title: SIG Sauer P220

text: The SIG P210 (now manufactured as the SIG Sauer P210 in the United States) is a licensed copy of the French Model 1935 which is the Petter Browning design. Petter had removed the loose fitting barrel bushing and the tilting link of the John Browning M1907 design, but retained the grooves on the top of the barrel which engaged similar grooves in the interior of the slide. SIG licensed this design in 1947.


title: SIG Sauer P220

text: The SIG Sauer design went further by having no grooves in the slide or barrel. Instead an enlargement of the chamber locks directly on the ejection port of the slide. The double action / single action (DA/SA) trigger design of the P220 is also a SIG Sauer innovation similar to the J.P. Sauer & Sohn 38H pistol. Further design refinements include a hammer decocking lever and positive firing pin block safety.


title: SIG Sauer P220

text: Instead of the locking lugs and recesses milled into the barrel and slide of Browning-derived weapons such as the Colt M1911A1, Browning Hi-Power and CZ 75, the P220 variants (and many other modern pistols) lock the barrel and slide together using an enlarged breech section on the barrel locking into the ejection port. The SIG Sauer System (embossed on the side of the Browning BDA) is a refinement of the Petter-Browning system.


title: SIG Sauer P220

text: The slide of the P220 series is a heavy-gauge sheet metal stamping with a welded-on nose section incorporating an internal barrel bushing. The breech block portion is a machined insert attached to the slide by means of a roll pin visible from either side. The frame is of forged alloy with a hard-anodized coating. The SIG P220 series incorporates a hammer-drop lever to the rear of the trigger on the left side, which first appeared on the Sauer 38H before World War II. After chambering a round, the hammer will be cocked, so for safe carriage the hammer drop is actuated with the thumb, dropping the hammer in a safe manner.


title: SIG Sauer P220

text: The P220 also features an automatic firing pin block safety which is activated by the trigger mechanism, similar to the one used in the Czech CZ-038 from the period after the Second World War. The pistol may now be holstered, and can be fired without actuating any other controls. The first shot will be fired in double-action mode, unless the user chooses to manually cock the hammer. Double-action trigger pressure is measured at approximately 12–14 pounds, with subsequent shots being fired in single-action mode with a lighter trigger pressure of approximately 6 pounds. There is no separate safety lever to manipulate; the hammer drop is the only manual safety device. As with other double-action pistols such as the Walther P38 and Beretta 92F, some training is required to minimize the difference caused by the different trigger pressure between the first double-action shot and subsequent single-action shots when the hammer is cocked by the rearward movement of the slide.


title: SIG Sauer P220

text: Despite these safety measures, the Sig Sauer P220 has been cited in accidental fatalities. One example is the case of Officer Jesse Paderez of the San Fernando Police Department, California. On 17 July 2002, he was "accidentally shot and killed when his Sig P-220, .45 caliber service weapon, fell to the ground and discharged, striking him in the head. He had gone to the police station to pickup a patrol car...as he walked across the parking lot, his weapon, still in its holster, fell to the ground and discharged when the hammer struck the pavement."


title: SIG Sauer P220

text: The original 1975 SIG Sauer P220 had a 'heel-mounted' magazine release lever located at the rear of the magazine well and a lanyard loop which was typical of handguns made for police and military purposes. Newer SIG P220s utilize a push button magazine release to the left side of the grip, behind the trigger and do not have lanyard loops. The P220 was then later modified with a redesigned slide, grips, and other minor changes to the frame.


title: SIG Sauer P220

text: In 2007, a Picatinny rail was added to the frame under the barrel as standard on all models whose number ends in R. The major difference in slide design, between the older model SIG pistols and the current production, is that the older model slides were stamped whereas the current production models are milled on a CNC machine. The stamped models have an end piece at the muzzle end which is welded in place, to complete the slide. Additionally, the older stamped slides feature a removable breech block. This breech block is pinned to the slide with two hollow roll pins, one pressed inside the other, with their split ends opposed. The newer milled slides are a one-piece unit and do not have a removable breech block.


title: SIG Sauer P220

text: The SIG P220 also comes in P220R and P220ST versions. Also in 2019 a new variant is available called the P220R Hunter that is chambered in 10mm and factory coated with a KRYPTEC camo pattern. The base and R models have an aluminum alloy frame with a stainless steel slide (if made by SIG Sauer in the US; German made versions still use a blued, stamped steel slide); the ST model has a stainless steel frame and slide. The R and ST models also have a Picatinny rail, beneath the slide and barrel, allowing for fitting of accessories such as lights or laser sights.


title: SIG Sauer P220

text: Originally, all SIG P220s were DA/SA and featured a decocking lever (and no external safety) just forward of the slide catch. This changed with the introduction of double-action only (DAO), Double Action Kellerman (DAK), and single action (SA) models. The DAO and DAK models do not have a de-cocking lever or safety, and the SA models only feature an M1911 style external safety. SIG has also introduced the SAS (SIG Anti-Snag) model—which is dehorned, has no accessory rail, and is designed for concealed carry—and the Elite model, which includes the new short-reset trigger, a beavertail grip, front strap grip checkering, and front slide cocking serrations.


title: SIG Sauer P220

text: The P220 was initially imported to the United States as the Browning Double Action (BDA) and then as the Sigarms P220. The P220s sold under the Browning Arms Company marque in the United States c. 1977–1980 had the heel-mounted magazine release lever until Browning discontinued it from its product line in the early 1980s; the discontinuation from the Browning product lineup was due to its poor sales and its then-'space age' appearance (similar to the AR-15/M16).


title: SIG Sauer P220

text: These particular P220s (or Browning BDAs) will have the stamping scroll which reads 'Browning Arms Company Morgan, Utah and Montreal PQ' on the left hand side of the slide and 'SIG-Sauer System Made in W. Germany' on the right-hand side with the serial number scrolled beneath.


title: SIG Sauer P220

text: The Browning version has the sides of the slides polished and blued. The frame is aluminum. The handgrips have Browning on the right side only. On the right side of the slide is the serial number. The Browning BDA 45 shown in the photographs has a production series number starting with 395. The RP that follows shows that this particular handgun was manufactured in 1977.


title: SIG Sauer P220

text: It was offered for sale in .45 ACP, 9 mm, .38 Super (a rare model) and 7.65mm Parabellum (an even rarer model).


title: SIG Sauer P220

text: The P220 Rail (or P220R) is effectively the same as the P220, but comes with an equipment rail located on the forward end of the frame of the firearm for accepting accessories such as a weapon light or laser sight. While the provided rail is similar to the Mil-STD-1913 Picatinny rail design, as implemented by SIG for this gun it has a proprietary cross-section form that conflicts with some early design Picatinny-compatible equipment. The P220R with its rail has become the standard configuration of the majority of recent and current production P220s.


title: SIG Sauer P220

text: A new P220 with a shortened barrel (3.9") and slide, but a full-sized frame. It is available in DA/SA, SA, and DAK variants. All models with the exception of the SAS concealed-carry version come with an accessory rail.


title: SIG Sauer P220

text: A recent variant that comes in four versions: blued with beavertail, stainless (two-tone) with beavertail, blued with rail (no beavertail) and stainless with rail (no beavertail). It features a shortened slide, and a compact frame and has a capacity of 6+1. It is possible to use the 8-round magazines of the P220 Carry which will give it an 8+1 capacity. Adapters are available to cover the portion of the magazine which protrudes from the bottom of the grip. It is essentially a replacement for the discontinued P245, and is meant to address complaints about the P220 Carry's full-size frame in a concealed carry pistol.


title: SIG Sauer P220

text: The two "Combat" models, the P220 Combat and P220 Combat TB (Threaded Barrel), are available in DA/SA only. Their frames are colored "Flat Dark Earth" in compliance with the Combat Pistol program. The Combat model comes with night sights, a Nitron-finished slide and barrel, phosphated internals, and a Picatinny rail. The TB model features an extra 0.6" on the barrel, and external threads to accept a suppressor. The P220 Combat is chambered only in .45 ACP, and is supplied with one 8-round magazine and one extended 10-round magazine.


title: SIG Sauer P220

text: A version of the SIG P220 handgun made by SIG Sauer with a reversible magazine release, stainless steel slide, and stainless steel frame. Changing to a stainless steel frame from the lighter alloy frame normally used is meant to reduce felt recoil. The ST models are typically bare stainless (all "silver"), though SIG Sauer has produced Nitron finished (all "black") ST versions for police department trial and evaluation (T&E) guns.


title: SIG Sauer P220

text: This model's primary purpose is as a practice or range pistol. The Classic 22 model replaces the typical stainless steel centerfire slide assembly with a lighter aluminum rimfire slide chambered in .22 LR. The Classic 22 also has a different barrel, guide rod, and recoil spring than the larger caliber models. It incorporates the same frame and operation as centerfire P220 models. The Classic 22 model is available as a stand-alone firearm or as a conversion kit to an existing centerfire P220. Likewise, conversion kits (the SIG Sauer X-Change Kits) exist to convert a .22 LR P220 into .45 ACP. The conversion can be accomplished by field stripping the firearm and replacing the slide assembly and magazine—a process that can be accomplished in minutes.


title: SIG Sauer P220

text: The Classic 22 use a 10-round polymer magazine in lieu of the steel magazines used by the centerfire models and conversion kits.


title: SIG Sauer P220

text: The P220 Classic 22 should not be confused with the SIG Sauer Mosquito .22 LR pistol. The Classic 22 is a full-sized P220 while the Mosquito is modeled on the P226 but is 90% of the size. Another difference is that the Classic 22 is manufactured by SIG Sauer while the Mosquito is made under license by German Sport Guns GmbH. The size difference means that the Mosquito cannot be converted "up", and full-size SIG Sauer pistols cannot use the Mosquito's slide assembly.


title: SIG Sauer P220

text: The SIG P225 is a more compact version of the SIG P220. A new German police standard issued in the mid-1970's prompted SIG-Sauer, Heckler & Koch, and Walther to develop new pistols that met the standard: the Walther P5, the SIG-Sauer P225 (known as the P6) and the Heckler & Koch P7. (In addition, Mauser had a design, the HsP, that never went into full production.) Walter Ludwig was involved in the design of the Walther, SIG-Sauer and Mauser entrants in the German Police selection. Each German state was free to buy whichever pistol it wanted to. Initially, the P220 was submitted; the P225/P6 was a revision created to conform with the mid-1970s West German police requirements for its standard service pistol. The SIG-Sauer P225 was the least expensive (due mainly to the inventive design) and received the majority of the orders. To be able to manufacture that many handguns, SIG acquired a controlling interest in J. P. Sauer & Sohn in Eckernförde, Germany to manufacture parts for the P220. This is also where all P225s were manufactured. The only difference between the P6 and P225—the P225 (which was adopted by US civilian law enforcement) has a lighter trigger pull, whereas the P6's trigger pull is heavier. The P225 has tritium fixed sights; P6s had fixed sights only. Genuine P225s manufactured for the West German Police will have a "P6" stamp on the right side of the slide.


title: SIG Sauer P220

text: A new police standard was adopted in Germany in 1995, and the P225 is in the process of being replaced. German police pistols can be identified by the hammer, which has a small "ear" or "hook". According to section 7.7 of the German manual, the cutout is the "Deformationssporn", which means "deformation spur". This was a requirement of the West German Police for all their P6 pistols, to alert police armorers if the pistol was dropped on its hammer. Many of these surplus German police pistols were imported into the United States. Because of its compact size, the P225/P6 is quite readily usable for concealed carry. In states with limits on magazine capacity, the P225/P6 was usually in high demand. Most have a push button magazine release located behind the triggerguard, though they (but not the later P225-A1) were also available with a heel-mounted magazine release lever as used on the original P220, which was not a popular feature in the American marketplace as it makes magazine changes slower even though it greatly reduces the chances of an accidental magazine release. The heel-mounted magazine release lever also reduces the incidence of lost magazines in combat as a result of speed reloading magazines, as is common with the push button magazine release which only requires the user to push this button to eject the magazine rather than drag it out by hand as one must do with the heel-mounted magazine release lever.


title: SIG Sauer P220

text: P225-A1 was introduced by SIG in 2015. It was based on the P225, with a number of refinements. Notably, the place of origin on the slide was SIG Sauer Inc. of Exeter, New Hampshire. There was a new contour to the frame, a short reset trigger, a milled slide (the earlier one was stamped), and two barrel lengths (one standard and the other threaded for a suppressor). The suppressor model came with high sights. The P225-A1 was discontinued in late 2019.


title: SIG Sauer P220

text: The SIG P245 variant is chambered only in .45 ACP (hence the name) and was developed primarily for the US market as a civilian's concealed sidearm, or as a police backup weapon. The SIG P245 has a reversible magazine release giving the user the choice of operating it with their left or right thumb. It normally takes 6-round magazines, but can also accept the 7-, 8-, or 10-round magazines designed for the P220. A grip extender is available for use with these longer magazines. One of the major differences in construction between the P245 and the P220 Compact is that the P245 was only built using the older stamped steel slide design with a removable breech block, while some of the later P220 Compact variants were available with an extended grip tang.


title: SIG Sauer P220

text: The P245 is no longer manufactured by SIG, having been replaced by the P220 Carry and the P220 Compact.


title: 2021–22 Super League Greece

text: The 2021–22 Super League Greece, known as Super League 1 Interwetten for sponsorship reasons, was the 86th season of the Super League Greece, the top Greek professional league for association football clubs, since its establishment in 1959. Olympiacos were the defending champions.


title: 2021–22 Super League Greece

text: Fourteen teams will compete in the league – the top twelve teams from the previous season, one team of play-off winner and one team promoted from the Super League 2. The first club to be promoted was Ionikos, after beating Ergotelis 2–1 on 19 May 2021. Ionikos will play in the Super League for the first time since the 2006–07 season. AEL has been relegated to 2021–22 Super League Greece 2, ending their four-year stay in the top flight.


title: 2021–22 Super League Greece

text: The top six teams from Regular season will meet twice (10 matches per team) for places in 2022–23 UEFA Champions League and 2022–23 UEFA Europa Conference League as well as deciding the league champion.


title: John Blyth Barrymore

text: He is known for his role as Zeke in the 1970s television series "Kung Fu", which was his first role on television.


title: John Blyth Barrymore

text: John Blyth Barrymore III was born to John Drew Barrymore and Cara Williams. As such, he is from the famous Barrymore family: He is the half-brother of American actress Drew Barrymore, as well as the grandnephew of Ethel Barrymore and Lionel Barrymore. He is of partial Irish descent through his great-grandfather, actor Maurice Costello. John has stated that he does not remember if he met his aunt Diana Barrymore, who was also an actress.


title: John Blyth Barrymore

text: Norman Abbott, the director of the television show "The Munsters", requested that John play the role of Eddie Munster in the show. John's mother did not allow him to take the role, and in later years John thanked his mother for not allowing him to become a child actor.


title: John Blyth Barrymore

text: Like his father, John has had a sporadic career in film and television, mainly appearing in shlock horror movies and comedies. John found himself homeless in 2012. While on skid row, he took to wearing a shirt printed with "I'm Drew Barrymore's brother".


title: John Blyth Barrymore

text: After John's sister Jessica Barrymore was found dead in her vehicle in 2014, he publicly criticized half-sister Drew for not being receptive to forming a relationship with either him or Jessica.


title: John Blyth Barrymore

text: In 2017, he appeared in an hour-long episode of "Lasagna Cat", a web-series parodying Jim Davis's comic-strip series "Garfield", by the production team Fatal Farm. His performance consisted of a tribute and in-depth philosophical analysis of a Garfield comic strip from July 27, 1978 which features Garfield smoking Jon's pipe to his dismay, as he describes it as a single perfect Garfield comic strip.


title: Chelsea Wolfe

text: Chelsea Joy Wolfe (born November 14, 1983) is an American singer-songwriter and musician. Her work has blended elements of gothic rock, doom metal, and folk music.


title: Chelsea Wolfe

text: Raised in Northern California with a country musician father, Wolfe began writing and recording songs during her childhood. She earned underground critical acclaim for her releases, "The Grime and the Glow" (2010) and "Apokalypsis" (2011), which blended gothic and folk elements. In her later albums "Pain Is Beauty" (2013), "Abyss" (2015), and "Hiss Spun" (2017), Wolfe incorporated elements of neofolk, electronic music and heavy metal.


title: Chelsea Wolfe

text: In addition to her solo career, she has participated in numerous collaborations, including being a member of Mrs. Piss, and working with Converge on "" (2021) and Tyler Bates on the soundtrack for the 2022 slasher film "X".


title: Chelsea Wolfe

text: Chelsea Wolfe was born in Roseville, California, She is of English, Norwegian, and German descent. She was raised in Roseville and Sacramento. Her father was in a country band and owned a home studio. By the age of 7, she had written her first poem and by the age of 9, had written and recorded songs which she later described as "basically Casio-based gothy R&B songs".


title: Chelsea Wolfe

text: Of her childhood, Wolfe said, "I grew up pretty fast. I had older sisters. By the time I was 11, I was drinking 40s." She also struggled with sleep paralysis as a child and through her teens, which landed her in the hospital for sleep studies; these experiences eventually became material for her albums "Abyss" and "Hiss Spun".


title: Chelsea Wolfe

text: Wolfe lived with her grandmother during a part of her childhood, who taught her about aromatherapy, Reiki and "other realms".


title: Chelsea Wolfe

text: In 2006 Wolfe composed an album, titled "Mistake in Parting", which was never officially released. Of the album, Wolfe said: "I was 21 years old and wrote a shitty singer-songwriter breakup album. I didn't even really want to be a musician back then, but a lot of my friends were like 'let's do this, I've got some producer friends' and they helped me make this over-produced, terrible record... I sort of took a break from music for a while since I wasn't happy with what I was making". Wolfe later commented that she scrapped the album largely because it had been written about events in her personal life: "I was writing really personal stuff about my own life, and I didn't feel comfortable at all... I didn't want [my music] to be so much about myself, and I just had to find a new perspective".


title: Chelsea Wolfe

text: Wolfe's first widely released album, "The Grime and the Glow" (2010), was issued on New York-based independent label Pendu Sound Recordings, preceded that same year by the limited-edition albums "Soundtrack VHS/Gold" and "Soundtrack VHS II". Her next album, "Apokalypsis" (2011), stylized as "Ἀποκάλυψις", gained her an underground following, as well as critical acclaim, receiving favorable reviews in "Pitchfork" and "CMJ". Wolfe toured extensively in North America and Europe to support both albums, and suffered from extreme stage fright; when she initially began performing live, Wolfe would wear a black veil over her face. "Performing was something that I had to learn," she said. "I could barely handle being onstage for the first few years, and it's the reason it took me so long to start my career as a musician".


title: Chelsea Wolfe

text: In 2012, Wolfe covered five songs by British anarcho-punk band Rudimentary Peni, and issued them as "A Tribute To Rudimentary Peni" on February 17 as a free download via Pendu Sound. She later rerecorded the Peni songs with her band at Southern Studios in London, and released them as an EP, "Prayer for the Unborn", in January 2013 on Southern Records.


title: Chelsea Wolfe

text: Wolfe signed with the label Sargent House in 2012 to release her third album. "" was released on October 16, 2012, and featured a more folk-oriented sound, as opposed to her earlier work, which had been heavily centered on droning electric guitars and distortion. The acoustic album contained once-orphaned' songs", according to Wolfe. On July 28, 2012, the first single, "The Way We Used To", was premiered on NPR. On September 20, the second single, "Appalachia," was premiered on "The Fader."


title: Chelsea Wolfe

text: Wolfe released a live album, "Live at Roadburn", on September 28, 2012, recorded that April 12 at the Roadburn Festival in Tilburg, Netherlands. Wolfe's fourth studio album, "Pain Is Beauty", was released September 3, 2013, as well as an album trailer, followed by a supporting North American tour. During 2013 and 2014, Wolfe released two split 7-inch singles with King Dude, "Sing Songs Together..." and "Sing More Songs Together...", and a live EP, "Chelsea Wolfe Folkadelphia Session May 31, 2014".


title: Chelsea Wolfe

text: Wolfe also contributed guest vocals to the American post-metal band Russian Circles' fifth studio album, "Memorial", released in October 2013. Wolfe and Russian Circles toured Europe together in late 2013.


title: Chelsea Wolfe

text: In 2014, she released a long-form film, "Lone", featuring music from "Pain Is Beauty" and directed by Mark Pellington.


title: Chelsea Wolfe

text: "Carrion Flowers", "Iron Moon" and "After the Fall" were released as the second, third and the fourth singles, respectively, from her fourth album, "Abyss" (2015). "Abyss" featured Wolfe exploring neofolk and electronic music and embracing more of her heavy metal influences.


title: Chelsea Wolfe

text: On April 1, 2016, Wolfe released the non-album 7-inch single "Hypnos", preceded by a music video on March 22. In January 2017, she announced a UK/European tour to begin in April.


title: Chelsea Wolfe

text: Her fifth studio album, "Hiss Spun", was released by Sargent House on September 22, 2017. The album featured guitar work from Queens of the Stone Age member Troy Van Leeuwen, was recorded by Kurt Ballou and features a guest appearance from Aaron Turner. She toured in late 2017 to promote its release. Wolfe also appeared in collaborations on the 2017 Myrkur album "Mareridt" and the 2018 Deafheaven album "Ordinary Corrupt Human Love".


title: Chelsea Wolfe

text: In March 2019, she revealed that her upcoming album will be largely acoustic, is being recorded in the woods of Northern California, and inspired by current events. Longtime collaborator Ben Chisholm is co-producing the album, featuring some guest players such as drummer Jess Gowrie. On June 18, 2019, Wolfe announced her sixth studio album, "Birth of Violence" and released the first single off the album, "The Mother Road". The album was released on September 13, 2019.


title: Chelsea Wolfe

text: In January 2021, Wolfe teamed with Emma Ruth Rundle for the single "Anhedonia" released digitally via Wolfe's Bandcamp store. In March 2021, Wolfe teamed with Xiu Xiu to cover the song "One Hundred Years" by The Cure for Xiu Xiu's duets album "Oh No". On May 26, 2021, "Diana," a collaboration between Wolfe, bandmates Ben Chisholm and Jess Gowrie, and Tyler Bates was released as a part of the "" soundtrack. On September 21, 2021, Wolfe released the B-Side of her sixth studio album, "Birth of Violence", featuring the previously unreleased track "Green Altar" and a cover of Joni Mitchell's "Woodstock." A documentary detailing the 2019 tour was released alongside it.


title: Chelsea Wolfe

text: In April 2016, Wolfe and bandmate Ben Chisholm were special guests for Converge's collaborative live performance, Blood Moon, along with Stephen Brodsky of Cave In and Steve Von Till of Neurosis. Limited to four European performances, the collective performed "ambient/post-rock interpretations" of various tracks from Converge's discography, particularly songs of their "lesser-heard and slower work". The first Blood Moon set took place at Postbahnhof in Berlin on April 11. The second took place at La Cartonnerie in Reims on April 12. The third took place at Electric Brixton in London on April 13. The fourth and final Blood Moon show took place at the Roadburn Festival in the Netherlands on April 16. On September 28, 2021, Converge announced that the band and Chelsea Wolfe had collaborated again for the former's tenth studio album "", released on November 19, 2021.


title: Chelsea Wolfe

text: On May 14, 2020, Wolfe and her friend and drummer Jess Gowrie announced their collaborative project Mrs. Piss and their debut album, "Self-Surgery" with release date on May 29, 2020, through Sargent House.


title: Chelsea Wolfe

text: In March 2022, film production house A24 announced Wolfe's soundtrack album for the slasher film "X". Her cover of "Oui, Oui, Marie" by Arthur Fields was released as a single ahead of the album. The soundtrack involved Wolfe collaborating with composer Tyler Bates, and primary providing vocals for the synthesizer and 1970s-music inspired score.


title: Chelsea Wolfe

text: She composed her first two albums on her mother's classical guitar, which was missing a tuning peg; as a result, the strings had to be tuned down, which was a stylistic element carried on to the studio recordings. Wolfe frequently plays both a 1979 and 2014 Gibson ES-335, which she used while recording her album "Hiss Spun". In a 2017 interview, she said that her 2014 Gibson ES-335 was "the best guitar I’ve ever had—every time I pick it up, I want to play it forever." She also performs using several Fender guitars, including a Jazzmaster with a Stratocaster neck, and a Mustang with a Dean neck.


title: Chelsea Wolfe

text: For amplifiers, she has used a 1960s-era Gibson Titan, a 1970s-era Laney Klipp, and a Fender Bassbreaker 45.


title: Chelsea Wolfe

text: Wolfe has mentioned an array of artists and genres as influences, including black metal and Scandinavian folk music, but has said: "I do have a hard time sticking to one genre, and honestly I prefer it that way. I'd rather be free to experiment and make the kind of art I want to make than be easy to define." Various critics have noted elements of doom metal, drone metal, gothic rock, folk, lo-fi, electronic, noise, and dark ambient in her music. Aside from gothic and experimental, many critics have dubbed her sound "doom folk". Wolfe has said: "I think deep down I wish I had one of those really gritty voices like Kurt Cobain, so maybe I'm making up for it with distorted guitars." Wolfe has been noted as having a soprano vocal range. "Mojo" described her music as "Siouxsie & The Banshees territory [...], with treated strings, echoing drums and lashings of reverb surrounding her double-tracked, crushed velvet voice".


title: Chelsea Wolfe

text: Wolfe has expressed a strong affinity for R&B music, citing Aaliyah as a huge influence on her career since her childhood. She said, "I grew up listening to my dad playing guitar while singing harmonies... As a kid I wanted to record my own songs so he set me up with an 8-track. The vibe of those earliest songs was like, Aaliyah meets Fleetwood Mac – what I was listening to mixed with what my parents were listening to. "Age Ain't Nothing But a Number" was my favorite song back then."


title: Chelsea Wolfe

text: Other musical influences include Vladimir Vysotsky, Selda Bagcan, Nick Cave, Hank Williams, Townes Van Zandt, Suicide, SPK, various "1920s and '30s music", Joy Division, and more recently, Black Sabbath, Sunn O))), Deftones, and Neurosis. In the past she mentioned Burzum as an influence, but later said that she considers Burzum's political views as too extreme.


title: Chelsea Wolfe

text: Wolfe has cited the visual elements of filmmaker Ingmar Bergman and photographer Nan Goldin as influences, as well as the writings of D.H. Lawrence and Ayn Rand. However, on September 24, 2015, she stated that with regard to her supposed affinity with Rand: "When I said I liked Ayn Rand many years ago I didn't know anything about what she stood for or what her books meant. I recant!". Other writers she has mentioned as inspirations include Marcel Proust, Louis-Ferdinand Céline and Sylvia Plath.


title: Chelsea Wolfe

text: Since 2011, Wolfe has worked with New York-based costume designer and wardrobe stylist Jenni Hensler, whom she credits with helping her cultivate and develop her own original image. Hensler's costumes and styling work can be seen both in Wolfe's live performances and music videos, most recently in the video for "Be All Things."


title: Shipbuilding

text: Shipbuilding is the construction of ships and other floating vessels. It normally takes place in a specialized facility known as a shipyard. Shipbuilders, also called shipwrights, follow a specialized occupation that traces its roots to before recorded history.


title: Shipbuilding

text: Shipbuilding and ship repairs, both commercial and military, are referred to as "naval engineering". The construction of boats is a similar activity called boat building.


title: Shipbuilding

text: The earliest known depictions (including paintings and models) of shallow-water sailing boats is from the 6th to 5th millennium BC of the Ubaid period of Mesopotamia. They were made from bundled reeds coated in bitumen and had bipod masts. They sailed in shallow coastal waters of the Persian Gulf.


title: Shipbuilding

text: Evidence from Ancient Egypt shows that the early Egyptians knew how to assemble planks of wood into a ship hull as early as 3100 BC. Egyptian pottery as old as 4000 BC shows designs of early fluvial boats or other means for navigation. The Archaeological Institute of America reports that some of the oldest ships yet unearthed are known as the Abydos boats. These are a group of 14 ships discovered in Abydos that were constructed of wooden planks which were "sewn" together. Discovered by Egyptologist David O'Connor of New York University, woven straps were found to have been used to lash the planks together, and reeds or grass stuffed between the planks helped to seal the seams. Because the ships are all buried together and near a mortuary belonging to Pharaoh Khasekhemwy, originally they were all thought to have belonged to him, but one of the 14 ships dates to 3000 BC, and the associated pottery jars buried with the vessels also suggest earlier dating. The ship dating to 3000 BC was about 75 feet (23 m) long and is now thought to perhaps have belonged to an earlier pharaoh. According to professor O'Connor, the 5,000-year-old ship may have even belonged to Pharaoh Aha.


title: Shipbuilding

text: The first true ocean-going vessels were built by the Austronesian peoples during the Austronesian expansion (c. 3000 BC). From Taiwan, they first settled the island of Luzon in the Philippines before migrating onwards to the rest of Island Southeast Asia and to Micronesia by 1500 BC, covering distances of thousands of kilometers of open ocean. This was followed by later migrations even further onward; reaching Madagascar in the Indian Ocean and New Zealand and Easter Island in the Pacific Ocean at its furthest extent, possibly even reaching the Americas.


title: Shipbuilding

text: Austronesians invented unique ship technologies like catamarans, outrigger boats, lashed-lug boatbuilding techniques, crab claw sails, and tanja sails; as well as oceanic navigation techniques. They also invented sewn-plank techniques independently. Austronesian ships varied from simple canoes to large multihull ships. The simplest form of all ancestral Austronesian boats had five parts. The bottom part consists of a single piece of hollowed-out log. At the sides were two planks, and two horseshoe-shaped wood pieces formed the prow and stern. These were fitted tightly together edge-to-edge with dowels inserted into holes in between, and then lashed to each other with ropes (made from rattan or fiber) wrapped around protruding lugs on the planks. This characteristic and ancient Austronesian boatbuilding practice is known as the "lashed-lug" technique. They were commonly caulked with pastes made from various plants as well as tapa bark and fibres which would expand when wet, further tightening joints and making the hull watertight. They formed the shell of the boat, which was then reinforced by horizontal ribs. Shipwrecks of Austronesian ships can be identified from this construction as well as the absence of metal nails. Austronesian ships traditionally had no central rudders but were instead steered using an oar on one side.


title: Shipbuilding

text: The ancestral Austronesian rig was the mastless triangular crab claw sail which had two booms that could be tilted to the wind. These were built in the double-canoe configuration or had a single outrigger on the windward side. In Island Southeast Asia, these developed into double outriggers on each side that provided greater stability. The triangular crab claw sails also later developed into square or rectangular tanja sails, which like crab claw sails, had distinctive booms spanning the upper and lower edges. Fixed masts also developed later in both Southeast Asia (usually as bipod or tripod masts) and Oceania. Austronesians traditionally made their sails from woven mats of the resilient and salt-resistant pandanus leaves. These sails allowed Austronesians to embark on long-distance voyaging.


title: Shipbuilding

text: The ancient Champa of Vietnam also uniquely developed basket-hulled boats whose hulls were composed of woven and resin-caulked bamboo, either entirely or in conjunction with plank strakes. They range from small coracles (the "o thúng") to large ocean-going trading ships like the "ghe mành".


title: Shipbuilding

text: The acquisition of the catamaran and outrigger technology by the non-Austronesian peoples in Sri Lanka and southern India is due to the result of very early Austronesian contact with the region, including the Maldives and the Laccadive Islands via the Austronesian maritime trade network (the precursor to both the Spice Trade and the Maritime Silk Road), estimated to have occurred around 1000 to 600 BCE and onwards. This may have possibly included limited colonization that have since been assimilated. This is still evident in Sri Lankan and South Indian languages. For example, Tamil "paṭavu", Telugu "paḍava", and Kannada "paḍahu", all meaning "ship", are all derived from Proto-Hesperonesian *padaw, "sailboat", with Austronesian cognates like Javanese "perahu", Kadazan "padau", Maranao "padaw", Cebuano "paráw", Samoan "folau", Hawaiian "halau", and Māori "wharau".


title: Shipbuilding

text: Early Egyptians also knew how to assemble planks of wood with treenails to fasten them together, using pitch for caulking the seams. The "Khufu ship", a 43.6-meter vessel sealed into a pit in the Giza pyramid complex at the foot of the Great Pyramid of Giza in the Fourth Dynasty around 2500 BC, is a full-size surviving example which may have fulfilled the symbolic function of a solar barque. Early Egyptians also knew how to fasten the planks of this ship together with mortise and tenon joints.


title: Shipbuilding

text: The oldest known tidal dock in the world was built around 2500 BC during the Harappan civilisation at Lothal near the present day Mangrol harbour on the Gujarat coast in India. Other ports were probably at Balakot and Dwarka. However, it is probable that many small-scale ports, and not massive ports, were used for the Harappan maritime trade. Ships from the harbour at these ancient port cities established trade with Mesopotamia. Shipbuilding and boatmaking may have been prosperous industries in ancient India. Native labourers may have manufactured the flotilla of boats used by Alexander the Great to navigate across the Hydaspes and even the Indus, under Nearchos. The Indians also exported teak for shipbuilding to ancient Persia. Other references to Indian timber used for shipbuilding is noted in the works of Ibn Jubayr.


title: Shipbuilding

text: The crab claw sail was developed by Austronesians within Island Southeast Asia at around 1500 BC, from the more primitive V-shaped square sails. This is believed to have spurred the invention of the characteristic outriggers of Austronesian vessels, as well as later derivative Austronesian fore-and-aft rigs like the tanja sail and the junk sail.


title: Shipbuilding

text: The ships of Ancient Egypt's Eighteenth Dynasty were typically about 25 meters (80 ft) in length and had a single mast, sometimes consisting of two poles lashed together at the top making an "A" shape. They mounted a single square sail on a yard, with an additional spar along the bottom of the sail. These ships could also be oar propelled. The ocean- and sea-going ships of Ancient Egypt were constructed with cedar wood, most likely hailing from Lebanon.


title: Shipbuilding

text: Austronesians established the Austronesian maritime trade network (the first true maritime trade network) at around 1000 to 600 BC, linking Southeast Asia with East Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and later East Africa. The route later became part of the Spice trade network and the Maritime Silk Road. The Austronesian traders introduced Austronesian shipbuilding techniques along the route, leading to the development of South Asian outrigger boats, the later adoption of the Chinese of the junk sail, and possibly the development of the fore-and-aft Arabic lateen sail.


title: Shipbuilding

text: The naval history of China stems back to the Spring and Autumn period (722 BC–481 BC) of the ancient Chinese Zhou Dynasty. The Chinese built large rectangular barges known as "castle ships", which were essentially floating fortresses complete with multiple decks with guarded ramparts. However, the Chinese vessels during this era were essentially fluvial (riverine). True ocean-going Chinese fleets did not appear until the 10th century Song dynasty.


title: Shipbuilding

text: Large multi-masted seafaring ships of Southeast Asian Austronesians first started appearing in Chinese records during the Han Dynasty as the "k'un-lun po" or "kunlun bo" ("ship of the "k'un-lun" [dark-skinned southern people]"). These ships used two types of sail of their invention, the junk sail and tanja sail. Large ships are about 50–60 metres (164–197 ft) long, had tall freeboard, each carrying provisions enough for a year, and could carry 200–1000 people. The Chinese recorded that these Southeast Asian ships were hired for passage to South Asia by Chinese Buddhist pilgrims and travelers, because they did not build seaworthy ships of their own until around the 8–9th century AD.


title: Shipbuilding

text: Austronesians (especially from western Island Southeast Asia) were trading in the Indian Ocean as far as Africa during this period. By around 50 to 500 AD, a group of Austronesians, believed to be from the southeastern coasts of Borneo (possibly a mixed group related to the modern Ma'anyan, Banjar, and/or the Dayak people) crossed the Indian Ocean and colonized Madagascar. This resulted in the introduction of outrigger canoe technology to non-Austronesian cultures in the East African coast.


title: Shipbuilding

text: The ancient Chinese also built fluvial ramming vessels as in the Greco-Roman tradition of the trireme, although oar-steered ships in China lost favor very early on since it was in the 1st century China that the stern-mounted rudder was first developed. This was dually met with the introduction of the Han Dynasty junk ship design in the same century. The Chinese were using square sails during the Han dynasty and adopted the Austronesian junk sail later in the 12th century. Iconographic remains show that Chinese ships before the 12th century used square sails, and the junk rig of Chinese ships is believed to be developed from tilted sails.


title: Shipbuilding

text: Southern Chinese junks were based on keeled and multi-planked Austronesian ship known as "po" by the Chinese, from the Old Javanese "parahu","" Javanese "prau", or Malay "perahu" — large ship. Southern Chinese junks showed characteristics of Austronesian ships that they are made using timbers of tropical origin, with keeled, V-shaped hull. This is different from northern Chinese junks, which are developed from flat-bottomed riverine boats. The northern Chinese junks were primarily built of pine or fir wood, had flat bottoms with no keel, water-tight bulkheads with no frames, transom (squared) stern and stem, and have their planks fastened with iron nails or clamps.


title: Shipbuilding

text: It was unknown when the Chinese people started adopting Southeast Asian (Austronesian) shipbuilding techniques. They may have been started as early as the 8th century, but the development was gradual and the true ocean-going Chinese junks did not appear suddenly. The word "po" survived in Chinese long after, referring to the large ocean-going junks.


title: Shipbuilding

text: In September 2011, archeological investigations done at the site of Portus in Rome revealed inscriptions in a shipyard constructed during the reign of Trajan (98–117) that indicated the existence of a shipbuilders guild.


title: Shipbuilding

text: Roughly at this time is the last migration wave of the Austronesian expansion, when the Polynesian islands spread over vast distances across the Pacific Ocean were being colonized by the (Austronesian) Polynesians from Island Melanesia using double-hulled voyaging catamarans. At its furthest extent, there is a possibility that they may have reached the Americas. After the 11th century, a new type of ship called djong or jong was recorded in Java and Bali. This type of ship was built using wooden dowels and treenails, unlike the "kunlun bo" which used vegetal fibres for lashings.


title: Shipbuilding

text: The empire of Majapahit used jong, built in northern Java, for transporting troops overseas. The jongs were transport ships which could carry 100–2000 tons of cargo and 50–1000 people, 28.99–88.56 meter in length. The exact number of jong fielded by Majapahit is unknown, but the largest number of jong deployed in an expedition is about 400 jongs, when Majapahit attacked Pasai, in 1350.


title: Shipbuilding

text: Until recently, Viking longships were seen as marking a very considerable advance on traditional clinker-built hulls of plank boards tied together with leather thongs. This consensus has recently been challenged. Haywood has argued that earlier Frankish and Anglo-Saxon nautical practice was much more accomplished than had been thought and has described the distribution of clinker "vs." carvel construction in Western Europe (see map ). An insight into shipbuilding in the North Sea/Baltic areas of the early medieval period was found at Sutton Hoo, England, where a ship was buried with a chieftain. The ship was long and wide. Upward from the keel, the hull was made by overlapping nine strakes on either side with rivets fastening the oaken planks together. It could hold upwards of thirty men.


title: Shipbuilding

text: Sometime around the 12th century, northern European ships began to be built with a straight sternpost, enabling the mounting of a rudder, which was much more durable than a steering oar held over the side. Development in the Middle Ages favored "round ships", with a broad beam and heavily curved at both ends. Another important ship type was the galley, which was constructed with both sails and oars.


title: Shipbuilding

text: The first extant treatise on shipbuilding was written c. 1436 by Michael of Rhodes, a man who began his career as an oarsman on a Venetian galley in 1401 and worked his way up into officer positions. He wrote and illustrated a book that contains a treatise on shipbuilding, a treatise on mathematics, much material on astrology, and other materials. His treatise on shipbuilding treats three kinds of galleys and two kinds of round ships.


title: Shipbuilding

text: Shipbuilders in the Ming dynasty (1368~1644) were not the same as the shipbuilders in other Chinese dynasties, due to hundreds of years of accumulated experiences and rapid changes in the Ming dynasty. Shipbuilders in the Ming dynasty primarily worked for the government, under command of the Ministry of Public Works.


title: Shipbuilding

text: During the early years of the Ming dynasty, the Ming government maintained an open policy towards sailing. Between 1405 and 1433, the government conducted seven diplomatic Ming treasure voyages to over thirty countries in Southeast Asia, India, the Middle East and Eastern Africa. The voyages were initiated by the Yongle Emperor, and led by the Admiral Zheng He. Six voyages were conducted under the Yongle Emperor's reign, the last of which returned to China in 1422. After the Yongle Emperor's death in 1424, his successor the Hongxi Emperor ordered the suspension of the voyages. The seventh and final voyage began in 1430, sent by the Xuande Emperor. Although the Hongxi and Xuande Emperors did not emphasize sailing as much as the Yongle Emperor, they were not against it. This led to a high degree of commercialization and an increase in trade. Large numbers of ships were built to meet the demand.


title: Shipbuilding

text: The Ming voyages were large in size, numbering as many as 300 ships and 28,000 men. The shipbuilders were brought from different places in China to the shipyard in Nanjing, including Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Fujian, and Huguang (now the provinces of Hubei and Hunan). One of the most famous shipyards was Long Jiang Shipyard (), located in Nanjing near the Treasure Shipyard where the ocean-going ships were built. The shipbuilders could built 24 models of ships of varying sizes.


title: Shipbuilding

text: Several types of ships were built for the voyages, including "Shachuan" (沙船), "Fuchuan" (福船) and "Baochuan" (treasure ship) (宝船). Zheng He's treasure ships were regarded as "Shachuan" types, mainly because they were made in the treasure shipyard in Nanjing. "Shachuan", or 'sand-ships', are ships used primarily for inland transport. However, in recent years, some researchers agree that the treasure ships were more of the "Fuchuan" type. It is said in vol.176 of "San Guo Bei Meng Hui Bian" (三朝北盟汇编) that ships made in Fujian are the best ones. Therefore, the best shipbuilders and laborers were brought from these places to support Zheng He's expedition.


title: Shipbuilding

text: The shipyard was under the command of Ministry of Public Works. The shipbuilders had no control over their lives. The builders, commoner's doctors, cooks and errands had lowest social status. The shipbuilders were forced to move away from their hometown to the shipyards. There were two major ways to enter the shipbuilder occupation: family tradition, or apprenticeship. If a shipbuilder entered the occupation due to family tradition, the shipbuilder learned the techniques of shipbuilding from his family and is very likely to earn a higher status in the shipyard. Additionally, the shipbuilder had access to business networking that could help to find clients. If a shipbuilder entered the occupation through an apprenticeship, the shipbuilder was likely a farmer before he was hired as a shipbuilder, or he was previously an experienced shipbuilder.


title: Shipbuilding

text: Many shipbuilders working in the shipyard were forced into the occupation. The ships built for Zheng He's voyages needed to be waterproof, solid, safe, and have ample room to carry large amounts of trading goods. Therefore, due to the highly commercialized society that was being encouraged by the expeditions, trades, and government policies, the shipbuilders needed to acquire the skills to build ships that fulfil these requirements.


title: Shipbuilding

text: Shipbuilding was not the sole industry utilising Chinese lumber at that time; the new capital was being built in Beijing from approximately 1407 onwards, which required huge amounts of high-quality wood. These two ambitious projects commissioned by Emperor Yongle would have had enormous environmental and economic effects, even if the ships were half the dimensions given in the "History of Ming". Considerable pressure would also have been placed on the infrastructure required to transport the trees from their point of origin to the shipyards.


title: Shipbuilding

text: Shipbuilders were usually divided into different groups and had separate jobs. Some were responsible for fixing old ships; some were responsible for making the keel and some were responsible for building the helm.


title: Shipbuilding

text: After 1477, the Ming government reversed its open maritime policies, enacting a series of isolationist policies in response to piracy. The policies, called "Haijin" (sea ban), lasted until the end of the Ming dynasty in 1644. During this period, Chinese navigation technology did not make any progress and even declined in some aspect.


title: Shipbuilding

text: In the Islamic world, shipbuilding thrived at Basra and Alexandria. The dhow, felucca, baghlah, and the sambuk became symbols of successful maritime trade around the Indian Ocean from the ports of East Africa to Southeast Asia and the ports of Sindh and Hind (India) during the Abbasid period.


title: Shipbuilding

text: Mughal Empire had a large shipbuilding industry, which was largely centred in the Bengal Subah. Economic historian Indrajit Ray estimates shipbuilding output of Bengal during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries at 223,250 tons annually, compared with 23,061 tons produced in nineteen colonies in North America from 1769 to 1771. He also assesses ship repairing as very advanced in Bengal.


title: Shipbuilding

text: Shipbuilding in Bengal was advanced compared to European shipbuilding at the time, with Bengal selling ships to European firms. An important innovation in shipbuilding was the introduction of a flushed deck design in Bengal rice ships, resulting in hulls that were stronger and less prone to leak than the structurally weak hulls of traditional European ships built with a stepped deck design. The British East India Company later duplicated the flushed deck and hull designs of Bengal rice ships in the 1760s, leading to significant improvements in seaworthiness and navigation for European ships during the Industrial Revolution.


title: Shipbuilding

text: Documents from 1506, for example, refer to watercraft on the Sierra Leone river carrying 120 men. Others refer to Guinea coast peoples using war canoes of varying sizes – some 70 feet in length, 7–8 feet broad, with sharp pointed ends, rowing benches on the side, and quarterdecks or forecastles build of reeds. The watercraft included miscellaneous facilities, such as cooking hearths, and storage spaces for the crew's sleeping mats.


title: Shipbuilding

text: From the 17th century, some kingdoms added brass or iron cannons to their vessels. By the 18th century, however, the use of swivel cannons on war canoes accelerated. The city-state of Lagos, for instance, deployed war canoes armed with swivel cannons.


title: Shipbuilding

text: With the development of the carrack, the west moved into a new era of ship construction by building the first regular oceangoing vessels. In a relatively short time, these ships grew to an unprecedented size, complexity, and cost.


title: Shipbuilding

text: Shipyards became large industrial complexes, and the ships built were financed by consortia of investors. These considerations led to the documentation of design and construction practices in what had previously been a secretive trade run by master shipwrights and ultimately led to the field of naval architecture, in which professional designers and draftsmen played an increasingly important role. Even so, construction techniques changed only very gradually. The ships of the Napoleonic Wars were still built more or less to the same basic plan as those of the Spanish Armada of two centuries earlier, although there had been numerous subtle improvements in ship design and construction throughout this period. For instance, the introduction of tumblehome, adjustments to the shapes of sails and hulls, the introduction of the wheel, the introduction of hardened copper fastenings below the waterline, the introduction of copper sheathing as a deterrent to shipworm and fouling, etc.


title: Shipbuilding

text: Though still largely based on pre-industrial era materials and designs, ships greatly improved during the early Industrial Revolution period (1760 to 1825), as "the risk of being wrecked for Atlantic shipping fell by one-third, and of foundering by two thirds, reflecting improvements in seaworthiness and navigation respectively." The improvements in seaworthiness have been credited to "replacing the traditional stepped deck ship with stronger flushed decked ones derived from Indian designs, and the increasing use of iron reinforcement." The design originated from Bengal rice ships, with Bengal being famous for its shipbuilding industry at the time. Iron was gradually adopted in ship construction, initially to provide stronger joints in a wooden hull e.g. as deck knees, hanging knees, knee riders and the other sharp joints, ones in which a curved, progressive joint could not be achieved. One study finds that there were considerable improvements in ship speed from 1750 to 1850: "we find that average sailing speeds of British ships in moderate to strong winds rose by nearly a third. Driving this steady progress seems to be the continuous evolution of sails and rigging, and improved hulls that allowed a greater area of sail to be set safely in a given wind. By contrast, looking at every voyage between the Netherlands and East Indies undertaken by the Dutch East India Company from 1595 to 1795, we find that journey time fell only by 10 percent, with no improvement in the heavy mortality, averaging six percent per voyage, of those aboard."


title: Shipbuilding

text: Initially copying wooden construction traditions with a frame over which the hull was fastened, Isambard Kingdom Brunel's of 1843 was the first radical new design, being built entirely of wrought iron. Despite her success, and the great savings in cost and space provided by the iron hull, compared to a copper-sheathed counterpart, there remained problems with fouling due to the adherence of weeds and barnacles. As a result, composite construction remained the dominant approach where fast ships were required, with wooden timbers laid over an iron frame ("Cutty Sark" is a famous example). Later "Great Britain"s iron hull was sheathed in wood to enable it to carry a copper-based sheathing. Brunel's represented the next great development in shipbuilding. Built-in association with John Scott Russell, it used longitudinal stringers for strength, inner and outer hulls, and bulkheads to form multiple watertight compartments. Steel also supplanted wrought iron when it became readily available in the latter half of the 19th century, providing great savings when compared with iron in cost and weight. Wood continued to be favored for the decks.


title: Shipbuilding

text: During World War II, the need for cargo ships was so great that construction time for Liberty ships went from initially eight months or longer, down to weeks or even days. They employed production line and prefabrication techniques such as those used in shipyards today. The total number of dry-cargo ships built in the United States in a 15-year period just before the war was a grand total of two. During the war, thousands of Liberty ships and Victory shipss were built, many of them in shipyards that didn't exist before the war. And, they were built by a workforce consisting largely of women and other inexperienced workers who had never seen a ship before (or even the ocean).


title: Shipbuilding

text: After World War II, shipbuilding (which encompasses the shipyards, the marine equipment manufacturers, and many related service and knowledge providers) grew as an important and strategic industry in a number of countries around the world. This importance stems from:


title: Shipbuilding

text: Historically, the industry has suffered from the absence of global rules and a tendency towards (state-supported) over-investment due to the fact that shipyards offer a wide range of technologies, employ a significant number of workers, and generate income as the shipbuilding market is global.


title: Shipbuilding

text: Japan used shipbuilding in the 1950s and 1960s to rebuild its industrial structure; South Korea started to make shipbuilding a strategic industry in the 1970s, and China is now in the process of repeating these models with large state-supported investments in this industry. Conversely, Croatia is privatising its shipbuilding industry.


title: Shipbuilding

text: As a result, the world shipbuilding market suffers from over-capacities, depressed prices (although the industry experienced a price increase in the period 2003–2005 due to strong demand for new ships which was in excess of actual cost increases), low profit margins, trade distortions and widespread subsidisation. All efforts to address the problems in the OECD have so far failed, with the 1994 international shipbuilding agreement never entering into force and the 2003–2005 round of negotiations being paused in September 2005 after no agreement was possible. After numerous efforts to restart the negotiations these were formally terminated in December 2010. The OECD's Council Working Party on Shipbuilding (WP6) will continue its efforts to identify and progressively reduce factors that distort the shipbuilding market.


title: Shipbuilding

text: Where state subsidies have been removed and domestic industrial policies do not provide support in high labor cost countries, shipbuilding has gone into decline. The British shipbuilding industry is a prime example of this with its industries suffering badly from the 1960s. In the early 1970s British yards still had the capacity to build all types and sizes of merchant ships but today they have been reduced to a small number specialising in defence contracts, luxury yachts and repair work. Decline has also occurred in other European countries, although to some extent this has reduced by protective measures and industrial support policies. In the US, the Jones Act (which places restrictions on the ships that can be used for moving domestic cargoes) has meant that merchant shipbuilding has continued, albeit at a reduced rate, but such protection has failed to penalise shipbuilding inefficiencies. The consequence of this is that contract prices are far higher than those of any other country building oceangoing ships.


title: Shipbuilding

text: Beyond the 2000s, China, South Korea, Japan have dominated world shipbuilding by completed gross tonnage. China State Shipbuilding Corporation, China Shipbuilding Industry Corporation, Hyundai Heavy Industries, Samsung Heavy Industries, Daewoo Shipbuilding & Marine Engineering and Imabari Shipbuilding supply most of the global market for large container, bulk carrier, tanker and Ro-ro ships.


title: Shipbuilding

text: When referring to the type, then China, South Korea and Japan are the producing countries of the carrier ships as mentioned above. While Italy, France, Finland and Germany and other country in Europe are the makers of cruise ships (the most), icebreakers, crane vessel and so on.


title: Shipbuilding

text: The market share of European ship builders began to decline in the 1960s as they lost work to Japan in the same way Japan most recently lost their work to South Korea and China. Over the four years from 2007, the total number of employees in the European shipbuilding industry declined from 150,000 to 115,000. In 2022, some key shipbuilders in Europe are Fincantieri, Damen Group, Naval Group and BAE Systems.


title: Shipbuilding

text: The output of the United States also underwent a similar change. The US is ranked the 10th largest shipbuilder worldwide. The top companies that build large naval vessels, such as aircraft carriers and frigates, include Huntington Ingalls, Bollinger and General Dynamics. In the small to medium military vessels category, key shipbuilders include Vigor Industrial, and VT Halter Marine. As the US Navy is shifting to a new fleet architecture that is more widely distributed, Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USVs) development is rapidly propelled to higher priority. Key strategic Program of Record includes prototyping and construction of up to 9 MUSVs, for which a sole contract was awarded to L3Harris Technologies, who partnered with Swiftships to build the MUSVs.


title: Shipbuilding

text: 2018 Defense Department initiated Overlord Program, and developed USV Prototypes 1 (NOMAD) and 2 (RANGER). Both of them took part in multiple fleet level exercises and demonstrations, traveled 28,982 nautical miles in autonomous mode, and tested numerous payloads. Nomam, formerly known as Riley Claire, is a converted offshore patrol vessel, which was built by Swiftships. The objective of the Ghost Fleet Overlord program is to convert large, commercial vessels to autonomous systems.


title: Shipbuilding

text: Modern shipbuilding makes considerable use of prefabricated sections. Entire multi-deck segments of the hull or superstructure will be built elsewhere in the yard, transported to the building dock or slipway, then lifted into place. This is known as "block construction". The most modern shipyards pre-install equipment, pipes, electrical cables, and any other components within the blocks, to minimize the effort needed to assemble or install components deep within the hull once it is welded together.


title: Shipbuilding

text: Ship design work, also called naval architecture, may be conducted using a ship model basin. Previously, loftsmen at the mould lofts of shipyards were responsible for taking the dimensions, and details from drawings and plans and translating this information into templates, battens, ordinates, cutting sketches, profiles, margins and other data. However, since the early 1970s computer-aided design became normal for the shipbuilding design and lofting process.


title: Shipbuilding

text: Modern ships, since roughly 1940, have been produced almost exclusively of welded steel. Early welded steel ships used steels with inadequate fracture toughness, which resulted in some ships suffering catastrophic brittle fracture structural cracks (see problems of the Liberty ship). Since roughly 1950, specialized steels such as ABS Steels with good properties for ship construction have been used. Although it is commonly accepted that modern steel has eliminated brittle fracture in ships, some controversy still exists. Brittle fracture of modern vessels continues to occur from time to time because grade A and grade B steel of unknown toughness or fracture appearance transition temperature (FATT) in ships' side shells can be less than adequate for all ambient conditions.


title: Shipbuilding

text: As modern shipbuilding panels on a panel line become lighter and thinner, the laser hybrid welding technique is utilized. The laser hybrid blend focuses a higher energy beam on the material to be joined, allowing it to keyhole with a much higher depth to width ratio than comparative traditional welding techniques. Typically a MIG process trails the keyhole providing filler material for the weld joint. This allows for very high penetration without excessive heat input from decreased weld metal deposited leading to less distortion and welding at higher travel speeds.


title: Shipbuilding

text: All ships need repair work at some point in their working lives. A part of these jobs must be carried out under the supervision of the classification society.


title: Shipbuilding

text: However, a large number of repair and maintenance works can only be carried out while the ship is out of commercial operation, in a ship repair yard.


title: Shipbuilding

text: Prior to undergoing repairs, a tanker must dock at a deballasting station for completing the tank cleaning operations and pumping ashore its slops (dirty cleaning water and hydrocarbon residues).


title: Crew cut

text: A crew cut is a type of haircut in which the upright hair on the top of the head is cut relatively short, graduated in length from the longest hair that forms a short pomp (pompadour) at the front hairline to the shortest at the back of the crown so that in side profile, the outline of the top hair approaches the horizontal. Relative to the front view, and to varying degrees, the outline of the top hair can be arched or flattened at the short pomp front and rounded or flattened over the rest of the top to complement the front hairline, head shape, face shape and facial features. The hair on the sides and back of the head is usually tapered short, semi-short, or medium.


title: Crew cut

text: A short crew cut is sometimes referred to as a butch, though with the exception of variant forms, a butch differs from a crew cut in that the top hair is cut a uniform short length. A long crew cut can be referred to in the US as an ivy league crew cut or "ivy league". A crew cut where the hair on the top of the head is graduated in length from the front hairline to a chosen point on the mid to back part of the crown as a flat plane, of level, upward sloping or downward sloping inclination is known as a flat top crew cut or flattop. Crew cuts, flattop crew cuts, butch cuts and ivy leagues can be referred to as buzz cuts.


title: Crew cut

text: The crew cut, regardless of the name applied to the hairstyle, was not limited to, nor did the style originate in, the United States. In English, the crew cut and flat top crew cut were formerly known as the pompadour or short pompadour, as well as the brush cut, and had been worn since at least the mid-18th century. The style went by other names in other languages; in French, "cut like a brush"; in German, ; in Russian, "hedgehog." A short pompadour with a flat top was considered the standard while a somewhat curved appearance across the top was suggested for wider foreheads and face shapes. The style with a flat top acquired the name brush top short pompadour and the style with a more rounded top, round top short pompadour. Prior to the invention of electric clippers with a motor in the handle in 1921 and their ensuing marketing and widespread use, barbers considered the perfect short pompadour to be the most time-consuming style to trim.The term, originally crew haircut, was most likely coined to describe the hairstyles worn by members of Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Cornell and other university crew teams, which were short to keep the hair from being blown into the face of the rower as the boat races down the course opposite the direction the rower is seated with both hands on the oars, making it impossible to brush the hair out of the face. The name drew a contrast to football haircuts, which had been long since 1889 when Princeton football players began wearing long hair to protect against head injury, thereby starting a trend, not altogether welcome; mop haired football players were frequently caricatured in the popular press. In 1895, the championship Yale football team appeared with "close-cropped heads" and subsequently long hair went out of style for football. Almost concurrently, the first helmets began to appear.


title: Crew cut

text: Crew cuts were popular in the 1920s and 1930s among college students, particularly in the Ivy League. The style was often worn as a summer haircut for its cooling effect. Men inducted into the military in World War II received G.I. haircuts, crew cuts, and a significant proportion continued to wear a crew cut while serving and after, as civilians. As long hair became popular in the mid 1960s, the crew cut and its variants waned in popularity through the 1970s. The crew cut began to come back into style in the late 1970s and early 1980s, with the flat-top crew cut being the most popular crew cut style during the 1980s.


title: Crew cut

text: Thicker hair that wants to readily stand upright is ideal for a crew cut; with an appropriate head shape, a crew cut may be possible with fairly thin hair. When designing a crew cut, a barber follows the general sequence of other medium to short haircuts; edging, siding and topping. When designing a new crew cut and the current style is not relatively short, the hair on top or all over the head may initially be shortened with shears or clippers. Edging and siding together form a taper which usually is short, semi-short or medium. For a crew cut, some barbers perform edging and siding as one integrated process, regardless, the upper sides are initially boxed in and then cut to final form when designing the top. The hair on the top of the head can be styled clipper or shears over comb or free hand with a clipper.With the clipper or shears over comb method, the comb is inserted in the upright hair at the desired length and the hair is reduced to this length by means of clippers or shears severing the hair above the teeth of the comb. Freehand means the clipper blade or guard does not determine the cut hair length but rather the distance the cutting blade is held above the scalp sets the cut length.


title: Crew cut

text: The barber selects the most complementary final form for the top according to face shape, skull shape, frontal hairline, and facial features within parameters set by customer instructions. Specifically, the short pompadour front can be made higher or lower, wider or narrower and can be flattened or arched to varying degrees across the forehead; the hair over the rest of the top can be more rounded or flattened; the upper sides can have more or less volume. In side profile, the outward appearance of the upright top hair should approach the horizontal; if the hair is cut so the upright top hair appears horizontal when the head is viewed from the front as well as the side, as a flat plane, the style is generally referred to as a flat-top crew cut or flat top; per customer wishes and the shape of the skull and frontal hairline, the flat plane can be level, upward or downward sloping relative to the forehead. A crew cut with a longer top can be referred to in the US as an ivy league crew cut or "ivy league". A long crew cut might be graduated in length on the top of the head from at the front hairline to at the back of the crown. A crew cut with a shorter top might have a similar proportional graduated difference in the length of the hair on the top of the head. If a short crew cut is at the front hairline, the length of the hair at the back of the crown might be .


title: Intel 4004

text: The Intel 4004 is a 4-bit central processing unit (CPU) released by Intel Corporation in 1971. Sold for US$60, it was the first commercially produced microprocessor, and the first in a long line of Intel CPUs.


title: Intel 4004

text: The 4004 was the first significant example of large scale integration, showcasing the superiority of the MOS silicon gate technology (SGT). Compared to the incumbent technology, the SGT integrated on the same chip area twice the number of transistors with five times the operating speed. This step-function increase in performance made possible a single-chip CPU, replacing the existing multi-chip CPUs. The innovative 4004 chip design served as a model on how to use the SGT for complex logic and memory circuits, thus accelerating the adoption of the SGT by the world’s semiconductor industry. The developer of the original SGT at Fairchild was Federico Faggin who designed the first commercial integrated circuit (IC) that used the new technology, proving its superiority for analog/digital applications (Fairchild 3708 in 1968). He later used the SGT at Intel to obtain the unprecedented integration necessary to make the first single chip microprocessor.


title: Intel 4004

text: The project traces its history to 1969, when Busicom Corp. approached Intel to design a family of seven chips for an electronic calculator, three of which constituted a CPU specialized for making different calculating machines. The CPU was based on data stored on shift-registers and instructions stored on ROM (read only memory). The complexity of the three-chip CPU logic design led Marcian Hoff to propose a more conventional CPU architecture based on data stored on RAM (random access memory). This architecture was much simpler and more general-purpose and could potentially be integrated into a single chip, thus reducing the cost and improving the speed. Design began in April 1970 under the direction of Federico Faggin aided by Masatoshi Shima who contributed to the architecture and later to the logic design. The first delivery of a fully operational 4004 was in March 1971 to Busicom for its 141-PF printing calculator engineering prototype (now displayed in the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California). General sales began July 1971.


title: Intel 4004

text: A number of innovations developed by Faggin while working at Fairchild Semiconductor allowed the 4004 to be produced on a single chip. The main concept was the use of the self-aligned gate, made of polysilicon rather than metal, which allowed the components to be much closer together and work at higher speed. To make the 4004 possible, Faggin also developed the "bootstrap load", considered unfeasible with silicon gate, and the "buried contact" that allowed the silicon gates to be connected directly to the source and drain of the transistors without the use of metal. Together, these innovations doubled the circuit density, and thus halved cost, allowing a single chip to contain 2300 transistors and run five times faster than designs using the previous MOS technology with aluminum gates.


title: Intel 4004

text: The 4004 design was later improved by Faggin as the Intel 4040 in 1974. The Intel 8008 and 8080 were unrelated designs in spite of the similar naming.


title: Intel 4004

text: In April 1969, Busicom approached Intel to produce a new design for an electronic calculator. They based their design on the architecture of the 1965 Olivetti Programma 101, one of the world's first tabletop programmable calculators. The key difference was that the Busicom design would use integrated circuits to replace the printed circuit boards filled with individual components, and solid-state shift registers for memory instead of the costly magnetostriction wire in the 101.


title: Intel 4004

text: In contrast to earlier calculator designs, Busicom had developed a general-purpose processor concept with the goal of introducing it in a low-end desktop printing calculator, and then using the same design for other roles like cash registers and automatic teller machines. The company had already produced a calculator using TTL small scale integration logic ICs and were interested in having Intel reduce the chip count using Intel's medium scale integration (MSI) techniques.


title: Intel 4004

text: Intel assigned the recently hired Marcian Hoff, employee number 12, to act as the liaison between the two companies. In late June, three engineers from Busicom travelled to Intel to introduce the design, Masatoshi Shima and his colleagues Masuda and Takayama. Although he had only been assigned to liaise with the engineers, Hoff began studying the concept. Their initial proposal had seven ICs, program control, arithmetic unit (ALU), timing, program ROM, shift registers for temporary memory, printer controller and input/output control.


title: Intel 4004

text: Hoff became concerned that the number of chips and the required interconnections between them would make Busicom's price goals impossible to meet. Combining the chips would reduce the complexity and cost. He was also concerned that the still-small Intel would not have enough design staff to make seven separate chips at the same time. He raised these concerns with upper management, and Bob Noyce, the CEO, told Hoff he would support a different approach if it seemed feasible.


title: Intel 4004

text: A key concept in the Busicom design was that the program control and ALU were not aimed specifically at the calculator market, it was the program in ROM that turned it into a calculator. The original idea was that the company could use the same chips with different amounts of shift register RAM and program ROM to produce a range of calculating machines. Hoff was struck by how closely the Busicom's instruction set architecture matched that of general-purpose computers. He began to consider whether a truly general-purpose processor could be made cheaply enough to be used in a calculator. When later asked where he got the ideas for the architecture of the first microprocessor, Hoff related that Plessey, "a British tractor company", had donated a minicomputer to Stanford, and he had "played with it some" while he was there. Tadashi Sasaki attributes the idea to break the calculator into four parts to an unnamed woman from the Nara Women's College present at a brainstorming meeting that was held in Japan prior to his first meeting with Intel.


title: Intel 4004

text: Another development that allowed this design to be made practical was Intel's work on the earliest dynamic RAM (DRAM) chips. Shift registers at that time were among the only low-cost read and write memory devices. They do not allow random access, instead, with every clock pulse they move the stored data one cell along a chain of cells. The time to retrieve any given data, one byte for instance, is a function of the clock speed and the number of cells in a chain. If the processor had to wait for each bit to cycle through the register the resulting effective speed would be far too low to be practical. DRAM, on the other hand, allowed random access to any data they stored, while also having roughly double the capacity and thus being less expensive.


title: Intel 4004

text: Finally, Hoff noticed that much of the complexity of the program control chip was due to every instruction being implemented separately. He suggested that the chip instead support subroutine calls and instructions be implemented as subroutines where possible. The application naturally suggested a 4-bit design, as this allowed direct manipulation of binary coded decimal (BCD) values used by calculators. Hoff worked on the overall design concept through July and August 1969 but found the Busicom executives seemed uninterested in his proposal.


title: Intel 4004

text: Unknown to Hoff, the Busicom team were extremely interested in his proposal. However, there were a number of specific issues that they were concerned about. One key issue was that certain routines like decimal adjust and keyboard handling would use large amounts of ROM space if implemented as subroutines. Another was that the design did not feature any sort of interrupt so dealing with real-time events would be difficult. Finally, storing the numbers as 4-bit BCD would require additional memory to store the sign and decimal place.


title: Intel 4004

text: In September 1969, Stanley Mazor joined Intel from Fairchild. Hoff and Mazor quickly came up with solutions to the Busicom concerns. To address the complexity of the subroutines, originally solved in Busicom's design using one byte macroinstructions and complex decoder circuitry, Mazor developed a 20-byte long interpreter that executed the same macroinstructions. Shima suggested adding a new interrupt that would be triggered by a pin, thereby allowing the keyboard to be interrupt driven. He also modified the Branch Back (return from subroutine) instruction to clear the accumulator.


title: Intel 4004

text: To reach the price goals, it was important that the chip be as small as possible and use the fewest number of leads. As data was 4-bits and the address space was 12-bits (4096 bytes), there was no way direct access could be arranged with anything fewer than about 24-pins. This was not small enough, so the design would use a 16-pin dual in-line package (DIP) layout and use multiplexing of a single set of 4 lines. This meant specifying which address in ROM to access required three clock cycles, and another two to read it from memory. Running at 1 MHz would allow it to perform math on the BCD values at about 80 microseconds per digit.


title: Intel 4004

text: The result of the discussions between Intel and Busicom was an architecture that reduced the 7-chip Busicom design to a 4-chip Intel proposal composed of CPU, ROM, RAM and I/O (input-output) devices. Such proposal was presented to a visiting team of Busicom executives in October 1969. They agreed the new concept was superior, and gave Intel the go-ahead to begin development. Hoff was upset to learn that the contract assigned all rights to the design to Busicom, in spite of it being designed entirely within Intel. The team then left for Japan, but Shima remained in California until December, developing many of the subroutines.


title: Intel 4004

text: Neither Hoff nor Mazor, who worked in the Applications Research group, had experience designing the actual silicon, and the design group was already overworked with the development of memory devices. In April 1970, Leslie Vadász, who ran the MOS design group, hired Federico Faggin from Fairchild Semiconductor to take over the project. Faggin had already made a name for himself by leading the entire development of the MOS silicon gate technology and the design of the first commercial integrated circuit (IC) made with it. The new technology was going to change the entire semiconductor market.


title: Intel 4004

text: Integrated circuits consist of a number of individual components like transistors and resistors that are produced by mixing the underlying silicon with "dopants". This is normally accomplished by heating the chip in the presence of a chemical gas, which diffuses into the surface. Previously, the individual components were connected together to make a circuit using aluminium wires deposited on the surface. As aluminum melts at 600 degrees and silicon at 1000, the traces typically had to be deposited as the last step, which often complicated the production cycle.


title: Intel 4004

text: In 1967, Bell Labs released a paper about making MOS transistors with self-aligned gates made of silicon rather than metal. These devices, however, were a proof-of-concept and could not be used to make ICs. Faggin and Tom Klein had taken what was a curiosity and developed the entire process technology needed to fabricate reliable ICs. Faggin also designed and produced the Fairchild 3708, the first IC made with SGT, first sold at the end of 1968, and featured on the cover of Electronics (29 September 1969). in 1968. The silicon gate technology also reduced the leakage current by more than 100 times, making possible sophisticated dynamic circuits like DRAMs (dynamic random access memories). It also allowed the highly-doped silicon used for the gates to form the interconnections, greatly improving the circuit density of random-logic ICs like microprocessors.


title: Intel 4004

text: This technique meant the interconnections could be performed at any time in the process. More importantly, the wiring was deposited using the same equipment that made the rest of the components. This meant that the slight differences in layout between different machine types was eliminated. Previously the interconnects had to be much larger than required in order to ensure the aluminum touched the silicon components which would be offset due to inaccuracies in the machinery. With this issue eliminated, the circuits could be placed much closer together, immediately doubling the density of the components, and thus reducing their cost by the same amount. Additionally, the aluminum wiring acted as capacitors which limited the signal speed; removing these allowed the chips to run at faster speeds.


title: Intel 4004

text: At Intel, Faggin began design of the new processor using this self-aligned gate process. Only days after Faggin joined the company Intel, Shima arrived from Japan and was disappointed to learn that no work on the project had taken place since he left in December, and expressed his concern original schedule was now impossible. Faggin responded by working well into the night every day, and Shima stayed on for another six months to help. Additional advances were needed to reach the required circuit density. One of these advances was the use of "buried contacts" that allowed the silicon connecting wires to be directly connected to the components another was figuring out how to make adding "bootstrap loads" with silicon gate. as part of one of the masking steps, eliminating one step from the processing. Without these two additional innovations by Faggin, Hoff’s architecture could not have been realized in a single chip.


title: Intel 4004

text: Intel's chip-naming scheme at that time used a four-digit number for each component. The first digit indicated the process technology used, the second digit indicated the generic function, and the last two digits specified the sequential number in the development of that component type. Using this convention, the chips would have been known as the 1302, 1105, 1507, and 1202. Faggin felt this would obscure the fact that they formed a coherent set, and decided to name them as the "4000 family". The four chips were the following: the 4001, 256-byte 4-bit ROM; the 4002, DRAM with four 20-nibble registers; the 4003, I/O with a 10-bit static shift register with serial and parallel outputs; and the 4004 CPU. A fully expanded system could support 16 4001's for a total of 4 kB of ROM, 16 4002's for a total of 1,280 nibbles (640) bytes of RAM, and an unlimited number of 4003's. The 4003's were connected to programmable input and output pins on the 4001 and to output pins on the 4002, not directly to the CPU.


title: Intel 4004

text: With the design complete, Shima returned to Japan to begin building a prototype of the calculator. The first wafers of the 4001 were processed in October 1970, followed by the 4003 and 4002 in November. The 4002 proved to have a minor problem that was easily corrected. The first 4004s arrived at the end of December, and were completely non-functional. Probing the chip, Faggin found that the buried-contact fabrication step had been left out. A second run was fabricated in January 1971 and the 4004 worked perfectly except for two minor problems. That same month Shima sent Intel the final code for the 4001 ROMs, since the Busicom’s calculator design was now complete. It consisted of one 4004, two 4002, three 4003, and four 4001 chips. An additional 4001 supplied the optional square root function and the final design was produced in March.


title: Intel 4004

text: Faggin was sending samples of these chips to Shima as they arrived. In April, they learned the calculator prototype was operational. Later that month, Shima sent Intel the final masks for the 4001 ROMs, the design was now complete. It consisted of one 4004, two 4002, three 4003, and four 4001 chips. An additional 4001 supplied the optional square root function. One final change was added after Faggin found a frustrating problem in the 4001 that only occurred when the chips were hot. Adding a new register decoder circuit was Faggin's solution. The same problem was also seen in the 4002 and the same same solution was used. Production began in quantity in August 1971.


title: Intel 4004

text: During a call to Shima, Faggin learned that Busicom was in financial difficulty and would likely fail if the chip price was not reduced. Faggin then convinced Noyce to lower the price in exchange for releasing Intel from the exclusivity agreement. In May 1971 Busicom agreed to this, on the condition that it not be used for any other calculator project and that Intel would repay their $60,000 development costs. With this change of marketing focus name of the chip family name was changed to MCS-4, short for Micro Computer System, 4-bit.


title: Intel 4004

text: Intel management was skeptical that their sales team could explain the product to their customers. As Intel was now successful in the memory market, they were concerned the 4004 might confuse the market and were hesitant to advertise it. They feared current Intel customers might view the new product as competition, purchasing memory from competitors instead. Hoff and Mazor were also concerned that the design's limitations would make it less interesting to users who were accustomed to the new 16-bit minicomputers entering the market at that time.


title: Intel 4004

text: This all changed in the summer of 1971, when Ed Gelbach, formerly of Texas Instruments, took over the marketing department and immediately began plans to publicly announce the product. This took place in the November 1971 when Intel ran ads "Announcing a new era of integrated electronics," first appearing in the 15 November edition of "Electronic News".


title: Intel 4004

text: The 4004 became the first commercial microprocessor available for general use. This was almost not the case.


title: Intel 4004

text: In December 1969, Intel was approached by Computer Terminal Corporation (CTC) to produce a custom bipolar memory chip for a computer terminal they were designing, the Datapoint 2200. Mazor and Hoff considered their CPU design and concluded it was not much more complicated than the 4004, and that it could be implemented as a single-chip 8-bit CPU. A few weeks before they hired Faggin, in March 1970 Intel hired Hal Feeney to design the 8008, at that time called 1201 following Intel's naming convention. However, CTC decided to initially proceed with a conventional TTL implementation of their CPU and the project was lowered in priority. Feeney was assigned to other projects and ultimately ended up helping Faggin with testing the 4000 family chips.


title: Intel 4004

text: In January 1971, Feeney was reassigned back to the 1201 under Faggin’s supervision and production chips were available in March 1972. In May, Hoff and Mazor went on a speaking tour to introduce the two CPU designs around the USA. The tradeoffs between the two designs were that with the 4004 and its memory and I/O chips it was much easier to build a complete computer system while the 8008 was more flexible, had a larger 16 kB address space, and offered more instructions. A significant difference is that while a minimal 4004 system could be built using only two chips, one 4004 and one 4001 (256-byte ROM), the 8008 would require at least 20 additional TTL components for interfacing with memory and I/O functions


title: Intel 4004

text: The two designs found themselves being used in different roles. The 4004 was used where the cost of implementation was the major concern, and became widely used in embedded controllers for applications like microwave ovens or traffic lights and similar roles. The 8008 instead found itself mostly used in user-programmable applications, such as computer terminals, microcomputers and similar roles. This split in functionality remains to this day, with the former being known as a microcontroller.


title: Intel 4004

text: Three other CPU chip designs were produced at about the same time: the Four-Phase Systems AL1, done in 1969; the MP944, completed in 1970 and used in the F-14 Tomcat fighter jet; and the Texas Instruments TMS-0100 chip, announced on 17 September 1971. The MP944 was a collection of six chips forming a single processor unit. The TMS0100 chip was presented as a "calculator on a chip" with the original designation TMS1802NC. This chip contains a very primitive CPU and can only be used to implement various simple four-function calculators. It is the precursor of the TMS1000, introduced in 1974, which is considered the first microcontroller—i.e., a computer on a chip containing not only the CPU, but also ROM, RAM, and I/O functions. The MCS-4 family of four chips developed by Intel, of which the 4004 is the CPU or microprocessor, was far more versatile and powerful than the single-chip TMS1000, allowing the creation of a variety of small computers for various applications.


title: Intel 4004

text: Zilog, the first company entirely dedicated to microprocessors and microcontrollers, was started by Federico Faggin and Ralph Ungermann at the end of 1974.


title: Intel 4004

text: If the word “microprocessor” is used to specify a general-purpose CPU integrated into a single chip, none of the so-called microprocessor chips that existed prior to the 4004 deserve that name.


title: Intel 4004

text: The 4004 employs an 10 μm process silicon-gate enhancement-load pMOS technology on a and can execute approximately instructions per second; a single instruction cycle is The original clock rate design goal was 1 MHz, the same as the IBM 1620 Model I.


title: Intel 4004

text: The Intel 4004 was fabricated using masks produced by physically cutting each pattern at 500x magnification on a large sheet of Rubylith photo-reducing it, and repeating, a process made obsolete by current computer graphic design capabilities.


title: Intel 4004

text: For the purpose of testing the produced chips, Faggin developed a tester for silicon wafers of MCS-4 family that was itself driven by 4004 chip. The tester also served as a proof for the management that Intel 4004 microprocessor could be used not only in calculator-like products, but also for control applications.


title: Intel 4004

text: The 4004 includes functions for direct low-level control of memory-chip selection and I/O, which are not normally handled by the microprocessor; however, its functionality is limited in that it cannot execute code from RAM and is limited to whatever instructions are provided in ROM (or an independently loaded RAM working as ROM—in either case, the processor is itself unable to write or transfer data into an executable memory space). The RAM and ROM parts chips also unusual in their integration of I/O functions together with their primary memory function. this partitioning significantly reduced the minimum part count in an MCS-4 system, but required inclusion of a certain amount of processor-like logic on the memory chips themselves to accept, decode and execute relatively high-level data-transfer instructions.


title: Intel 4004

text: The standard arrangement for a 4004 system is anything up to 16 × 4001 ROM chips (in a single bank) and 16 × 4002 RAM chips (in four banks of four), which together provide the 4 KB program storage, 1024 + 256 nibbles of data/status storage, plus 64 output and 64 input/output external data/control lines (which can themselves be used to operate, e.g. a 4003). Intel's MCS-4 documentation, however, claims that up to 48 ROM and RAM chips (providing up to 192 external control lines) "in any combination" can be connected to the 4004 "with simple gating hardware", but declines to give any further detail or examples of how this would actually be achieved.


title: Intel 4004

text: The minimum system specification described by Intel consists of a 4004 with a single 256-byte 4001 program ROM; there is no explicit need for separate RAM in minimal-complexity applications thanks to the 4004's large number of onboard index registers, which represent the equivalent of 16 × 4-bit or 8 × 8-bit characters (or a mixture) of working RAM, nor for simple interface chips thanks to the ROM's built-in I/O lines. However, as project complexity increases, the various other support chips start to become useful.


title: Intel 4004

text: Numerous versions of the Intel MCS-4 line of processors were produced. The earliest versions, marked C (like C4004), were ceramic and used a zebra pattern of white and gray on the back of the chips, often called "grey traces". The next generation of the chips was plain white ceramic (also marked C), and then dark grey ceramic (D). Many of the more recent versions of MCS-4 family were also produced with plastic (P).


title: Intel 4004

text: The first commercial product to use a microprocessor was the Busicom calculator 141-PF. The 4004 was also used in the first microprocessor-controlled pinball game, a prototype produced by Dave Nutting Associates for Bally in 1974.


title: Intel 4004

text: In 1996, The US Patent Office officially recognized Mr. Gary W. Boone and his employer, Texas Instruments, as the inventors of the single-chip microcontroller, overturning the patent grant to Gilbert P. Hyatt in 1990. Even though the patent had expired, it was thought to have potential financial impact depending on the details of previous contracts with Gilbert Hyatt. According to Nick Tredennick, a microprocessor designer and expert witness to that Boone/Hyatt patent case: