title: Karamoko Dembélé

text: Dembélé is eligible to represent Scotland, England or the Ivory Coast internationally. On 19 October 2016, he was called up to the Scotland national under-16 football team for the 2016 Victory Shield. He made his debut for the Scotland under-16s on 1 November, coming on as a second-half substitute during a 2–2 draw against Wales. Coach Brian McLaughlin commented, "He was excellent. He looked confident and it's a very good group to come into." Dembélé made a further appearance a few days later in a 3–0 defeat, as a 63rd minute substitute against the Republic of Ireland.


title: Karamoko Dembélé

text: However, prior to participating in the Victory Shield, Dembélé travelled south in October 2016 to train with England under-15s at St George's Park. On 18 November 2016, Dembélé confirmed his intention to join up with the England under-15s ahead of a match against Turkey that December. On 17 December 2016, Dembélé came off the bench against Turkey to make his England debut and assisted a goal in a 5–2 victory. On 16 February 2017, Dembélé made his first start for England under-15 in a match against Belgium.


title: Karamoko Dembélé

text: Nevertheless, he also continued to represent Scotland, playing an integral part in the Scotland under-16 squads for two UEFA development tournaments in 2017, both of which Scotland won. Most notably, Dembélé featured in a Scotland victory over England in July 2017. On 19 August 2018 he made his debut for Scotland under-17's in a 1–0 away win against Russia, coming on as a 50th minute substitution for Connor Barron, and went on to start two days later against Russia.


title: Karamoko Dembélé

text: On 10 October 2019, Dembélé made his debut for England under-17 during a 3–3 draw with Germany at the Pinatar Arena in Spain. Dembélé scored his first goal for this age group during a 1–1 draw with Spain on 14 October 2019. During the same month, it was reported that Dembélé had committed to representing England internationally, and Dembélé has only represented England since.


title: Karamoko Dembélé

text: On 29 March 2021, Dembélé made his debut for England U18s during a 2–0 win away to Wales at the Leckwith Stadium.


title: Karamoko Dembélé

text: Dembélé's older brother, Siriki Dembélé, plays as a winger for AFC Bournemouth. He is likewise eligible to represent England, Scotland or the Ivory Coast internationally. Another brother, Hassan, was playing for Celtic's academy in November 2017.


title: Debbe Dunning

text: Debra Dunning (born July 11, 1966) is an American actress, model, television host, spokesperson and comedienne. She is best known for playing Heidi on "Home Improvement" (1993–1999).


title: Debbe Dunning

text: Dunning played Heidi Keppert, the ""Tool Time" girl", on the ABC sitcom "Home Improvement" from season 3 to season 8, having guest-starred in an earlier season.


title: Debbe Dunning

text: From 1997 until 2018, Dunning was married to American volleyball player Steve Timmons, with whom she has three children: daughter Spencer Schae (born 1996) and sons Stoney (born 2000) and Sysco (born 2008).


title: George Harrison discography

text: The discography of English singer-songwriter and former member of the Beatles, George Harrison consists of 12 studio albums, two live albums, four compilation albums, 35 singles, two video albums and four box sets (one of which is with Indian classical musician Ravi Shankar). Harrison's first solo releases – the "Wonderwall Music" film soundtrack (1968) and "Electronic Sound" (1969) – were almost entirely instrumental works, issued during the last two years of the Beatles' career. Following the band's break-up in April 1970, Harrison continued to produce recordings by his fellow Apple Records acts, notably former bandmate Ringo Starr. He recorded and collaborated with a wide range of artists, including Shankar, Bob Dylan, Eric Clapton and Gary Wright.


title: George Harrison discography

text: Harrison's acclaimed triple album "All Things Must Pass" (1970) was certified six-times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in March 2001 and, as of 2011, was still the most successful album by an ex-Beatle. "All Things Must Pass" produced the international number 1 hit "My Sweet Lord", which was coupled as a double A-side with "Isn't It a Pity" in the majority of countries. In 1971 Harrison recorded pop music's first charity single, "Bangla Desh", and released the "Concert for Bangladesh" triple live album (credited to George Harrison & Friends) to raise further funds for refugees of the Bangladesh Liberation War. His 1973 album "Living in the Material World" and the single "Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)" repeated the US success of his 1970 solo releases by simultaneously holding the number 1 position on "Billboard"'s albums and singles charts. The remainder of his 1970s studio albums, starting with "Dark Horse" (1974), were all certified gold by the RIAA but performed disappointingly on the UK albums chart. Following the expiration of his EMI-affiliated Apple contract, "Thirty Three & 1/3" (1976) was Harrison's debut release on his Dark Horse label, distributed worldwide by Warner Bros. Records.


title: George Harrison discography

text: The 1981 single "All Those Years Ago", from "Somewhere in England", was written as a tribute to the recently murdered John Lennon and became Harrison's biggest chart hit since "Give Me Love". Having clashed with Warner Bros. over the content of that album, Harrison refused to participate in promotion for "Gone Troppo" (1982), resulting in lacklustre sales. From 1983 until 1986, Harrison released only film soundtrack singles, reflecting his involvement in movie production. "Cloud Nine" (1987) and its lead single "Got My Mind Set on You" marked a commercial comeback for Harrison. He then formed the Traveling Wilburys with Dylan, Jeff Lynne, Tom Petty and Roy Orbison, and the band released two successful studio albums between 1988 and 1990 on his Warner Bros. contract. Following his tour that resulted in the 1992 "Live in Japan" album, Harrison again stepped back from full-time musical activity. After being diagnosed with throat cancer in 1997, he recorded his twelfth and final studio album, the posthumously released "Brainwashed" (2002). Harrison oversaw the reissue of "All Things Must Pass" in January 2001, and 2014 saw the completion of his remastered catalogue with the release of "The Apple Years 1968–75".


title: George Harrison discography

text: The following is a list of songs by Harrison that were released as promotional singles in the United States, showing their peak positions on "Billboard"s Adult Contemporary and Mainstream Rock listings, where applicable.


title: New International Version

text: The New International Version (NIV) is an English translation of the Bible first published in 1978 by Biblica (formerly the International Bible Society). The "NIV" was created as a modern translation, by Bible scholars using the earliest and highest quality source manuscripts available, into broadly understood modern English.


title: New International Version

text: A team of 15 biblical scholars, representing a variety of evangelical denominations, worked from the oldest copies of reliable texts, variously written in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. Each section was subjected to multiple translations and revisions, and those assessed in detail to produce the best option. Everyday Bible readers were used to provide feedback on ease of understanding and comprehensibility. Finally, plans were made to continue revision of the Bible as new discoveries were made and as changes in the use of the English language occurred.


title: New International Version

text: The "NIV" is published by Zondervan in the United States and Hodder & Stoughton in the UK. The "NIV" was updated in 1984 and 2011 and has become the best-selling modern translation.


title: New International Version

text: In 1955, businessman Howard Long was convinced of the need for a contemporary English translation of the Bible while sharing the gospel with a business associate. He was unhappy with the King James Version that he used to communicate the gospel and was frustrated with its archaic language. He thought, “Everywhere I go, in Canada, the U.S., anywhere, there are people who would like to read their Bible to their children at night. And they don’t have something the children can grasp.” He shared the frustration with his pastor Reverend Peter DeJong. Inspired by the great need for bible in contemporary English, the two men petitioned their denomination, Christian Reformed Church (CRC). After initial rejection and deferral, the CRC endorsed a committee to investigate the issue in 1957.


title: New International Version

text: The "NIV" began with the formation of a small committee to study the value of producing a translation in the common language of the American people and a project of the National Association of Evangelicals in 1957. In 1964, a joint committee of representatives from the Christian Reformed Church and National Association of Evangelicals issued invitations to a translation conference and that conference met in August 1965 at Trinity Christian College in Palos Heights, Illinois. Two key decisions were made, the first was that “a contemporary English translation of the Bible should be undertaken as a collegiate endeavor of evangelical scholars.” The second was that a “continuing committee of fifteen” should be established to move the work forward. The “committee of fifteen” was ultimately named the Committee on Bible Translation (CBT) while the “Contemporary English Translation” became the NIV.


title: New International Version

text: In 1967, the New York Bible Society (now called Biblica) took responsibility for the project and hired a team of 15 scholars from various Evangelical Christian denominations and from various countries. The initial "Committee on Bible Translation" consisted of Leslie Carlson, Edmund Clowney, Ralph Earle, Jr., Burton L. Goddard, R. Laird Harris, Earl S. Kalland, Kenneth Kantzer, Robert H. Mounce, Charles F. Pfeiffer, Charles Caldwell Ryrie, Francis R. Steele, John H. Stek, J. C. Wenger, Stephen W. Paine, and Marten Woudstra. The New Testament was released in 1973 and the full Bible in 1978. A UK version was also released, to accommodate differences between American English and British English.


title: New International Version

text: In 1995 a new version of the New Testament and Psalms was published in the UK, with the full Bible following in 1996 as the "New International Version Inclusive Language Edition", but was not published in the U.S. because of opposition from conservative evangelical groups there to gender-neutral language. A further edition with minor edits was published in 1999.


title: New International Version

text: A revised English edition titled "Today's New International Version" ("TNIV"), again using gender-neutral language, was released as a New Testament in March 2002, the complete Bible being published in February 2005.


title: New International Version

text: In 2011, an updated version of the "NIV" was released, with both the 1984 version and the "TNIV" being discontinued.


title: New International Version

text: The update modified and dropped some of the gender-neutral language compared to "TNIV". This includes going back to using "mankind" and "man" rather than "human beings" and "people", along with other changes. Keith Danby—president and chief executive officer of Biblica, speaking of the TNIV—said they had failed to convince people revisions were needed and underestimated readers' loyalty to the 1984 edition.


title: New International Version

text: An 'easy-reader' version, "New International Reader's Version" (NIrV), was published in 1996; it was written at a third grade reading level.


title: New International Version

text: In 1979, the decision was made to produce a version of the New Testament in Spanish with the title La Santa Biblia, Nueva Versión Internacional (often abbreviated "NVI"), though at this point this version was based only on the former English translation of the historic manuscripts. In 1990, the committee on Bible translation headed by Drs. René Padilla and Luciano Jaramillo conducted a translation of both testaments from the historic manuscripts directly into Spanish, bypassing English altogether and producing a complete Spanish NVI Bible in 1999.


title: New International Version

text: The manuscript base for the Old Testament was the Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia Masoretic Hebrew Text. Other ancient texts consulted were the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Aquila, Symmachus and Theodotion, the Latin Vulgate, the Syriac Peshitta, the Aramaic Targum, and for the Psalms the Juxta Hebraica of Jerome. The manuscript base for the New Testament was the Koine Greek language editions of the United Bible Societies and of Nestle-Aland. The deuterocanonical books are not included in the translation.


title: New International Version

text: The core translation group consisted of fifteen Biblical scholars using Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek texts whose goal was to produce a more modern English language text than the King James Version. The translation took ten years and involved a team of over 100 scholars from the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. The range of those participating included many different denominations such as Anglicans, Assemblies of God, Baptist, Christian Reformed, Lutheran and Presbyterian.


title: New International Version

text: The "NIV" is a balance between word-for-word and thought-for-thought or literal and phrase-by-phrase translations.


title: New International Version

text: Recent archaeological and linguistic discoveries helped in understanding passages that have traditionally been difficult to translate. Familiar spellings of traditional translations were generally retained.


title: New International Version

text: According to the Association for Christian Retail (CBA), the New International Version has become the most popular selling English translation of the Bible in CBA bookstores, having sold more than 450 million copies worldwide.


title: New International Version

text: There are numerous study Bibles available with extensive notes on the text and background information to make the Biblical stories more comprehensible. Among these are the "NIV Spirit of the Reformation Study Bible", "Concordia Study Bible", the Zondervan published "NIV Study Bible", the Wesleyan revision, "Reflecting God Study Bible", as well as the "Life Application Study Bible".


title: New International Version

text: In 2009, the New Testament scholar N. T. Wright wrote that the "NIV" obscured what Paul the Apostle was saying, making sure that Paul's words conformed to Protestant and Evangelical tradition. He claims, "if a church only, or mainly, relies on the "NIV" it will, quite simply, never understand what Paul was talking about," especially in Galatians and Romans. In support of this claim, Wright mentions specifically several verses of Romans 3, which he suggests do not convey how "righteousness" refers to the covenant faithfulness of God or reflect his own thinking about the "pistis Christou" debate. All editions of the "NIV" have given "God's Faithfulness" as the heading for Romans 3:1–8. Wright's specific objections concerning verses later in the chapter no longer apply to the 2011 revision of the NIV, which moreover offers "the faithfulness of Jesus Christ" as an alternative translation to "faith in Jesus Christ" in Romans 3:22.


title: New International Version

text: Mark Given, a professor of religious studies at Missouri State University, criticized the "NIV" for "several inaccurate and misleading translations" as many sentences and clauses are paraphrased, rather than translated from Hebrew and Greek.


title: New International Version

text: Michael Marlowe, a scholar in biblical languages, criticized as "indefensible" the footnote provided in the "NIV" for , which replaced multiple instances of "head covering" with "long hair" in order to "harmonize this passage with modern habits of dress". Church historian David Bercot, whose focus is early Christianity, likewise deemed the footnote a "fanciful interpretation" that "is in no way an alternate translation of the Greek text."


title: New International Version

text: Others have also criticized the "NIV". In Genesis 2:19 a translation such as the New Revised Standard Version uses "formed" in a plain past tense: "So out of the ground the LORD God every animal". Some have questioned the "NIV" choice of pluperfect: "Now the LORD God out of the ground all the wild animals" to try to make it appear that the animals had already been created. Theologian John Sailhamer states "Not only is such a translation[...] hardly possible[...] but it misses the very point of the narrative, namely, that the animals were created in response to God's declaration that it was not good that the man should be alone."


title: New International Version

text: Biblical scholar Bruce M. Metzger criticized the "NIV" 1984 edition for the addition of "just" into Jeremiah 7:22 so the verse becomes "For when I brought your forefathers/ancestors out of Egypt and spoke to them, I did not "just" give them commands about burnt offerings and sacrifices." Metzger also criticized the addition of "your" into Matthew 13:32, so it becomes "Though it [the mustard seed] is the smallest of all "your" seeds." The usage of "your" was removed in the 2011 revision.


title: New International Version

text: Professor of New Testament Studies Daniel B. Wallace praised the 2011 update, calling it "a well-thought out translation, with checks and balances through rigorous testing, overlapping committees to ensure consistency and accuracy, and a publisher willing to commit significant resources to make this Bible appealing to the Christian reader." The Southern Baptist Convention rejected the 2011 update because of gender-neutral language, although it had dropped some gender-neutral language of the 2005 revision. Southern Baptist publisher LifeWay declined the SBC's censor request to remove the "NIV" from their stores. While the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod rejected its use, some in the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS) believe many of the translations changes are right and defensible.


title: New International Version

text: Professor of New Testament Studies Rodney J. Decker wrote in the "Themelios Journal" review of the "NIV" 2011:


title: New International Version

text: By taking a mediating position between formal and functional equivalence (though tending, I think, closer to the formal end of the spectrum), the "NIV" has been able to produce a text that is clearer than many translations, especially those weighted more heavily with formal equivalence... If we are serious about making the word of God a vital tool in the lives of English-speaking Christians, then we must aim for a translation that communicates clearly in the language of the average English-speaking person. It is here that the "NIV" excels. It not only communicates the meaning of God's revelation accurately, but does so in English that is easily understood by a wide range of English speakers. It is as well-suited for expository preaching as it is for public reading and use in Bible classes and children's ministries.


title: Cory in the House

text: Cory in the House is an American television sitcom which aired on the Disney Channel from January 12, 2007, to September 12, 2008, and was a spin-off from the Disney Channel show "That's So Raven". The show focuses on Cory Baxter, who moves from San Francisco, California to Washington, D.C. with his father, after Victor Baxter gets a new job as the White House Executive Chef. The series was the first Disney Channel spin-off series, as well as the final Disney Channel series overall, to be both shot and broadcast in standard definition for the entire run of the show. Reruns of the series have aired on Disney Channel and Disney XD, it also aired on the Family Channel in Canada. Raven-Symoné guest-starred in one episode, reprising her role as Raven Baxter. From 2014 to 2015, Disney Channel had begun a weekly block called "Disney Replay" on Wednesday nights, during which episodes of "Cory in the House" aired alongside "That's So Raven" and "Kim Possible", among other Disney Channel shows.


title: Cory in the House

text: After the completion of "That's So Raven", propositions were made for a spin-off including "That's So Raven Too!" which was accompanied by a soundtrack of the same name, and would have been about Raven going off to college. Raven-Symoné was offered the spin-off, but she declined it, therefore Disney Channel decided to give it to Kyle Massey. Raven-Symoné would later return for the "Raven's Home" spin-off in 2017.


title: Cory in the House

text: The first episode aired on Disney Channel on January 12, 2007 as a sneak peek. The show was created and produced by Dennis Rinsler and Marc Warren, who previously produced "That's So Raven" and "Even Stevens", another Disney Channel show. Filming for "Cory in the House" began on July 18, 2006, and concluded on November 7, 2007 at Hollywood Center Studios (where "The Suite Life of Zack & Cody" and "That's So Raven" were filmed) and used a studio audience in most scenes.


title: Cory in the House

text: Similar to "Hannah Montana", many of the episode titles are parodies of popular songs. For example, "We Built This Kitty on Rock and Roll" comes from "We Built This City", "Mall of Confusion" from "Ball of Confusion", "Smells Like School Spirit" from "Smells Like Teen Spirit", and "Ain't Miss Bahavian" from "Ain't Misbehavin'".


title: Cory in the House

text: The theme song to "Cory in the House", was written and produced by Matthew Gerrard and Robbie Nevil, and performed by Kyle Massey, Maiara Walsh, and Jason Dolley (though the closing credits of the show credit the performance of the theme song only to Massey). An alternate theme song, "Rollin' to D.C.", is also sung by Massey and Walsh and was used in the music video to promote the series.


title: Cory in the House

text: The "Cory in the House" franchise has spawned a video game, of which it shares the same name. The game was released in 2008 for the Nintendo DS.


title: Cory in the House

text: The series originally aired from January 12, 2007, to September 12, 2008, on Disney Channel. The show returned to Disney Channel on September 24, 2014, as part of Disney Replay. It premiered on the same date on Family Channel and on June 1, 2011, on Disney XD (Canada). In the United Kingdom and Ireland it premiered on January 28, 2007, on Disney Channel and on September 5, 2009, on Disney XD. It premiered on February 2, 2007, on Disney Channel (Australia and New Zealand), on April 27, 2007, on Disney Channel (Southeast Asia), and on June 9, 2007, on Disney Channel (India).


title: Medieval music

text: Medieval music encompasses the sacred and secular music of Western Europe during the Middle Ages, from approximately the 6th to 15th centuries. It is the first and longest major era of Western classical music and followed by the Renaissance music; the two eras comprise what musicologists generally term as early music, preceding the common practice period. Following the traditional division of the Middle Ages, medieval music can be divided into Early (500–1150), High (1000–1300), and Late (1300–1400) medieval music.


title: Medieval music

text: Medieval music includes liturgical music used for the church, and secular music, non-religious music; solely vocal music, such as Gregorian chant and choral music (music for a group of singers), solely instrumental music, and music that uses both voices and instruments (typically with the instruments accompanying the voices). Gregorian chant was sung by monks during Catholic Mass. The Mass is a reenactment of Christ's Last Supper, intended to provide a spiritual connection between man and God. Part of this connection was established through music.


title: Medieval music

text: During the medieval period the foundation was laid for the music notation and music theory practices that would shape Western music into the norms that developed during the Common Practice period of shared music writing practices which encompassed the Baroque era (1600–1750), Classical era (1750–1820) and Romantic era (1800–1910). The most significant of these is the development of a comprehensive music notational system which enabled composers to write out their song melodies and instrumental pieces on parchment or paper. Prior to the development of musical notation, songs and pieces had to be learned "by ear", from one person who knew a song to another person. This greatly limited how many people could be taught new music and how wide music could spread to other regions or countries. The development of music notation made it easier to disseminate (spread) songs and musical pieces to a larger number of people and to a wider geographic area. However the theoretical advances, particularly in regard to rhythm—the timing of notes—and polyphony—using multiple, interweaving melodies at the same time—are equally important to the development of Western music.


title: Medieval music

text: Medieval music was composed and, for some vocal and instrumental music, improvised for many different music genres (styles of music). Medieval music created for sacred (church use) and secular (non-religious use) was typically written by composers, except for some sacred vocal and secular instrumental music which was improvised (made up on the spot). During the earlier medieval period, the liturgical genre, predominantly Gregorian chant done by monks, was monophonic ("monophonic" means a single melodic line, without a harmony part or instrumental accompaniment). Polyphonic genres, in which multiple independent melodic lines are performed simultaneously, began to develop during the high medieval era, becoming prevalent by the later 13th and early 14th century. The development of polyphonic forms, with different voices interweaving, is often associated with the late medieval Ars nova style which flourished in the 1300s. The Ars Nova, which means "new art", was an innovative style of writing music that served as a key transition from the medieval music style to the more expressive styles of the post-1400s Renaissance music era.


title: Medieval music

text: The earliest innovations upon monophonic plainchant were heterophonic. "Heterophony" is the performance of the same melody by two different performers at the same time, in which each performer slightly alters the ornaments they are using. Another simple form of heterophony is for singers to sing the same shape of melody, but with one person singing the melody and a second person singing the melody at a higher or lower pitch. Organum, for example, expanded upon plainchant melody using an accompanying line, sung at a fixed interval (often a perfect fifth or perfect fourth away from the main melody), with a resulting alternation between a simple form of polyphony and monophony. The principles of organum date back to an anonymous 9th century tract, the "Musica enchiriadis", which established the tradition of duplicating a preexisting plainchant in parallel motion at the interval of an octave, a fifth or a fourth.


title: Medieval music

text: Of greater sophistication was the motet, which developed from the clausula genre of medieval plainchant. The motet would become the most popular form of medieval polyphony. While early motets were liturgical or sacred (designed for use in a church service), by the end of the thirteenth century the genre had expanded to include secular topics, such as courtly love. Courtly love was the respectful veneration of a lady from afar by an amorous, noble man. Many popular motets had lyrics about a man's love and adoration of beautiful, noble and much-admired woman.


title: Medieval music

text: The medieval motet developed during the Renaissance music era (after 1400). During the Renaissance, the Italian secular genre of the Madrigal became popular. Similar to the polyphonic character of the motet, madrigals featured greater fluidity and motion in the leading melody line. The madrigal form also gave rise to polyphonic canons (songs in which multiple singers sing the same melody, but starting at different times), especially in Italy where they were called "caccie." These were three-part secular pieces, which featured the two higher voices in canon, with an underlying instrumental long-note accompaniment.


title: Medieval music

text: Finally, purely instrumental music also developed during this period, both in the context of a growing theatrical tradition and for court performances for the aristocracy. Dance music, often improvised around familiar tropes, was the largest purely instrumental genre. The secular Ballata, which became very popular in Trecento Italy, had its origins, for instance, in medieval instrumental dance music.


title: Medieval music

text: Many instruments used to perform medieval music still exist in the 21st century, but in different and typically more technologically developed forms. The flute was made of wood in the medieval era rather than silver or other metal, and could be made as a side-blown or end-blown instrument. While modern orchestral flutes are usually made of metal and have complex key mechanisms and airtight pads, medieval flutes had holes that the performer had to cover with the fingers (as with the recorder). The recorder was made of wood during the medieval era, and despite the fact that in the 21st century it may be made of synthetic materials such as plastic, it has more or less retained its past form. The gemshorn is similar to the recorder as it has finger holes on its front, though it is actually a member of the ocarina family. One of the flute's predecessors, the pan flute, was popular in medieval times, and is possibly of Hellenic origin. This instrument's pipes were made of wood, and were graduated in length to produce different pitches.


title: Medieval music

text: Medieval music used many plucked string instruments like the lute, a fretted instrument with a pear-shaped hollow body which is the predecessor to the modern guitar. Other plucked stringed instruments included the mandore, gittern, citole and psaltery. The dulcimers, similar in structure to the psaltery and zither, were originally plucked, but musicians began to strike the dulcimer with hammers in the 14th century after the arrival of new metal technology that made metal strings possible.


title: Medieval music

text: The bowed lyra of the Byzantine Empire was the first recorded European bowed string instrument. Like the modern violin, a performer produced sound by moving a bow with tensioned hair over tensioned strings. The Persian geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih of the 9th century (d. 911) cited the Byzantine lyra, in his lexicographical discussion of instruments as a bowed instrument equivalent to the Arab rabāb and typical instrument of the Byzantines along with the "urghun" (organ), "shilyani" (probably a type of harp or lyre) and the "salandj" (probably a bagpipe). The hurdy-gurdy was (and still is) a mechanical violin using a rosined wooden wheel attached to a crank to "bow" its strings. Instruments without sound boxes like the jew's harp were also popular. Early versions of the pipe organ, fiddle (or vielle), and a precursor to the modern trombone (called the sackbut) were used.


title: Medieval music

text: During the medieval period the foundation was laid for the notational and theoretical practices that would shape Western music into the norms that developed during the common practice era. The most obvious of these is the development of a comprehensive music notational system; however the theoretical advances, particularly in regard to rhythm and polyphony, are equally important to the development of Western music.


title: Medieval music

text: The earliest medieval music did not have any kind of notational system. The tunes were primarily monophonic (a single melody without accompaniment) and transmitted by oral tradition. As Rome tried to centralize the various liturgies and establish the Roman rite as the primary church tradition the need to transmit these chant melodies across vast distances effectively was equally glaring. So long as music could only be taught to people "by ear," it limited the ability of the church to get different regions to sing the same melodies, since each new person would have to spend time with a person who already knew a song and learn it "by ear." The first step to fix this problem came with the introduction of various signs written above the chant texts to indicate direction of pitch movement, called "neumes".


title: Medieval music

text: The origin of "neumes" is unclear and subject to some debate; however, most scholars agree that their closest ancestors are the classic Greek and Roman grammatical signs that indicated important points of declamation by recording the rise and fall of the voice. The two basic signs of the classical grammarians were the "acutus", /, indicating a raising of the voice, and the "gravis", \, indicating a lowering of the voice. A singer reading a chant text with neume markings would be able to get a general sense of whether the melody line went up in pitch, stayed the same, or went down in pitch. Since trained singers knew the chant repertoire well, written neume markings above the text served as a reminder of the melody but did not specify the actual intervals. However, a singer reading a chant text with neume markings would not be able to sight read a song which he or she had never heard sung before; these pieces would not be possible to interpret accurately today without later versions in more precise notation systems.


title: Medieval music

text: These neumes eventually evolved into the basic symbols for "neumatic" notation, the "virga" (or "rod") which indicates a higher note and still looked like the "acutus" from which it came; and the "punctum" (or "dot") which indicates a lower note and, as the name suggests, reduced the "gravis" symbol to a point. Thus the "acutus" and the "gravis" could be combined to represent graphical vocal inflections on the syllable. This kind of notation seems to have developed no earlier than the eighth century, but by the ninth it was firmly established as the primary method of musical notation. The basic notation of the "virga" and the "punctum" remained the symbols for individual notes, but other "neumes" soon developed which showed several notes joined. These new "neumes"—called ligatures—are essentially combinations of the two original signs.


title: Medieval music

text: The first music notation was the use of dots over the lyrics to a chant, with some dots being higher or lower, giving the reader a general sense of the direction of the melody. However, this form of notation only served as a memory aid for a singer who already knew the melody. This basic "neumatic" notation could only specify the number of notes and whether they moved up or down. There was no way to indicate exact pitch, any rhythm, or even the starting note. These limitations are further indication that the "neumes" were developed as tools to support the practice of oral tradition, rather than to supplant it. However, even though it started as a mere memory aid, the worth of having more specific notation soon became evident.


title: Medieval music

text: The next development in musical notation was "heighted "neumes"", in which "neumes" were carefully placed at different heights in relation to each other. This allowed the "neumes" to give a rough indication of the size of a given interval as well as the direction. This quickly led to one or two lines, each representing a particular note, being placed on the music with all of the "neumes" relating to the earlier ones. At first, these lines had no particular meaning and instead had a letter placed at the beginning indicating which note was represented. However, the lines indicating middle C and the F a fifth below slowly became most common. Having been at first merely scratched on the parchment, the lines now were drawn in two different colored inks: usually red for F, and yellow or green for C. This was the beginning of the musical staff. The completion of the four-line staff is usually credited to Guido d' Arezzo (c. 1000–1050), one of the most important musical theorists of the Middle Ages. While older sources attribute the development of the staff to Guido, some modern scholars suggest that he acted more as a codifier of a system that was already being developed. Either way, this new notation allowed a singer to learn pieces completely unknown to him in a much shorter amount of time. However, even though chant notation had progressed in many ways, one fundamental problem remained: rhythm. The "neumatic" notational system, even in its fully developed state, did not clearly define any kind of rhythm for the singing of notes.


title: Medieval music

text: The music theory of the medieval period saw several advances over previous practice both in regard to tonal material, texture, and rhythm.


title: Medieval music

text: Concerning rhythm, this period had several dramatic changes in both its conception and notation. During the early medieval period there was no method to notate rhythm, and thus the rhythmical practice of this early music is subject to debate among scholars. The first kind of written rhythmic system developed during the 13th century and was based on a series of modes. This rhythmic plan was codified by the music theorist Johannes de Garlandia, author of the "De Mensurabili Musica" (c.1250), the treatise which defined and most completely elucidated these rhythmic modes. In his treatise Johannes de Garlandia describes six "species" of mode, or six different ways in which longs and breves can be arranged. Each mode establishes a rhythmic pattern in beats (or "tempora") within a common unit of three "tempora" (a "perfectio") that is repeated again and again. Furthermore, notation without text is based on chains of "ligature"s (the characteristic notations by which groups of notes are bound to one another).


title: Medieval music

text: The rhythmic mode can generally be determined by the patterns of ligatures used. Once a rhythmic mode had been assigned to a melodic line, there was generally little deviation from that mode, although rhythmic adjustments could be indicated by changes in the expected pattern of ligatures, even to the extent of changing to another rhythmic mode. The next step forward concerning rhythm came from the German theorist Franco of Cologne. In his treatise "Ars cantus mensurabilis" ("The Art of Mensurable Music"), written around 1280, he describes a system of notation in which differently shaped notes have entirely different rhythmic values. This is a striking change from the earlier system of de Garlandia. Whereas before the length of the individual note could only be gathered from the mode itself, this new inverted relationship made the mode dependent upon—and determined by—the individual notes or "figurae" that have incontrovertible durational values, an innovation which had a massive impact on the subsequent history of European music. Most of the surviving notated music of the 13th century uses the rhythmic modes as defined by Garlandia. The step in the evolution of rhythm came after the turn of the 13th century with the development of the "Ars Nova" style.


title: Medieval music

text: The theorist who is most well recognized in regard to this new style is Philippe de Vitry, famous for writing the "Ars Nova" ("New Art") treatise around 1320. This treatise on music gave its name to the style of this entire era. In some ways the modern system of rhythmic notation began with Vitry, who completely broke free from the older idea of the rhythmic modes. The notational predecessors of modern time meters also originate in the "Ars Nova". This new style was clearly built upon the work of Franco of Cologne. In Franco's system, the relationship between a breve and a semibreves (that is, half breves) was equivalent to that between a breve and a long: and, since for him "modus" was always perfect (grouped in threes), the "tempus" or beat was also inherently perfect and therefore contained three semibreves. Sometimes the context of the mode would require a group of only two semibreves, however, these two semibreves would always be one of normal length and one of double length, thereby taking the same space of time, and thus preserving the perfect subdivision of the "tempus". This ternary division held for all note values. In contrast, the "Ars Nova" period introduced two important changes: the first was an even smaller subdivision of notes (semibreves, could now be divided into "minim"), and the second was the development of "mensuration."


title: Medieval music

text: Mensurations could be combined in various manners to produce metrical groupings. These groupings of mensurations are the precursors of simple and compound meter. By the time of "Ars Nova", the perfect division of the "tempus" was not the only option as duple divisions became more accepted. For Vitry the breve could be divided, for an entire composition, or section of one, into groups of two or three smaller semibreves. This way, the "tempus" (the term that came to denote the division of the breve) could be either "perfect" ("tempus perfectum"), with ternary subdivision, or "imperfect" ("tempus imperfectum"), with binary subdivision. In a similar fashion, the semibreve's division (termed "prolation") could be divided into three "minima" ("prolatio perfectus" or major prolation) or two "minima" ("prolatio imperfectus" or minor prolation) and, at the higher level, the longs division (called "modus") could be three or two breves ("modus perfectus" or perfect mode, or "modus imperfectus" or imperfect mode respectively). Vitry took this a step further by indicating the proper division of a given piece at the beginning through the use of a "mensuration sign", equivalent to our modern "time signature".


title: Medieval music

text: "Tempus perfectum" was indicated by a circle, while "tempus imperfectum" was denoted by a half-circle (the current symbol , used as an alternative for the time signature, is actually a holdover of this symbol, not a letter "C" as an abbreviation for "common time", as popularly believed). While many of these innovations are ascribed to Vitry, and somewhat present in the "Ars Nova" treatise, it was a contemporary—and personal acquaintance—of de Vitry, named Johannes de Muris (or Jehan des Mars) who offered the most comprehensive and systematic treatment of the new mensural innovations of the "Ars Nova" (for a brief explanation of the mensural notation in general, see the article Renaissance music). Many scholars, citing a lack of positive attributory evidence, now consider "Vitry's" treatise to be anonymous, but this does not diminish its importance for the history of rhythmic notation. However, this makes the first definitely identifiable scholar to accept and explain the mensural system to be de Muris, who can be said to have done for it what Garlandia did for the rhythmic modes.


title: Medieval music

text: For the duration of the medieval period, most music would be composed primarily in perfect tempus, with special effects created by sections of imperfect tempus; there is a great current controversy among musicologists as to whether such sections were performed with a breve of equal length or whether it changed, and if so, at what proportion. This "Ars Nova" style remained the primary rhythmical system until the highly syncopated works of the "Ars subtilior" at the end of the 14th century, characterized by extremes of notational and rhythmic complexity. This sub-genera pushed the rhythmic freedom provided by "Ars Nova" to its limits, with some compositions having different voices written in different mensurations simultaneously. The rhythmic complexity that was realized in this music is comparable to that in the 20th century.


title: Medieval music

text: Of equal importance to the overall history of western music theory were the textural changes that came with the advent of polyphony. This practice shaped western music into the harmonically dominated music that we know today. The first accounts of this textural development were found in two anonymous yet widely circulated treatises on music, the "Musica" and the "Scolica enchiriadis". These texts are dated to sometime within the last half of the ninth century. The treatises describe a technique that seemed already to be well established in practice. This early polyphony is based on three simple and three compound intervals. The first group comprises fourths, fifths, and octaves; while the second group has octave-plus-fourths, octave-plus-fifths, and double octaves. This new practice is given the name "organum" by the author of the treatises. "Organum" can further be classified depending on the time period in which it was written. The early "organum" as described in the "enchiriadis" can be termed "strict "organum"" Strict "organum" can, in turn, be subdivided into two types: "diapente" (organum at the interval of a fifth) and "diatesseron" (organum at the interval of a fourth). However, both of these kinds of strict "organum" had problems with the musical rules of the time. If either of them paralleled an original chant for too long (depending on the mode) a tritone would result.


title: Medieval music

text: This problem was somewhat overcome with the use of a second type of "organum". This second style of "organum" was called "free "organum"". Its distinguishing factor is that the parts did not have to move only in parallel motion, but could also move in oblique, or contrary motion. This made it much easier to avoid the dreaded tritone. The final style of "organum" that developed was known as "melismatic "organum"", which was a rather dramatic departure from the rest of the polyphonic music up to this point. This new style was not note against note, but was rather one sustained line accompanied by a florid melismatic line. This final kind of "organum" was also incorporated by the most famous polyphonic composer of this time—Léonin. He united this style with measured discant passages, which used the rhythmic modes to create the pinnacle of "organum" composition. This final stage of "organum" is sometimes referred to as Notre Dame school of polyphony, since that was where Léonin (and his student Pérotin) were stationed. Furthermore, this kind of polyphony influenced all subsequent styles, with the later polyphonic genera of motets starting as a trope of existing Notre Dame "organums".


title: Medieval music

text: Another important element of medieval music theory was the system by which pitches were arranged and understood. During the Middle Ages, this systematic arrangement of a series of whole steps and half steps, what we now call a scale, was known as a mode. The modal system worked like the scales of today, insomuch that it provided the rules and material for melodic writing. The eight church modes are: "Dorian", "Hypodorian", "Phrygian", "Hypophrygian", "Lydian", "Hypolydian", "Mixolydian", and "Hypomixolydian". Much of the information concerning these modes, as well as the practical application of them, was codified in the 11th century by the theorist Johannes Afflighemensis. In his work he describes three defining elements to each mode: the final (or "finalis)", the reciting tone ("tenor" or "confinalis"), and the range (or "ambitus"). The "finalis" is the tone that serves as the focal point for the mode and, as the name suggests, is almost always used as the final tone. The reciting tone is the tone that serves as the primary focal point in the melody (particularly internally). It is generally also the tone most often repeated in the piece, and finally the range delimits the upper and lower tones for a given mode. The eight modes can be further divided into four categories based on their final ("finalis").


title: Medieval music

text: Medieval theorists called these pairs "maneriae" and labeled them according to the Greek ordinal numbers. Those modes that have d, e, f, and g as their final are put into the groups "protus", "deuterus", "tritus", and "tetrardus" respectively. These can then be divided further based on whether the mode is "authentic" or "plagal." These distinctions deal with the range of the mode in relation to the final. The authentic modes have a range that is about an octave (one tone above or below is allowed) and start on the final, whereas the plagal modes, while still covering about an octave, start a perfect fourth below the authentic. Another interesting aspect of the modal system is the universal allowance for altering B to B no matter what the mode. The inclusion of this tone has several uses, but one that seems particularly common is in order to avoid melodic difficulties caused, once again, by the tritone.


title: Medieval music

text: These ecclesiastical modes, although they have Greek names, have little relationship to the modes as set out by Greek theorists. Rather, most of the terminology seems to be a misappropriation on the part of the medieval theorists Although the church modes have no relation to the ancient Greek modes, the overabundance of Greek terminology does point to an interesting possible origin in the liturgical melodies of the Byzantine tradition. This system is called "octoechos" and is also divided into eight categories, called "echoi".


title: Medieval music

text: For specific medieval music theorists, see also: Isidore of Seville, Aurelian of Réôme, Odo of Cluny, Guido of Arezzo, Hermannus Contractus, Johannes Cotto (Johannes Afflighemensis), Johannes de Muris, Franco of Cologne, Johannes de Garlandia (Johannes Gallicus), Anonymous IV, Marchetto da Padova (Marchettus of Padua), Jacques of Liège, Johannes de Grocheo, Petrus de Cruce (Pierre de la Croix), and Philippe de Vitry.


title: Medieval music

text: Chant (or plainsong) is a monophonic sacred (single, unaccompanied melody) form which represents the earliest known music of the Christian church. Chant developed separately in several European centres. Although the most important were Rome, Hispania, Gaul, Milan, and Ireland, there were others as well. These styles were all developed to support the regional liturgies used when celebrating the Mass there. Each area developed its own chant and rules for celebration. In Spain and Portugal, Mozarabic chant was used and shows the influence of North African music. The Mozarabic liturgy even survived through Muslim rule, though this was an isolated strand and this music was later suppressed in an attempt to enforce conformity on the entire liturgy. In Milan, Ambrosian chant, named after St. Ambrose, was the standard, while Beneventan chant developed around Benevento, another Italian liturgical center. Gallican chant was used in Gaul, and Celtic chant in Ireland and Great Britain.


title: Medieval music

text: Around AD 1011, the Roman Catholic Church wanted to standardize the Mass and chant across its empire. At this time, Rome was the religious centre of western Europe, and Paris was the political centre. The standardization effort consisted mainly of combining these two (Roman and Gallican) regional liturgies. Pope Gregory I (540–604) and Charlemagne (742–814) sent trained singers throughout the Holy Roman Empire (800|962–1806) to teach this new form of chant. This body of chant became known as Gregorian Chant, named after Pope Gregory I. By the 12th and 13th centuries, Gregorian chant had superseded all the other Western chant traditions, with the exception of the Ambrosian chant in Milan and the Mozarabic chant in a few specially designated Spanish chapels. Hildegard von Bingen (1098–1179) was one of the earliest known female composers. She wrote many monophonic works for the Catholic Church, almost all of them for female voices.


title: Medieval music

text: Around the end of the 9th century, singers in monasteries such as St. Gall in Switzerland began experimenting with adding another part to the chant, generally a voice in parallel motion, singing mostly in perfect fourths or fifths above the original tune (see interval). This development is called organum and represents the beginnings of counterpoint and, ultimately, harmony. Over the next several centuries, organum developed in several ways.


title: Medieval music

text: The most significant of these developments was the creation of "florid organum" around 1100, sometimes known as the school of St. Martial (named after a monastery in south-central France, which contains the best-preserved manuscript of this repertory). In "florid organum" the original tune would be sung in long notes while an accompanying voice would sing many notes to each one of the original, often in a highly elaborate fashion, all the while emphasizing the perfect consonances (fourths, fifths and octaves), as in the earlier organa. Later developments of organum occurred in England, where the interval of the third was particularly favoured, and where organa were likely improvised against an existing chant melody, and at Notre Dame in Paris, which was to be the centre of musical creative activity throughout the thirteenth century.


title: Medieval music

text: Much of the music from the early medieval period is anonymous. Some of the names may have been poets and lyric writers, and the tunes for which they wrote words may have been composed by others. Attribution of monophonic music of the medieval period is not always reliable. Surviving manuscripts from this period include the Musica Enchiriadis, Codex Calixtinus of Santiago de Compostela, the Magnus Liber, and the Winchester Troper. For information about specific composers or poets writing during the early medieval period, see Pope Gregory I, St. Godric, Hildegard of Bingen, Hucbald, Notker Balbulus, Odo of Arezzo, Odo of Cluny, and Tutilo.


title: Medieval music

text: Another musical tradition of Europe originating during the early Middle Ages was the liturgical drama.


title: Medieval music

text: Liturgical drama developed possibly in the 10th century from the tropes—poetic embellishments of the liturgical texts. One of the tropes, the so-called Quem Quaeritis, belonging to the liturgy of Easter morning, developed into a short play around the year 950. The oldest surviving written source is the Winchester Troper. Around the year 1000 it was sung widely in Northern Europe.


title: Medieval music

text: Shortly, a similar Christmas play was developed, musically and textually following the Easter one, and other plays followed.


title: Medieval music

text: There is a controversy among musicologists as to the instrumental accompaniment of such plays, given that the stage directions, very elaborate and precise in other respects, do not request any participation of instruments. These dramas were performed by monks, nuns and priests. In contrast to secular plays, which were spoken, the liturgical drama was always sung. Many have been preserved sufficiently to allow modern reconstruction and performance (for example the "Play of Daniel", which has been recently recorded at least ten times).


title: Medieval music

text: The Goliards were itinerant poet-musicians of Europe from the tenth to the middle of the thirteenth century. Most were scholars or ecclesiastics, and they wrote and sang in Latin. Although many of the poems have survived, very little of the music has. They were possibly influential—even decisively so—on the troubadour-trouvère tradition which was to follow. Most of their poetry is secular and, while some of the songs celebrate religious ideals, others are frankly profane, dealing with drunkenness, debauchery and lechery. One of the most important extant sources of Goliards chansons is the Carmina Burana.


title: Medieval music

text: The flowering of the Notre Dame school of polyphony from around 1150 to 1250 corresponded to the equally impressive achievements in Gothic architecture: indeed the centre of activity was at the cathedral of Notre Dame itself. Sometimes the music of this period is called the Parisian school, or Parisian organum, and represents the beginning of what is conventionally known as "Ars antiqua". This was the period in which rhythmic notation first appeared in western music, mainly a context-based method of rhythmic notation known as the rhythmic modes.


title: Medieval music

text: This was also the period in which concepts of formal structure developed which were attentive to proportion, texture, and architectural effect. Composers of the period alternated florid and discant organum (more note-against-note, as opposed to the succession of many-note melismas against long-held notes found in the florid type), and created several new musical forms: clausulae, which were melismatic sections of organa extracted and fitted with new words and further musical elaboration; conductus, which were songs for one or more voices to be sung rhythmically, most likely in a procession of some sort; and tropes, which were additions of new words and sometimes new music to sections of older chant. All of these genres save one were based upon chant; that is, one of the voices, (usually three, though sometimes four) nearly always the lowest (the tenor at this point) sang a chant melody, though with freely composed note-lengths, over which the other voices sang organum. The exception to this method was the conductus, a two-voice composition that was freely composed in its entirety.


title: Medieval music

text: The motet, one of the most important musical forms of the high Middle Ages and Renaissance, developed initially during the Notre Dame period out of the clausula, especially the form using multiple voices as elaborated by Pérotin, who paved the way for this particularly by replacing many of his predecessor (as canon of the cathedral) Léonin's lengthy florid clausulae with substitutes in a discant style. Gradually, there came to be entire books of these substitutes, available to be fitted in and out of the various chants. Since, in fact, there were more than can possibly have been used in context, it is probable that the clausulae came to be performed independently, either in other parts of the mass, or in private devotions. The clausula, thus practised, became the motet when troped with non-liturgical words, and this further developed into a form of great elaboration, sophistication and subtlety in the fourteenth century, the period of "Ars nova". Surviving manuscripts from this era include the Montpellier Codex, Bamberg Codex, and Las Huelgas Codex.


title: Medieval music

text: Composers of this time include Léonin, Pérotin, W. de Wycombe, Adam de St. Victor, and Petrus de Cruce (Pierre de la Croix). Petrus is credited with the innovation of writing more than three semibreves to fit the length of a breve. Coming before the innovation of imperfect tempus, this practice inaugurated the era of what are now called "Petronian" motets. These late 13th-century works are in three to four parts and have multiple texts sung simultaneously. Originally, the tenor line (from the Latin "tenere", "to hold") held a preexisting liturgical chant line in the original Latin, while the text of the one, two, or even three voices above, called the "voces organales", provided commentary on the liturgical subject either in Latin or in the vernacular French. The rhythmic values of the "voces organales" decreased as the parts multiplied, with the "duplum" (the part above the tenor) having smaller rhythmic values than the tenor, the "triplum" (the line above the "duplum") having smaller rhythmic values than the "duplum", and so on. As time went by, the texts of the "voces organales" became increasingly secular in nature and had less and less overt connection to the liturgical text in the tenor line.


title: Medieval music

text: The increasing rhythmic complexity seen in Petronian motets would be a fundamental characteristic of the 14th century, though music in France, Italy, and England would take quite different paths during that time.


title: Medieval music

text: The Cantigas de Santa Maria ("Canticles of St. Mary") are 420 poems with musical notation, written in Galician-Portuguese during the reign of Alfonso X "The Wise" (1221–1284). The manuscript was probably compiled from 1270 to 1280, and is highly decorated, with an illumination every 10 poems. The illuminations often depict musicians making the manuscript a particularly important source of medieval music iconography. Though the "Cantigas" are often attributed to Alfonso, it remains unclear as to whether he was a composer himself, or perhaps a compiler; Alfonso is known to regularly invited musicians and poets to court whom were undoubtedly involved in the "Cantigas" production.


title: Medieval music

text: It is one of the largest collections of monophonic (solo) songs from the Middle Ages and is characterized by the mention of the Virgin Mary in every song, while every tenth song is a hymn. The manuscripts have survived in four codices: two at El Escorial, one at Madrid's National Library, and one in Florence, Italy. Some have colored miniatures showing pairs of musicians playing a wide variety of instruments.


title: Medieval music

text: The music of the troubadours and trouvères was a vernacular tradition of monophonic secular song, probably accompanied by instruments, sung by professional, occasionally itinerant, musicians who were as skilled as poets as they were singers and instrumentalists. The language of the troubadours was Occitan (also known as the langue d'oc, or Provençal); the language of the trouvères was Old French (also known as langue d'oil). The period of the troubadours corresponded to the flowering of cultural life in Provence which lasted through the twelfth century and into the first decade of the thirteenth. Typical subjects of troubadour song were war, chivalry and courtly love—the love of an idealized woman from afar. The period of the troubadours wound down after the Albigensian Crusade, the fierce campaign by Pope Innocent III to eliminate the Cathar heresy (and northern barons' desire to appropriate the wealth of the south). Surviving troubadours went either to Portugal, Spain, northern Italy or northern France (where the trouvère tradition lived on), where their skills and techniques contributed to the later developments of secular musical culture in those places.


title: Medieval music

text: The trouvères and troubadours shared similar musical styes, but the trouvères were generally noblemen. The music of the trouvères was similar to that of the troubadours, but was able to survive into the thirteenth century unaffected by the Albigensian Crusade. Most of the more than two thousand surviving trouvère songs include music, and show a sophistication as great as that of the poetry it accompanies.


title: Medieval music

text: The Minnesänger tradition was the Germanic counterpart to the activity of the troubadours and trouvères to the west. Unfortunately, few sources survive from the time; the sources of Minnesang are mostly from two or three centuries after the peak of the movement, leading to some controversy over the accuracy of these sources. Among the Minnesängers with surviving music are Wolfram von Eschenbach, Walther von der Vogelweide, and Niedhart von Reuenthal.


title: Medieval music

text: In the Middle Ages, Galician-Portuguese was the language used in nearly all of Iberia for lyric poetry. From this language derive both modern Galician and Portuguese. The Galician-Portuguese school, which was influenced to some extent (mainly in certain formal aspects) by the Occitan troubadours, is first documented at the end of the twelfth century and lasted until the middle of the fourteenth.


title: Medieval music

text: The earliest extant composition in this school is usually agreed to be "Ora faz ost' o senhor de Navarra" by the Portuguese João Soares de Paiva, usually dated just before or after 1200. The troubadours of the movement, not to be confused with the Occitan troubadours (who frequented courts in nearby León and Castile), wrote almost entirely "cantigas". Beginning probably around the middle of the thirteenth century, these songs, known also as "cantares" or "trovas", began to be compiled in collections known as "cancioneiros" (songbooks). Three such anthologies are known: the Cancioneiro da Ajuda, the Cancioneiro Colocci-Brancuti (or Cancioneiro da Biblioteca Nacional de Lisboa), and the Cancioneiro da Vaticana. In addition to these there is the priceless collection of over 400 Galician-Portuguese "cantigas" in the Cantigas de Santa Maria, which tradition attributes to Alfonso X.


title: Medieval music

text: The Galician-Portuguese "cantigas" can be divided into three basic genres: male-voiced love poetry, called "cantigas de amor" (or "cantigas d'amor", in Galician-Portuguese spelling) female-voiced love poetry, called "cantigas de amigo" (or "cantigas d'amigo"); and poetry of insult and mockery called "cantigas de escárnio e maldizer" (or "cantigas d'escarnho e de mal dizer"). All three are lyric genres in the technical sense that they were strophic songs with either musical accompaniment or introduction on a stringed instrument. But all three genres also have dramatic elements, leading early scholars to characterize them as lyric-dramatic.


title: Medieval music

text: The origins of the cantigas d'amor are usually traced to Provençal and Old French lyric poetry, but formally and rhetorically they are quite different. The "cantigas d'amigo" are probably rooted in a native song tradition, though this view has been contested. The "cantigas d'escarnho e maldizer" may also (according to Lang) have deep local roots. The latter two genres (totalling around 900 texts) make the Galician-Portuguese lyric unique in the entire panorama of medieval Romance poetry.


title: Medieval music

text: The beginning of the "Ars nova" is one of the few clear chronological divisions in medieval music, since it corresponds to the publication of the "Roman de Fauvel", a huge compilation of poetry and music, in 1310 and 1314. The "Roman de Fauvel" is a satire on abuses in the medieval church, and is filled with medieval motets, lais, rondeaux and other new secular forms. While most of the music is anonymous, it contains several pieces by Philippe de Vitry, one of the first composers of the isorhythmic motet, a development which distinguishes the fourteenth century. The isorhythmic motet was perfected by Guillaume de Machaut, the finest composer of the time.


title: Medieval music

text: During the "Ars nova" era, secular music acquired a polyphonic sophistication formerly found only in sacred music, a development not surprising considering the secular character of the early Renaissance (while this music is typically considered "medieval", the social forces that produced it were responsible for the beginning of the literary and artistic Renaissance in Italy—the distinction between Middle Ages and Renaissance is a blurry one, especially considering arts as different as music and painting). The term ""Ars nova"" (new art, or new technique) was coined by Philippe de Vitry in his treatise of that name (probably written in 1322), in order to distinguish the practice from the music of the immediately preceding age.


title: Medieval music

text: The dominant secular genre of the Ars Nova was the "chanson", as it would continue to be in France for another two centuries. These chansons were composed in musical forms corresponding to the poetry they set, which were in the so-called "formes fixes" of "rondeau", "ballade", and "virelai". These forms significantly affected the development of musical structure in ways that are felt even today; for example, the "ouvert-clos" rhyme-scheme shared by all three demanded a musical realization which contributed directly to the modern notion of antecedent and consequent phrases. It was in this period, too, in which began the long tradition of setting the mass ordinary. This tradition started around mid-century with isolated or paired settings of Kyries, Glorias, etc., but Machaut composed what is thought to be the first complete mass conceived as one composition. The sound world of Ars Nova music is very much one of linear primacy and rhythmic complexity. "Resting" intervals are the fifth and octave, with thirds and sixths considered dissonances. Leaps of more than a sixth in individual voices are not uncommon, leading to speculation of instrumental participation at least in secular performance. Surviving French manuscripts include the Ivrea Codex and the Apt Codex.


title: Medieval music

text: For information about specific French composers writing in late medieval era, see Jehan de Lescurel, Philippe de Vitry, Guillaume de Machaut, Borlet, Solage, and François Andrieu.


title: Medieval music

text: Most of the music of "Ars nova" was French in origin; however, the term is often loosely applied to all of the music of the fourteenth century, especially to include the secular music in Italy. There this period was often referred to as "Trecento". Italian music has always been known for its lyrical or melodic character, and this goes back to the 14th century in many respects. Italian secular music of this time (what little surviving liturgical music there is, is similar to the French except for somewhat different notation) featured what has been called the "cantalina" style, with a florid top voice supported by two (or even one; a fair amount of Italian Trecento music is for only two voices) that are more regular and slower moving. This type of texture remained a feature of Italian music in the popular 15th and 16th century secular genres as well, and was an important influence on the eventual development of the trio texture that revolutionized music in the 17th.


title: Medieval music

text: There were three main forms for secular works in the Trecento. One was the madrigal, not the same as that of 150–250 years later, but with a verse/refrain-like form. Three-line stanzas, each with different words, alternated with a two-line "ritornello", with the same text at each appearance. Perhaps we can see the seeds of the subsequent late-Renaissance and Baroque ritornello in this device; it too returns again and again, recognizable each time, in contrast with its surrounding disparate sections. Another form, the "caccia" ("chase,") was written for two voices in a canon at the unison. Sometimes, this form also featured a ritornello, which was occasionally also in a canonic style. Usually, the name of this genre provided a double meaning, since the texts of "caccia" were primarily about hunts and related outdoor activities, or at least action-filled scenes; second meaning was that a voice "caccia" (follows, run after) the preceding one. The third main form was the "ballata", which was roughly equivalent to the French "virelai".


title: Medieval music

text: Surviving Italian manuscripts include the Squarcialupi Codex and the Rossi Codex. For information about specific Italian composers writing in the late medieval era, see Francesco Landini, Gherardello da Firenze, Andrea da Firenze, Lorenzo da Firenze, Giovanni da Firenze (aka Giovanni da Cascia), Bartolino da Padova, Jacopo da Bologna, Donato da Cascia, Lorenzo Masini, Niccolò da Perugia, and Maestro Piero.


title: Medieval music

text: The Geisslerlieder were the songs of wandering bands of flagellants, who sought to appease the wrath of an angry God by penitential music accompanied by mortification of their bodies. There were two separate periods of activity of Geisslerlied: one around the middle of the thirteenth century, from which, unfortunately, no music survives (although numerous lyrics do); and another from 1349, for which both words and music survive intact due to the attention of a single priest who wrote about the movement and recorded its music. This second period corresponds to the spread of the Black Death in Europe, and documents one of the most terrible events in European history. Both periods of Geisslerlied activity were mainly in Germany.


title: Medieval music

text: As often seen at the end of any musical era, the end of the medieval era is marked by a highly manneristic style known as "Ars subtilior". In some ways, this was an attempt to meld the French and Italian styles. This music was highly stylized, with a rhythmic complexity that was not matched until the 20th century. In fact, not only was the rhythmic complexity of this repertoire largely unmatched for five and a half centuries, with extreme syncopations, mensural trickery, and even examples of "augenmusik" (such as a chanson by Baude Cordier written out in manuscript in the shape of a heart), but also its melodic material was quite complex as well, particularly in its interaction with the rhythmic structures. Already discussed under Ars Nova has been the practice of isorhythm, which continued to develop through late-century and in fact did not achieve its highest degree of sophistication until early in the 15th century. Instead of using isorhythmic techniques in one or two voices, or trading them among voices, some works came to feature a pervading isorhythmic texture which rivals the integral serialism of the 20th century in its systematic ordering of rhythmic and tonal elements. The term "mannerism" was applied by later scholars, as it often is, in response to an impression of sophistication being practised for its own sake, a malady which some authors have felt infected the "Ars subtilior".


title: Medieval music

text: One of the most important extant sources of Ars Subtilior chansons is the Chantilly Codex. For information about specific composers writing music in "Ars subtilior" style, see Anthonello de Caserta, Philippus de Caserta (aka Philipoctus de Caserta), Johannes Ciconia, Matteo da Perugia, Lorenzo da Firenze, Grimace, Jacob Senleches, and Baude Cordier.


title: Medieval music

text: Demarcating the end of the medieval era and the beginning of the Renaissance era, with regard to the composition of music, is difficult. While the music of the fourteenth century is fairly obviously medieval in conception, the music of the early fifteenth century is often conceived as belonging to a transitional period, not only retaining some of the ideals of the end of the Middle Ages (such as a type of polyphonic writing in which the parts differ widely from each other in character, as each has its specific textural function), but also showing some of the characteristic traits of the Renaissance (such as the increasingly international style developing through the diffusion of Franco-Flemish musicians throughout Europe, and in terms of texture an increasing equality of parts). Music historians do not agree on when the Renaissance era began, but most historians agree that England was still a medieval society in the early fifteenth century (see periodization issues of the Middle Ages). While there is no consensus, 1400 is a useful marker, because it was around that time that the Renaissance came into full swing in Italy.


title: Medieval music

text: The increasing reliance on the interval of the third as a consonance is one of the most pronounced features of transition into the Renaissance. Polyphony, in use since the 12th century, became increasingly elaborate with highly independent voices throughout the 14th century. With John Dunstaple and other English composers, partly through the local technique of faburden (an improvisatory process in which a chant melody and a written part predominantly in parallel sixths above it are ornamented by one sung in perfect fourths below the latter, and which later took hold on the continent as "fauxbordon"), the interval of the third emerges as an important musical development; because of this "Contenance Angloise" ("English countenance"), English composers' music is often regarded as the first to sound less truly bizarre to 2000s-era audiences who are not trained in music history.


title: Medieval music

text: English stylistic tendencies in this regard had come to fruition and began to influence continental composers as early as the 1420s, as can be seen in works of the young Dufay, among others. While the Hundred Years' War continued, English nobles, armies, their chapels and retinues, and therefore some of their composers, travelled in France and performed their music there; it must also of course be remembered that the English controlled portions of northern France at this time. English manuscripts include the Worcester Fragments, the Old St. Andrews Music Book, the Old Hall Manuscript, and Egerton Manuscript. For information about specific composers who are considered transitional between the medieval and the Renaissance, see Zacara da Teramo, Paolo da Firenze, Giovanni Mazzuoli, Antonio da Cividale, Antonius Romanus, Bartolomeo da Bologna, Roy Henry, Arnold de Lantins, Leonel Power, and John Dunstaple.


title: Medieval music

text: An early composer from the Franco-Flemish School of the Renaissance was Johannes Ockeghem (1410/1425 –1497). He was the most famous member of the Franco-Flemish School in the last half of the 15th century, and is often considered the most influential composer between Dufay and Josquin des Prez. Ockeghem probably studied with Gilles Binchois, and at least was closely associated with him at the Burgundian court. Antoine Busnois wrote a motet in honor of Ockeghem. Ockeghem is a direct link from the Burgundian style to the next generation of Netherlanders, such as Obrecht and Josquin. A strong influence on Josquin des Prez and the subsequent generation of Netherlanders, Ockeghem was famous throughout Europe Charles VII for his expressive music, although he was equally renowned for his technical prowess.


title: Medieval music

text: The musical styles of Pérotin influenced 20th-century composers such as John Luther Adams and minimalist composer Steve Reich.


title: Medieval music

text: Bardcore, which involves remixing famous pop songs to have a medieval instrumentation, became a popular meme in 2020.


title: Samantha Mumba

text: Samantha Tamania Anne Cecilia Mumba (born 18 January 1983) is an Irish singer-songwriter, dancer, actress, fashion model and TV presenter. In 2000, at the age of 17, she shot to fame with the release of her debut single "Gotta Tell You", which reached the top five in Ireland, United Kingdom and the United States. It has since been listed in "Billboard"s 100 Greatest Choruses of the 21st Century. Her album of the same name was released later that year and reached number four in Ireland and number nine in the UK. She has had seven top five hits in Ireland and six top ten hits in the United Kingdom.


title: Samantha Mumba

text: Mumba has also pursued an acting career, making her film debut in the 2002 film "The Time Machine", as well as appearing in a number of Irish independent films. She returned to music in 2013, and announced plans to release a second album in 2019; however this never came to fruition. Mumba released the singles "Cool" and "Process" in 2020.


title: Samantha Mumba

text: Mumba was born in Dublin, Ireland. Her father, Peter Mumba (died March 2020) was from Zambia and was formerly an aircraft engineer; her mother is Irish.


title: Samantha Mumba

text: When Mumba was 15 she was discovered on a Raidió Teilifís Éireann (RTÉ–Radio Television Ireland) talent show "Let Me Entertain You" by Irish music executive Louis Walsh (manager of Boyzone and Westlife). Walsh was impressed by her talent and she was signed to Polydor Records.


title: Samantha Mumba

text: Mumba subsequently spent several months moving between Denmark, Sweden, UK, and Ireland, where she co-wrote and recorded her debut album, "Gotta Tell You". She eventually dropped out of school to focus on her music career, explaining that it was becoming difficult to stay in school and work on her music.


title: Samantha Mumba

text: Mumba sings contralto. Her first single, "Gotta Tell You", was released in 2000 and peaked at number one in Ireland and New Zealand, number two in the UK, number three in Australia, and number four in the US, as well as reaching the top twenty in several countries across Europe. "Gotta Tell You" has since been listed in "Billboard"s 100 Catchiest Choruses of the 21st Century


title: Samantha Mumba

text: At the age of 17 Mumba released her debut album, "Gotta Tell You", in late 2000. The album reached the top ten in both Ireland and the UK, and number 67 on the "Billboard" 200. Following the success of "Gotta Tell You", she was chosen to play Mara in "The Time Machine". Directed by Simon Wells, H.G.Wells' great-grandson, Samantha co-starred with Guy Pearce and her real-life brother, Omero. At the Teen Choice Awards in 2001 and 2002, she was nominated for Choice Music: Best Breakout Artist and Choice Movie: Best Breakout Actress for the film "The Time Machine", respectively.


title: Samantha Mumba

text: Mumba and fellow teen star Aaron Carter performed a concert at Disney MGM Studios for the Disney Channel titled "Aaron Carter and Samantha Mumba in Concert", which was then released on DVD. A year later, she and Carter also appeared on an episode of "All That".


title: Samantha Mumba

text: In 2001, Mumba contributed to the track "You Raise Me Up" by the Celtic Tenors. An EP titled "Samantha Sings Christmas" was released at Christmas 2001, which included covers of "White Christmas" and "All I Want for Christmas Is You". "Samantha Sings Christmas" was also included as a bonus disc on some editions of "Gotta Tell You".


title: Samantha Mumba

text: In 2002, Mumba released a new single "I'm Right Here". The video features Damian Marley, son of Bob Marley. The single became Mumba's fifth UK and Irish top five single. Rumours circulated that Mumba was getting ready to release a second album, "Woman" and that due to the poor sales of the lead single "I'm Right Here" in the US and a short lived time on the UK chart, she was dropped from her label. However, Mumba has since confirmed she was unable to release any new material anyway, due to contract restrictions following the restructure of Polydor Records, which resulted in her being dropped. In 2007, she stated on the "Late Late Show" that there never was a second album, and the tracks leaked on the internet were attempts by her to find a new sound.


title: Samantha Mumba

text: Mumba's second venture into films was in 2003, where she appeared in the film "Spin the Bottle". In October 2006, a compilation album, "The Collection", was released. The album features songs from "Gotta Tell You", B-sides and two new tracks including her single "I'm Right Here".


title: Samantha Mumba

text: In June 2013, Mumba confirmed her musical comeback on Twitter. On 16 August 2013 she appeared on the RTÉ television show "The Hit" to compete for a spot in the show's final. The song selected for chart battle was "Somebody Like Me" which was released on iTunes immediately afterwards and competed against "Thinking of You" by Irish band Republic of Loose. The song peaked at number five on the Irish Singles Chart, marking her first hit single in 11 years.


title: Samantha Mumba

text: On 25 June 2015, Mumba played a gig as part of the Dublin Pride Festival, which was described as “fierce glam”. In early 2017, she participated in a celebrity version of "MasterChef Ireland" and went on to fill in as co-host on "The 6 O'Clock Show" while Lucy Kennedy took maternity leave. In 2018, she made her comeback onto British television, firstly as a guest and then a panellist on "Loose Women" and has confirmed her return to music, sharing pictures of herself in the studio with the likes of Wanya Morris and MNEK. In January 2019 she confirmed that she hoped to release a second album before the end of the year, but this did not happen.


title: Samantha Mumba

text: On 27 November 2020, Mumba released the single "Cool", the lead single from her upcoming album, which Mumba has described as "sexy", "different" and "more adult". She followed this with the release of single "Process", a song she had written after the death of her father.


title: Samantha Mumba

text: Shortly after the success of "Gotta Tell You", Mumba became the face of Reebok appearing in print advertising in the UK and Ireland for the Quest range.


title: Samantha Mumba

text: Around the same time, Mumba was also seen as the face of the fashion designer Louise Kennedy's spring/summer collection.


title: Samantha Mumba

text: In 2004, she was chosen to model the World's Most Expensive Dress. A £5m diamond cobweb dress, created by Scott Henshall, which was showcased at the London premier for "Spider-Man 2".


title: Samantha Mumba

text: Shortly after, she became the face of Dior ambassador and launched the Dior Watch Collection in Ireland.


title: Samantha Mumba

text: In 2005, Mumba modelled for the Ultimo Per Amore range, available exclusively at the Irish main-street chain Dunnes Stores.


title: Samantha Mumba

text: Mumba became engaged to policeman Torray Scales in June 2011. The couple married in Los Angeles on 24 February 2012. In September 2014, she announced that she was pregnant with her first child.


title: Samantha Mumba

text: In February 2015, she escaped uninjured from a three car pile-up in Los Angeles just weeks before her due date.


title: Great Expectations (1998 film)

text: Great Expectations is a 1998 American romantic drama film. A contemporary film adaptation of Charles Dickens’s 1861 novel of the same name, co-written and directed by Alfonso Cuarón and starring Ethan Hawke, Gwyneth Paltrow, Hank Azaria, Robert De Niro, Anne Bancroft and Chris Cooper. It is known for having moved the setting of the original novel from 1812-1827 London to 1990s New York. The film is an abridged modernization of Dickens's 1861 novel, with the hero's name having been changed from Pip to Finn, and the characters of Miss Havisham having been renamed Nora Dinsmoor and Abel Magwitch being renamed to Arthur Lustig. The film received mixed reviews.


title: Great Expectations (1998 film)

text: Ten-year-old Finnegan "Finn" Bell, an orphan being raised by his elder sister Maggie and her boyfriend Joe, is overpowered by an escaped convict while playing on a beach on the Gulf Coast. Finn brings him food, alcohol and bolt cutters to get the iron shackles off his leg, and is taken hostage. The convict tries to escape to Mexico but the police seize his small boat. The convict hides on a buoy and the police tow Finn back to land. Finn sees on the news that the now recaptured convict was mobster Arthur Lustig who had escaped from death row.


title: Great Expectations (1998 film)

text: Joe is called to do gardening at "Paradiso Perduto" ("Lost Paradise" in Italian), the mansion of the richest woman in Florida, Nora Dinsmoor, who has lived as a recluse since her fiancé left her at the altar years before. Finn accompanies Joe and encounters Dinsmoor's young niece, the beautiful Estella. Dinsmoor invites Finn to come back and play with Estella. She behaves haughtily on Finn's first visit, but her aunt forces her to sit for an impromptu portrait by Finn. Dinsmoor warns Finn that he will fall in love with Estella and have his heart broken.


title: Great Expectations (1998 film)

text: Several years pass. Maggie runs away from home and Joe raises Finn alone. Finn goes to Paradiso Perduto every Saturday and develops into a talented painter. Although Estella is at times flirtatious, even attempting to seduce Finn at one point, she leaves to study in Europe without telling him. Heartbroken, Finn gives up painting and his visits to Paradiso Perduto.


title: Great Expectations (1998 film)

text: Seven years later, a lawyer tells Finn that a gallery owner in New York City wants to show his work. Finn is perplexed but agrees to go. There he encounters Estella in the park. She is in a relationship with a wealthy businessman, Walter. She resumes her flirtatious behavior towards Finn, posing nude in his apartment and arousing Walter's jealousy.


title: Great Expectations (1998 film)

text: Eventually Finn, frustrated by Estella's evasiveness, lures her away from Walter and the two have sex. She tells him she is going to visit her aunt briefly, but will be back for the opening of Finn's show. But on opening night she fails to show up. But Uncle Joe does, and inadvertently embarrasses Finn with his crudeness. Finn goes to Estella's abode in New York, hoping to find her, but instead finds Ms. Dinsmoor, who reveals that she came to New York to attend Estella's wedding to Walter, which upsets Finn. She then tells him that Estella was using him to make Walter jealous and convince him to marry her. When she realizes how seriously she has upset him, she is remorseful and apologizes for her manipulation, but it is too late.


title: Great Expectations (1998 film)

text: Back at his studio, Finn finds a strange bearded man wanting to see him. It is Arthur Lustig! Finn is first incredulous, then uncomfortable with his presence. As Lustig leaves, his comments make Finn realize that he, not the wealthy Ms. Dinsmoor, has in fact been Finn's benefactor during Finn's entire time in New York. Finn goes with him to the subway station.


title: Great Expectations (1998 film)

text: Waiting for a train, Lustig sees three unsavory acquaintances on the opposite platform. Finn and Lustig outmaneuver them and get on a train. They think they are safe, but one of them comes through the car and brutally stabs Lustig. As he bleeds to death in Finn's arms, he reveals that he has been Finn's benefactor in return for the kindness Finn showed him as a child.


title: Great Expectations (1998 film)

text: Devastated, Finn drops everything, goes to Paris to study art, and becomes successful. He returns to Florida to visit his Uncle Joe. Ms. Dinsmoor has died, but he visits her house anyway. Sitting in the garden, he thinks he sees an apparition of Estella as a child. Following the little girl through to the back dock, he finds her mother, who turns out to be Estella, now divorced. She admits she has often thought of him, and asks him to forgive her, which he does. They hold hands looking out over the sea.


title: Great Expectations (1998 film)

text: Director Alfonso Cuarón was a big fan of Ethan Hawke's work in "Before Sunrise" (1995) and strongly wanted him to play the lead.


title: Great Expectations (1998 film)

text: Hawke was initially not interested - he felt that the themes of class present in the story would be better served in an American context if the main character was Latino or African American. However, after meeting with Cuarón and being impressed with the director's enthusiasm for the project, Hawke agreed.


title: Great Expectations (1998 film)

text: The voiceovers were not in the original screenplay. Once the film was edited together, producer Art Linson felt voiceover was needed to maintain connective tissue in the hyperstylized world Cuaron had created. Having previously worked with screenwriter David Mamet on "The Edge" and "The Untouchables", Linson hired him to write the voiceovers. Mamet was not credited in the final film.


title: Great Expectations (1998 film)

text: The name of Hawke's character was undecided for a while, with the original novel's Pip sounding unpalatable given this version's modern day setting. The production later settled on Finnegan, or Finn, the name of Hawke's dog.


title: Great Expectations (1998 film)

text: The song "Siren" was written for this film by Tori Amos. The soundtrack also includes songs by popular artists such as Pulp, Scott Weiland, Iggy Pop, Chris Cornell and The Verve Pipe. Duncan Sheik's contribution, the song "Wishful Thinking", was released as a single from the soundtrack and Poe's "Today" was released as a promo. The film's score was written by Scottish composer Patrick Doyle, a veteran of many literary adaptations and frequent collaborator of Kenneth Branagh, and featured classical guitarist John Williams.


title: Great Expectations (1998 film)

text: Several variations of the song "Bésame Mucho" are heard throughout the film. The primary recording, however, and the version released on the soundtrack, is performed by Cesaria Evora.


title: Great Expectations (1998 film)

text: The soundtrack also featured the breakthrough single "Life in Mono", which became a major hit, charting on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: Great Expectations (1998 film)

text: The score track "Kissing in the Rain" was sampled in the song "RoboCop" on Kanye West's 2008 album, "808s & Heartbreak".


title: Great Expectations (1998 film)

text: "Great Expectations" received mixed or average reviews. Based on 24 critic reviews from mainstream publication, Metacritic assigned the film a weighted average score of 55 out of 100, based on reviews from 24 critics. Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 37% based on 35 reviews. The site's consensus states: ""Great Expectations" is all surface tension: beautiful people shot in beautiful locations without any depth or emotion."


title: Great Expectations (1998 film)

text: Film critic Roger Ebert, giving it three stars out of four, wrote: ""Great Expectations" begins as a great movie (I was spellbound by the first 30 minutes), but ends as only a good one, and I think that's because the screenplay, by Mitch Glazer, too closely follows the romantic line."


title: Great Expectations (1998 film)

text: Ethan Hawke commented on the film's release that it had the bad fortune to overlap with the release of "Titanic", which premiered in theatres six weeks before "Great Expectations". He stated that "nobody gave a shit about anything but "Titanic" for about 9 months after...particularly another romance."


title: Great Expectations (1998 film)

text: In 2016 at the Tribeca Film Festival, in a discussion about their collaborations, Cuaron and cinematographer Emmanuel Lubezki both stated their dissatisfaction with the film. Cuaron called it "a complete failed film" while Lubezki said it was “the least satisfying of our movies.”


title: Great Expectations (1998 film)

text: All of Finn's artwork and portraits of the main characters in the film were done by Francesco Clemente, an Italian painter. The actors sat for him in private. A gallery of some of the paintings is available for viewing at Fox's website devoted to the film.


title: Organ (music)

text: In music, the organ is a keyboard instrument of one or more pipe divisions or other means for producing tones, each played from its own manual, with the hands, or pedalboard, with the feet.


title: Organ (music)

text: The organ is a relatively old musical instrument, dating from the time of Ctesibius of Alexandria (285–222 BC), who invented the water organ. It was played throughout the Ancient Greek and Ancient Roman world, particularly during races and games. During the early medieval period it spread from the Byzantine Empire, where it continued to be used in secular (non-religious) and imperial court music, to Western Europe, where it gradually assumed a prominent place in the liturgy of the Catholic Church. Subsequently, it re-emerged as a secular and recital instrument in the Classical music tradition.


title: Organ (music)

text: The pipe organ is the largest musical instrument. These instruments vary greatly in size, ranging from a cubic meter to a height reaching five floors, and are built in churches, synagogues, concert halls, and homes. Small organs are called "positive" (easily placed in different locations) or "portative" (small enough to carry while playing).


title: Organ (music)

text: The pipes are divided into ranks and controlled by the use of hand stops and combination pistons. Although the keyboard is not expressive as on a piano and does not affect dynamics (it is binary; pressing a key only turns the sound on or off), some divisions may be enclosed in a swell box, allowing the dynamics to be controlled by shutters. Some organs are totally enclosed, meaning that all the divisions can be controlled by one set of shutters. Some special registers with free reed pipes are expressive.


title: Organ (music)

text: It has existed in its current form since the 14th century, though similar designs were common in the Eastern Mediterranean from the early Byzantine period (from the 4th century AD) and precursors, such as the hydraulic organ, have been found dating to the late Hellenistic period (1st century BC). Along with the clock, it was considered one of the most complex human-made mechanical creations before the Industrial Revolution. Pipe organs range in size from a single short keyboard to huge instruments with over 10,000 pipes. A large modern organ typically has three or four keyboards (manuals) with five octaves (61 notes) each, and a two-and-a-half octave (32-note) pedal board.


title: Organ (music)

text: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart called the organ the "King of instruments". Some of the biggest instruments have 64-foot pipes (a foot here means "sonic-foot", a measure quite close to the English measurement unit) and it sounds to an 8 Hz frequency fundamental tone. Perhaps the most distinctive feature is the ability to range from the slightest sound to the most powerful, plein-jeu impressive sonic discharge, which can be sustained in time indefinitely by the organist. For instance, the Wanamaker organ, located in Philadelphia, USA, has sonic resources comparable with three simultaneous symphony orchestras. Another interesting feature lies in its intrinsic "polyphony" approach: each set of pipes can be played simultaneously with others, and the sounds mixed and interspersed in the environment, not in the instrument itself.


title: Organ (music)

text: The introduction of church organs is traditionally attributed to Pope Vitalian in the 7th century. Due to its simultaneous ability to provide a musical foundation below the vocal register, support in the vocal register, and increased brightness above the vocal register, the organ is ideally suited to accompany human voices, whether a , a choir, or a cantor or soloist.


title: Organ (music)

text: Most services also include solo organ repertoire for independent performance rather than by way of accompaniment, often as a prelude at the beginning the service and a postlude at the conclusion of the service.


title: Organ (music)

text: Today this organ may be a pipe organ (see above), a digital or electronic organ that generates the sound with digital signal processing (DSP) chips, or a combination of pipes and electronics. It may be called a church organ or classical organ to differentiate it from the theatre organ, which is a different style of instrument. However, as classical organ repertoire was developed for the pipe organ and in turn influenced its development, the line between a church and a concert organ became harder to draw.