title: School bus

text: Coinciding with their seating configuration, school buses have a higher seating capacity than buses of a similar length; a typical full-size school bus can carry from 66 to 90 . In contrast to a transit bus, school buses are equipped with a single entry door at the front of the bus. Several configurations of entry doors are used on school buses, including center-hinged (jack-knife) and outward-opening. Prior to the 2000s, doors operated manually by the driver were the most common, with air or electric-assist becoming nearly universal in current vehicles.


title: School bus

text: School bus routes are designed with multiple bus stops, allowing for the loading (unloading) of several students at a time; the stop at school is the only time that the bus loads (unloads) passengers at once.


title: School bus

text: To inhibit pedestrians from walking into the blind spot created by the hood (or lower bodywork, on Type D buses), crossing arms are safety devices that extend outward from the front bumper when the bus door is open for loading or unloading. By design, these force passengers to walk forward several feet forward of the bus (into the view of the driver) before they can cross the road in front of the bus.


title: School bus

text: In the past, handrails in the entry way posed a potential risk for to students; as passengers exited a bus, items such as drawstrings or other loose clothing could be caught if the driver was unaware and pulled away with the student caught in the door. To minimize this risk, school bus manufacturers have redesigned handrails and equipment in the stepwell area. In its "School Bus Handrail Handbook", the NHTSA described a simple test procedure for identifying unsafe stepwell handrails.


title: School bus

text: When loading and unloading students, school buses have the ability to stop traffic, using a system of warning lights and stop arms-a stop sign that is deployed from the bus to stop traffic when the door is opened.


title: School bus

text: By the mid-1940s, most U.S. states introduced traffic laws requiring motorists to stop for school buses while children were loading or unloading. The justifications for this protocol were:


title: School bus

text: Since at least the mid-1970s, all U.S. states and Canadian provinces and territories have some sort of school bus traffic stop law; although each jurisdiction requires traffic to stop for a school bus loading and unloading passengers, different jurisdictions have different requirements of when to stop. Outside of North America, the school bus stopping traffic to unload and load children is not provided for. Instead of being given traffic priority, fellow drivers are encouraged to drive with extra caution around school buses.


title: School bus

text: Around 1946, the first system of traffic warning signal lights on school buses was used in Virginia, consisting of a pair of sealed beam lights. Instead of colorless glass lenses (similar to car headlamps), the warning lamps utilized red lenses. A motorized rotary switch applied power alternately to the red lights mounted at the left and right of the front and rear of the bus, creating a wig-wag effect. Activation was typically through a mechanical switch attached to the door control. However, on some buses (such as Gillig's Transit Coach models and the Kenworth-Pacific School Coach) activation of the roof warning lamp system was through the use of a pressure-sensitive switch on a manually controlled stop paddle lever located to the left of the driver's seat below the window. Whenever the pressure was relieved by extending the stop paddle, the electric current was activated to the relay. In the 1950s, plastic lenses were developed for the warning lenses, though the warning lights (with colorless glass lenses) used sealed-beam lamps into the mid-2000s, when light-emitting diodes (LEDs) came into use.


title: School bus

text: The warning lamps initially used for school buses consisted of four red warning lights. With the adoption of FMVSS 108 in January 1968, four additional lights, termed "advance" warning lights"," were gradually added to school buses; these were amber in color and mounted inboard of the red warning lights. Intended to signal an upcoming stop to drivers, as the entry door was opened at the stop, they were wired to be overridden by the red lights and the stop sign. Although red & amber systems were adopted by many states and provinces during the 1970s and 1980s, the all-red systems remain in use by some locales such as Saskatchewan and Ontario, Canada, older buses from California, as well as on buses built in Wisconsin before 2005.


title: School bus

text: The Ontario School Bus Association has challenged the effectiveness of Ontario's all-red 8-light warning system, citing that the use of red for both "advance" and "stop" warning signals is subject to driver misinterpretation. The Association claims that many motorists only have a vague understanding of Ontario's school bus stopping laws and that few drivers know that it is legal to pass a school bus with its inner (advance) warning lights actuated. Transport Canada's Transport Development Centre compared the effectiveness of the all-red system to the amber-red system and found that drivers are 21% more likely to safely pass a school bus when presented with amber advance signals instead of red signals. Transport Canada states that amber advance signals are proven to be slightly superior to red signals and recommends that all-red warning signals be replaced by the eight-lamp system in the shortest period possible. After the issue had received media attention, a petition has been signed to make the switch from the all-red to amber advance lights on Ontario school busses. The Ministry of Ontario of Transportation (MTO) has not yet provided any plan or timeline for the change.


title: School bus

text: To aid visibility of the bus in inclement weather, school districts and school bus operators add flashing strobe lights to the roof of the bus. Some states (for example, Illinois) require strobe lights as part of their local specifications.


title: School bus

text: During the early 1950s, states began to specify a mechanical stop signal arm which the driver would deploy from the left side of the bus to warn traffic of a stop in progress. The portion of the stop arm protruding in front of traffic was initially a trapezoidal shape with painted on it. The U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration's Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard No. 131 regulates the specifications of the stop arm as a double-faced regulation octagonal red stop sign at least across, with white border and uppercase legend. It must be retroreflective and/or equipped with alternately flashing red lights. As an alternative, the legend itself may also flash; this is commonly achieved with red LEDs. FMVSS 131 stipulates that the stop signal arm be installed on the left side of the bus, and placed so that when it is extended, the arm is perpendicular to the side of the bus, with the top edge of the sign parallel to and within of a horizontal plane tangent to the bottom edge of the first passenger window frame behind the driver's window, and that the vertical center of the stop signal arm must be no more than from the side of the bus. One stop signal arm is required; a second may also be installed. The second stop arm, when it is present, is usually mounted near the rear of the bus, and is not permitted to bear a or any other legend on the side facing forward when deployed.


title: School bus

text: The Canadian standard, defined in Canada Motor Vehicle Safety Standard No. 131, is substantially identical to the U.S. standard. In Alberta and Saskatchewan, the use of stop signal arms is banned under traffic bylaws in multiple cities, citing that they provide a false sense of safety to students by encouraging jaywalking in front of the bus rather than safely crossing at an intersection. These bans have been the subject of public debate in cities such as Regina and Prince Albert.


title: School bus

text: As the use of school buses transports students on a much larger scale than by car (on average, the same as 36 separate automobiles), their use reduces pollution in the same manner as carpooling. Through their usage of internal-combustion engines, school buses are not an emissions-free form of transportation (in comparison to biking or walking). As of 2017, over 95% of school buses in North America are powered by diesel-fueled engines.


title: School bus

text: While diesel offers fuel efficiency and safety advantages over gasoline, diesel exhaust fumes have become a concern (related to health problems). Since the early to mid-2000s, emissions standards for diesel engines have been upgraded considerably; a school bus meeting 2017 emissions standards is 60 times cleaner than a school bus from 2002 (and approximately 3,600 times cleaner than a counterpart from 1990). To comply with upgraded standards and regulations, diesel engines have been redesigned to use ultra-low sulfur diesel fuel with selective catalytic reduction becoming a primary emissions control strategy.


title: School bus

text: Although diesel fuel is most commonly used in large school buses (and even in many smaller ones), alternative fuel systems such as LPG/propane and CNG have been developed to counter the emissions drawbacks that diesel and gasoline-fueled school buses pose to the public health and environment.


title: School bus

text: The use of propane as a fuel for school buses began in the 1970s, largely as a response to the 1970s energy crisis. Initially produced as conversions of gasoline engines (as both require spark ignition), propane fell out of favor in the 1980s as fuel prices stabilized, coupled with the expanded use of diesel engines. In the late 2000s, propane-fueled powertrains reentered production as emissions regulations began to negatively affect the performance of diesel engines. In 2009, Blue Bird Corporation introduced a version of the Blue Bird Vision powered by a LPG-fuel engine. As of 2018, three manufacturers offer a propane-fuel full-size school bus (Blue Bird, IC, and Thomas), along with Ford and General Motors Type A chassis.


title: School bus

text: Compressed natural gas was first introduced for school buses in the early 1990s (with Blue Bird building its first CNG bus in 1991 and Thomas building its first in 1993). As of 2018, CNG is offered by two full-size bus manufacturers (Blue Bird, Thomas) along with Ford and General Motors Type A chassis.


title: School bus

text: In a reversal from the 1990s, gasoline-fuel engines made a return to full-size school buses during the 2010s, with Blue Bird introducing a gasoline-fuel Vision for 2016. As of current production, Blue Bird and IC offer gasoline-fuel full-size buses; gasoline engines are standard equipment in Ford and General Motors Type A chassis. As an alternative, gasoline-fuel engines offer simpler emissions equipment (over diesel engines) and a widely available fuel infrastructure (a drawback of LPG/CNG vehicles).


title: School bus

text: In theory, urban and suburban routes prove advantageous for the use of an electric bus; charging can be achieved before and after the bus is transporting students (when the bus is parked). In the early 1990s, several prototype models of battery-powered buses were developed as conversions of existing school buses; these were built primarily for research purposes.


title: School bus

text: During the 2000s, school bus electrification shifted towards the development of diesel-electric hybrid school buses. Intended as a means to minimize engine idling while loading/unloading passengers and increasing diesel fuel economy, hybrid school buses failed to gain widespread acceptance. A key factor in their market failure was their high price (nearly twice the price of a standard diesel school bus) and hybrid system complexity.


title: School bus

text: In the 2010s, school bus electrification shifted from hybrids to fully electric vehicles, with several vehicles entering production. Trans Tech introduced the 2011 eTrans prototype (based on the Smith Electric Newton cabover truck), later producing the 2014 SSTe, a derivative of the Ford E-450. The first full-size electric school bus was the Lion Bus eLion, introduced in 2015; as of 2018, over 150 examples have been produced.


title: School bus

text: During 2017 and 2018, several body manufacturers introduced prototypes of electric school buses, with electric versions of the Blue Bird All American, Blue Bird Vision, Micro Bird G5 (on Ford E450 chassis), IC CE-Series, and the Thomas Saf-T-Liner C2 previewing production vehicles. During 2018, Blue Bird, Thomas, and IC introduced prototypes of full-size school buses intended for production; Blue Bird intends to offer electric-power versions of its entire product line.


title: School bus

text: Walking buses and bike bus (known as "riding school bus" for students) take their names and some of the principle of public transport in a group to travel to school for students under adult supervision.


title: School bus

text: Outside of student transport itself, the design of a school bus is adapted for use for a variety of applications. Along with newly produced vehicles, conversions of retired school buses see a large range of uses. Qualities desired from school buses involve sturdy construction (as school buses have an all-steel body and frame), a large seating capacity, and wheelchair lift capability, among others.


title: School bus

text: Churches throughout the United States and Canada use buses to transport their congregants, both to church services and events. A wide variety of buses are owned by churches, depending on needs and affordability. Larger buses may often be derived from school buses (newly purchased or second-hand). Other churches often own minibuses, often equipped with wheelchair lifts. When school bus derivatives are used, church bus livery is dictated by federal regulations, which require the removal of "School Bus" lettering and the disabling/removal of stop arms/warning lights. In some states, School Bus Yellow must be painted over entirely.


title: School bus

text: In church use, transporting adults and/or children, traffic law does not give church buses traffic priority in most states (Alabama, Arkansas, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia being the only states where a church bus can stop traffic with flashing red lights).


title: School bus

text: In terms of vehicles used for community outreach, school bus bodyshells (both new and second-hand) see use as bookmobiles and mobile blood donation centers (bloodmobiles), among other uses. Both types of vehicles spend long periods of time parked in the same place; to reduce fuel consumption, they often power interior equipment and climate control with an on-board generator in place of the chassis engine.


title: School bus

text: Bookmobiles feature interior shelving for books and library equipment; bloodmobiles feature mobile phlebotomy stations and blood storage.


title: School bus

text: Larger police agencies may own police buses derived from school bus bodies for a number of purposes. Along with buses with high-capacity seating serving as officer transports (in large-scale deployments), other vehicles derived from buses may have little seating, serving as temporary mobile command centers; these vehicles are built from school bus bodyshells and fitted with agency-specified equipment.


title: School bus

text: Prisoner transport vehicles are high-security vehicles used to transport prisoners; a school bus bodyshell is fitted with a specially designed interior and exterior with secure windows and doors.


title: School bus

text: As of 2016, the average age of a school bus in the United States is 9.3 years. School buses can be retired from service due to a number of factors, including vehicle age or mileage, mechanical condition, emissions compliance, or any combination of these factors. In some states and provinces, school bus retirement is called for at specific age or mileage intervals, regardless of mechanical condition. In recent years, budget concerns in many publicly funded school districts have necessitated that school buses be kept in service longer.


title: School bus

text: When a school bus is retired from school use, it can see a wide variety of usage. While a majority are scrapped for parts and recycling (a requirement in some states), better-running examples are put up for sale as surplus vehicles. Second-hand school buses are sold to such entities as churches, resorts or summer camps; others are exported to Central America, South America, or elsewhere. Other examples of retired school buses are preserved and restored by collectors and bus enthusiasts; collectors and museums have an interest in older and rarer models. Additionally, restored school buses appear alongside other period vehicles in television or film.


title: School bus

text: When a school bus is sold for usage outside of student transport, NHTSA regulations require that its identification as a school bus be removed. To do so, all school bus lettering must be removed or covered while the exterior must be painted a color different than school bus yellow; the stop arm(s) and warning lamps must be removed or disabled.


title: School bus

text: In retirement, not all school buses live on as transport vehicles. In contrast, the purchasers of school buses use the large body and chassis to use as either a working vehicle, or as a basis to build a rolling home. To build a utility vehicle for farms, owners often remove much of the roof and sides, creating a large flatbed or open-bed truck for hauling hay. Other farms use unconverted, re-painted, school buses to transport their workforce.


title: School bus

text: Skoolies are retired school buses converted into recreational vehicles (the term also applies to their owners and enthusiasts). Constructed and customized by their owners; while some examples have primitive accommodations, others rival the features of production RVs. Exteriors vary widely, including only the removal of school bus lettering, conservative designs, or the bus equivalent of an art car. An example of a Skoolie is Further, a 1939 (and later, 1947) school bus converted by Ken Kesey and the Merry Pranksters, intended for use on cross-country counterculture road trips. Both versions of Further are painted with a variety of psychedelic colors and designs.


title: School bus

text: Retired school buses from Canada and the United States are sometimes exported to Africa, Central America, South America, or elsewhere. Used as public transportation between communities, these buses are nicknamed "chicken buses" for both their crowded accommodation and the (occasional) transportation of livestock alongside passengers. To attract passengers (and fares), yellow buses are often repainted with flamboyant exterior color schemes and modified with chrome exterior trim.


title: School bus

text: Outside the United States and Canada, the usage and design of buses for student transport varies worldwide. In Europe, Asia, and Australia, buses utilized for student transport may be derived from standard transit buses. Alongside differences in body, chassis, and seating design, school buses outside North America differ primarily in their signage, livery, and traffic priority.


title: Frances Cleveland

text: Frances Clara Cleveland Preston (née Folsom born as Frank Clara; July 21, 1864 – October 29, 1947) was an American socialite, education activist, and the first lady of the United States from 1886 to 1889, and again from 1893 to 1897 as the wife of President Grover Cleveland. She remains the youngest presidential wife at the age of 21, she was the only first lady to be wed in the White House, and she is the only first lady to have served the role during two non-consecutive terms. She was very popular as first lady, becoming the subject of intense public and media attention.


title: Frances Cleveland

text: Folsom met Grover Cleveland while she was an infant, as he was a friend of her father's. When her father died in 1875, Grover became her unofficial guardian. She was educated at Wells College, and after graduating, she married Grover while he was the incumbent president. When Grover lost reelection in 1888, they went into private life for four years and began having children. They returned to the White House when Grover was elected again in 1892, though much of her time in the second term was dedicated to her children. Frances and Grover had five children, four of whom survived to adulthood. She involved herself in education, serving on the Wells College board and organizing the construction of kindergartens. Grover died in 1908, and Frances married Thomas J. Preston Jr. in 1913. Frances continued to work in education activism after leaving the White House, becoming involved with Princeton University. During World War I, Frances and Thomas advocated military preparedness and American involvement. She died in 1947 and was buried alongside Grover in Princeton Cemetery.


title: Frances Cleveland

text: Folsom was born in Buffalo, New York, on July 21, 1864, to Emma ("née" Harmon) and her husband, Oscar Folsom, a lawyer who was a descendant of the earliest European settlers of Exeter, New Hampshire. She was the older of two children. Her sister, Nellie Augusta, died in infancy (1872). All of Frances Cleveland's ancestors were from England and settled in what would become Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire, eventually migrating to western New York.


title: Frances Cleveland

text: A long-time close friend of Oscar Folsom, Grover Cleveland met his future wife when she was an infant and he was twenty-seven years old. He was fond of her, buying her a baby carriage and doting on her as she grew up. Her father died in a carriage accident on July 23, 1875, without having written a will. The court appointed Cleveland administrator of his estate, and he would become her unofficial guardian for the remainder of her childhood. The Folsoms moved to Medina, New York to live with Frances' maternal grandmother. They later returned to Buffalo and continued to move to different boardinghouses until settling in a home. When she was 14, she joined the Presbyterian Church, to which she would remain devoted throughout her life.


title: Frances Cleveland

text: Folsom was highly educated for a woman in the 19th century. She attended Medina High School in Medina and Central High School in Buffalo. She left school before finishing, but Cleveland, then Mayor of Buffalo, obtained for her a certificate of completion and entry into Wells College in Aurora, New York as a sophomore where she quickly became the center of the school's social life. At Wells, she became interested in photography and political science, and she participated in the Phoenix Society debate club. She received three proposals of marriage while she was in college, two of which resulted in brief engagements. Cleveland maintained correspondence with her at this time, known to her as "Uncle Cleve". He would send her flowers while he was governor of New York and then while he was president. When permitting, he would also visit her at Wells, and she would accompany him on tours of the state. She graduated on June 20, 1885. After graduating, she spent the summer at her grandfather's home in Wyoming County, New York.


title: Frances Cleveland

text: Cleveland proposed marriage to Folsom in writing, shortly after she graduated from Wells College in June 1885. When it was decided that Folsom would be the wife of the president, she met with former White House hostess Harriet Lane to learn the responsibilities of the role. The engagement was kept secret for a year while she traveled in Europe, and Cleveland's sister Rose Cleveland served as first lady in the meantime. Rumors of their engagement were initially dismissed as gossip, for speculation of the president's love life was common. Popular gossip considered Frances' mother to be a more likely partner. Folsom returned to New York shortly before the wedding and took a train to Washington, D.C.


title: Frances Cleveland

text: The wedding of Grover Cleveland and Frances Folsom took place on June 2, 1886, in the Blue Room of the White House. He was aged forty-nine, and she was aged twenty-one. The wedding was personally organized by the president and his sister, and the press was barred from attending. As the president wished for a quiet wedding, only 31 guests were present during the ceremony, though hundreds of spectators gathered outside of the White House to celebrate the wedding. Frances became first lady immediately upon marrying the president.


title: Frances Cleveland

text: The Clevelands spent a week in Deer Park, Maryland on honeymoon, where they were closely followed by reporters. After the Clevelands returned from their honeymoon, two wedding receptions were held, one for the diplomatic corps, and one for the public. Frances Cleveland was credited with the increased sociability of the president after their marriage, as he became more willing to engage in social events. The president set aside time in his busy schedule to be with his wife, attending the theater and going on carriage rides. Cleveland had little involvement in the political aspects of her husband's administration, but she was in charge of their home life. She insisted that he observe the Christian Sabbath by abstaining from work each Sunday.


title: Frances Cleveland

text: Frances Cleveland was much-loved as first lady, drawing an unprecedented level of media and public attention. She was the first first lady to have dedicated journalists writing about her activity. She maintained a strong public image, and was the regular subject of photographers. Her travels and activities were meticulously documented by reporters, to the president's ire. The publicity became significant enough that the Clevelands chose not to use the living quarters of the White House after their wedding. Instead, they took a private residence, the "Red Top", to escape from public attention. Frances Cleveland received hundreds of letters each week, several times more than previous first ladies, prompting the use of form letters to more efficiently reply to them and the hiring (at her own expense) of her college friend Minnie Alexander as a secretary. She also scheduled many social events on Saturdays to ensure that they did not conflict with the schedules of working women that wished to meet her.


title: Frances Cleveland

text: In 1887, the Clevelands toured the United States. Frances endured a severe insect bite and a black eye, and she spent so much time shaking hands that she needed to use an ice pack at the end of every day. While in the White House, she kept many canaries and mockingbirds. She became close friends with poet Richard Watson Gilder and his wife Helena de Kay Gilder, and she would accompany them in meeting prominent writers of the time. In 1888, a rumor developed that Grover was abusive toward Frances; in response, Frances praised her husband and harshly condemned the rumor as a political smear. Another rumor suggested that she was unfaithful to her husband, having an affair with newspaper editor Henry Watterson.


title: Frances Cleveland

text: When President Cleveland lost reelection in the 1888 presidential election, Frances' tenure as first lady ended, but she prophetically informed the staff that they would return the following term. After leaving the White House for the first time, the Clevelands sold the Red Top house and moved to Madison Avenue. Cleveland struggled with the transition from public to private life, having never run a private household of her own. She underwent a period of depression over the following months, and she retreated to the Gilders' cottage in Marion, New York. Frances and Grover for the most part led separate social lives after leaving the White House. She would find comfort in 1890 when they purchased the Gray Gables summer home in Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts, where the couple would develop their own private home life. Here they would often host for close friends, including the Gilders and actor Joseph Jefferson.


title: Frances Cleveland

text: In between her tenures as first lady, Cleveland took on charity work and grew more involved in New York social life through her charitable projects. Much of this work was to support the construction of free kindergartens in New York. She also involved herself with fundraising work for Wells College. Cleveland became a mother with the birth of Ruth Cleveland (1891–1904), dedicating herself to the child and taking up work that was often performed by a nurse.


title: Frances Cleveland

text: Grover ran for president again in the 1892 presidential election, and despite his misgivings, Frances' image was often used prominently in campaign material. Her social connections were valuable for the Cleveland campaign in New York; her charity work in the state and her friendship with the Gilders allowed the Clevelands to build connections with New York's The Four Hundred society and helped win over disaffected Republicans. These factors contributed to Grover winning in his home state, which he had failed to do in 1888. Nonetheless, he disapproved of any involvement she had in the political aspects of his career. After returning to the White House in 1893, Cleveland's routine largely resembled that of her first tenure as first lady. She would insist on evening drives with the president, and she had her birds and dogs returned to the White House. She did, however, continue her work in the establishment of kindergartens. She also became involved with the Home for Friendless Colored Girls, and in 1896 she visited the Metropolitan African Methodist Episcopal Church with the group.


title: Frances Cleveland

text: The Clevelands were upset at the extent of press and public attention focused on their daughter Ruth, and they controversially had the White House closed to the public while they were present. Again, they purchased a private residence outside of the White House. Cleveland had two more children as first lady, Esther Cleveland (1893–1980) and Marion Cleveland (1895–1977), and much of her time was dedicated to raising her three children. She still made time for her hostess duties, receiving the familiar crowds that she had encountered during her previous time as first lady. She also received heads of state, including one instance in which she disregarded precedent by meeting with Infanta Eulalia of Spain at her hotel. She was not nearly as active, however, hosting only one in the 1894 social season.


title: Frances Cleveland

text: She took an interest in German culture and the German language during her husband's second term, learning the language and even hiring a German nurse so her children would learn the language as well. The president's health was in decline during his second term, and his wife became increasingly responsible for his well being. She encouraged him to exert himself less, and she organized a fake fishing trip during which he had a tumor removed. When Frances' time as first lady came to an end, she wept as she left the White House, personally saying goodbye to each member of the White House staff.


title: Frances Cleveland

text: After leaving the White House for the second time, the Clevelands bought a house in Princeton, New Jersey. They had two more children over the following years: Richard F. Cleveland (1897–1974) and Francis Cleveland (1903–1995). Their firstborn daughter, Ruth, died of diphtheria in 1904 at their Gray Gables vacation home. Wishing to avoid memories of their child's illness and death, they sold the home and purchased a summer home in Tamworth, New Hampshire. The Clevelands became involved in Princeton University and provided support for many Princeton students. Grover died in 1908, and Frances was left to raise their four remaining children alone. She refused the pension to which she was legally entitled as a widowed first lady. After her husband's death, she became involved in a legal battle against writer Broughton Brandenburg, who had been paid by "The New York Times" for an article supposedly written by Cleveland before his death, but which was a fraud created by Brandenberg. In March 1909, she held a memorial program for her husband at Carnegie Hall. Her grief was somewhat abated by a vacation to Europe with her family from September 1909 to May 1910.


title: Frances Cleveland

text: On February 10, 1913, at the age of forty-eight, she married Thomas J. Preston Jr., a professor of archaeology at her alma mater, Wells College. Much like her engagement with Grover, she was secretive about the process to limit media attention. They were invited to the White House as guests of honor by President William Howard Taft to celebrate their engagement. She was the first presidential widow to remarry. After their marriage, they spent nearly a year living in London, and they would regularly travel Europe together thereafter. Her second husband would go on to teach at Princeton University, where she continued to be a prominent figure in campus social life.


title: Frances Cleveland

text: Frances was offered a position as president of the Daughters of the American Revolution, but she declined the role due to its political responsibilities. She campaigned against women's suffrage, and in May 1913, she was elected as vice president of the New Jersey Association Opposed to Woman's Suffrage, serving as president of the organization's Princeton chapter.


title: Frances Cleveland

text: She was vacationing at St. Moritz, Switzerland, with her children when World War I started in August 1914. They returned to the United States via Genoa on October 1. Frances and her husband worked with activists Solomon Stanwood Menken and Robert McNutt McElroy as well as former presidents Theodore Roosevelt and William Henry Taft to promote military preparedness. She became a member of the pro-war National Security League, replacing her husband as its director of the Speaker's Bureau and the Committee on Patriotism through Education in November 1918. Around this time, however, Frances and Thomas began to disengage from the organization. She caused controversy by accusing some Americans of being unassimilated, and she resigned from her position on December 8, 1919 in response to backlash against her proposal of a pro-war education curriculum.


title: Frances Cleveland

text: In 1919, she worked with McElroy as he wrote the first biography of Grover Cleveland, and she contacted everyone that knew Grover, wishing to collect letters he wrote for archival in the Library of Congress. In 1922, she served as the head of Wells College's endowment fund. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, she became president of the Needlework Guild of America and lead its clothing drive for the poor. Cleveland remained prominent in political circles during the 20th century. She met with the wife of Democratic candidate Al Smith in 1928, and she was invited to a luncheon at the White House during the Truman administration, where she met General Dwight D. Eisenhower. Eisenhower is quoted as not recognizing her and asking where in the city she used to live, prompting her to respond that she had lived in the White House.


title: Frances Cleveland

text: Later in life, she was afflicted by cataracts, and she learned Braille to use a Braille typewriter. She would continue to use it after her cataracts were removed, translating books into Braille for blind children. Her final public appearance was at the Princeton University bicentennial celebration in June 1946. While staying at her son Richard's home for his 50th birthday in Baltimore, Cleveland died in her sleep at the age of 83 on October 29, 1947. She was buried in Princeton Cemetery next to President Cleveland, her first husband.


title: Frances Cleveland

text: Cleveland was a very popular first lady, and her reputation helped define the role for generations after her tenure. Social events that she hosted were some of the most successful in White House history, and her popularity was such that it raised public opinion of the president. Her presence in the White House mitigated his gruff reputation and fostered an image of the president as a loving husband, and later as a loving father. In 1887, she was elected to the board of directors of Wells College, a position she would hold for over 50 years. In honor of Frances Cleveland, Cleveland Hall was constructed in 1911 on the Wells College campus. Originally a library, the building currently holds classes in foreign language and women's studies, as well as offering a food bank for those in need. Contemporaries ranked her among the greatest of first ladies. Polling of historians recognizes her performance as above average; a 1982 poll placed her 13th out of 42, though the 2008 edition of the poll placed her 20th of 38.


title: Frances Cleveland

text: Frances' fashion choices influenced women throughout the United States, including her hairstyle, which was commonly imitated. Her beauty was widely celebrated in the press. The Women's Christian Temperance Union wrote to her requesting that she dress more modestly, fearing that she was setting a poor example. She refused to do so. Her fashion choices and purchases influenced the behavior of consumers, and products she used enjoyed an increase in popularity. An article published by the "Atlanta Constitution" falsely stated that she no longer purchased bustles, causing a decline in their popularity. News articles on her activities would continue to reference her beauty and her sense of fashion through her seventies.


title: Frances Cleveland

text: As there were no laws regarding personality rights while Cleveland was first lady, her immense popularity led to the extensive use of her image in advertising, and many products falsely claimed to have her endorsement. It became significant enough that a personality rights bill was proposed in Congress, but was not enacted.


title: Frances Cleveland

text: Frances Cleveland did not publicly support political causes while serving as first lady. The Clevelands condemned the Frances Cleveland Influence Clubs that formed in her name in 1892. Instead, she worked with charity groups, including the Needlework Guild, which made clothes for the poor, and the Christmas Club and the Colored Christmas Club, which gave gifts to children during the holiday season. Cleveland's interest in the arts made her a supporter of international copyright protections, and she attended a convention on the subject while first lady in 1888. An exception to Frances Cleveland's avoidance of political activity was her interest in the political situation of the Republic of Hawaii. Frances endorsed Princess Ka'iulani's claim to the throne as the heir apparent.


title: Frances Cleveland

text: Frances Cleveland supported the temperance movement, personally abstaining from alcohol and donating to the Woman's Christian Temperance Union. Unwilling to impose these beliefs on others, however, she continued to serve wine at White House receptions. Frances endorsed some women's causes throughout her life, but she was opposed to women's suffrage. Like many female anti-suffragists of her generation, she felt that involvement in politics was an unfortunate duty to be avoided and that it risked women's control of the domestic sphere. She believed that women should participate in society through charity work, such as her advocacy work for women's education and aspiring women musicians. She would, however, vote in elections after the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment.


title: Lists of towns and cities in England by population

text: Towns and cities in England can be defined either by their local government administrative boundaries or by their physical extent.


title: Straw Dogs (2011 film)

text: Straw Dogs is a 2011 American action thriller film directed, produced, and written by Rod Lurie. It is a remake of Sam Peckinpah's 1971 film "Straw Dogs", itself based on the Gordon Williams novel "The Siege of Trencher's Farm". It stars James Marsden and Kate Bosworth.


title: Straw Dogs (2011 film)

text: Scriptwriter David Sumner and his wife Amy, an actress, relocate to rural Mississippi where Amy grew up. They are going to live in the house of Amy's recently deceased father to allow David to finish a script.


title: Straw Dogs (2011 film)

text: While in town one afternoon, David meets Amy's ex-boyfriend Charlie and his three friends, Norman, Chris, and Bic. David is intimidated by the men, but they have already been hired to fix the roof of the barn on Amy's property. He also meets Tom Heddon, an alcoholic former high school football coach whose 15-year-old cheerleader daughter Janice has been flirting with a local man with an intellectual disability, Jeremy Niles. Heddon often bullies Jeremy and believes that he is stalking his daughter.


title: Straw Dogs (2011 film)

text: Charlie and his friends arrive early the next morning to work on the roof. They taunt David, which later escalates into harassment. They also make crude remarks toward Amy and play loud music to distract David while he writes. They often leave early when they want to go hunting, which concerns David because it is taking them a significant amount of time to finish the roof. Amy begins to resent David for not standing up to the men.


title: Straw Dogs (2011 film)

text: One Sunday after church, Heddon attacks Jeremy for talking to Janice, and Amy comes to his defense, but David warns her to not get involved. Later that night back at home, David discovers their cat strangled and hung up in the bedroom closet. Amy is positive that Charlie and his friends are to blame as they disappeared from the church barbeque for a few hours earlier, but David is hesitant to confront them. When he does finally question them, the men deny everything.


title: Straw Dogs (2011 film)

text: Charlie invites David to go deer hunting. While David is out in the woods with two of the men, Charlie goes back to the house and pushes his way inside to confront Amy, because he thinks that she still wants him. He throws her onto the couch and rapes her, while making crude remarks about having sex either with him or with David. Afterwards, he realizes that he raped Amy, and that she did not want any sexual contact, and is stunned. Norman arrives, holds Amy across the top of the couch, and rapes her while Charlie watches. They then leave. When David returns, Amy doesn't tell him what happened, because she had led them on earlier, by stripping at the window, in front of the men. Instead, she encourages David to fire Charlie and his men. The next day David tells Charlie that fixing the roof is taking too long. Charlie insists that they have already paid for the roofing supplies, which David agrees to pay for. Finally, Charlie and his crew leave, celebrating their $5,000 payday.


title: Straw Dogs (2011 film)

text: David and Amy go to a local football game. Janice lures Jeremy into an empty locker room. Heddon notices that his daughter is missing from the game and goes in search of her. Meanwhile, Janice tries to convince Jeremy to let her give him oral sex. They hear Heddon calling for Janice. Afraid of Heddon finding them, Jeremy holds Janice tight against his body with his hand over her mouth and nose, accidentally smothering her to death. Horrified, he runs away from the school. Heddon goes back to tell Charlie and his friends that Janice is missing. They all suspect that Jeremy has done something to her.


title: Straw Dogs (2011 film)

text: At the game, Amy has haunting flashbacks about the rapes and asks David to take her home. On the way, she tells him that she wants to return to Los Angeles, surprising him and causing him to accidentally run over Jeremy who is standing in the road, breaking his arm. David and Amy take him back to their home and call an ambulance. Charlie and Norman overhear the ambulance call on a police scanner and inform Heddon. They all drive to David and Amy's house and demand that the couple hand Jeremy over, but David refuses. The sheriff arrives shortly thereafter and tries to calm down the situation. He knocks on the door and tells David to open the door, but David still refuses. Heddon picks up his gun again and shoots the sheriff dead. Having witnessed the murder, David knows now that the men will try to kill not only Jeremy but both of them too. David and Amy barricade the doors shut. He enlists her to help him open the jaws of a decorative bear trap. Then he sends Amy upstairs with Jeremy. David looks frantically for something he can use in the house to fight off the men.


title: Straw Dogs (2011 film)

text: When Chris attempts to enter through a window, David nails his hands to the wall with a nail gun, his throat fatally exposed to broken glass. When Heddon tries to follow, David burns his face with hot oil. Heddon and Charlie use the pick-up truck to ram into the house, but Charlie is knocked unconscious. David fights Heddon off and causes him to shoot himself in the foot. David then shoots Heddon as he tries to shoot David with a revolver and then proceeds to beat Bic to death with a fireplace poker.


title: Straw Dogs (2011 film)

text: Upstairs, Amy and Jeremy are attacked by Norman, who has climbed in through the window. Norman is attempting to rape Amy again when David and Charlie appear. Charlie and Norman draw on each other when Norman threatens to kill Amy. Amy shoots Norman, Charlie assaults and disarms her, then David jumps him. Charlie kicks David down the stairs and beats him severely. As Charlie is preparing to shoot the now-disarmed David lying on the floor, Amy approaches from behind with a shotgun. Charlie turns and tells her the gun is empty. "I will always protect you, baby," declares Charlie, as David rises to slam the open bear trap down on his head, impaling and breaking his neck, and crushing his windpipe. Charlie slowly dies while Amy and David watch quietly. At first, Amy is horrified at the scene, but later takes solace in knowing her rapists are dead.


title: Straw Dogs (2011 film)

text: The film was originally scheduled for release on February 25, 2011. However the date was pushed to September 16, 2011. The film began shooting on August 16, 2009 in Shreveport and Vivian, Louisiana.


title: Straw Dogs (2011 film)

text: Kate Bosworth said that to make the rape scene more lifelike, she told her co-star Alexander Skarsgård not to hold back as he pretended to perform the violent sex assault for the cameras.


title: Straw Dogs (2011 film)

text: "Straw Dogs" lost money. It opened on September 16, 2011 with $1,980,000 for the day. and took $5.1 million in its opening weekend. The total domestic and international sales were $11,168,712, versus an estimated budget of $25m.


title: Straw Dogs (2011 film)

text: The film received mixed reviews; Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 42% based on reviews from 126 critics, with the consensus "This remake streamlines the plot but ultimately makes a fatal mistake: It celebrates violence". Metacritic gives the film a score of 45% based on 29 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade "C" on a scale of A+ to F.


title: Straw Dogs (2011 film)

text: Carrie Rickey of the "Philadelphia Inquirer" gave the film 1.5 out of 4 stars stating that "Straw Dogs" "almost succeeds as an object lesson in the difference between being a man and being a macho animal. But it fails as a gripping home-invasion thriller". Michael Phillips of the "Chicago Tribune" called the film "a bird-brained remake" that is "miscast, barely functional in terms of technique, stupid and unnecessary" and rated it 1 out of 4 stars. Wesley Morris of the "Boston Globe", wrote that watching "Straw Dogs" was like "being waterboarded by liberals outside a Democratic National Committee event".


title: Straw Dogs (2011 film)

text: Roger Ebert of "The Chicago Sun-Times" had reviewed the original version back in 1971. He gave the 2011 film 3 out of a possible 4 stars, and states "This new version of "Straw Dogs" is a reasonably close adaptation of the 1971 film by Sam Peckinpah. Change the location from England to Mississippi, change a mathematician into a screenwriter, keep the bear trap and the cat found strangled, and it tells the same story. It is every bit as violent. I found it visceral, disturbing and well-made", and said he preferred it to the original.


title: Straw Dogs (2011 film)

text: Elizabeth Weitzman of the "New York Daily News" was also favorable towards the film, giving it 4 out of 5 stars, declaring that "while Lurie could have gone lighter on the symbolism, he ratchets up the tension with deft intelligence. He's not just making a thriller but a horror film, and we feel his own fear in every scene".


title: Italic type

text: In typography, italic type is a cursive font based on a stylised form of calligraphic handwriting. Owing to the influence from calligraphy, italics normally slant slightly to the right. Italics are a way to emphasise key points in a printed text, to identify many types of creative works, to cite foreign words or phrases, or, when quoting a speaker, a way to show which words they stressed. One manual of English usage described italics as "the print equivalent of underlining"; in other words, underscore in a manuscript directs a typesetter to use italic.


title: Italic type

text: The name comes from the fact that calligraphy-inspired typefaces were first designed in Italy, to replace documents traditionally written in a handwriting style called chancery hand. Aldus Manutius and Ludovico Arrighi (both between the 15th and 16th centuries) were the main type designers involved in this process at the time. Along with blackletter and Roman type, it served as one of the major typefaces in the history of Western typography. Different glyph shapes from Roman type are usually usedanother influence from calligraphyand upper-case letters may have swashes, flourishes inspired by ornate calligraphy. An alternative is oblique type, in which the type is slanted but the letterforms do not change shape: this less elaborate approach is used by many sans-serif typefaces.


title: Italic type

text: Manutius intended his italic type to be used not for emphasis but for the text of small, easily carried editions of popular books (often poetry), replicating the style of handwritten manuscripts of the period. The choice of using italic type, rather than the roman type in general use at the time, was apparently made to suggest informality in editions designed for leisure reading. Manutius' italic type was cut by his punchcutter Francesco Griffo (who later following a dispute with Manutius claimed to have conceived it). It replicated handwriting of the period following from the style of Niccolò de' Niccoli, possibly even Manutius' own.


title: Italic type

text: The first use in a complete volume was a 1501 edition of Virgil dedicated to Italy, although it had been briefly used in the frontispiece of a 1500 edition of Catherine of Siena's letters. In 1501, Aldus wrote to his friend Scipio:


title: Italic type

text: Manutius' italic was different in some ways from modern italics, being conceived for the specific use of replicating the layout of contemporary calligraphers like Pomponio Leto and Bartolomeo Sanvito. The capital letters were upright capitals on the model of Roman square capitals, shorter than the ascending lower-case italic letters, and were used at the start of each line followed by a clear space before the first lower-case letter. While modern italics are often more condensed than roman types, historian Harry Carter describes Manutius' italic as about the same width as roman type. To replicate handwriting, Griffo cut at least sixty-five tied letters (ligatures) in the Aldine Dante and Virgil of 1501. Italic typefaces of the following century used varying but reduced numbers of ligatures.


title: Italic type

text: Italic type rapidly became very popular and was widely (and inaccurately) imitated. The Venetian Senate gave Aldus exclusive right to its use, a patent confirmed by three successive Popes, but it was widely counterfeited as early as 1502. Griffo, who had left Venice in a business dispute, cut a version for printer Girolamo "Gershom" Soncino, and other copies appeared in Italy and in Lyons. The Italians called the character Aldino, while others called it Italic. Italics spread rapidly; historian H. D. L. Vervliet dates the first production of italics in Paris to 1512. Some printers of Northern Europe used home-made supplements to add characters not used in Italian, or mated it to alternative capitals, including Gothic ones.


title: Italic type

text: Besides imitations of Griffo's italic and its derivatives, a second wave appeared of "chancery" italics, most popular in Italy, which Vervliet describes as being based on "a more deliberate and formal handwriting [with] longer ascenders and descenders, sometimes with curved or bulbous terminals, and [often] only available in the bigger sizes." Chancery italics were introduced around 1524 by Arrighi, a calligrapher and author of a calligraphy textbook who began a career as a printer in Rome, and also by Giovanni Antonio Tagliente of Venice, with imitations rapidly appearing in France by 1528. Chancery italics faded as a style over the course of the sixteenth century, although revivals were made beginning in the twentieth century. Chancery italics may have backward-pointing serifs or round terminals pointing forwards on the ascenders.


title: Italic type

text: Italic capitals with a slope were introduced in the sixteenth century. The first printer known to have used them was Johann or Johannes Singriener in Vienna in 1524, and the practice spread to Germany, France and Belgium. Particularly influential in the switch to sloped capitals as a general practice was Robert Granjon, a prolific and extremely precise French punchcutter particularly renowned for his skill in cutting italics. Vervliet comments that among punchcutters in France "the main name associated with the change is Granjon's."


title: Italic type

text: The evolution of use of italic to show emphasis happened in the sixteenth century and was a clear norm by the seventeenth. The trend of presenting types as matching in typefounders' specimens developed also over this period. Italics developed stylistically over the following centuries, tracking changing tastes in calligraphy and type design. One major development that slowly became popular from the end of the seventeenth century was a switch to an open form "h" matching the "n", a development seen in the "Romain du roi" type of the 1690s, replacing the folded, closed-form "h" of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century italics, and sometimes simplification of the entrance stroke.


title: Italic type

text: True italic styles are traditionally somewhat narrower than roman fonts. Here is an example of "normal (roman)" and "true italics" text:


title: Italic type

text: Oblique type (or slanted roman, sloped roman) is type that is slanted, but lacking cursive letterforms, with features like a non-descending "f" and double-storey "a", unlike "true italics". Many sans-serif typefaces use oblique designs (sometimes called "sloped roman" styles) instead of italic ones; some have both italic and oblique variants. Type designers have described oblique type as less organic and calligraphic than italics, which in some situations may be preferred. Contemporary type designer Jeremy Tankard stated that he had avoided a true italic "a" and "e" in his sans-serif Bliss due to finding them "too soft", while Hoefler and Frere-Jones have described obliques as more "keen and insistent" than true italics. Adrian Frutiger has described obliques as more appropriate to the aesthetic of sans-serifs than italics. In contrast, Martin Majoor has argued that obliques do not contrast enough from the regular style.


title: Italic type

text: Almost all modern serif fonts have true italic designs. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a number of type foundries such as American Type Founders and Genzsch & Heyse offered serif typefaces with oblique rather than italic designs, especially display typefaces but these designs (such as Genzsch Antiqua) have mostly disappeared. An exception is American Type Founders' Bookman, offered in some releases with the oblique of its metal type version. An unusual example of an oblique font from the inter-war period is the display face Koch Antiqua. With a partly oblique lower case, it also makes the italic capitals inline in the style of blackletter capitals in the larger sizes of the metal type. It was developed by Rudolph Koch, a type designer who had previously specialised in blackletter font design (which does not use italics); Walter Tracy described his design as "uninhibited by the traditions of roman and italic".


title: Italic type

text: The printing historian and artistic director Stanley Morison was for a time in the inter-war period interested in the oblique type style, which he felt stood out in text less than a true italic and should supersede it. He argued in his article "Towards an Ideal Italic" that serif book typefaces should have as the default sloped form an oblique and as a complement a script typeface where a more decorative form was preferred. He made an attempt to promote the idea by commissioning the typeface Perpetua from Eric Gill with a sloped roman rather than an italic, but came to find the style unattractive; Perpetua's italic when finally issued had the conventional italic "a", "e" and "f". Morison wrote to his friend, type designer Jan van Krimpen, that in developing Perpetua's italic "we did not give enough slope to it. When we added more slope, it seemed that the font required a little more cursive to it." A few other type designers replicated his approach for a time: van Krimpen's Romulus and William Addison Dwiggins' Electra were both released with obliques. Morison's Times New Roman typeface has a very traditional true italic in the style of the late eighteenth century, which he later wryly commented owed "more to Didot than dogma".


title: Italic type

text: Some serif designs primarily intended for headings rather than body text are not provided with an italic, Engravers and some releases of Cooper Black and Baskerville Old Style being common examples of this. In addition, computer programmes may generate an 'italic' style by simply slanting the regular style if they cannot find an italic or oblique style, though this may look awkward with serif fonts for which an italic is expected. Professional designers normally do not simply tilt fonts to generate obliques but make subtle corrections to correct the distorted curves this introduces. Many sans-serif families have oblique fonts labelled as italic, whether or not they include "true italic" characteristics.


title: Italic type

text: If something within a run of italics needs to be italicised itself, the type is normally switched back to non-italicized (roman) type: ""I think "The Scarlet Letter" had a chapter about that", thought Mary." In this example, the title (""The Scarlet Letter"") is within an italicised thought process and therefore this title is non-italicised. It is followed by the main narrative that is outside both. It is also non-italicised and therefore not obviously separated from the former. The reader must find additional criteria to distinguish between these. Here, apart from using the attribute of italic–non-italic styles, the title also employs the attribute of capitalization. Citation styles in which book titles are italicised differ on how to deal with a book title within a book title; for example, MLA style specifies a switch back to roman type, whereas "The Chicago Manual of Style" (14.94) specifies the use of quotation marks ("A Key to Whitehead's "Process and Reality""). An alternative option is to switch to an 'upright italic' style if the typeface used has one; this is discussed below.


title: Italic type

text: Left-leaning italics are now rare in Latin script, where they are mostly used for the occasional attention-grabbing effect. They were once more common, however, being used for example in legal documents.


title: Italic type

text: In certain Arabic fonts (e.g.: Adobe Arabic, Boutros Ads), the italic font has the top of the letter leaning to the left, instead of leaning to the right. Some font families, such as Venus, Roemisch, Topografische Zahlentafel, include left leaning fonts and letters designed for German cartographic map production, even though they do not support Arabic characters.


title: Italic type

text: In the 1950s, Gholamhossein Mosahab invented the "Iranic font style", a back-slanted italic form to go with the right-to-left direction of


title: Italic type

text: Since italic styles clearly look different from regular (roman) styles, it is possible to have 'upright italic' designs that have a cursive style but remain upright. In Latin-script countries, upright italics are rare but are sometimes used in mathematics or in complex texts where a section of text already in italics needs a 'double italic' style to add emphasis to it. Donald Knuth's Computer Modern has an alternate upright italic as an alternative to its standard italic, since its intended use is mathematical typesetting.


title: Italic type

text: Font families with an upright or near-upright italic only include Jan van Krimpen's Romanée, Eric Gill's Joanna, Martin Majoor's FF Seria and Frederic Goudy's Deepdene. The popular book typeface Bembo has been sold with two italics: one reasonably straightforward design that is commonly used today, and an alternative upright 'Condensed Italic' design, far more calligraphic, as a more eccentric alternative.


title: Italic type

text: This italic face was designed by Alfred Fairbank and named "Bembo Condensed Italic", Monotype series 294. Some Arts and Crafts movement-influenced printers such as Gill also revived the original italic system of italic lower-case only from the nineteenth century onwards.


title: Italic type

text: "The Chicago Manual of Style" suggests that to avoid problems such as overlapping and unequally spaced characters, parentheses and brackets surrounding text that begins and ends in italic or oblique type should also be italicised "(as in this example)". An exception to this rule applies when only one end of the parenthetical is italicised (in which case roman type is preferred, "as on the right of this example").


title: Italic type

text: In "The Elements of Typographic Style", however, it is argued that since Italic delimiters are not historically correct, the upright versions should always be used, while paying close attention to kerning.


title: Italic type

text: OpenType has the codice_1 feature tag to substitute a character to italic form with single font. In addition, the OpenType Font Variation has codice_1 axis for the transition between italic and non-italic forms and codice_3 axis for the oblique angle of characters.


title: Italic type

text: In HTML, the codice_4 element is used to produce italic (or oblique) text. When the author wants to indicate emphasised text, modern Web standards recommend using the codice_5 element, because it conveys that the content is to be emphasised, even if it cannot be displayed in italics. Conversely, if the italics are purely ornamental rather than meaningful, then semantic markup practices would dictate that the author use the Cascading Style Sheets declaration codice_6 along with an appropriate, semantic class name instead of an codice_4 or codice_5 element.


title: Italic type

text: In Unicode, the Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols block includes Latin and Greek letters in italics and boldface. However, Unicode expressly recommends that these characters not be used in general text as a substitute for presentational markup.


title: Light infantry

text: Light infantry refers to certain types of lightly equipped infantry throughout history. They have a more mobile or fluid function than other types of infantry, such as heavy infantry or line infantry. Historically, light infantry often fought as scouts, raiders, and skirmishers. These are loose formations that fight ahead of the main army to harass, delay, disrupt supply lines, engage the enemy’s own skirmishing forces, and generally "soften up" an enemy before the main battle. Light infantrymen were also often responsible for screening the main body of a military formation.


title: Light infantry

text: Post-World War II, the term "light infantry" evolved to include rapid-deployment units (including commandos and airborne units) that emphasize speed and mobility over armor and firepower. Some units or battalions that historically held a skirmishing role have kept their designation "light infantry" for the sake of tradition.


title: Light infantry

text: The concept of a skirmishing screen is a very old one and was already well-established in Ancient Greece and Roman times in the form, for example, of the Greek peltast and psiloi, and the Roman "velites". As with the so-called "light infantry" of later periods, the term more adequately describes the role of such infantry rather than the actual weight of their equipment. Peltast equipment, for example, grew steadily heavier at the same time as hoplite equipment grew lighter. It was the fact that peltasts fought in open order as skirmishers that made them light infantry and that hoplites fought in the battle line in a phalanx formation that made them heavy infantry.


title: Light infantry

text: Early regular armies of the modern era frequently relied on irregulars to perform the duties of light infantry skirmishers. In particular, the French Army employed detachments of German and Balkan mercenaries to serve as patrols in the rough country until a permanent corps of Mountain Fusiliers ("Fusiliers des Montagnes") was raised in the 1740s. In the 17th century, dragoons were sometimes employed as the skirmishers of their day – mounted infantrymen who rode into battle but dismounted to fight, giving them a mobility lacking to regular foot soldiers.


title: Light infantry

text: In the 18th and 19th centuries most infantry regiments or battalions had a "light company" as an integral part of its composition. Its members were often smaller, more agile men with high shooting ability and capability of using initiative. They did not usually fight in disciplined ranks as did the ordinary infantry but often in widely dispersed groups, necessitating an understanding of skirmish warfare. They were expected to avoid melee engagements unless necessary and would fight ahead of the mainline to harass the enemy before falling back to the main position.


title: Light infantry

text: During the period 1777–1781, the Continental Army of the United States adopted the British Army practice of seasonally drafting light infantry regiments as temporary units during active field operations, by combining existing light infantry companies detached from their parent regiments.


title: Light infantry

text: Light infantry sometimes carried lighter muskets than ordinary infantrymen while others carried rifles and wore rifle green uniforms. These became designated as "rifle regiments" in Britain and "Jäger" and "Schützen" (sharpshooter) regiments in German-speaking Europe. In France, during the Napoleonic Wars, light infantry were called "voltigeurs" and "chasseurs" and the sharpshooters "tirailleurs". The Austrian army had Grenzer regiments from the middle of the 18th century, who originally served as irregular militia skirmishers recruited from frontier areas. They were gradually absorbed into the line infantry becoming a hybrid type that proved successful against the French, to the extent that Napoleon recruited several units of Austrian army Grenzer to his own army after victory over Austria in 1809 compelled the Austrians to cede territories from which they were traditionally recruited. In Portugal, 1797, companies of "Caçadores" (Hunters) were created in the Portuguese Army, and in 1808 led to the formation of independent "Caçador" battalions that became known for their ability to perform precision shooting at long distances.


title: Light infantry

text: Light infantry officers sometimes carried muskets or rifles, rather than pistols, and their swords were light curved sabres; as opposed to the heavy, straighter swords of other infantry officers. Orders were sent by bugle or whistle instead of drum (since the sound of a bugle carries further and it is difficult to move fast when carrying a drum). Some armies, including the British and French, recruited whole regiments (or converted existing ones) of light infantry. These were considered elite units, since they required specialised training with emphasis on self-discipline, manoeuvre and initiative to carry out the roles of light infantry as well as those of ordinary infantry.


title: Light infantry

text: By the late 19th century the concept of fighting in formation was on the wane due to advancements in weaponry and the distinctions between light and heavy infantry began to disappear. Essentially, all infantry became light infantry in operational practice. Some regiments retained the name and customs, but there was in effect little difference between them and other infantry regiments.


title: Light infantry

text: On the eve of World War I the British Army included seven light infantry regiments. These differed from other infantry only in maintaining such traditional distinctions as badges that included a bugle-horn, dark green home service helmets for full dress, and a fast-stepping parade ground march.


title: Light infantry

text: Today the term "light" denotes, in the United States table of organization and equipment, units lacking heavy weapons and armor or with a reduced vehicle footprint. Light infantry units lack the greater firepower, operational mobility and protection of mechanized or armored units, but possess greater tactical mobility and the ability to execute missions in severely restrictive terrain and in areas where weather makes vehicular mobility difficult.


title: Light infantry

text: Light infantry forces typically rely on their ability to operate under restrictive conditions, surprise, violence of action, training, stealth, field craft, and fitness levels of the individual soldiers to compensate for their reduced lethality. Despite the usage of the term "light", forces in a light unit will normally carry heavier individual loads vis-à-vis other forces; they must carry everything they require to fight, survive and win due to lack of vehicles. Although units like the 101st Airborne (Air Assault) and the 82nd Airborne Division are categorized as Air Assault Infantry and Airborne Infantry respectively, they fall under the overall concept of light infantry. They are typically infantry intended for difficult terrain such as mountains or arctic conditions (US Marines) (Royal Marines, United States Army 10th Mountain Division, United States Army 86th Infantry Brigade Combat Team (Mountain), Italian Army Alpini, French Army 27ème bataillon de chasseurs alpins) or jungle (Philippine Army Scout Rangers, Brazilian Army Jungle Infantry Brigades).


title: Light infantry

text: In the 1980s, the United States Army increased light forces to address contingencies and increased threats requiring a more deployable force able to operate in restrictive environments for limited periods. At its height, this included the 6th Infantry Division (light), 7th Infantry Division (light), 10th Mountain Division (light infantry), 25th Infantry Division, and the 75th Ranger Regiment. Operation Just Cause is often cited as proof of concept. Almost 30,000 U.S. Forces, mostly light, deployed to Panama within a 48-hour period to execute combat operations. On 30 September 1985, the 29th Infantry Division (Maryland and Virginia Army National Guard) was reactivated at Fort Belvoir, Virginia as the only light Infantry Division in the US Army's reserve components.


title: Light infantry

text: During the Falklands War in 1982, both Argentina and the United Kingdom made heavy use of light infantry and its doctrines during the campaign, most notably the Argentine 5th Naval Infantry Battalion (Argentina) and 25th Infantry Regiment (Argentina) and the British Parachute Regiment and Royal Marines of 3 Commando Brigade. Due to the rocky and mountainous terrain of the Falkland Islands, operations on the ground were only made possible with the use of light infantry because the use of mechanized infantry or armour was severely limited by of the terrain, leading to the "Yomp" across the Falklands, in which Royal Marines and Paras yomped (and tabbed) with their equipment across the islands, covering 56 miles (90 km) in three days carrying 80-pound (36 kg) loads after disembarking from ships at San Carlos on East Falkland, on 21 May 1982.


title: Light infantry

text: During the 1990s, the concept of purely light forces in the US military came under scrutiny due to their decreased lethality and survivability. This scrutiny has resulted in the Stryker Brigade Combat Team, a greater focus on task organized units (such as Marine Expeditionary Units) and a reduction of purely light forces.


title: Light infantry

text: Despite their reduction, light forces have proven successful in Afghanistan (Operation Enduring Freedom), underlining the continued need for light infantry.


title: Light infantry

text: There are three light infantry brigades, (4ª Brigada de Infantaria Leve de Montanha, 11ª Brigada de Infantaria Leve and 12ª Brigada de Infantaria Leve Aeromóvel), and an airborne infantry brigade (Brigada de Infantaria Paraquedista). The 12º Light Infantry Brigade and the Airborne Infantry Brigade both belong to the Força de Ação Rápida Estratégica (Quick Strategic Action Force), which is composed of units capable of rapidly engaging in combat anywhere in Brazil.


title: Light infantry

text: Each of the three regular army regiments (Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry, Royal Canadian Regiment and Royal 22 Régiment) maintains their third battalion as light infantry capable in airborne, mountain, and amphibious operations, with varying degrees of capability. All reserve infantry units are classed as light infantry, all with varying degrees of capability.


title: Light infantry

text: Finnish infantry units are also known as Jäger (Finnish pl. "Jääkärit", Swedish pl. "Jägarna"), a legacy of a Finnish volunteer Jäger battalion formed in Germany during World War I to fight for the liberation of Finland from Russia.


title: Light infantry

text: The Chasseur designation was given to certain regiments of French light infantry ("Chasseurs à pied") or light cavalry ("Chasseurs à cheval").


title: Light infantry

text: The "Chasseurs à pied" (light infantry) were originally recruited from hunters or woodsmen. The "Chasseurs à Pied", as the marksmen of the French army, were considered an elite. The first unit raised was Jean Chrétien Fischer's Free Hunter Company in 1743. Early units were often a mix of cavalry and infantry. In 1776, all "Chasseurs" units were re-organized into six battalions, each linked to a cavalry regiment ("Chasseurs à cheval"). In 1788, the link between infantry battalions and cavalry regiments was broken.


title: Light infantry

text: In 1793, the Ancien Régime's Chasseur battalions were merged with volunteer battalions in new units called Light Infantry half-brigades ("demi-brigades d’infanterie légère"). In 1803, the half-brigades were renamed regiments. These units had three battalions of three regular "Chasseurs" companies, one elite "Carabiniers" company and one reconnaissance "voltigeurs" company.


title: Light infantry

text: The Napoleonic light infantry regiments existed until 1854, but there were very few differences between them and the line infantry regiments, so the 25 remaining light infantry regiments were transformed to line infantry in 1854.


title: Light infantry

text: Although the traditions of these different branches of the French Army are very different, there is still a tendency to confuse one with the other. For example, when World War I veteran Léon Weil died, the AFP press agency stated that he was a member of the 5th "Regiment de Chasseurs Alpins". It was in fact the 5th Bataillon.


title: Light infantry

text: The Indian Army of 1914 included ten regiments with "Light Infantry" in their titles. These were the:


title: Light infantry

text: Most of these regiments lost their separate identity as a result of extensive amalgamations in 1922. The modern Indian Army retains the Maratha Light Infantry and the Sikh Light Infantry.


title: Light infantry

text: Of the 28 infantry regiments of the modern Indian Army, the following ten are designated as "Rifles". They are distinguished by their black rank badges, black buttons on their service and ceremonial uniforms and a beret in a darker shade of green than other regiments. Two paramilitary forces—the Assam Rifles and the Eastern Frontier Rifles—also follow the traditions of a rifle regiment.


title: Light infantry

text: The Irish famously employed "Cethernacht" or Kern as light infantry. These usually made up the bulk of Gaelic and even later Anglo Norman Irish armies during the Middle Ages to renaissance era's. Traditionally armed with javelins and swords while wearing no armour, in later periods they were equipped with caliver muskets while still using little to no armour. They were notably effective while employed in tandem with heavily armed "Galloglaich" or anglicised Gallowglass. They could provide effective support to heavily armed troops as well as endlessly harassing enemies in difficult terrain.


title: Light infantry

text: Most of the states of the Italian peninsula had their own units of skirmishers before Italian unification. One of the few that survived it were the Sardinian "Bersaglieri", who were formed in 1836. They became some of the most iconic soldiers in Italian Army and were its "quick reaction force". The Alpini are the Italian Army's elite mountain troops, founded in 1875. Although they may not seem a true "light infantry" unit, (they were assigned their own artillery, carried double load of everything, and had a slower marching pace of 45 steps per minute), the Alpini were trained as jagers and skirmishers, introducing the use of skis and climbing training for all of their recruits. Those two corps still exist today, but in the years the Bersaglieri, have become a mechanised infantry unit, working closely with armoured units, and up until the mid-1990s had their own tank and artillery units. Other units that can be classified as light infantry are:


title: Light infantry

text: Portuguese light infantry soldiers were known as "caçadores" (literally "huntsmen"). Initially organized as a light company in each of the line infantry regiments, the "caçadores" were latter organized as independent battalions. They constituted the elite light infantry of the Portuguese Army during the Peninsular War, being considered by the Duke of Wellington as the "fighting cocks of his army". They wore distinctive brown uniforms as an early form of camouflage.


title: Light infantry

text: The "caçadores" units were disbanded by the Army organization of 1911, but were recreated in 1926 as high readiness units, responsible for defending the border and other strategic points of the Country until the line units could be mobilized. In the 1950s, the designation "caçadores" started to be also given to the expeditionary provisional light infantry battalions and independent companies responsible for reinforcing the overseas territories garrisons. These units constituted the bulk of the Portuguese forces engaged in the several theatres of the Portuguese Overseas War, from 1961 to 1975. Colonial troops with this title also existed, being recruited among both Portuguese European settlers and from indigenous populations. In the 1950s, the Portuguese Air Force formed a unit of paratroopers called "caçadores paraquedistas" ("parachutist hunters"). Additional battalions of "caçadores paraquedistas" were later created in Angola, Mozambique and Portuguese Guinea. At the beginning of the 1960s, Portuguese Army raised special forces companies of that were named "caçadores especiais" (special huntsmen). The "caçadores especiais" wore a brown beret in the colour of the uniforms of the "caçadores" of the Peninsular War. These units were later abolished and the brown beret started to be used by most of the units of the Portuguese Army.


title: Light infantry

text: In 1975, the designation ""caçadores"" was discontinued in the Portuguese Armed Forces. All former units of "caçadores" were redesigned as "infantry". Currently, every infantry soldier of the Portuguese Army is known as "atirador". Today, the Portuguese Army uses the designation "light infantry" as a generic collective classification of the Paratroopers, Commandos and Special Operations troops, while the remaining infantry is classified as "motorized/mechanized infantry".


title: Light infantry

text: The Rhodesian Light Infantry was a regular regiment of the Rhodesian Army, unique in having the traditions of light infantry while serving as a modern Commando regiment.


title: Light infantry

text: The Imperial Russian Army, which was heavily influenced by the Prussian and Austrian military systems, included fifty Jäger or "yegerskii" [егерский] regiments in its organisation by 1812, including the Egersky Guards Regiment. They were mostly united with line infantry regiments in 1833, when almost all Russian infantry began to receive the same training; including skirmishing. At the same time "strelkovyi" [стрелковый] battalions were introduced. These undertook light infantry functions when the skirmishing skills of line infantry were insufficient.


title: Light infantry

text: Historically the Spanish infantry included several battalions of light infantry that were designated as "Cazadores". These units were incorporated into the ordinary infantry following army reorganization in the early 1930s. Until 2006 the modern Spanish Army maintained a Brigada de Cazadores de Montaña "Aragón I" (Mountain Huntsmen Brigade "Aragón I")


title: Light infantry

text: The British Army first experimented with light infantry in the French and Indian War, to counter the tactics used by the French-allied Native Americans. Along with secondment of regular infantry, several specialised units were raised (including Rogers' Rangers and the 80th Regiment of Light-Armed Foot), though most if not all had been disbanded by the middle of the 1760s. From 1770, all regular battalions were required to designate one of their ten companies a "Light Company", though their training in skirmishing was poor and inconsistent.


title: Light infantry

text: Dedicated rifle and light infantry regiments began to be formed or converted in the Napoleonic Wars, to counter the French "Chasseurs". A new battalion of the 60th Royal Americans (later the King's Royal Rifle Corps) was raised in 1797, and an "Experimental Corps of Riflemen" (later the 95th Rifles and then the Rifle Brigade) in 1800. Both were equipped with green jackets and Baker rifles. Some extant regiments began to be designated "Light Infantry" at this point, receiving skirmishing training but generally still equipped with red coats and muskets. In the Peninsular War, a Light Brigade and later a Light Division were formed, at some points incorporating Portuguese "Caçadores". By the Crimean War, rifles had become universal and tactics had substantially changed. This meant that the distinctions between light and line infantry were effectively limited to details such as name, a rapid march of 140 steps per minute, buglers instead of drummers and fifers, a parade drill which involved carrying rifles parallel to the ground ("at the trail") and dark green cloth helmets instead of dark blue. Light infantry badges always incorporated bugle horns as a central feature.


title: Light infantry

text: In the Second World War, the use of light infantry was revived in what became the British Commandos and the Parachute Regiment. Because of the nature of their role and deployment, they were more lightly equipped than most infantry battalions. The Parachute Regiment has survived to this day, while the Royal Marine Commandos are directly descended from those units formed in the Second World War.


title: Light infantry

text: Most of the old light infantry and rifle regiments were administratively grouped in a new Light Division in 1968. The British Army ordered regimental amalgamations in 1957, 1966, 1990 and 2003. The Rifles (the largest infantry regiment in the British Army) was formed in 2007 from the amalgamation of the regiments of the Light Division. The Rifles maintain the traditional quick parade march of all British light infantry, the Rifle Brigade's "rifle green" with blackened buttons and black leather belts, and many other traditions and "golden threads" of its parent regiments. Rifle and light infantry regiments that did not become part of the Rifles included the Royal Ulster Rifles, the Royal Gurkha Rifles, the Cameronians (Scottish Rifles) and the Highland Light Infantry.


title: Light infantry

text: Today, "Light role infantry" is a designation that can be applied to an infantry battalion of any regiment. Light role infantry are not (by default) equipped with armoured vehicles (unlike Armoured Infantry or Mechanised Infantry).


title: Light infantry

text: In 1780, General George Washington published an order of battle which included a corps of light infantry, under the command of General Lafayette. The light infantry participated in several major battles of the southern states in 1781, including the Battle of Yorktown. The entire Continental Army was dismissed after the war, with all regiments disbanded in 1784.


title: Light infantry

text: In 1808, the United States Army created its first Regiment of Riflemen. During the War of 1812 three more Rifle Regiments were raised but disbanded after the war. The Rifle Regiment was disbanded in 1821.


title: Light infantry

text: During the Civil War, Sharpshooter regiments were raised in the North with several companies being raised by individual states for their own regiments.


title: Light infantry

text: In 1943, the United States formed the 10th Light Division (Alpine), re-designated as the 10th Mountain Division in 1944. In 1983, General John A. Wickham Jr., Chief of Staff of the United States Army, announced the creation of five light infantry divisions to increase the U.S. Army's ability to deploy quickly. These included the 7th Infantry Division, 25th Infantry Division, 6th Infantry Division, 10th Mountain Division, as well as the 29th Infantry Division of the Army National Guard.


title: Teen patti

text: Teen patti (, meaning 'three cards' in English) is a gambling card game that originated in the Indian subcontinent and is popular throughout South Asia. It originated in the English game of three-card brag, with influences from poker. It is also called "flush" or "flash" in some areas.


title: Teen patti

text: Teen Patti is closely connected to Hindu celebrations as well as being a social game. It is most frequently played during Diwali.


title: Teen patti

text: There is usually an ante or boot amount put on the table (the pot). The betting then starts by the player next to the dealer.


title: Teen patti

text: Loose and tight in "teen patti" refer to a player's general tendency to play hands beyond the first round or to fold them quickly. There is no commonly accepted threshold in terms of a ratio or percentage of hands played, but a "tight" player will often choose to fold weaker hands, while a "loose" player will bet on more of these hands and thus play more hands to the showdown.


title: Teen patti

text: There is usually an ante or boot amount put on the table (the pot). This ante may be in the form of an equal amount put by each player, or a single larger amount put by one player (usually on a rotation basis).


title: Teen patti

text: An ante is a forced bet in which each player places an equal amount of money or chips into the pot before the deal begins. Often this is either a single unit (a one-value or the smallest value in play) or some other small amount; a percentage such as half or one-quarter of the minimum bet is also common. An ante paid by each player ensures that a player who folds every round will lose money (though slowly), thus providing each player with an incentive, however small, to play the hand rather than toss it in when the opening bet reaches them.


title: Teen patti

text: Antes discourage extremely tight play. Without the ante, a player who has not paid a blind can toss in his hand at no cost to him; the ante ensures that doing so too often is a losing proposition. With antes, more players stay in the hand, which increases pot size and makes for more interesting play.


title: Teen patti

text: In games where the acting dealer changes each turn, it is not uncommon for the players to agree that the dealer (or some other position relative to the dealer or the button) provides the ante for each player. This simplifies betting, but causes minor inequities if other players come and go. During such times, the player can be given a special button indicating the need to pay an ante to the pot (known as "posting") upon their return.


title: Teen patti

text: A player who is temporarily away from his seat (e.g. for drinks or a restroom/bathroom break) and misses antes is also required to post to re-enter the game. They must pay the applicable ante to the pot for the next hand they will participate in. In this case, the amount to be posted is the amount of the ante at the time the player missed them.


title: Teen patti

text: Posting is usually not required if the player who would otherwise post happens to be in the ante. This is because the advantage that would otherwise be gained by missing the ante, that of playing several hands before having to pay ante, is not the case in this situation. It is therefore common for a new player to lock up a seat and then wait several hands before joining a table, or for a returning player to sit out several hands until the ante comes back around, so that he may enter in the ante and avoid paying the post. For this same reason, only one ante can be accumulated by the player; old missed antes are removed when the ante returns to that player's seat because the player was never in any position to gain from missing the antes.


title: Teen patti

text: A blind or blind bet is usually a forced bet placed into the pot by one or more players before the deal begins, in a way that simulates bets made during play. The most common use of blinds as a betting structure calls for two blinds: the player after the dealer blinds about half of what would be a normal bet (small blind), and the next player blinds what would be a whole bet (big blind). This two-blind structure, sometimes with antes, is the dominating structure of play. Sometimes only one blind (half or whole bet) is used (often informally by the dealer as a "price of winning" the previous hand).


title: Teen patti

text: Besides the forced blind bet, players may optionally play blind and put an optional blind bet to the pot. Blind players may place bets that are at least half of the current level of bet by a seen player. Seen players have to place a bet that is at least double that of the current level of bet by a blind player.


title: Teen patti

text: Some players set a limit on how many times a player can bet blind- for example, one could bet blind on his first three turns, one could bet blind on his first two turns.


title: Teen patti

text: After the ante and the forced blind bet(s), the regular betting starts with the next player putting his bet amount to the pot.


title: Teen patti

text: The total bet can be divided into two components - the call and the raise, both being usually called as Chaal. Each player has to place a bet that is at least equal to the previous player's bet, with the option of raising the bet. This bet then becomes the (new) current level of bet (Chaal). Usually there is a limit imposed to the raise, such that the total bet amount (with the call and the raise) cannot exceed twice that of the previous player's bet. Also, the bet should be in even amounts (2,4,6,8...), especially when there is one player still in the game as Blind player. It is because the player playing blind plays half of the normal bet, and odd amounts can't be halved.


title: Teen patti

text: It is very important to understand that this betting structure is different than Poker, as every time the bet is new (disregarding of how much amount was previously bid.) Let's say, one player bet an amount of 2 and second player raises it up to 4, now the first person would have to put additional 4 into the pot to make a call or would have an option to raise the bet up to 8 (which is different in case of Poker where the second player adds 2 more to bring his bet to the level 4).


title: Teen patti

text: Betting limits apply to the amount a player may bet or raise, and come in four common forms: "fixed limit", "spread limit", "pot limit", and "no limit".


title: Teen patti

text: All such games have a minimum bet as well as the stated maximums, and also commonly a betting unit, which is the smallest denomination in which bets can be made.


title: Teen patti

text: In a game played with a fixed-limit betting structure, the maximum raise amount generally equals the last bet amount (current level of bet). Thus, the maximum raise amount is equal to the call amount, and the maximum bet is double that of the last bet.


title: Teen patti

text: A game played with a spread-limit betting structure allows a player to raise any amount within a specified maximum (subject to other betting rules).


title: Teen patti

text: For example, a game with a "$1000 spread-limit" allows each player to call and then raise up to a maximum of $1000.


title: Teen patti

text: A simpler approach is to bet up to a maximum amount equal to the spread-limit. So in the above example, the maximum bet (call + raise) is limited to $1000.


title: Teen patti

text: A game played with a pot-limit betting structure allows any player to raise up to an amount equal to the size of the whole pot before the raise.


title: Teen patti

text: For example, let us assume that there is an ante of $50 and a single forced blind bet of $10 in the pot at the start of the regular betting round, and all subsequent players are seen/have seen their cards. The next player may bet the minimum amount of $20 (double that of the last blind bet of $10). This player may also raise up to $80 (as there is now $50 + $10 + $20 = $80 in the pot) to bring his total bet (also the new current level of bet) to $20 + $80 = $100. If he does in fact bets $100, the total amount of the pot is $160, and the next player may call (put the minimum bet of) $100, and raise up to $260 for a total bet of $360 (after calling the $100 bet, the total amount of the pot is $260, so he may raise up to $260). The next player would then be entitled to call at $360 and raise up to $880 (after calling $360, the pot would contain $880, thus he may raise $880).


title: Teen patti

text: A simpler approach is to bet up to a maximum amount in the pot. So in the above example, the first seen player may bet a minimum of $20 and a maximum of $60. If he does bet the maximum, the next player may bet a minimum of $60 to a maximum of $120. If he bets the maximum, the next player would then be entitled to bet a minimum of $120 and a maximum of $240. Note: In this example, for the later bets, the maximum bet is twice that of minimum bet because of the chosen ante and forced blind bet amounts. For other combinations, this relationship may not hold.


title: Teen patti

text: When somebody plays blind, he has not seen his cards and places his bet by guessing the strength of his card combination and of other players. He should place a higher bet if he has faith in his luck and his card combination will be stronger than other players. If somebody wants to play it safe and not take risks, he should place bet for a smaller amount.


title: Teen patti

text: Anybody can choose to see their cards at any time and then place a bet (when it's their turn) depending on how strong he thinks his card combination is. He can pack if he thinks his card combination is not strong enough. Though he can pack out of turn, it's not considered courteous to do so. There is a variation to this rule in which players are only allowed to see and fold their cards when it's their turn.


title: Teen patti

text: If somebody have seen his cards, he can ask for a sideshow after placing his bet. He can ask for a sideshow with the previous player (who placed the last bet). Hence sideshows are also referred to as backshows. Sideshows are only permitted if no player is playing and if the player request for the third time no one can deny it and to whom it been requested the player have to show the cards


title: Teen patti

text: The player can either accept or decline others sideshow request. Player may want to decline sideshow if one is trying to bluff way through, in that case one is likely to fold due to poor hand when two hands are compared. Player may also want to decline sideshow request if one is holding a strong hand and/or would want pot money to increase to make game more interesting.


title: Teen patti

text: If the sideshow request is accepted, the two players involved privately compare their cards, and the player with the lower hand is forced to fold. If the hands are equal, the player who asked for the sideshow is forced to fold.


title: Teen patti

text: In most modern games, especially where the stakes or bets are high, shows are paid for at the current bet level. Also, while a blind player cannot ask (nor can be asked) for a sideshow, the blind player can ask for a show. For a show, a player can choose not to show, if they give up the pot. Ultimately, all rules are discussed and agreed by all players before the game begins.


title: Teen patti

text: There are two ways "teen patti" is played. One is by using a standard 52-card deck and another is by adding the two Joker cards, which are used as wild cards. The object of the game is to have the best three-card hand and to maximize the pot before the showdown. Any hand of a higher category beats any hand of a lower category. If two players have the same combination then the pot is split between the two no matter which of the two players asked for showdown. In another variation, where the suits hold ranks, the player with the higher suit wins the pot.