry generators automatically have massless fields with spin greater than 2. It is not known how to make massless fields with spin greater than two interact, so the maximal number of supersymmetry generators considered is 32. This is due to the Weinberg–Witten theorem. This corresponds to an "N" = 8 supersymmetry theory. Theories with 32 supersymmetries automatically have a graviton.


title: Supersymmetry

text: For four dimensions there are the following theories, with the corresponding multiplets (CPT adds a copy, whenever they are not invariant under such symmetry):


title: Supersymmetry

text: It is possible to have supersymmetry in dimensions other than four. Because the properties of spinors change drastically between different dimensions, each dimension has its characteristic. In "d" dimensions, the size of spinors is approximately 2 or 2. Since the maximum number of supersymmetries is 32, the greatest number of dimensions in which a supersymmetric theory can exist is eleven.


title: Supersymmetry

text: Fractional supersymmetry is a generalization of the notion of supersymmetry in which the minimal positive amount of spin does not have to be but can be an arbitrary for integer value of "N". Such a generalization is possible in two or fewer spacetime dimensions.


title: Arrigo Sacchi

text: Arrigo Sacchi (born 1 April 1946) is an Italian former professional football coach. He has twice managed AC Milan (1987–1991, 1996–1997), with great success. He won the Serie A title in his 1987–88 debut season and then dominated European football by winning back to back European Cups in 1989 and 1990. From 1991 to 1996, he was head coach of the Italy national team and led them to the 1994 FIFA World Cup Final, where they lost to Brazil in a penalty shoot-out.


title: Arrigo Sacchi

text: Sacchi is regarded as one of the greatest managers of all time and his Milan side (1987–1991) is widely regarded to be one of the greatest club sides to ever play the game, and by some to be the greatest of all time.


title: Arrigo Sacchi

text: Sacchi was never a professional football player and for many years worked as a shoe salesman. This led to his famous quote directed at those who questioned his qualifications: "I never realised that in order to become a jockey you have to have been a horse first." Another famous Sacchi quote is that "football is the most important of the least important things in life."


title: Arrigo Sacchi

text: Sacchi had grown up watching attacking sides, such as Budapest Honvéd, Real Madrid, Brazil and the Netherlands. He started his career managing his local club, Baracca Lugo, because he was not good enough to play for them. Of the challenge he faced, Sacchi said, "I was twenty-six, my goalkeeper was thirty-nine and my centre-forward was thirty-two. I had to win them over." He next coached at Bellaria before joining Cesena, who were in the Serie B, as a youth team coach. He then took over at Rimini who were playing in the Serie C1, and almost led them to a title.


title: Arrigo Sacchi

text: He received his breakthrough when he moved to Fiorentina as a youth coach. His achievements with the youth team earned interest from Parma, who were then playing in Serie C1. He led Parma to promotion in his first season, and in the following season took them to within 3 points of promotion to Serie A. Of greater importance to his time at Parma, however, was the team's performance in the Coppa Italia; they beat AC Milan 1–0 in the group stages, and beat them again 1–0 on aggregate in the first knockout round. This was enough to attract interest from Milan club owner Silvio Berlusconi, who promptly appointed Sacchi as manager.


title: Arrigo Sacchi

text: At Milan, Sacchi again faced problems of credibility. The press argued that such an inadequate player could never go on to be a successful coach, and that even Berlusconi – who had played football at amateur level – was probably a better player. Sacchi wittily replied "I never realised that in order to become a jockey you have to have been a horse first." Sacchi was an instant success at the San Siro, leading Milan to its first Serie A title in nine years in his debut season, following up the league title with a Supercoppa Italiana in 1988.


title: Arrigo Sacchi

text: Sacchi's success at Milan gained him two back-to-back European Cups. The success he gained was largely attributed to the Dutch trio he had purchased: Marco van Basten, Ruud Gullit and Frank Rijkaard. However, other great players such as Roberto Donadoni, as well as the defensive back four of Franco Baresi, Alessandro Costacurta, Mauro Tassotti and Paolo Maldini, were also a key to his success.


title: Arrigo Sacchi

text: The first European Cup final in 1989 was against Steaua București, who were beaten resoundingly 4–0. Gullit and Van Basten scored two goals each and Milan lifted the European Cup for the first time in over 20 years. En route to the final, Milan had dispatched Real Madrid 6–1 on aggregate in the semi-final, a result which almost represented the passing of the mantle for best European club. The quarter-final against Werder Bremen was a tight affair; Milan only went through 1–0 on aggregate thanks to a Van Basten penalty. The second round was shrouded in controversy. Donadoni had his life saved only through the quick-thinking of the Red Star Belgrade physio, who broke his jaw to make a passage for oxygen to reach his lungs after he had suffered a bad foul and lay unconscious. The first leg ended in a 1–1 draw and the second leg got called off in 64th minute and rescheduled to be replayed the next day due to the thick fog (Milan was losing 0–1 at the moment). Milan eventually progressed following a penalty shoot-out.


title: Arrigo Sacchi

text: Although the team was not as strong as they had been in the previous season, they were victorious again in 1990. After victories against HJK Helsinki, Real Madrid and KV Mechelen, Milan defeated German giants Bayern Munich in the semi-final, thanks to an away goal. The Dutch magic worked again in the final, as Frank Rijkaard scored the only goal of the game through a Van Basten assist to conquer Sven-Göran Eriksson's Benfica. By winning the final, Milan became the first team which retained the title since 1980, and the last team to do so until Real Madrid would manage to achieve this feat 27 years later. Sacchi would also capture back to back European Super Cups and Intercontinental Cups in 1989 and 1990, and would lead Milan to the final of the 1989–90 Coppa Italia, where they were defeated by Juventus. The following season saw them defeated by eventual runners-up Marseille in the quarter-final, and finish second in Serie A behind Sampdoria, while they were eliminated in the semi-finals of the Coppa Italia by eventual champions Roma. This was Sacchi's last season with "i Rossoneri".


title: Arrigo Sacchi

text: In November 1991, Sacchi was appointed manager of the Italy national team, replacing Azeglio Vicini. Sacchi based his Italian selection predominantly on Milan players, especially in the defensive line which featured Paolo Maldini and Franco Baresi; the attacking line was led by talismanic 1993 Ballon d'or winner Roberto Baggio of Juventus. Notable exclusions from Sacchi's "Azzurri" selections, however, included Gianluca Vialli, Roberto Mancini, Giuseppe Bergomi and Walter Zenga.


title: Arrigo Sacchi

text: Sacchi successfully led Italy through the qualification campaign to reach the 1994 FIFA World Cup. Despite not being among the favourites and losing their first match 1–0 to the Republic of Ireland, Italy reached the final (their first since 1982), where they were defeated by Brazil in a penalty shoot-out, the first ever shootout in a World Cup final. Under Sacchi, Italy qualified for UEFA Euro 1996, but were eliminated from a group which included the eventual finalists, Germany and the Czech Republic.


title: Arrigo Sacchi

text: After leaving his position with the national team, Sacchi returned to Milan to replace Óscar Tabárez in December 1996. However, the second spell was unsuccessful with Milan finishing 11th in the league and suffering its worst ever Serie A defeat, losing 6–1 at home to eventual champions Juventus.


title: Arrigo Sacchi

text: Sacchi had brief spells in the Spanish La Liga, taking charge of Atlético Madrid in 1998 after his second spell with the "Rossoneri", where he left his post in March of that season, with them languishing in the bottom half of the table. He also briefly returned to Parma in 2001, replacing Alberto Malesani, but soon resigned after disappointing results, and was replaced by Renzo Ulivieri. He later returned to Madrid, this time at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium as director of football at Real Madrid for the 2004–05 season.


title: Arrigo Sacchi

text: Nicknamed "The Prophet of Fusignano", Sacchi is regarded as one of the greatest managers of all-time. He favored a fluid, yet highly organised attacking 4–4–2 formation, discarding the traditional libero in an era where Italian football was mainly focussed on strong defensive play, and Helenio Herrera's "Catenaccio" tactics were still a strong influence. Defensively, Sacchi's teams adopted a zonal marking system, which had already been introduced by his predecessor Nils Liedholm, and were known for their defensive strength, conceding few goals; indeed, the defensive quartet of Maldini, Baresi, Costacurta, and Tassotti, which Sacchi deployed both at Milan and with the Italy national team, is regarded as one of the greatest defences of all-time.


title: Arrigo Sacchi

text: Sacchi believes in the Dutch concept of Total Football, insisting that young players should be coached in all aspects of football rather than into specialist positions, helping the team both with or without the ball. He was also a firm believer in team ethic and treating all players as equals, once saying, "The only way you can build a side is by getting players who speak the same language and can play a team game. You can’t achieve anything on your own, and if you do, it doesn’t last long. I often quote what Michelangelo said: 'The spirit guides the hand.'" To perfect his team's cohesion, Sacchi introduced "shadow play", where his players would simulate a match in training without a football. As a coach, he also attracted controversy, as he was known for implementing a strict and rigorous training regime upon his players, and his teams were often known for their work ethic and discipline. Sacchi is also remembered for his outspokenness, stubbornness and his meticulous, obsessive attention to detail when preparing tactical solutions and perfecting plays, which his players were then expected to memorise and implement consistently during matches.


title: Arrigo Sacchi

text: Sacchi is also credited as an innovator, popularising high pressing from his teams, the offside trap, and a high defensive line with no more than 25 metres between defence and attack. This style of pressing has been emulated successfully by José Mourinho's Porto, Pep Guardiola's Barcelona, Jürgen Klopp's Borussia Dortmund and Jupp Heynckes's Bayern Munich. His successor at Milan, Fabio Capello, retained Sacchi's tactics and went on to win four "Scudetti" in five seasons and the 1993–94 Champions League. Spanish coach Rafael Benítez – who won the UEFA Cup and La Liga with Valencia, the UEFA Champions League and FA Cup with Liverpool, the FIFA Club World Cup with Internazionale and the UEFA Europa League with Chelsea – cites Sacchi as his role model and "the coach who has revolutionised football in the past 50 years".


title: Vicki Lewis

text: Vicki Lewis (born March 17, 1960) is an American singer and actress of film, stage, and television. She is best known for her role as Beth in the NBC sitcom "NewsRadio".


title: Vicki Lewis

text: Lewis was born and raised in Cincinnati, Ohio, the daughter of Marlene, a nursing administrator, and Jim Lewis, an air traffic supervisor. She has a sister, Denise. Lewis graduated from Anderson High School in Cincinnati in 1978. She studied musical theater at the University of Cincinnati – College-Conservatory of Music. After receiving her diploma she moved to New York City. She proceeded to work in various on and off-Broadway shows.


title: Vicki Lewis

text: Lewis was in a long-term relationship with Nick Nolte. The two met during the filming of "I'll Do Anything". She is married to sound designer Philip G. Allen.


title: Vicki Lewis

text: Lewis's film appearances include roles in "Finding Nemo", "Finding Dory", "Mouse Hunt", "Godzilla", "Pushing Tin", 2007's "California Dreaming" with "NewsRadio" co-star Dave Foley, and 2010's "Den Brother". On television, Lewis starred for 5 seasons on the NBC sitcom "NewsRadio", followed by "Three Sisters" and the WB animated comedy "Mission Hill". She made guest appearances on "Seinfeld" (in the episodes "The Secretary" and "The Race") and "Murphy Brown". In a recurring role on "Home Improvement", she played Maureen Binford, producer of the show-within-a-show "Tool Time". On "How I Met Your Mother", she had the recurring role of Lily Aldrin's doctor, "Dr. Sonya".


title: Vicki Lewis

text: She appeared on "Caroline in the City", "The Norm Show", "Grace Under Fire", "Phenom" and "The 5 Mrs. Buchanans". Most recently, she made guest appearances on "Surviving Suburbia", ABC's "Grey's Anatomy", Disney Channel's "Sonny with a Chance" as Ms. Bitterman, the social worker on "The Middle", and FX's "Dirt". She recurred as Erica on "Modern Family, As" Mrs. Chadwick in "Making" "History", and Dr. Chapman in Still The King Miss Moffett In "Angie Tribeca" and Marie Mortel in "The Blacklist."


title: Vicki Lewis

text: Aside from "Mission Hill", her voice acting career includes characters in "Justice League Heroes", "Rugrats Pre-School Daze", "King of the Hill", "", "An Extremely Goofy Movie", "Finding Nemo", "Phineas and Ferb", and "". Most recently, she voiced Eve in the 2010 film "Alpha and Omega" and .


title: Vicki Lewis

text: On stage, Lewis has appeared in "City of Angels" and "My One and Only" in Los Angeles, and has performed as a soloist with the New York Pops at Carnegie Hall. Her Broadway credits include "I Can Get It For You Wholesale", "Do Black Patent Leather Shoes Really Reflect Up?", "Snoopy!!! The Musical", "Damn Yankees", "Chicago", "The Crucible", and she was the final actress to play Countess Lily in "Anastasia". She also appeared with Peter Gallagher and Patti LuPone in "Pal Joey" at the New York City Center. Lewis won the 2007 Ovation Award for Best Featured Actress in a Musical for the world premiere of Michael John LaChiusa's "Hotel C'est L'amour".


title: Vicki Lewis

text: She was part of the one-night celebrity-performed staging of Howard Ashman's unproduced musical "Dreamstuff". The musical was re-imagined by Ashman's partners Marsha Malamet and Dennis Green and performed one night only at Los Angeles's Hayworth Theatre as part of the Bruno Kirby celebrity reading series. Her debut solo album "East of Midnight" was released in May 2010. The eclectic rock album has songs penned by Lewis as well as three cover songs. Lewis says this about the writing of the album: "The words and music of these songs unfolded before me like a foreboding window into a chapter of my life that would prove to be dauntingly destructive and spiritually bereft. Locked in my office in Malibu, California I wrote what would become a self-fulfilling prophecy – it would also prove to be the making of me." In 2018 she starred on Broadway as countess Lili in “"Anastasia"” directed by Darko Tresnik. She played Ms. Winx/Mrs. Brown/Kyrie/Jessamyn Jacobs/Lady in Waiting in Between the Lines Off-Broadway in 2022.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: The Equestrian Order of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem (, OESSH), also called Order of the Holy Sepulchre or Knights of the Holy Sepulchre, is a Catholic order of knighthood under the protection of the Holy See. The pope is the sovereign of the order.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: The order creates "canons" as well as knights, with the primary mission to "support the Christian presence in the Holy Land".


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: The order today is estimated to have some 30,000 knights and dames in 60 lieutenancies around the world. The cardinal grand master has been Fernando Filoni since 2019, and the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem is grand prior. Its headquarters are situated at Palazzo Della Rovere and its official church in Sant'Onofrio al Gianicolo, both in Rome, close to Vatican City.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: The name of the knights and order varied over the centuries, including and "The Sacred and Military Order of the Holy Sepulchre". The current name was determined on 27 July 1931 as the Equestrian Order of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem (with "of Jerusalem" as honorary suffix) by decree of the Sacred Congregation of Ceremonies of the Holy See. The term "equestrian" in this context is consistent with its use for orders of knighthood of the Holy See, referring to the chivalric and knightly nature of order—by sovereign prerogative conferring knighthood on recipients—derived from the equestrians (), a social class in Ancient Rome.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: The history of the Equestrian Order of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem runs common and parallel to that of the religious Canons Regular of the Holy Sepulchre, the order continuing after the Canons Regular ceased to exist at the end of the 15th century (except for their female counterpart, the Canonesses Regular of the Holy Sepulchre).


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: Pilgrimages to the Holy Land were a common, if hazardous, practice from shortly after the crucifixion of Jesus to throughout the Middle Ages. Numerous detailed commentaries have survived as evidence of this early Christian devotion. While there were many places the pious visited during their travels, the one most cherished was the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, first constructed by Constantine the Great in the 4th century AD.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: During the era of the Islamic expansion, Emperor Charlemagne (–814) sent two embassies to the caliph of Baghdad, asking Frankish protectorate over the Holy Land. An epic recounts his legendary adventures in the Mediterranean and pilgrimage to Jerusalem.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: By virtue of its defining characteristic of subinfeudation, in feudalism it was common practice for knights commanders to confer knighthoods upon their finest soldiers, who in turn had the right to confer knighthood on others upon attaining command. Tradition maintains that long before the Crusades, a form of knighthood was bestowed upon worthy men at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. In any case, during the 11th century, prior to the Crusades, "" were established to protect Christians and Christian premises in the Occident.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: Persecution of Christians in the Holy Land intensified. Relations with Christian rulers were further strained when Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah ordered the destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in 1009.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: The crusades coincided with a renewed concern in Europe for the holy places, with the Church of the Holy Sepulchre as one of the most important places. According to an undocumented tradition, Girolamo Gabrielli of the Italian Gabrielli family, who was the leader of 1000 knights from Gubbio, Umbria, during the First Crusade, was the first crusader to enter the Church of the Holy Sepulchre after Jerusalem was seized in 1099.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: After the capture of Jerusalem at the end of the First Crusade in 1099, the Canons Regular of the Holy Sepulchre were established to take care of the church. The men in charge of securing its defence and its community of canons were called . Together, the canons and the milites formed part of the structure of which evolved into the modern Equestrian Order of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem. Baldwin I, the first king of Jerusalem, laid the foundations of the kingdom and established its main institutions on the Norman-French pattern as a centralised feudal state. He also drew up the first constitution of the order in 1103, modelled on the chapter of canons that he founded in Antwerp prior to his departure, under which the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem (who had supplanted the Greek Orthodox patriarch) appointed knights in Jerusalem at the direct service of the crown, similar to the organisation of third orders. Adopting the rule of Saint Augustine, with recognition in 1113 by Papal Bull of Pope Paschal II, with the attached, it is considered among the oldest of the chivalric orders. Indications suggest that Hugues de Payens (c. 1070–1136) was among the Milites Santi Sepulcri during his second time in Jerusalem in 1114–16, before being appointed "Magister Militum Templi", establishing the Knights Templar.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: Between – , Gerard (), the Prior of the Holy Sepulchre, along with Patriarch Warmund of Jerusalem, wrote a significant letter to Diego Gelmírez, Archbiship of Santiago de Compostela citing crop failures and being threatened by their enemies; they requested food, money, and military aid in order to maintain the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Gerard consequently participated among others in the Council of Nablus, 16 January 1120. In it, Canons 20–21 deal with clerics. Canon 20 says a cleric should not be held guilty if he takes up arms in self-defense, but he cannot take up arms for any other reason nor can he act like a knight. This was an important concern for the crusader states; clerics were generally forbidden from participating in warfare in European law, but the crusaders needed all the manpower they could find and, only one year before, Antioch had been defended by the Latin patriarch of Antioch following the Battle of Ager Sanguinis, one of the calamities referred to in the introduction to the canons. Canon 21 says that a monk or canon regular who apostatizes should either return to his order or go into exile.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: In 1122, Pope Callistus II issued a bulla establishing a lay religious community with specific responsibilities to defend the Church Universal, protect the City of Jerusalem, guard the Basilica of the Holy Sepulchre and pilgrims, and fight in the defence of Christianity.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: In total, as a result of these military needs, five major chivalric communities were established in the Kingdom of Jerusalem between the late 11th century and the early 12th century: the Knights Hospitaller (Order of Saint John) (circa 1099), the Knights of the Holy Sepulchre (circa 1099), the Knights Templar (circa 1118), the Knights of Saint Lazarus (1123), and the Knights of the Hospital of Saint Mary of Jerusalem (Teutonic Knights) (1190).


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: The , establishing in 1123 an alliance of the Kingdom of Jerusalem with the Republic of Venice, was later signed by Patriarch Warmund and Prior Gerard of the Holy Sepulchre, along with Archbishop Ehremar of Caesarea, Bishop Bernard of Nazareth, Bishop Aschetinus of Bethlehem, Bishop Roger of Bishop of Lydda, Guildin the Abbot of St. Mary of Josaphat, Prior Aicard of the Templum Domini, Prior Arnold of Mount Zion, William Buris, and Chancellor Pagan. Aside from William and Pagan, no secular authorities witnessed the treaty, perhaps indicating that the allied Venetians considered Jerusalem a papal fief.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: Meanwhile, beyond the Holy Land, in Spain, during the Reconquista, military orders built their own monasteries which also served as fortresses of defence, though otherwise the houses followed monastic premises. A typical example of this type of monastery is the Calatrava la Nueva, headquarters of the Order of Calatrava, founded by the Abbot of Fitero, Raymond, at the behest of King Sancho III of Castile, to protect the area restored to the Islamic rulers. Other orders such as the Order of Santiago, Knight Templars and the Holy Sepulchre devoted much of their efforts to protect and care for pilgrims on the Camino de Santiago. Furthermore, at the Siege of Bayonne in October 1131, three years before his death, King Alfonso I of Aragon, having no children, bequeathed his kingdom to three autonomous religious orders based in the Holy Land and politically largely independent – the Knights Templars, the Knights Hospitallers and the Knights of the Holy Sepulchre – whose influences might have been expected to cancel one another out. The will has greatly puzzled historians, who have read it as a bizarre gesture of extreme piety uncharacteristic of Alfonso that effectively undid his life's work. Elena Lourie (1975) suggested instead that it was Alfonso's attempt to neutralize the papacy's interest in a disputed succession – Aragon had been a fief of the Papacy since 1068 – and to fend off his stepson, Alfonso VII of Castile, for the Papacy would be bound to press the terms of such a pious testament.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: In 15 July 1149 in the Holy Land, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem was consecrated after reconstruction.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: Crusade vows meant that even if a person wasn't able to make the journey to Holy Sepulchre himself, sometimes his cloak was taken there, as was the case with King Henry the Young of England (1155–1183). Robert the Bruce and James Douglas, Lord of Douglas even asked to have their hearts taken to the Holy Sepulchre after death.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: Besides pilgrimages and the creation of knights, even coronations took place at the Holy Sepulchre. Shortly before his death in 1185, Baldwin IV ordered a formal crown-wearing by his nephew, Baldwin V, at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: The official arrival of the Franciscan Friars Minor in Syria dates from the papal bull addressed by Pope Gregory IX to the clergy of the Holy Land in 1230, charging them to welcome the Friars Minor, and to allow them to preach to the faithful and hold oratories and cemeteries of their own. In the ten years' truce of 1229 concluded between King Frederick of Sicily and the Sultan Al-Kamil, the Franciscans were permitted to enter Jerusalem, but they were also the first victims of the violent invasion of the Khwarezmians in 1244.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: The ultimate fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem to the Muslims in 1291 did not suspend pilgrimages to the tomb of Christ or the custom of receiving knighthood there, and when the Custody of the Holy Land was entrusted to the Franciscan Order they continued this pious custom and gave the order its first grand master after the death of the last king of Jerusalem.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: The friars quickly resumed possession of their convent of Mount Zion at Jerusalem. The Turks tolerated the veneration paid to the tomb of Christ and derived revenue from the taxes levied upon pilgrims. In 1342, in his bull , Pope Clement VI officially committed the care of the Holy Land to the Franciscans; only the restoration of the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem by Pius IX in 1847 superseded the Franciscans.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: With the emergence of the code of conduct of chivalry during the Middle Ages, conferring of knighthoods was pursued also at the Holy Sepulchre. From the period 1291 to 1847, the Franciscan Custodian of Mount Sion was the only authority representing the Holy See in the Holy Land.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: Documented from 1335, the Franciscan Custody enrolled applicants as Knights of the Holy Sepulchre in ceremonies frequently mentioned in the itineraries of pilgrims. Those pilgrims deemed worthy received the honour in a solemn ceremony of ancient chivalry. However, in the ceremonial of reception at the time, the role of the clergy was limited to the , the dubbing with the sword being reserved to a professional knight, since the carrying of the sword was incompatible with the sacerdotal character, and reserved to previous knights.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: In 1346, King Valdemar IV of Denmark went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem and was made a knight of the Holy Sepulchre. This increased the prestige of Valdemar, who had difficulty in effectively ruling over his kingdom. Saint Bridget of Sweden, one of the future patron saints of Europe, made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land in 1371–1373 along with her sons. The oldest, Karl, died prior in Naples, but Birger Ulfsson became a knight of the Holy Sepulchre, followed by Hugo von Montfort (1395) and more to come.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: Duke Albert IV of Austria was made a knight in 1400, followed by his brother Ernest (1414) and by the Kalmar ruler Eric of Pomerania (1420's) and later by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III (1436), accompanied by Georg von Ehingen and numerous other knighted nobles; later were Count Otto II of Mosbach-Neumarkt (1460), Landgrave William III of Thuringia (1461) and Heinrich Reuß von Plauen (1461) who was also grand master of the Teutonic Order.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: The significance of the pilgrimages is indicated by various commemorations of the knights. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre of Görlitz in Saxony was built by Georg Emmerich, who was knighted in 1465. Of the medieval Knights of the Holy Sepulchre, notably, Emmerich, although a mayor and a wealthy merchant, was neither a monarch nor a nobleman. Eberhard I of Württemberg, knighted together with Christoph I of Baden in 1468, chose a palm as his personal symbol, including in the crest (heraldry) of his coat of arms. Others built church buildings in their hometowns, such as the chapel in Pratteln, Switzerland, by Hans Bernhard von Eptingen (knighted 1460), and Jeruzalemkerk in Bruges, Belgium, built by Anselm Adornes (knighted 1470). The latter still stands to this day, modelled on the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and today adorned with the heraldry of the order.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: Some property of the Knights in Italy was transferred to the newly established Order of Our Lady of Bethlehem in 1459, but the merger proved a failure. The Order of Our Lady of Bethlehem was suppressed almost as soon as it was founded and those orders whose goods the pope had transmitted to it were re-established.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: The accolades continued: Counts Enno I and Edzard I of East Frisia (1489), followed by Elector Frederick III of Saxony (1493) who was also recipient of the papal honour of the Golden Rose, together with Duke Christoph the Strong, Duke of Bavaria, then Frederick II of Legnica (1507), and others.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: From 1480 to 1495, John of Prussia, a Knight of the Holy Sepulchre, acted as Steward for the Convent and regularly discharged the act of accolade. It was a frequent occurrence that a foreign Knight present among the crowds of pilgrims would assist at this ceremony. However, without other assistance, it was the Superior who had to act instead of a Knight, although such a course was deemed irregular.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: Around this time, the Superior of the Convent assumed the title of Grand Master of the Knights, a title acknowledged by various pontifical diplomas.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: When the Canons Regular of the Holy Sepulchre were suppressed in 1489, Pope Innocent VIII attempted to merge the Knights of the Holy Sepulchre into the Knights Hospitaller, but this was not successful.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: The Franciscan province of the Holy Land continued to exist, with Acre as its seat. In the territory of the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem, reinstituted in 1847, the Franciscans still have 24 convents, and 15 parishes.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: In 1496, Pope Alexander VI restored the Knights of the Holy Sepulchre to independent status, organised as an Order. He decreed that the Knights would no longer be governed by the Custody of the Holy Land, but that the senior post of the Order would henceforth be raised to the rank of Grand Master, reserving this title for himself and his successors.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: The prerogative of dubbing Knights of the Holy Sepulchre was repeatedly confirmed by the Holy See; by Pope Leo X on 4 May 1515, by Pope Clement VII in 1527 and by Pope Pius IV on 1 August 1561.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: The privileges of the order, recorded by its guardian in 1553 and approved by successive popes, included powers to:


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: In France, King Henry IV of France purchased its French possessions and incorporated them into his newly established Order of Our Lady of Mount Carmel, formally established by Pope Paul V through the bull "Romanus Pontificus" on 16 February 1608 and expanded through "Militantium ordinum" dated 26 February 1608, along with possessions of other orders which apparently were all deemed extinct and abolished, indicating reduced regional activity.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: Nonetheless, the dubbing and the privileges enjoyed continued confirmation, by Pope Alexander VII on 3 August 1665, by Pope Benedict XIII on 3 March 1727, and by Pope Benedict XIV (1675–1758) who approved all but the last of the privileges of the order, and also stated that it should enjoy precedence over all orders except the Order of the Golden Fleece and the Pontifical Orders.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: Knights of the Holy Sepulchre dubbed during this era include (circa 1634) and François-René de Chateaubriand (1806).


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: Pius IX re-established the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem in 1847, and re-organized the Order of the Holy Sepulchre as the , whereby the grandmaster of the order was to be the Latin patriarch of Jerusalem, and the order ceased to be a pontifical order for a period. Initially, the Sovereign Military Order of Malta opposed the decision and claimed rights to its legacy, probably based on the papal decision of 1489. However, in 1868 it was named (Equestrian Order of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem).


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: Pope Pius X assumed the title of grandmaster for the papacy again in 1907, but in 1928 this was again relinquished by Pope Pius XI in favour of the patriarch of Jerusalem, and for a time the order again ceased to be a papal order.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: In 1932, Pius XI approved a new constitution and permitted investiture in the places of origin and not only in Jerusalem.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: In 1945, Pope Pius XII placed the order again under the sovereignty, patronage and protection of the Holy See, and in 1949 he approved a new constitution for the order, which included that the grandmaster be a cardinal of the Roman Curia, and that the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem be the Grand Prior of the order. In 1962 the Constitution of the Order was again reformed and the order was recognized as a juridical person in canon law.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: The current Constitution of the Order was approved by Pope Paul VI in 1977, and it maintains those arrangements. The order's status was further enhanced by Pope John Paul II in 1996, when, in addition to its canonical legal personality, it was given civil legal personality in Vatican City State, where it is headquartered. An amendment to the Constitution of the Order was approved by Pope John Paul II simultaneously with that concession of Vatican legal personality for the order.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: The order today remains an order of chivalry and is an association of the faithful with a legal canonical and public personality, constituted by the Holy See under Canon Law 312, paragraph 1:1, represented by 60 lieutenancies in more than 40 countries around the world: 24 in Europe, 15 in the United States and Canada, 5 in Latin America and 6 in Australia and Asia. It is recognised internationally as a legitimate order of knighthood, headquartered in Vatican City State under papal sovereignty and having the protection of the Holy See.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: Its principal mission is to reinforce the practice of Christian life by its members in absolute fidelity to the pope; to sustain and assist the religious, spiritual, charitable and social works and rights of the Catholic Church and the Christians in the Holy Land, particularly of the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem which receives some 10 million dollars annually in donations from members of the order. Other activities around the world are connected to their original functions.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: Regional activities include participation in local processions and religious ceremonies, such as during Holy Week.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: In France, the French Revolution resulted in a ban on conserving relics and all other sacred symbols linked to the monarchy, though pieces judged to be of high artistic quality were exempt. These relics were handed over to the archbishop of Paris in 1804 and are still held in the cathedral treasury of Notre Dame de Paris, cared for by the Knights of the Holy Sepulchre and the cathedral chapter. On the first Friday of every month at 3:00pm, guarded by the Knights, the Relics of Sainte-Chapelle are exposed for veneration and adoration by the faithful before the cathedral's high altar. Every Good Friday, this adoration lasts all day, punctuated by the liturgical offices. An exhibition entitled was mounted at the Louvre in 2001.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: The order was a significant donor in the restoration of the Statue of St. John of Nepomuk in Divina, Slovakia, in 2017.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: In 1496, Pope Alexander VI vested the office of grandmaster in the papacy where it remained until 1949. Since 1949, cardinals have held the office. The incumbent cardinal grandmaster has been Fernando Filoni since 2019.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: Its headquarters is situated at Palazzo Della Rovere in Rome, the 15th-century palace of Pope Julius II, immediately adjacent to the Vatican on the Via della Conciliazione. It was given to the order by Pope Pius XII.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: Its official church is Sant'Onofrio al Gianicolo, also in Rome, and also given to the order by Pius XII.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: In 1307, after the suppression of the Knights Templars, the Canons Regular of the Holy Sepulchre, whose main priory was at San Luca, acquired the complex of San Manno. Francesco della Rovere, the future Pope Sixtus IV, was Arch-Prior there 1460–1471.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: By ancient tradition, the order uses the arms attributed to the Kingdom of Jerusalem – a gold Jerusalem Cross on a silver/white background – but enamelled with red, the colour of blood, to signify the five wounds of Christ. Prior use of the symbol is in the 1573 Constitution of the Order.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: Conrad Grünenberg already shows a red Jerusalem cross (with the central cross as cross crosslet rather than cross potent) as the emblem of the order in his 1486 travelogue.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: Above the shield of the armorial bearings is a sovereign's gold helmet upon which are a crown of thorns and a terrestrial globe surmounted by a cross, flanked by two white standards bearing a red Jerusalem cross. The supporters are two angels wearing dalmatic tunics of red, the one on the dexter bearing a crusader flag, and the one on the sinister bearing a pilgrim's staff and shell: representing the military/crusading and pilgrim natures of the order.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: The motto is "Deus lo Vult" ("God Wills It"). The seal of the order is in the shape of an almond and portrays, within a frame of a crown of thorns, a representation of Christ rising from the Sepulchre.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: The Order of the Holy Sepulchre and the Sovereign Military Order of Malta are the only two institutions whose insignia may be displayed in a clerical coat of arms.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: The order has a predominantly white-coloured levée dress court uniform, and a more modern, military-style uniform, both of which are now only occasionally used in some jurisdictions. Pope Pius X ordained that usual modern choir (i.e. church) dress of knights be the order's cape or mantle: a "white cloak with the cross of Jerusalem in red", as worn by the original knights. Female members wear a black cape with a red Jerusalem cross bordered with gold.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: The choir vestments of Canons of the Holy Sepulchre include a black cassock with magenta piping, magenta fascia, and a white mozetta with the red Jerusalem cross.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: The order today is estimated to have some 30,000 knights and dames in 60 Lieutenancies around the world, including monarchs, crown princes and their consorts, and heads of state from countries such as Spain, Belgium, Monaco, Luxembourg and Liechtenstein.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: Membership of the order is by invitation only, to practicing Catholic men and women – laity and clergy – of good character, minimum 25 years of age, who have distinguished themselves by concern for the Christians of the Holy Land. Aspirant members must be recommended by their local bishop with the support of several members of the order, and are required to make a generous donation as a "passage fee", echoing the ancient practice of crusaders paying their passage to the Holy Land, as well as an annual financial offering for works undertaken in the Holy Land, particularly in the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem, throughout their life. There is a provision for the grand master to admit members by "motu proprio" in exceptional circumstances and also for the officers of the Grand Magistery to occasionally recommend candidates to the grand master.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: The honour of knighthood and any subsequent promotions are conferred by the Holy See – through diploma sealed and signed by the assessor for general affairs of the Secretariat of State in Rome as well as the cardinal grand master – which approves each person, in the name of and by the authority of the pope. The candidate is then knighted or promoted in a solemn ceremony with a cardinal or major prelate presiding.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: Knights and dames of the order may not join, or attend the events of, any other order that is not recognised by the Holy See or by a sovereign state, and must renounce any membership in such organisations before being appointed a knight or dame of the Holy Sepulchre. Knights and dames may be expelled from the order in circumstances where they breach its code of conduct.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: There are several grades of knighthood. These are open to both men and women. While laity may be promoted to any rank, the ranks of the clergy are as follows: cardinals are knights grand cross, bishops are commanders with star, and priests and transitional deacons start with the rank of knight but may be promoted to commander. Permanent deacons are treated the same as the lay knights. Female members may wear chest ribbons rather than neck crosses, and the military trophies in insignia and heraldic additaments are replaced by bows.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: In English, a female member of this order is sometimes called "lady" in reaction to the US slang use of the term "dame" to refer to any woman. However, in accordance with standard chivalric practice in English, female members are called "dame" (from the Latin title , Italian , etc.) and this is the usual practice in most lieutenancies.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: In accordance with the origins of the order, and considered more consistent with ordained ministry than the military title of knight, invested clergy are "ipso facto" Titular Canons of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre, though Grand Master John Patrick Foley argued that this would be better applied to clergy with the rank of commander. Additionally, deacons, priests and bishops may also be given the distinguished honorary title of canon of the Holy Sepulchre personally by the Latin patriarch of Jerusalem. Both titular canons of the Holy Sepulchre (EOHSJ) and Honorary Canons of the Holy Sepulchre of the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem are entitled to identical insignia, i.e. white mozetta with red Jerusalem cross and choir dress including the black cassock with magenta piping and magenta fascia.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: Reserved to members, the Palm of Jerusalem is the decoration of distinction, in three classes. Additionally, knights and Dames who made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land receive the Pilgrim Shell, a reference to the shells used as a cup by the pilgrims in the Middle Ages. Both of these distinctions were created in 1949. They are generally awarded by the grand prior of the order, the Latin patriarch of Jerusalem.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: Since 1949, the Cross of Merit of the Order may also be conferred on meritorious non-members of the order, for example non-Catholics. The original five classes were reduced to three in 1977. Obtaining the Cross of Merit does not imply membership of the Order.


title: Order of the Holy Sepulchre

text: Although it shares the same symbol, the Jerusalem Pilgrim's Cross is not a decoration of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre. Pope Leo XIII created the award in 1901 but the Franciscan custodian of the Holy Land presents it to certain pilgrims in the name of the pope.


title: Haikyu!! (season 4)

text: The fourth and final season of "Haikyu!!", titled , was announced at the Jump Festa '19 event, with a "kickoff event" for the new series being held on September 22, 2019. is an anime adaptation of a manga series written by Haruichi Furudate. It was produced by Production I.G and premiered on January 11, 2020 on the Super Animeism block. It was later announced that the fourth season will be split-cour, with the second half airing in July 2020, however it was delayed and premiered on October 3, 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Haikyu!! (season 4)

text: The series uses four pieces of theme music: two opening themes and two ending themes. From episodes 1-13, the opening theme is "Phoenix" by Burnout Syndromes while the ending theme is "Kessen Spirit" by CHiCO with HoneyWorks. From episodes 14 through 25, the opening theme is "Toppako" by SUPER BEAVER while the ending theme is "One Day" by SPYAIR.


title: Isiah Whitlock Jr.

text: Isiah Whitlock Jr. (born September 13, 1954) is an American actor. He is best known for his role as corrupt state senator Clay Davis on the HBO television series "The Wire" as well as being a frequent collaborator of Spike Lee.


title: Isiah Whitlock Jr.

text: He has also appeared in films including "Goodfellas", "Pieces of April", "1408", "Enchanted", "Cedar Rapids", "Pete’s Dragon", "Cars 3", "The Old Man and the Gun", "All Square", "I Care a Lot", and "Lightyear" and television series including "The Good Cop", "Veep", "Chappelle's Show", "Your Honor", and several roles across installments of the "Law and Order" franchise.


title: Isiah Whitlock Jr.

text: Whitlock was born in South Bend, Indiana. He attended college at Southwest Minnesota State University in Marshall, Minnesota, where he enrolled through a football scholarship and studied theater. Injuries led him to stop playing football and focus on acting. After graduating in 1976, he moved to San Francisco and joined the American Conservatory Theater.


title: Isiah Whitlock Jr.

text: Whitlock is best known for his role on the HBO television series "The Wire" as corrupt state senator Clay Davis. He has also appeared in the Spike Lee films "She Hate Me", "25th Hour", "Red Hook Summer", "Chi-Raq", "BlacKkKlansman" and "Da 5 Bloods". In those projects, Whitlock established a catchphrase from his character's distinct pronunciation of the word "shit" ("sheeeeeeeee-it"). Whitlock also made appearances on "Chappelle's Show" and has made several appearances as various characters on "Law & Order". He appeared as Eugene, a supporting role, in the 2003 film "Pieces of April". He had a bit part in "Goodfellas" as a doctor who gives Henry Hill Valium while attending to his brother. He also made an appearance in the film "1408", as the engineer of the Dolphin Hotel, as well as appearing in promotional spots for the Wii video game "Punch-Out!!" portraying the character Doc Louis. In 2007, he played Ethan Banks in "Enchanted".


title: Isiah Whitlock Jr.

text: Whitlock played an insurance agent named Ronald Wilkes in the 2011 film "Cedar Rapids". Wilkes is a self-described fan of "The Wire" and does an impersonation of character Omar Little. Whitlock has said that the references to the series were written in before he became involved in "Cedar Rapids". Whitlock filmed a separate promotion for the film, where Wilkes is seen in an insurance office reading lines from "The Wire". He recurred on the HBO comedy series "Veep" as General George Maddox. Whitlock has also made appearances on "The Good Wife", "Louie", "Gotham", "The Carmichael Show", and "Elementary". He recently appeared as the sheriff in the 2016 remake of the 1977 film of "Pete's Dragon".


title: Isiah Whitlock Jr.

text: SMSU now offers the Isiah Whitlock Jr. Endowed Scholarship. He was SMSU's commencement speaker in 1999 and guest artist for the school's celebration of Black History Month in 2007.


title: Isiah Whitlock Jr.

text: Capitalizing on his catch phrase "Sheeeeeeeee-it" and his public notoriety, Whitlock launched a successful Kickstarter Talking Bobblehead campaign. The campaign has raised over $100,000 from 1,828 backers.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: The 1989 FIA Formula One World Championship was the 43rd season of FIA Formula One motor racing. It began on 26 March and ended on 5 November. Alain Prost won his third Drivers' Championship, and McLaren won the Constructors' Championship.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: The Drivers' Championship was decided in controversial circumstances at the penultimate race of the season in Japan, when Prost and teammate Ayrton Senna, who needed to win the race, collided in the closing laps. Prost retired while Senna rejoined the track after a push start and crossed the line first, only to be disqualified for not rejoining the track correctly. This handed Prost the title, his last with McLaren before joining Ferrari for 1990.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: The season also saw an unprecedented number of entries with 21 constructors originally entered, fielding a total of 40 cars. However, FIRST Racing withdrew from the championship before the opening race, leaving 20 constructors fielding a total of 39 cars, which remains the highest entry in the modern era.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: The following teams and drivers competed in the 1989 FIA Formula One World Championship. FIRST Racing failed a mandatory FIA pre-season crash test, and withdrew before the opening Brazilian Grand Prix, folding thereafter when attempts to regroup and strengthen the chassis failed to come together.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: McLaren, having won fifteen of the sixteen races in , kept their successful driver line-up of and World Champion Alain Prost and defending champion Ayrton Senna. They would drive the new MP4/5 powered by a Honda V10 engine.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: Ferrari completed the signing of British driver Nigel Mansell, taking the place of Michele Alboreto alongside Austrian Gerhard Berger. The new 640, designed by John Barnard, featured a semi-automatic electronic gearbox, the first of its kind, as well as the team's first 12-cylinder engine since .


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: Williams recruited Belgian driver Thierry Boutsen from Benetton as Mansell's replacement, alongside veteran Italian Riccardo Patrese. The team had also done a deal with Renault, returning to F1 after a three-year break, that would see them have exclusive use of the French company's V10 engines. For most of the season, Williams ran with the FW12C, an updated version of their 1988 car, before the new FW13 was introduced at the Portuguese Grand Prix.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: Lotus kept their 1988 line-up of triple World Champion Nelson Piquet and Satoru Nakajima, but lost their Honda engines. The new Lotus 101, designed by Frank Dernie, used the Judd V8 engine instead.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: Benetton retained Alessandro Nannini and signed British rookie Johnny Herbert to replace Boutsen. However, Herbert was still recovering from severe foot injuries sustained in a Formula 3000 crash at Brands Hatch, and was eventually replaced by McLaren test driver Emanuele Pirro. Benetton continued as the de facto works Ford team, but had to make do with the Cosworth DFR-powered 1988 car, the B188, until the new HB-powered B189 was introduced at the French Grand Prix.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: Tyrrell retained Jonathan Palmer and took back Alboreto, who had previously driven for the team between and . After a sponsorship dispute, Alboreto was replaced by French newcomer Jean Alesi, who at the same time was on his way to winning the F3000 championship.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: The Brabham team returned after missing 1988, with Stefano Modena and Martin Brundle (fresh from winning the 1988 World Sports Prototype Championship) driving the Judd-powered BT58. Both drivers were forced to pre-qualify for the first half of the season.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: The French Larrousse team continued running Lola chassis, but ditched the Ford Cosworth V8 engines in favour of the new Lamborghini V12, designed by Mauro Forghieri. The team started the year with their 1988 line-up of Yannick Dalmas and Philippe Alliot, but Dalmas was recovering from Legionnaires' disease and was eventually replaced by Éric Bernard, who in turn made way for Alboreto.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: Zakspeed, having produced their own turbo engines since their debut in , were forced to switch to an outside supplier in the form of Yamaha, the Japanese company appearing in F1 for the first time with its own V8 engine. West German Bernd Schneider, in his second year with the team, and Japan's Aguri Suzuki were both forced to pre-qualify the new 891, designed by Gustav Brunner.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: Osella were one of several teams to expand from one car to two, with Nicola Larini being joined by veteran Piercarlo Ghinzani, returning for a third stint with the team. The all-new FA1M was powered by the Ford Cosworth DFR.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: Ligier retained French veteran René Arnoux and signed newcomer Olivier Grouillard, who replaced experienced Swede Stefan Johansson. The team also switched from Judd engines to the Ford Cosworth DFR, powering the new JS33.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: AGS had retained Philippe Streiff for 1989, but the Frenchman crashed heavily at Rio while testing prior to the Brazilian Grand Prix, suffering spinal injuries which left him as a quadriplegic and ended his racing career. His place was taken by Gabriele Tarquini, who had planned to drive for the Italian FIRST team that year before they pulled out. AGS also expanded to two cars, the second originally being driven by Joachim Winkelhock, younger brother of the late Manfred Winkelhock.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: After FIRST Racing withdrew from the championship, the only entirely new team for 1989 was Onyx Grand Prix, who had previously enjoyed success as the semi-works March team in Formula Two and Formula 3000. The Onyx ORE-1, designed by Alan Jenkins and powered by the Ford Cosworth DFR, was driven by Johansson and Belgian rookie Bertrand Gachot, who would eventually be replaced by Finnish newcomer JJ Lehto.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: Turbocharged engines had been banned at the end of 1988, as the governing body felt them to be making the sport dangerous and expensive.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: The arrival of the Onyx team, the return of Brabham, and the expansion of other teams from one car to two meant that there were now 39 cars, from 20 teams, competing for 26 places on the starting grid. Only 30 cars were allowed to take part in the main qualifying sessions, so pre-qualifying was retained from 1988. As before, this consisted of a separate one-hour session on Friday morning (Thursday morning at Monaco), with the four fastest cars advancing to the main qualifying sessions, but this time there were 13 cars taking part. For the first half of 1989, these consisted of the two Onyxes and the two Brabhams, plus the two Osellas, the two Zakspeeds, the single EuroBrun and the second car from four other teams that had expanded from one car to two: Rial, Dallara, AGS and Coloni.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: At the halfway point of the season, 15 of the 20 teams had scored points, and so the top 13 – all of whom ran two cars and had scored at least three points – would automatically take part in the main qualifying sessions for the second half of the year. The second Dallara and both Brabhams were thus promoted into these sessions, these teams having scored eight and five points respectively, while Rial's three points meant that their second car, driven by Volker Weidler, was also promoted despite Weidler having not once managed to pre-qualify. Both Larrousse-Lolas and the lead Coloni of Roberto Moreno were demoted to the pre-qualifying session, as was the lead AGS of Gabriele Tarquini despite his point for sixth in Mexico.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: Another new regulation decreed by FISA was that, in the interest of safety, the driver's feet must be situated behind the front axle-line. This rule had been introduced in 1988 and teams were free to incorporate it if they chose, but it was only made compulsory in 1989. Designers introduced smaller and more cramped cockpits, at the expense of driver comfort. The problem was first highlighted at the opening round in Brazil, with focus on the Ross Brawn-designed Arrows cars. Both drivers, Derek Warwick and Eddie Cheever, suffered severe cramping and felt that the new regulations were in fact making it more dangerous, Cheever saying that "if (he) got sideways ... (he) simply cannot correct with the steering wheel" due to his lanky frame.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: Race distances were standardised at , except at the slower street circuits like Monaco, in order to keep the races within the two-hour time limit. In 1989, the race distances varied from to , with the aforementioned exceptions.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: As was the tradition in Formula One in the 1980s, pre-season testing took place at the Jacarepaguá Autodrome in the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Teams would travel there for 10 days in March to test and acclimatise to Rio's very hot and humid weather. The 1989 testing sessions saw several major accidents. Thierry Boutsen crashed heavily in his Williams, and later, Frenchman Philippe Streiff crashed violently at the third corner, a fast, flat out left hander called "Suspiro". The AGS-Ford he was driving broke its rear suspension and he went head-on into the barriers. The impact broke the car's roll-over bar, and Streiff suffered severe back injuries and was left in a coma. He survived but was permanently paralyzed from the neck down.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: The climate as the Formula One circus arrived at Jacarepaguá was one of much optimism in what many saw as a new age, with many revelling in the brutal and much more appealing sounds of the V10 and V12 engines. Brazil proved to be an excitement filled race, and dramatic too. Qualifying had a few surprises, with Riccardo Patrese, scoring his first front row start since , next to the home favourite, world champion Ayrton Senna. Williams and Renault were both surprised by the position, but both highly pleased with Thierry Boutsen qualifying fourth alongside the high powered Ferrari of Berger and in front of Prost who could only manage 5th.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: The race started with a bang, as Senna's hopes at a home Grand Prix victory were dashed after a clash with Berger in the first turn. In what would prove to be a regular occurrence during the season, the semi-automatic transmission in the Ferrari 640 allowed Berger to get a lightning start from 3rd on the grid and he attempted to go inside of Senna and Patrese into the turn. Senna refused to give room, causing a collision that destroyed the front wing of his car. Patrese got through unscathed and in the lead of his record-breaking 177th Grand Prix start whilst Berger was out on the spot (the first of 10 straight retirements for the Austrian driver) while Senna was forced to pit for repairs and would finish the race 2 laps down in 11th place.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: Double world champion Alain Prost's McLaren had been having problems all weekend with the Frenchman finding the McLaren MP4/5 hard to set up, and when his two stop strategy was ruined by a clutch failure, he knew he had to continue the race having made just one of his scheduled two pit stops on the notoriously abrasive Rio circuit. He finished second. Nigel Mansell secured a surprising win for the Scuderia, with no problems despite ongoing gearbox faults all weekend and a lack of winter testing (Mansell also had the steering wheel come loose on the back straight and had to have it changed in his final stop, which luckily was scheduled for the end of that lap). The final step of the podium was taken by local Maurício Gugelmin. Grand Prix debutant Johnny Herbert, Derek Warwick and Alessandro Nannini scored the remaining points. Warwick was desperately unlucky. He lost over 20 seconds in a slow pit stop and only finished 17.8 seconds behind Mansell at the finish suggesting a win (which would have been both his and Arrows' first) or podium place had gone begging.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: This was to be the last race at this fast, flat and abrasive Jacarepaguá circuit in Rio de Janeiro. Formula One would move to a shortened Interlagos circuit in Senna's hometown of São Paulo for the 1990 season onwards.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: At Imola in Italy, "normal service" was resumed. McLaren settled on the front row of the grid and stayed that way for the race, with Mansell's Ferrari retiring midway with gearbox issues. Gerhard Berger, despite showing promise by setting the fastest time in the wet Friday qualifying, suffered front wing failure thanks to Berger's curb hopping style and careened off the track at Tamburello at high speed and hit the concrete retaining wall very hard and spun multiple times along the wall. This forced the race to be stopped after the fuel spilled all over Berger's car burst into flames after the car came to a standstill. Berger miraculously survived with just a broken rib, shoulder bone and burns to his back and hands, due to rescue crews removing him from the wreck in less than 60 secs. He gave a thumbs up and the race was restarted not too long after. Senna went on to win with Prost second. Patrese's engine failed and Boutsen was disqualified (but he got his 4th position back in an appeal), so the third place was taken by the Benetton Ford of Alessandro Nannini. Warwick and Tyrrell's Jonathan Palmer secured the remaining point paying positions.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: After the Grand Prix, Prost seemed disgruntled and said he wished to not make a comment on the race, other than that "orders were not respected". Senna refused to comment on the matter. Before the race at Monaco, Prost said he wanted "nothing to do with (Senna)" and refused to speak with him.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: With Berger out, there were 29 cars in qualifying instead of 30, because Ferrari did not have a replacement driver. Senna had scored his third pole of the season, with the number 2 car of Prost again alongside. March introduced their new 1989 design. Senna went on to win by almost a whole minute over Prost while Stefano Modena secured a valuable third for the underfunded Brabham team on its return to Formula One after a year out. This result effectively allowed Brabham to avoid prequalifying in the second half of the season. Modena, however, failed to score any points in any other Grand Prix in 1989. Alex Caffi finished 4th in the Dallara while Michele Alboreto secured his first points since leaving Ferrari for Tyrrell. Martin Brundle scored the remaining point by finishing 6th.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: During practice Prost revealed his discontent with Senna. According to Prost the pair had an agreement that if they were leading, whoever won the start would not be challenged by the other at the first corner, an agreement he previously had with former teammates Niki Lauda and Keke Rosberg. Despite Marlboro's John Hogan supporting Prost's story by stating he was present when the agreement was made, Senna continued to deny that any such agreement existed. He also contended that the corner he passed Prost at, Tosa, was actually the third turn on the Imola circuit after Tamburello and Villeneuve.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: At the Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez in Mexico City, Mexico, Gerhard Berger made a return despite continued pain in his fingers. However, transmission and gearbox problems forced the Ferraris to retire from point-scoring positions for the third race straight. While they lamented their results, McLaren and Senna took a third win on the trot by a differing choice of tyres. Prost's choice, and the wrong set of tyres being given to him at a pit stop (which prompted team boss Ron Dennis to issue Prost a public apology after the race), sent him down the order to fifth. Patrese was second for Williams, while Alboreto doubled his efforts in Monaco by scoring third. Alessandro Nannini finished 4th while Gabriele Tarquini was able to bring his barely pre-qualified AGS home in sixth for a well-celebrated point.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: Mexico was the first time that Prost would publicly complain that his Honda V10 did not seem to work as well as Senna's, pointing out that early in the race he was clearly faster than Senna through the Peraltada curve heading onto the long front straight, but that even with a tow from Senna he was not able to make any ground on him. Then later in the race when Senna was coming up to lap Prost (who had much fresher tyres), the Brazilian was easily able to catch and pass him on the straight despite being slower through the final turn (it was later revealed that Prost ran less wing than Senna which should have theoretically given him better straight line speed).


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: The United States Grand Prix had a new destination, this time in the hot desert city of Phoenix, Arizona. It was a new place, but the same old dirty and dusty street circuits, and while wider, faster, less dirty and less bumpy than both Detroit and Dallas, like Detroit the mostly right angled turns on Phoenix's street grid system gave the drivers few reference points for when to use their brakes- but this created many good overtaking spots. The dreadfully hot 100+ degree dry desert summer heat of Phoenix also made conditions trying; the track broke up during the race. Senna made the most of his skill and scored another pole, Prost again playing second fiddle by over a second. Prost though believed that his race set up was superior to his teammate's and was confident of winning his first Grand Prix of the year.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: Senna won the start and built up a small lead over Prost. Senna suffered an electrical problem when leading the race and his engine started to misfire. He signalled Prost through to a lead he would not lose on lap 34. Williams ended up being the only team to finish with both cars as the dirty track and unforgiving concrete walls ended six races, with the heat and dust cutting out many more. One driver, Alessandro Nannini, suffered from a severely sore neck after a crash in the morning warm-up and retired from fourth place on lap 10. Mansell and Berger suffered with the Ferrari V12s cutting out from identical alternator failures and both eventually retired. Patrese's second gave him third place in the championship, while Prost took the lead. Ecstatic Phoenix native Eddie Cheever celebrated his and his team's first podium of the season at his own home Grand Prix. The Brabhams, on the other hand, continued their lacklustre return, both drivers retiring with worn-out brakes. Dallara's Alex Caffi was the victim of a bizarre crash. Holding down 5th place, he was put into the wall on lap 52 by his own teammate Andrea de Cesaris when he was trying to lap him. The notorious de Cesaris later claimed he did not even know Caffi was there trying to lap him.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: The race of attrition saw Christian Danner score a surprise 4th place in his Rial, while Herbert and Boutsen rounded out the scoring zone. The race ran for the full 2 hours and was flagged after 75 of the scheduled 81 laps. Alain Prost scored his only ever win in the US, while Cheever's 3rd place was his final podium in Formula One. Before the race with the heat and practice times proving some 10–15 seconds per lap slower than predicted, a petition was circulated among the teams requesting the race be reduced to 70 laps. All team managers signed the petition with the exception of Ken Tyrrell which meant the race was not officially shortened. Ironically, this would work against his team when Jonathan Palmer lost a certain 4th place after his Tyrrell-Ford ran out of fuel on lap 69. Had the race been flagged after 70 laps, Palmer would have finished 4th having already been lapped by Prost instead of running out of fuel and being classified as 9th and last.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: The Canadian Grand Prix in Montreal was run in wet conditions and provided many retirements, but also a new winner. Senna was comfortably leading with only three laps to go when engine problems forced him to retire, handing Boutsen his first victory. Patrese came home second to make it a 1–2 finish for Williams, the first time a team other than McLaren had achieved this since Ferrari in Monza the previous year. Making up for his Phoenix indiscretion, Andrea de Cesaris picked up third for Dallara, the first ever podium finish for the small Italian team.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: Triple World Champion Nelson Piquet picked up his and Lotus's first points of the year by finishing 4th, only 4.8 seconds behind de Cesaris. René Arnoux would score the final points of his career by finishing 5th for Ligier. Caffi snatched the final point by finishing 6th.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: In his home race at the Paul Ricard circuit near Marseille, Prost took pole and won convincingly, while fellow Frenchman Jean Alesi made his debut for the Tyrrell team, replacing Alboreto due to the team now having Camel sponsorship which conflicted with his personal Marlboro sponsorship. This proved to pay off as Alesi secured a fourth-place finish (having run second at one stage). Nigel Mansell ended Ferrari's run of retirements with a secure second while Patrese was third. Swede Stefan Johansson finished 5th, scoring the Onyx team's first points, and Olivier Grouillard took the final points paying position. Senna, meanwhile, was forced to retire straight after the restart with a differential problem.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: The race had to be restarted when, on the first lap, Gugelmin caused a major first corner accident when he lost control of his March, flew into the air and landed on Mansell's rear wing. Luckily, no one was hurt and all drivers managed to take the restart. The French marshals were widely criticised for tipping the upside down March back on its wheels before Gugelmin had a chance to get out of the car.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: The British Grand Prix at the very fast Silverstone circuit proved much the same – McLaren front row, Senna retiring, and Prost winning. Mansell finished second in his home race to please the British fans, whose Mansellmania coupled with the tifosi made for hysteria. Nannini finished third, Piquet 4th, while both Minardis, Martini followed by Pérez-Sala, took the final 2 points positions.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: At this, the halfway point of the championship, Prost's lead over Senna had increased to 20 points; Britain was the 4th consecutive race Senna had retired from- and Prost had won 3 of those 4 races. Despite much talk, he downplayed the thought of a third championship. "I don't want to start talking about the championship, getting into all that," he said, "but I'm much happier now, yes. Motivated again. I've had no engine problems since Mexico, which is nice, and also I'm pleased to see Ferrari getting more competitive: both Nigel and Gerhard can win races and that can only help me."


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: At Hockenheim in Germany (another very fast circuit) however, Senna's bad luck ended after scoring a treble – pole, fastest lap and the win, but he had to fight almost all the way with Prost to do so. After both McLarens suffered bad mid-race stops for tyres, Prost emerged in the lead and looked to have the race in his grasp but lost top gear with less than two laps to go. Berger's pointless season continued with a tire puncture causing a spectacular accident and robbing him of a possible podium. Mansell picked up a third place and mused everyone's thoughts: "If any of the circuits in the world is ideal for McLaren-Honda, it's Hockenheim." Patrese, Piquet and Warwick took the remaining three points-paying positions, respectively.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: The dirty Hungaroring near Budapest provided an almost gripless practice and qualifying, that eventually led to the first non-McLaren pole position of the year – Riccardo Patrese made a Senna-like performance with a 0.31 gap between him and Senna. Another surprise was the equally impressive Alex Caffi, who scored third with a time less than a second slower than that of Patrese – in a car that had been notoriously midfield. The Ferraris, however, suffered badly. Mansell was over two seconds off Patrese's time of an impressive 1:19.7, whilst Berger constantly complained of gear shift troubles – even asking the team to change the gearbox pre-race, which they did not.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: This eventually cost him a point scoring position, as the gearbox went on to fail. Countering this was Mansell's impressive 12th-to-first race, even overtaking Senna in the area he excelled most, lapping back markers – an impressive move on a track notorious for mediocre and unpassable races. He went on to compare the race to his win at Silverstone two years earlier and dedicated it to the late Enzo Ferrari, a year after the Old Man's death. Caffi's race was the exact counterpoint of Mansell's – despite a strong start he finished a lonely seventh, earning no points. Senna finished nearly half a minute behind Mansell in second, while Prost again suffered problems and finished fourth. Patrese retired from the lead and Boutsen finished third. The final two points positions were taken by American Eddie Cheever in the Arrows, finishing 5th, followed by Piquet in 6th.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: A wet Spa showcased Senna's wet weather skills at their best. 'Magic' (Senna's nickname during the wet) shone that day to give him another win despite engine troubles that also befell Prost with Mansell in third saying that problems like that he could certainly use – he finished less than two seconds behind Senna. Boutsen, Nannini and Warwick, in that order, took the final three points-paying positions.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: The Italian Grand Prix at the Monza Autodrome near Milan sealed the end of two things: Gerhard Berger's terrible season (he scored a second place on both the grid and in the race) and Prost's relationship with McLaren. Having become progressively distanced from the team due to his conflict with Senna, he announced his switch to Ferrari for 1990, and after inheriting the race win when Senna retired from the lead late on, he proceeded to give the trophy he had won to the tifosi. McLaren boss Ron Dennis' usual composure was shattered and he hurled his trophy at his driver's feet, storming off (Dennis was unhappy with Prost giving the trophy to the tifosi as contractually all trophies won were the property of the team). Prost later said it was an unsatisfactory win and that he did not hold out much hope for the championship despite his points lead as he felt Honda were clearly favouring Senna. Boutsen inherited third for Williams. The final points went to Patrese, who finished fourth, followed by Brit Martin Brundle for Brabham and Jean Alesi in the Tyrrell.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: The World Championship was virtually decided in the thirteenth round at Estoril near Lisbon, as Prost finished second to Berger and Senna retired in controversial circumstances when he collided with Mansell, who had illegally reversed in the pit-lane and ignored the resultant black disqualification flags. Mansell was subsequently banned from the next race.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: This was Prost's twelfth points finish of the season, which meant that he now had to drop points as only the eleven best points finishes counted, but he still led by 24 points with three races left.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: Johansson finished a fine third for the struggling Onyx team (a result that meant they did not have to go through pre-qualifying in the first half of 1990), marveling at the car's performance on a low-grip track and speaking of optimism for Spain. Nannini finished in fourth, while Pierluigi Martini qualified fifth and finished in that position, also leading for one lap; the only time in the Minardi team's 21-year history that it led a Grand Prix. Tyrrell racing finished in sixth for the 2nd consecutive race, although it was Jonathan Palmer that earned the point for them in Portugal. The new Williamses, however, suffered near-simultaneous and identical motor blow-outs. Up until then they looked promising.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: Senna kept the championship alive in Spain by taking pole position and leading throughout, beating Berger by almost half a minute at the Jerez circuit near Seville. Prost drove a cautious race and finished third, dropping more points, but it meant that Senna had to win both remaining races to have any chance of beating the Frenchman to the title. Meanwhile, Alesi scored another strong fourth place for the Tyrrell team. Finishing 5th was Patrese ahead of Philippe Alliot who would score the only point of the season for the Larrousse-Lola team.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: Then the Formula One circus arrived at Suzuka, Japan near Nagoya for the now infamous penultimate round for the championship. Prost said he would not leave the door open for his teammate, who he felt had made far too many risky moves on him.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: Senna took pole, but Prost beat him away from the grid and led by 1.4 seconds by the end of the first lap. By lap 15, however, Senna was all over the back of Prost's McLaren after moving through both Williams and Benettons. He whittled down Prost's 5 second lead to just under a second by lap 30, but the latter pulled a few seconds ahead by the 35th lap. By the end of lap 46, with 7 to go, the gap was just over a second. Senna, further back than he had been earlier in the race, made a move on Prost in the chicane before the start-finish straight. True to his word, Prost closed the gap and the two skidded into the escape road and both engines stalled. Prost jumped from his car. Senna, however, got a push from the marshals to restart his dead engine and returned to the track.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: After pitting for repairs, Senna worked his way past both Williams and the Benettons to take a three-second victory. However, his altercation with Prost seven laps earlier meant he had missed the chicane and, according to FIA and FISA president Jean Marie Balestre, had not completed the lap. It is worth noting that many drivers in previous races had used the escape roads near chicanes after on-track incidents, as is customary, without receiving penalties. A penalty could have been given for restarting his stalled engine, which is technically illegal, but the stewards only considered the shortcut for the penalty. He was disqualified and Nannini revelled in his first Grand Prix victory. The new Williams FW13s of Patrese and Boutsen finished second and third, putting them five points ahead of the Ferrari team in the race for second. Piquet, Brundle and Warwick clinched the remaining point-paying positions.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: McLaren went on to appeal the decision. With the matter hanging in the air, Senna went on record saying it was a plot and conspiracy against him by Balestre, who he said favoured Prost. Senna would comment again on the matter after sealing his 1991 championship, reiterating his belief that he had been unfairly treated.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: The final round at Adelaide saw the race run under heavy rain. Prost elected to withdraw at the end of the first lap in such torrentially wet conditions and would score no points. Senna, who considered quitting in protest of his disqualification in the previous race, was convinced to race by friends and team members. Starting from pole, by lap ten he had over 30 seconds to the Williams pair and counting. Instead of relaxing, he continued to push in poor visibility. On lap 13, he ran into the rear of Brundle's Brabham and was out of the race. The two Williams Renaults scored a double podium finish with Boutsen winning and Patrese coming in third, Nannini finishing between them, despite Williams being a strong proponent of not starting in such conditions. The remaining points were scored by Satoru Nakajima in his single scoring-zone finish of the season, Emanuele Pirro (Benetton's mid-season replacement for the dismissed Herbert) in the first time since Round 1 that Benetton's points came from another driver as well as Nannini, and Martini.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: The Australian Grand Prix was overshadowed by the ongoing controversy surrounding the Japanese race, but once the appeals had been considered, Prost was crowned the champion for the third time.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: Driver did not finish the Grand Prix, but was classified as he completed over 90% of the race distance.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: Championship points were awarded on a 9–6–4–3–2–1 basis for the first six places in each race. Only the best eleven results for each driver were retained.


title: 1989 Formula One World Championship

text: The 1989 season also included a single event which did not count towards the World Championship, the Formula One Indoor Trophy at the Bologna Motor Show.


title: Brock Peters

text: Brock Peters (born George Fisher; July 2, 1927 – August 23, 2005) was an American actor and singer, best known for playing the villainous "Crown" in the 1959 film version of "Porgy and Bess", and the wrongfully convicted Tom Robinson in the 1962 film "To Kill a Mockingbird". He was nominated for a Tony Award and won a Drama Desk Award and an Outer Critics Circle Award for his lead performance as Rev. Stephen Kumalo in the 1972 Broadway revival of "Lost in the Stars". His film roles also included "The Pawnbroker" (1964), "Soylent Green" (1973) and "Ghosts of Mississippi" (1996). In the 1980s and 1990s, he voiced the role of Darth Vader in the serial radio drama adaptations of the original trilogy of "Star Wars" films, and played two recurring roles in the "Star Trek" franchise: Starfleet Admiral Cartwright in two of the original-cast feature films, and (father of station commander Benjamin Sisko) in "".


title: Brock Peters

text: Peters was born George Fisher in New York City, the son of Alma A. ("née" Norford) and Sonnie Fisher, a Senegalese sailor with the French Navy. Peters set his sights on a show business career early on, at the age of 10. Avidly encouraged by his mother Alma to pursue a musical career, he studied the violin from 10 to 14 years of age, but he found out that his singing talents were more prodigious and upon enrolling at New York's famed High School of Music & Art, he immediately signed up for several productions in its musical theatre program. Upon graduation, Peters initially fielded more odd jobs than acting jobs, often working as a hospital orderly at night while he worked his way through physical education studies at the City College of New York (CCNY), but he still stayed connected to the burgeoning theatre and creative community in New York, occasionally doing background parts in musical plays like "Black Aida".


title: Brock Peters

text: After auditioning and landing a spot touring with the Leonard DePaur Infantry Chorus (of which he was a civilian member from 1945 to 1947), however, he officially quit CCNY. Peters often joked that he "grew up" in the chorus, because his vocal range changed from baritone to bass baritone during his years with them. DePaur subsequently gave him the lead in the Chorus' popular rendition of "John Henry" (which became a repertoire mainstay of Peters in later years, singing the work on one of his two solo albums which was produced by United Artists Records in the 1960s).


title: Brock Peters

text: At the suggestion of his agent, he adopted a more memorable stage name, reversing the order of the names of childhood friend Peter Brock.


title: Brock Peters

text: After auditioning and landing a stage role in the touring company of "Porgy and Bess" in 1949 on contralto Etta Moten's suggestion, he went on tour with the opera, where William Warfield commended his performances and requested that Peters be his understudy as Porgy. It was during this time while he was touring in Europe with the opera that Paul Robeson saw him in his career-defining role as "Crown" and purportedly declared that he was "a young Paul Robeson".


title: Brock Peters

text: Peters sang background vocals on the 1956 hit "Day-O" by Harry Belafonte, as well as on Belafonte's 1957 hit, "Mama Look at Bubu". He led the chorus at recording sessions for Belafonte's iconic 1956 album "Calypso". He also sang on the song "Where" from Randy Weston's 1959 album "Live at the Five Spot" and shared vocal duties with Martha Flowers on Weston's album of the following year, "Uhuru Afrika". During this time, Peters and Belafonte became close friends, sharing similar political views and approaches to their careers. In 1963, he played Matthew Robinson in "Heavens Above!", a British satirical-comedy film starring Peter Sellers, directed by John and Roy Boulting. He played a supporting role as the gangster Rodriguez in the 1964 film, "The Pawnbroker", one of the first confirmed homosexual characters in an American film. He played “Jesse” in a 1972 episode of "Gunsmoke". He was a special guest star in the third season of "The Streets of San Francisco", playing the character "Jacob" in the episode called "Jacob's Boy" (1974).


title: Brock Peters

text: In the film "Abe Lincoln, Freedom Fighter" (1978), Peters plays Henry, a freed black slave who is falsely accused of robbery but, defended by Abraham Lincoln, is found not guilty due to the fact he has a damaged hand and could not have committed the crime. In "To Kill a Mockingbird", Peters plays Tom Robinson, a black man falsely accused of raping a white girl, a crime Atticus Finch shows he could not have committed because his left hand and arm were damaged. In 1970 Peters portrayed the voice of African-American boxer Jack Johnson in Bill Cayton's film of the same name, and it is in this role that he can be heard at the end of Miles Davis' soundtrack album, "Jack Johnson", saying: "I'm Jack Johnson. Heavyweight champion of the world. I'm black. They never let me forget it. I'm black, all right. I'll never let them forget it."


title: Brock Peters

text: Between 1981 and 1996, Peters lent his bass voice of Darth Vader for the radio adaptations of the first three "Star Wars" films for National Public Radio. He also played the role of a Colonial prosecutor trying to make a murder case against Starbuck in an episode of the original "Battlestar Galactica".


title: Brock Peters

text: He appeared in the films "" and "" as Fleet Admiral Cartwright of Starfleet Command. Peters portrayed , father of Deep Space Nine's commanding officer, Benjamin Sisko, on "". In 1993, he was a member of the jury at the 43rd Berlin International Film Festival. In early 2005, six months before his death, Peters guest-starred in an episode of "JAG" during its final season, "Bridging the Gulf", season 10 episode 15. Peters worked with Charlton Heston on several theater productions in the 1940s and 1950s. The two became friends and subsequently worked together on several films, including "Major Dundee", "Soylent Green", and "Two-Minute Warning". He voiced Lucius Fox in several episodes of "" and Morris Grant/Soul Power in the animated series "Static Shock" (2000–2004).


title: Brock Peters

text: He was involved in many community projects, including being chairman and a co-founder of the Dance Theatre of Harlem.


title: Brock Peters

text: Brock was awarded the 26th Screen Actors Guild Life Achievement Award in 1990 for his acting career and humanitarian contributions. He was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in the live theater category in 1992.


title: Brock Peters

text: Peters was once romantically involved with actress Ja'net Dubois. Peters was married to Dolores 'DiDi' Daniels from 1961 until her death in 1989. Their daughter Lisa Jo Peters was born November 3, 1962. Peters delivered the eulogy at Gregory Peck's funeral in 2003. His character, Tom Robinson, was defended by Peck's Atticus Finch in 1962's "To Kill a Mockingbird". He died in Los Angeles from complications from pancreatic cancer on August 23, 2005, at the age of 78. Peters is buried in the Revelation section at Hollywood Hills Forest Lawn Cemetery, in Los Angeles, CA.


title: Antonin Artaud

text: Antoine Marie Joseph Paul Artaud, better known as Antonin Artaud (; 4 September 1896 – 4 March 1948), was a French writer, poet, dramatist, visual artist, essayist, actor and theatre director. He is widely recognized as a major figure of the European avant-garde. In particular, he had a profound influence on twentieth-century theatre through his conceptualization of the Theatre of Cruelty. Known for his raw, surreal and transgressive work, his texts explored themes from the cosmologies of ancient cultures, philosophy, the occult, mysticism and indigenous Mexican and Balinese practices.


title: Antonin Artaud

text: Antonin Artaud was born in Marseille, to Euphrasie Nalpas and Antoine-Roi Artaud. His parents were first cousins—his grandmothers were sisters from Smyrna (modern day İzmir, Turkey). His paternal grandmother, Catherine Chilé, was raised in Marseille, where she married Marius Artaud, a Frenchman. His maternal grandmother, Mariette Chilé, grew up in Smyrna, where she married Louis Nalpas, a local ship chandler. He was, throughout his life, greatly affected by his Greek ancestry.


title: Antonin Artaud

text: Euphrasie gave birth to nine children, but four were stillborn and two others died in childhood. Artaud was diagnosed with meningitis at age five, a disease which had no cure at the time. Biographer David Shafer points out, "given the frequency of such misdiagnoses, coupled with the absence of a treatment (and consequent near-minimal survival rate) and the symptoms he had, it's unlikely that Artaud actually contracted it."


title: Antonin Artaud

text: From 1907 to 1914, Artaud attended the Collége Sacré-Coeur. Here he began reading works by Arthur Rimbaud, Stéphane Mallarmé, and Edgar Allan Poe and founded a private literary magazine in collaboration with his friends. At the end of college he started to noticeably withdraw from social life and "destroyed most of his written work and gave away his books." Distressed, his parents arranged for him to see a psychiatrist.


title: Antonin Artaud

text: Over the next five years Artaud was admitted to a series of sanatoria. There was a pause in his treatment in 1916, when Artaud was conscripted into the French Army. He was discharged due to "an unspecified health reason" (Artaud would later claim it was "due to sleepwalking", while his mother ascribed it to his "nervous condition"). In May 1919, the director of the sanatorium prescribed laudanum for Artaud, precipitating a lifelong addiction to that and other opiates. In March 1921, Artaud moved to Paris where he was put under the psychiatric care of Dr Édouard Toulouse who took him in as a boarder.


title: Antonin Artaud

text: In Paris, Artaud worked with a number of celebrated French "teacher-directors". This included Jacques Copeau, André Antoine, Georges and Ludmilla Pitoëff, Charles Dullin, Firmin Gémier and Lugné Poe. Lugné Poe, who gave Artaud his first work in a professional theatre, would later describe Artaud as "a painter lost in the midst of actors". His core theatrical training was as part of Dullin's troupe, "Théâtre de l'Atelier", which he joined in 1921. Artaud remained a member for eighteen months.


title: Antonin Artaud

text: As a member of Dullin's troupe, Artaud trained for 10 to 12 hours a day. Originally Artaud was a strong proponent of Dullin's teaching, stating: "Hearing Dullin teach I feel that I'm rediscovering ancient secrets and a whole forgotten mystique of production." In particular, they shared a strong interest in east Asian theater, specifically performance traditions from Bali and Japan. Dullin, however, did not think Western theater should be adopting the language and style of east Asian theatre. Instead he promoted a theatre of transposition; for Dullin, "To want to impose on our Western theater rules of a theatre of a long tradition which has its own symbolic language would be a great mistake."


title: Antonin Artaud

text: Artaud came to disagree with many of Dullin's teachings. Their final disagreement was over his performance of the Emperor Charlemagne in Alexandre Arnoux's "Huon de Bordeaux" and he left the troupe in 1923. He would join the Pitoëff's troupe in 1923, remaining with them through the next year when he would put more focus on his work in the cinema.


title: Antonin Artaud

text: In 1923, Artaud mailed some of his poems to the journal "La Nouvelle Revue Française" (NRF); they were rejected, but the author of the poems intrigued the NRF's editor, Jacques Rivière, who requested a meeting. After meeting via post they continued their relationship. The compilation of these letters into an epistolary work, "Correspondance avec Jacques Rivière", was Artaud's first major publication. Artaud would continue to publish some of his most important work in the "NRF", including the "First Manifesto for a Theatre of Cruelty" (1932) and "Theatre and the plague" (1933). He would draw from these publications when putting together "The Theatre and Its Double".


title: Antonin Artaud

text: Artaud also had an active career in the cinema working as a critic, actor, and writer. Artaud's performance as Jean-Paul Marat in Abel Gance's "Napoléon" (1927) used exaggerated movements to convey the fire of Marat's personality. He also played the monk Massieu in Carl Theodor Dreyer's "The Passion of Joan of Arc" (1928). He wrote a number of film scenarios, ten of which have survived. Only one of Artaud's scenarios was produced, "The Seashell and the Clergyman" (1928). Directed by Germaine Dulac, many critics and scholars consider it to be the first surrealist film.