title: Dance Fever (album)

text: The majority of the album was recorded in London. The first recording sessions for the album were originally scheduled to take place in March 2020 in New York City but were scrapped after the World Health Organization (WHO) declared COVID-19 a pandemic. While recording the "anthemic" "Dance Fever", Welch and her collaborators fostered a "dance, folk, '70s Iggy Pop" sound in the vein of "Lucinda Williams or Emmylou Harris and more" that is meant to be enjoyed during "the return of clubs, live music and dancing at festivals". Welch also found inspiration in "the tragic heroines of pre-Raphaelite art, the gothic fiction of Carmen Maria Machado and Julia Armfield, the visceral wave of folk horror film from "The Wicker Man"" (1973) to the A24 films "The Witch" (2015) and "Midsommar" (2019), Francis Ford Coppola's "Bram Stoker's Dracula" (1992) was visually a big reference for the record and the costumes, and "folkloric elements of a moral panic from the Middle Ages".


title: Dance Fever (album)

text: The title of the album was inspired by Welch's fascination with choreomania, a social phenomenon in early modern Europe that involved groups of people dancing erratically.


title: Dance Fever (album)

text: On 9 March 2022, Welch posted the album cover to her Instagram account in a post announcing the album's pre-order date. She described the album as "a fairytale in 14 songs" in the same post.


title: Dance Fever (album)

text: In early 2022, Florence and the Machine were confirmed to be headlining a series of summer music festivals, including the Madrid's Mad Cool. On 28 March 2022, Welch announced the Dance Fever Tour to support the album. The tour began on 2 September 2022 at Place Bell in Laval, Quebec, and is scheduled to conclude on 21 March 2023 at the Spark Arena in Auckland, New Zealand. A 24-track live album recorded during the band's 17 September 2022 concert at Madison Square Garden, entitled "Dance Fever (Live at Madison Square Garden)", was released on 14 October 2022.


title: Dance Fever (album)

text: On 21 February 2022, fans of the band received a medieval-styled card in the mail that featured a photo of Florence Welch dressed in period clothing. The card had the word "King" on it, and each envelope was inscribed with the wording "Florence + the Machine - Chapter 1" along its back. That same day, digital billboards began popping up around London that featured the same picture of Welch that was printed on the card. The band's website was also updated with fifteen cards, the first of which featuring the mailer's design. The single, titled "King" was digitally released on 23 February 2022 along with its accompanying music video.


title: Dance Fever (album)

text: The first single was soon followed by the release of "Heaven Is Here", on 7 March. Music videos for both songs were shot in Kyiv shortly before Russia's invasion of Ukraine in February 2022.


title: Dance Fever (album)

text: The second single "My Love" and the third single "Free" were released on 10 March and 20 April, respectively. Welch dedicated the music video for "Free" to the people of Ukraine amidst the Russian invasion.


title: Dance Fever (album)

text: On 9 December 2022, a live version of "Morning Elvis" in a duet with Ethel Cain, recorded at the Ball Arena on 1 October 2022 during the Denver stop of the Dance Fever Tour, was released as a promotional single.


title: Dance Fever (album)

text: "Dance Fever" is a pop rock, baroque pop, progressive pop, alternative rock, gothic pop, and folk album with elements of indie pop, disco, electronic, psychedelic, industrial, spoken word, glam rock, easy listening, dance-pop, sunshine pop, EDM, folk rock, gospel, synth-pop, experimental, post-punk, jangle, and electropop.


title: Dance Fever (album)

text: "Dance Fever" received widespread acclaim from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 84, based on 17 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim", becoming the band's highest-scored album on the website to date. Writing for AllMusic, Neil Z. Yeung, gave the album four out of five stars and likened it to the band's previous releases "Lungs" (2009) and "How Big, How Blue, How Beautiful" (2015) in "emotional depth and uplifting power". He concluded his review by writing that the album marked "a generous offering to the goddesses of dance and restorative energy".


title: Dance Fever (album)

text: Sophia McDonald from "Clash Music" rated the album nine out of ten stars, labelling it "as majestic as it is authentic". She further praised it for its "self awareness" and deemed it "beautifully honest". Summarising the album as a whole, McDonald deemed it "[a] dance party to release your demons to, they [Florence and the Machine] cast yet another lyrically beautiful and musically capitulating spell."


title: Dance Fever (album)

text: "Dance Fever" achieved wide commercial success across Europe. It debuted atop the UK Albums Chart, thus becoming the band's fourth number-one album in the country. The album achieved the feat with approximately 26,000 chart sales midweek during its release. Additionally, it debuted atop the Scottish Albums Chart in the week of 20 May 2022.


title: Dance Fever (album)

text: "Dance Fever" achieved commercial success in the United States and Australia as well. In the US, the album debuted at number seven on the "Billboard" 200 albums chart, thus becoming the band's fourth top ten record in the country. It further reached the summit of the Top Alternative Albums and Top Rock Albums charts in the country. In Australia, "Dance Fever" debuted at number 2 on the ARIA Charts in its first week of release on 29 May 2022.


title: Jim Davidson

text: James Cameron Davidson (born 13 December 1953) is an English stand-up comedian, actor, singer and TV presenter. He hosted the television shows "Big Break" and "The Generation Game". He also developed two adult pantomime shows such as "Boobs in the Wood" and "Sinderella", to critical reception.


title: Jim Davidson

text: The son of a Scottish father from Glasgow and Irish mother from Cork, Davidson was born in Kidbrooke, London, and attended Kidbrooke Park Primary School, Blackheath, and St Austin's School in Charlton. Having impressed some acquaintances of his father with impressions of celebrities, he was chosen to appear in Ralph Reader's Gang Show at the Golders Green Hippodrome aged 12 and appeared on television in the "Billy Cotton Band Show". He also briefly attended a stage school in Woolwich.


title: Jim Davidson

text: Upon leaving school, Davidson worked as a drummer for pub bands, as well as holding a job as a supermarket shelf stacker, a messenger, air ticket clerk for a travel agency, a cashier for Wall's ice cream and for Rank Xerox (having trained as a reprographics operator) and a window cleaner.


title: Jim Davidson

text: Davidson found his way into show business when, as a regular in a pub in Woolwich, he stepped in after the pub's regular comedian had not turned up. He then became a regular on the London comedy circuit, and first auditioned unsuccessfully for "Opportunity Knocks" in 1975. His audition for "New Faces" was more successful, and he proceeded to win the show by one point, coming second in the overall contest.


title: Jim Davidson

text: Davidson's success was quickly followed by many more appearances on television, including "What's on Next", and several series of his own television show, "The Jim Davidson Show" (1979—1982), which ran for five complete series and won Davidson the "TV Times" award as "Funniest Man on Television".


title: Jim Davidson

text: Davidson appeared on an edition of the BBC1 series "Seaside Special", shown on 20 August 1977, hosted by Tony Blackburn and David Hamilton. His appearance garnered negative reviews in "The Stage", with the show's reviewer, Martyn Wade, commenting that: "...comedian Jim Davidson had already won first prize for lack of taste with crude racist jokes tracing the adventures of a black man whose nickname was Chalky and whose other names included Toilet-Roll. 'Day-light come and I gotta sign on' is a representative line from Mr Davidson's act."


title: Jim Davidson

text: He starred in TV sitcoms "Up the Elephant and Round the Castle" (1983–1985) and "Home James!" (1987–1990). His one-man show for Thames Television, "Stand Up Jim Davidson" (1990), was recorded at London's Royalty Theatre.


title: Jim Davidson

text: Davidson became known for "Big Break" (1991–2002) and as the third host of "The Generation Game" (1995–2002), as the successor to Bruce Forsyth and Larry Grayson. In September 2007, Davidson appeared in the third series of "Hell's Kitchen" (2007) in the UK, and in May 2008 he appeared in the BBC's "Comedy Map of Britain".


title: Jim Davidson

text: On 2 January 2013, Davidson was set to become a housemate in the 11th series of "Celebrity Big Brother", but was arrested at Heathrow Airport by police officers working on Operation Yewtree. On 3 January 2014, a year after being arrested and without being charged, he became a housemate in the show's 13th series. On 29 January 2014, he left the Big Brother house as the winner.


title: Jim Davidson

text: Davidson's touring material developed from his original London comedy circuit show, aimed for pub and club audiences, a demographic considerably different to that of his television work; his touring material contains much stronger language, which Davidson promotes as 'adult entertainment'.


title: Jim Davidson

text: Davidson later developed his touring material into his adult pantomime work, including productions with titles such as "Boobs in the Wood", a spoof of Robin Hood, and "SINderella".


title: Jim Davidson

text: In 2006, for the first time in 14 years, he refused to play Great Yarmouth, stating that the resort was "full of overweight people in flip-flops and fat children of all colours and no class". The inhabitants of the town took this as a personal affront, although Davidson later stated that he was referring to tourists.


title: Jim Davidson

text: Davidson has appeared in the UK singles chart under his own name with the double A-sided "White Christmas"/"Too Risky". It peaked at No. 52 in December 1980.


title: Jim Davidson

text: Davidson has several business interests. He set up a company which bought or leased several seaside theatres or piers, including the Winter Gardens building in Great Yarmouth, which was converted into a nightclub. He lost £700,000 on a pantomime production of "Dick Whittington" and after a meeting with the Inland Revenue in 2003, he sold the company.


title: Jim Davidson

text: Davidson has entertained British Armed Forces, and is currently chairman of the British Forces Foundation charity, which aims to promote the wellbeing and esprit de corps of service personnel. Davidson was awarded the OBE in the 2001 New Year Honours List for his services to charity.


title: Jim Davidson

text: Davidson is a Freemason and a long-standing member of the Westminster City Council Lodge No. 2882. He was formerly also a member of the Chelsea Lodge No. 3098 (whose members are all entertainers) but has resigned; he was the founding Worshipful Master of British Forces Foundation Lodge No. 9725 on its formation in 2000.


title: Jim Davidson

text: On 27 August 2003, after a meeting with the Inland Revenue, Davidson claimed he spent £10,000 a week on back taxes, commission to agents, maintenance and school fees, and a £2.2 million mortgage: "My problem is money – I used to earn five times as much as I do now, but I still pay the same maintenance, school fees and commission to agents," he told "Radio Times" magazine.


title: Jim Davidson

text: On 6 July 2006, having failed to keep up payments on a £1.4 million back tax bill that he had reduced to £700,000, Davidson was declared bankrupt.


title: Jim Davidson

text: In spring 2020, Davidson launched his own YouTube channel, where he presented short videos each week, giving his take on the recent news events, and sharing his opinion on news stories and events of the day. The channel was launched at the start of the Covid-19 pandemic and subsequent lockdown in the United Kingdom.


title: Jim Davidson

text: Davidson continues to upload short videos, usually on a daily basis. Since the current lockdown measures have been put into place in England, he has named his daily uploads as "Lockdown Diary" since December 2020.


title: Jim Davidson

text: By the autumn of 2020, Davidson's online career expanded further when he launched Jim Davidson TV, his own dedicated website and a forerunner to his business venture named "Ustreme", which launched in November 2020 and replaced Jim Davidson TV.


title: Jim Davidson

text: Throughout his career, Davidson has made jokes about women, ethnic minorities, homosexuals and disabled people in his stand-up act, which has made him a subject of frequent criticism.


title: Jim Davidson

text: Laurence Clark, a wheelchair user, performed a show called 'The Jim Davidson Guide to Equality' in response to Davidson's act at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe in 2004. Clark stated that he would refuse to perform the show if Davidson himself was in his audience. The following year, journalist Martin Fletcher described Davidson as "extraordinarily foul-mouthed, racist, and sexist" and a "throwback", whilst quoting television critic Garry Bushell describing Davidson a "family entertainer".


title: Jim Davidson

text: In October 2006, Davidson was accused of making insensitive jokes about cancer sufferers, blind people, a woman in a wheelchair, and the recent trial over the murder of Damilola Taylor, prompting a woman to walk out of the show in disgust. Davidson vehemently denied the charge, claiming that jokes about blind people and cancer sufferers would have merited a "mass walkout". He also said the comments about the Damilola Taylor trial were taken out of context: "My actual remark was that I thought the killers should be locked away forever. And if she objects to that then that is her prerogative." Davidson was also quoted as saying "If what I was saying was true I would have got up and left myself".


title: Jim Davidson

text: In September 2007, Davidson participated in the celebrity reality TV programme "Hell's Kitchen" and attracted negative media attention over homophobic bullying towards TV presenter and openly gay contestant Brian Dowling. Davidson asked Dowling, "Are you on our side?" when referring to whether or not he would be participating for the boys' or girls' team. Davidson used the word "shirt-lifters" in front of him, and constantly asked if Dowling would like to try on one of "John Virgo's lovely waistcoats", which Davidson owns. Davidson later described himself as a "homophobic arsehole". The programme was broadcast on ITV on 4 September 2007. On 10 September, Davidson was asked to leave "Hell's Kitchen", following further confrontations with Dowling. After Davidson's exit from the programme, the BBC reported that the broadcasting watchdog Ofcom had received 46 complaints alleging that Davidson had bullied Dowling. Ofcom concluded that nothing unacceptable had happened, but ITV, the channel which had originally broadcast the programme, issued a statement, regretting Davidson's "unacceptable remarks".


title: Jim Davidson

text: Davidson again faced controversy in December 2007, when he made a joke about rape victims during a show at the Newark Palace Theatre, in Nottinghamshire. A local paper, the "Nottingham Evening Post", stated that: "there were moments when he did stray too far over the line (most notably with a routine on rape)."


title: Jim Davidson

text: Davidson has responded to accusations of prejudice by saying: "It is a difficult thing, comedy, and I'm on a loser. If I cured AIDS and fed Africa and ended Ebola and found that missing aeroplane I'd still be that horrible racist, sexist, homophobic comedian. By people, with respect, who haven't seen me. Or are judging me from the past."


title: Jim Davidson

text: In 2002, Davidson was escorted from the grounds of the Marriott Bristol Royal Hotel, after it was alleged that he had become confrontational and abusive to staff.


title: Jim Davidson

text: In October 2003, Davidson refused to go on stage in Plymouth because he objected to wheelchair users in the front row. A spokesman for the Plymouth Pavilions, where he was performing as part of a national tour, said: "Jim Davidson apparently took exception to a number of wheelchair users in the front stalls of the Pavilions Arena. Mr Davidson cited the fact that a proportion of his act was aimed at disabled customers and that he would be unable to perform under these circumstances." In a statement Davidson explained he "took the mick" out of everyone in the front row of his shows. "As all the people in the front row were in wheelchairs I feared it would appear I was specifically targeting disabled people. I asked if just some would mind moving. Much of my act depends upon audience reaction and in fact one part of the show involves getting the audience to gang up against the front row."


title: Jim Davidson

text: In 2004, comedian Jimmy Carr threatened legal action against Davidson, accusing him of having plagiarised some of his comic material. Davidson responded by saying the claims were "ridiculous", and no further action was taken.


title: Jim Davidson

text: Davidson was called on as a character witness to drug trafficker Brian Brendan Wright in 2007. Despite Davidson's testifying to Wright's character, the judge concluded that Wright was "a master criminal, manipulative, influential and powerful", and sentenced him to 30 years in prison.


title: Jim Davidson

text: On 2 January 2013, as Davidson was set to become a housemate in the 11th series of "Celebrity Big Brother", he was arrested at Heathrow Airport by police officers working on Operation Yewtree. On 20 March 2013 he was arrested again over new allegations of sexual offences; however, on 21 August 2013, it was announced that no further action would be taken in relation to the allegations of historic sex abuse, due to insufficient evidence.


title: Jim Davidson

text: On 21 November 2018, Davidson was caught up in London traffic resulting from Extinction Rebellion protests which blocked a number of London bridges to raise awareness of a claimed lack of action from governments over climate change. Davidson was photographed by the BBC, allegedly shouted at police and was filmed near the front of a blockade driving a large SUV, where he remarked that Jeremy Corbyn (who was not involved) was an "environmental disaster". Davidson later told Nigel Farage on LBC radio that the reason for his anger had been that the demonstrations had almost prevented him "from getting his pie and mash".


title: Jim Davidson

text: Davidson's numerous marriages prompted the actor John Mills to send a Telemessage on the occasion of his fourth, which read simply: "Will It Last?". The marriage ended ten years later. Davidson subsequently returned the compliment to Mills and his wife on their 60th wedding anniversary, with a Telemessage bearing the same wording.


title: Jim Davidson

text: In March 2004, Davidson, a Conservative Party supporter, publicly left the United Kingdom for the tax haven of Dubai, United Arab Emirates in protest at the then-Labour party government under Tony Blair, although it was also noted by HMRC at the time that his move coincided with an unpaid tax bill of approximately £700,000. At the time, he declared that "I may as well go to Dubai and be an ethnic minority there than wait five years till I become one here." He moved back to the UK after living in Dubai for five years. He has also expressed sympathy for UKIP leader Nigel Farage, describing the party as "the Jim Davidson of the political world".


title: Jim Davidson

text: Davidson is a supporter of Charlton Athletic, the local club in the area where he grew up. In the 1980s, he was a director at AFC Bournemouth.


title: Jim Davidson

text: On 18 June 2014, Davidson attended the assault trial of former N-Dubz rapper Dappy. "Dappy is a good friend of mine. I don't know what's happened in this case but I'm just here to show him my support," Davidson said. Dappy declined Davidson's offer to serve as a character witness.


title: Jim Davidson

text: Davidson has been married five times. His first four marriages ended in divorce, and he has five children by three wives:


title: Jim Davidson

text: In 2011, Davidson toured with a play, "Stand Up...And Be Counted". The play was about the failing career of a washed-up racist comic. This caused controversy and links made in the media with similarities between the main character and Davidson's own career. On 18 March 2011, Davidson announced the show was being cancelled because of poor ticket sales. It had visited only four of the 12 planned city destinations. Davidson added that he was still in talks to bring the show to the West End at a later date.


title: Jim Davidson

text: Davidson has also produced and starred in a number of so-called "Adult pantomimes" being blue humoured (and often controversial)versions of the conventional Panto, in the UK the DVD and video versions are certificate 18.


title: River's Edge

text: River's Edge is a 1986 American crime drama film directed by Tim Hunter, written by Neal Jimenez, and starring Crispin Glover, Keanu Reeves, Ione Skye Leitch, Daniel Roebuck and Dennis Hopper. It follows a group of teenagers in a Northern California town who are forced to deal with their friend's murder of his girlfriend and the subsequent disposal of her body. Jimenez partially based the script on the 1981 murder of Marcy Renee Conrad in Milpitas, California.


title: River's Edge

text: Shot in Los Angeles in 1986, the film premiered that year at the Toronto International Film Festival before Island Pictures purchased it for distribution, theatrically releasing it in the United States in May 1987. Several critics praised the film's performances, and its subject matter resulted in several critics classifying it as a contemporary horror film. It was awarded Best Picture at the 1986 Independent Spirit Awards.


title: River's Edge

text: Contemporary film scholars have noted "River's Edge" as an example of the "killer kid" film, as well as one of the most polarizing youth-oriented films of the 1980s. In a 2015 retrospective, "Salon" deemed it "the darkest teen film of all time." The film has an original score by Jürgen Knieper, as well as a soundtrack featuring songs from various punk and metal bands, including Slayer, Fates Warning, Agent Orange, and the Wipers.


title: River's Edge

text: In Northern California, as pre-teen Tim throws his sister's doll into a river, he sees a teenager, John, smoking on the other side, next to the naked corpse of his girlfriend Jamie. Tim returns home, where his older brother Matt and mother are searching for the doll. Matt's friend Layne arrives, and the two drive to meet Feck, a neurotic ex-biker and drug dealer, for marijuana. On the way, Layne recounts a party from the night before, where John and Jamie were arguing.


title: River's Edge

text: At school, Layne and Matt smoke with their friends Clarissa, Maggie, and Tony. Matt talks about wanting to run away to Portland, which Clarissa dismisses. John arrives and says he killed Jamie. Clarissa and Maggie leave for class, thinking he's joking. John brings Layne and Matt to see Jamie's body; Matt is disturbed, while Layne is focused on covering up the crime.


title: River's Edge

text: The group go see Jamie's body, with Layne's older brother Mike driving them there in his truck. Later, Clarissa calls Matt, but he is reluctant to talk to her. Meanwhile, Layne returns to the scene and pushes Jamie's body into the river. After noticing police cars near John's house, they drive to Feck's house, where John stays to hide out. Matt directs the police to the river, where they find Jamie's body. The police interrogate him, threatening to charge him as an accessory after the fact. Matt returns home and argues with his mother and her boyfriend. When he sees that Tim has defaced the grave marker for her lost doll that their sister made, Matt hits Tim in the face. Tim goes to his friend Moko's house and they go to Feck's to obtain a gun.


title: River's Edge

text: In the middle of the night, Layne, Clarissa and Matt drive to Tony's house, but Tony's father chases them off with a shotgun. Layne argues with Clarissa and kicks her out of his car. Matt gets out and walks with her. They stop at a convenience store and run into John and Feck. Tim and Moko break into Feck's house looking for a gun, but instead find his marijuana, which they use to get stoned and pass out. Matt and Clarissa talk in the park, where they discuss their conflicting feelings of grief and apathy over Jamie's murder. John and Feck go to the river's edge to drink, with Feck bringing along his blow-up doll, Ellie. Feck confesses to murdering his own girlfriend years earlier, despite having deeply loved her. John drunkenly brags about killing Jamie, recounting his strangling of her with a relish that disturbs Feck. Matt and Clarissa have sex in the park nearby, then fall asleep. Layne drives around town in a panic, compulsively taking pills.


title: River's Edge

text: At dawn, after John falls asleep on the riverbank, Feck shoots him in the head. He returns home, where Tim and Moko knock him out and steal his gun. The police find Layne and bring him in for questioning. At school, reporters interview Maggie and Tony, who seem dispassionate. The police arrest Feck in his house. The teenagers go to the river together. Matt admits to Layne he told the police that John murdered Jamie. Layne runs off and finds John's body. Tim arrives and points Feck's gun at Matt, threatening to kill Matt for hitting him the night before, but Matt dissuades him.


title: River's Edge

text: The police arrive and escort the teenagers and Tim away. In the hospital, Feck admits to killing John "because there was no hope for him," and confesses to murdering his girlfriend. Matt, Clarissa, Tony, and Maggie attend Jamie's funeral, where they show emotion at seeing her for the last time.


title: River's Edge

text: Film scholar Emanuel Levy writes that the film "addresses the alienation and moral vacancy among American kids growing up in a drug-oriented, valueless culture. "River's Edge" has the disturbing quality of a collective fear—the cherished, eagerly awaited adolescence is presented as confusing and vacuous. Unlike most 1980s teenage sex comedies, this film doesn't glamorize youth, instead depicting it as a bleak, aimless coming of age, a time of boredom, stupor, and waste." But Levy writes that the film does share with its peers the manner in which it presents adult figures as "irresponsible and indifferent."


title: River's Edge

text: While the screenplay is fiction, it draws from the November 3, 1981, murder of Marcy Renee Conrad, who was raped and strangled by Anthony Jacques Broussard in Milpitas, California. Broussard bragged about the crime, showing the body to at least 13 different people; despite this, the crime went unreported for two days. Screenwriter Neal Jimenez was taking screenwriting courses at the University of California, Los Angeles at the time of Conrad's murder, and said he based the script partially on the event. He said, "the incident is merely the inspiration for the screenplay." Others have noticed similarities between the film and the 1984 murder of Gary Lauwers by his friend Ricky Kasso.


title: River's Edge

text: Hemdale Film Corporation expressed interest in Jimenez's script, and agreed to distribute the film with Tim Hunter directing. Producer Midge Sanford recalled: "Hemdale were a small company that made some very good movies, like "Salvador" and "Hoosiers". They really responded to the script and said they would finance it with Tim as the director." The film was in pre-production for four months, with a final budget of $1.7 million.


title: River's Edge

text: "River's Edge" was the first major film for many of its actors, including Roebuck and Skye. Of casting Reeves, casting director Carrie Frazier recalled: "He walked in the door, and I went, 'Oh my god, this is my guy!' It was just because of the way he held his body—his shoes were untied, and what he was wearing looked like a young person growing into being a man. I was over the moon about him." Skye was cast in the film after a casting director saw a photo of her with her brother, Donovan Leitch, an aspiring actor at the time; she had no acting experience, and it was her first film. Auditioning for the role of the brutish John, Roebuck arrived at his audition in full costume, with his hair slicked back with K-Y Jelly and two beer cans in his front pockets. The casting director saw Danyi Deats in the waiting room, while she was waiting for her best friend who was auditioning for the same role.


title: River's Edge

text: For the part of Feck, director Hunter had wanted John Lithgow; the part was also offered to Harry Dean Stanton, who declined, and passed the script on to his friend Dennis Hopper, who was cast. Sanford recalled Glover had auditioned "with a wig and an outrageous take on the part. He was so out there that Sarah and I were a little nervous about what he was doing. But we trusted him and felt like it would work out in the end." Corey Haim was cast as Tim, but had to be replaced by Joshua John Miller after developing pneumonia during the first several days of filming.


title: River's Edge

text: Hunter originally wanted to shoot the film in Los Angeles, but instead opted to shoot near Sacramento because it had natural locations more conducive to the screenplay. The crew arrived to shoot scenes along the American River, but were forced to leave due to a major flood. Hunter settled on shooting the film in Sunland-Tujunga, Los Angeles, a community in the foothills above Burbank. Filming took place from January to March 1986. Hunter said, "It was an area where people with tuberculosis could come to sanatoriums for the clean air. By the time we shot "River's Edge", it had become a smog pocket—but it was full of river rock houses that gave it a 'land that time forgot' feeling."


title: River's Edge

text: The film premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 10, 1986. Producer Midge Sanford recalled the screening leaving the audience divided: "Some executives from a small distribution company wouldn't look at us [after a festival screening]. People either embraced it or were very put off by it. It didn't get picked up right away." The film was ultimately purchased for distribution by Island Pictures, which released it in the U.S. on May 8, 1987.


title: River's Edge

text: "River's Edge" received largely positive reviews from critics. It holds an 88% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 42 reviews with the consensus: "A harrowing tale of aimless youth, "River's Edge" generates considerable tension and urgency thanks to strong performances from a stellar cast including Crispin Glover, Keanu Reeves and Ione Skye." Metacritic gave the film a score of 73 based on 19 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". At the time of its release, several critics considered it a contemporary horror film.


title: River's Edge

text: Gene Siskel ranked "River's Edge" the seventh-best film of 1987, while Roger Ebert awarded the film three-and-a-half out of four stars, calling it "the best analytical film about a crime since "The Onion Field" and "In Cold Blood"." Michael Wilmington of the "Los Angeles Times" called the film "a contemporary horror story about teen-agers, but it contains no slasher scenes or serial homicides. Its monsters are all too real." "The New York Times"s Janet Maslin called it "bitter and disturbing" and deemed the performances "natural and credible." Vincent Canby, also of "The New York Times", named the film "the year's most riveting, most frightening horror film, even if doesn't really belong in the same category with any acknowledged classics of the genre. Metaphysics has nothing to do with "River's Edge," though, like "Dracula", it's a tale of the undead." David Ansen of "Newsweek" called the film "the scariest vision of youth since the alarming Brazilian movie "Pixote"... "River's Edge" pitches the audience inside this nightmare world of affectless middle-class kids and lets us watch them wallow their way through moral dilemmas they can only half articulate." John Simon of the National Review called "River's Edge" "splendid".


title: River's Edge

text: In a 2015 retrospective, "Salon" deemed "River's Edge" "the darkest teen film of all time." Film historian Kim Newman named the film "the definitive killer kid movie... Moral without moralizing, blackly comic without tastelessness, [and] acutely tuned in to the way dead-end teens talk."


title: River's Edge

text: The film's soundtrack, released in 1987 by Enigma Records, features various thrash metal, reggae, and punk tracks.


title: River's Edge

text: "River's Edge" was released on DVD on January 23, 2001, by MGM Home Entertainment in its "Avant-Garde Cinema" series. A Blu-ray was released by Kino Lorber on January 13, 2015.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: Hyderabad (Sindhi and ; ) is a city and the capital of Hyderabad Division in the Sindh province of Pakistan. It is the second-largest city in Sindh, and the eighth largest in Pakistan.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: Founded in 1768 by Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro of the Kalhora Dynasty, Hyderabad served as a provincial capital until the British transferred the capital to Bombay presidency in 1840. It is about inland of Karachi, the largest city of Pakistan, to which it is connected by a direct railway and M-9 motorway.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: The city was named in honour of Ali, the fourth caliph and cousin of the Prophet Muhammad. Hyderabad's name translates literally as "Lion City"—from "haydar", meaning "lion," and "ābād", which is a suffix indicating a settlement. "Lion" references Ali's valour in battle, and so he is often referred to as "Ali Haydar", roughly meaning "Ali the Lionheart," by South Asian Muslims.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: The River Indus was changing course around 1757, resulting in periodic floods of the then capital of the Kalhora dynasty, Khudabad. Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro decided to shift the capital away from Khudabad, and founded Hyderabad in 1768 over a limestone ridge on the eastern bank of the Indus River known as "Ganjo Takkar", or "Bald Hill." The small hill is traditionally believed to have been the location of the ancient settlement of "Neroon Kot", a town which had fallen to the armies of Muhammad Bin Qasim in 711 CE. When the foundations were laid, the city came to be known by the nickname "Heart of the Mehran".


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: Devotees of Imam Ali advised Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro to name the city in honour of their Imam. The Shah of Iran later gifted the city a stone which purportedly bears the imprint of Ali's feet. The stone was placed in the "Qadamgah Maula Ali", which then became a place of pilgrimage.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: In 1768, Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro ordered a fort to be built on one of the three hills of Hyderabad to house and defend his people. The fort was built using baked clay bricks, earning it the name "Pacco Qillo", meaning "Strong Fort" in Sindhi. The fort was completed in 1769, and is spread over 36 acres. Mian Ghulam Shah also built the "Shah Makki Fort," commonly known as "Kacha Qila", to fortify the tomb of the Sufi saint Shah Makki.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: Hyderabad remained the Kalhora capital during the period in which Sindh was united under their rule. Attracted by the security of the city, Hyderabad began to attract artisans and traders from throughout Sindh, thereby resulting in the decline of other rival trading centres such as Khudabad. A portion of the population of Khudabad migrated to the new capital, including "Sonaras", "Amils" and "Bhaibands". Those groups retained the term "Khudabadi" in the names of their communities as a marker of origin.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: Mian Ghulam Shah died in 1772, and was succeeded by his son, Sarfraz Khan Kalhoro. In 1774, Sarfraz Khan built a "New" Khudabad north of Hala in memory of the old Kalhoro capital, and attempted to shift his capital there. The attempt failed, and Hyderabad continued to prosper while New Khudabad was abandoned by 1814. A formal plan for the city was laid out by Sarfraz Khan in 1782.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: Mir Fateh Ali Khan Talpur captured the city of Khudabad from the Kalhoros in 1773, and made the city his capital. He then captured Hyderabad in 1775, and shifted his capital there in 1789 after Khudabad once again flooded. Renovation and reconstruction of the city's fort began in 1789, and lasted for 3 years. Celebrations were held in 1792 to mark his formal entry in the Pacco Qillo fort, which he made his residence and held court.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: Talpur rule maintained Hyderabad's security, and the city continued to attract migrants from throughout Sindh, turning the city into a major regional center. Lohana Hindus from Afghanistan migrated to the city and set up ship as metalworkers. The city's goldsmiths, silversmiths, and leather tanners began to export their Hyderabadi wares abroad. The city's textile industry boomed with the arrival of "Susi" and "Khes" cotton cloth and handicrafts from towns in rural Sindh. The city's became renowned for its calligraphers and bookbinders, while its carpet dealers traded carpets from nearby Thatta.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: Henry Pottinger traveled up the Indus River in the early 1830s on behalf of the British. He claimed to have seen 341 ships over the course of 19 days at Hyderabad, indicating its importance as a major trading center by this time. Hyderabad's goods were mostly exported to markets in Khorasan, India, Turkestan, and Kashmir - though some Hyderabadi wares were displayed at The Great Exhibition of 1851 in London.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: In order to use the Indus River for commercial navigation to Punjab, the British signed a treaty with the rulers of Hyderabad and Khairpur that guaranteed the British free passage along the Indus and through Sindh. Mir Murad Ali was pressured into accepting an 1838 treaty which resulted in the stationing of a British Resident in the city. The British also signed a treaty of "eternal friendship" with the Talpur rulers of Hyderabad in the early 19th century, who promised not to allow the French to set up residency in Sindh. In 1839, they were pressured into forcing another treaty that guaranteed the British trade and security privileges.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: The British defeated the city's Talpur rulers at the Battle of Hyderabad on 24 March 1843. The provincial capital was then transferred to Bombay Presidency by the British general Sir Charles Napier. Being the last stronghold in Sindh, the conquered city was the final step in the British Conquest of Sindh. Following the success of the British, several of the city's Talpur Mirs rulers were exiled and died in Calcutta. Their bodies were eventually brought back to Hyderabad, and were buried in the Tombs of the Talpur Mirs located at the northern edge of the Ganjo Hill.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: Hyderabad's prosperity did not initially decline after the shifting of Sindh's capital to Bombay Presidency. Merchants there forged links with the commercial community in Hyderabad, and began exporting Hyderabadi wares to distant markets. Following Sindhi's assimilation into the Bombay Presidency in 1847, the city emerged as hub for a style of handicrafts known as "Sindwork" that was peddled in Bombay, and prized by its European residents for its perceived authenticity of style. The work was then shipped from Bombay to Egypt in order to be sold as souvenirs to tourists there. Hyderabadi traders also spread east towards Singapore and Japan as well. Unable to fulfill demand for its products, Hyderabad's traders began to import crafts from Kashmir, Varanasi, China, and Japan to ease demand. "Sindwork" handicrafts thus placed Hyderabad at the center of a new trading network that was almost entirely dominated by Hindus from the city's mercantile "Bhaiband" segment of the Lohana caste, although the artisans themselves were primarily Muslim.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: The city's jail was built in 1851, and the Municipality of Hyderabad was established in 1853. In the Pacco Qillo the British kept the arsenal of the province, transferred from Karachi in 1861, and the palaces of the ex-Amirs of Sind that they had taken over. In 1857, when the Indian mutiny raged across the South Asia, the British held most of their regiments and ammunition in this city. Though the city did not witness major fighting, the British demolished the large round tower that once stood outside of Pacco Qillo, deeming it a potential risk to their rule were it to fall into the hands of rebels.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: Hyderabad's Rani Bagh ("Queen's Garden") was established as Das Gardens in 1861, and was re-christened in honour of Queen Victoria. British-style schools were introduced in Hyderabad by the 1860s, while the St Joseph Missionary School was established in 1868. Further European schools were opened, while Hyderabad's Hindu and Muslim elite established schools for their respective communities throughout the British colonial period. A hospital, psychiatric institution, and quarters for officials were built in 1871. By 1872, 43,088 people lived in the city. The city by 1873 had 20 kilometers of metaled roads that were lit at night by kerosene lamps. The newly built urban quarters of Saddar and Soldier Bazaar further expanded the city.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: The British built a rail network throughout the western part of South Asia in the 1880s, and purchased the private Scinde Railway to connect the province to Kabul trade routes. The rail network would later be called the North-Western State Railway. The Kotri Bridge was completed in 1900 to traverse the Indus, and link Hyderabad to Karachi. Hyderabad's economy grew as a result of improved transportation. The city increasingly developed into a consumer market under British rule, and the city's exports began to decline, though increased transit trade allowed the city's economy to continue growing.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: In 1901, 69,378 people lived in the city. Hinduism was the most dominant religion with 43,499 followers, while 24,831 Muslims made up the largest religious minority. The city ranked seventh in the Bombay Presidency in terms of population. By 1907, the Gazetteer of Sindh claimed that 5,000 Hyderabadi merchants were to be found dispersed throughout the world. The city's Navalrai Clock Tower was built in 1914. Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore remarked in the early 20th century that Hyderabad was the "most fashionable" city in all of India.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: The City of Hyderabad served as the capital of Sindh province between 1947 and 1955. The Partition of India resulted in the large-scale exodus of much of the city's Hindu population, though like much of Sindh, Hyderabad did not experience the widespread rioting that occurred in Punjab and Bengal. In all, less than 500 Hindu were killed in Sindh between 1947-48 as Sindhi Muslims largely resisted calls to turn against their Hindu neighbours. Hindus did not flee Hyderabad "en masse" until riots erupted in Karachi on 6 January 1948, which sowed fear in Sindhi Hindus despite the fact that the riots were local and regarded Sikh refugees from Punjab seeking refuge in Karachi.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: The Hindus who departed had played a major role in the city's economy, and formed the majority of the Hyderabad's population. The vacuum left by the departure of much of the city's Hindu population was quickly filled by newly arrived refugees from India, known as Muhajirs. By 1951, 66% of the city was made up of Muhajirs. Though Hyderabad became a majority Urdu-speaking city in the 1940s, the arrival of Pashtuns and Punjabis from northern Pakistan further diversified the city's ethnic composition over the next few decades.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: Animosity between Urdu and Sindhi speakers first arose in 1967, it intensified under the Pakistan People's Party government in the 1970s, which were widely perceived by Muhajirs to be a pro-Sindhi administration. Violence erupted between Urdu and Sindhi speakers during riots in 1971 when the provincial government wished to impose Sindhi-language requirements on Urdu speakers, and again in 1972 in reaction to the 1972 Sindhi Language Bill.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: The "Khuda Ki Basti" housing scheme was launched in Hyderabad 1981 as a way to provide housing to low-income residents by forming local cooperatives pool funds to gradually provide increased services that would in turn be managed by community members. Success of the project resulted in the programme being launched in Karachi as well.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: The late 1980s saw turbulent ethnic rioting between Sindhis and Muhajirs. On 30 September 1988, militants from the Sindh Progressive Party drove into Muhajir dominated areas in the city, and opened indiscriminate fire in busy crossroads. The so-called "Hyderabad Massacre" resulted in the deaths of over 60 people in a single day, and more than 250 deaths in total. In a backlash, more than 60 Sindhi speaking people were gunned down in Karachi. The city began to divide itself ethnically, and the Muhajir population migrated en masse from Qasimabad and the interior of Sindh into Latifabad. Similarly, Sindhis moved to Qasimabad from Hyderabad and Latifabad. Further ethnic disturbances occurred in May 1990, including a police-led siege of the Pacco Qillo fortress in the center of Hyderabad, in which Muhajir activists claim 150 were killed. 2 bombings on trains in Hyderabad killed 10 people in 2000.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: Much of Hyderabad's public spaces have been encroached upon by illegally-constructed homes and businesses. Much of the city's historic structures are badly neglected, with little preservation being undertaken by the provincial administration.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: Hyderabad is home to 2,199,928 people as per the 2017 Census of Pakistan. The city gained 565,799 residents since the 1998 Census, representing an increase of 48.5% - the lowest growth rate of the ten largest Pakistani cities.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: Hyderabad was a majority Sindhi Hindu city prior to 1948, when many migrated to India and elsewhere after the independence of Pakistan 1947. Hindus who departed had played a major role in the city's economy, and formed the majority of the Hyderabad's population. The vacuum left by the departure of much of the city's Hindu population was quickly filled by the newly arrived Urdu speaking Muslim refugees from India, known as Muhajirs.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: Following the arrival of Muhajirs in Hyderabad Urdu-speaking people making up 42% of the city's population Sindhis 43.67%. The arrival of Pashtuns and Punjabis from northern Pakistan further diversified the city's ethnic composition over the next few decades, and by 2017, the percentage of Urdu speakers had fallen to 53%. Most Punjabis and Pashtuns are distinct and separately living near the railway station and its vicinity. The city therefore has cosmopolitan atmosphere with multiethnic and multicultural communities. The city is now a multi-ethnic and has a mix of Sindhi, Urdu speaking Muhajirs, Brahuis, Punjabis, Pashtuns, Memons and Baloch people.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: Hyderabad is noteworthy in Sindh and Pakistan generally for its comparative tolerance towards religious and ethnic minorities. The spread of Islamist militancy and extremism has been stymied in large parts of Sindh by vibrant civil society, and Sindh's progressive politics.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: The city has a long association with Sufism. In the 18th Century Syeds from Multan migrated and settled in the city's Tando Jahania neighbourhood, making it a sacred place for Muslims. The "Syeds" came from Uch Sharif, via Jahanian, 42 km from Multan). They were mostly descendants of Jahaniyan Jahangasht - a Sufi saint who is popular in Sindh and southern Punjab. Hyderabad is near some of Sindh's most important Sufi shrines, being situated from the joint Muslim-Hindu Shrine at Odero Lal, from the Shrine of Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai, from the Shrine of Lal Shahbaz Qalandar.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: Hindus once formed the majority in Hyderabad prior to 1948, and today account for the largest religious minority in Hyderabad - forming 5% of the total population of the city. Hyderabad's "Amil" Hindus clan of the Lohana caste had been employed previously the Talpur Mirs for their Persian language proficiency and skills in bureaucracy - this role continued under the British as the "Amils" were recruited into colonial administration. The "Amils" formed the Amil Colony, which was where some of Hyderabad's finest colonial architecture was found. The "Bhaiband" clan, also of the Lohana caste, dominated commerce in the city.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: While Christians account for 1% of the total population, Hyderabad is the seat of a diocese of the Church of Pakistan and has five churches and a cathedral.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: Located at 25.367 °N latitude and 68.367 °E longitude with an elevation of , Hyderabad is located on the east bank of the Indus River and is roughly away from Karachi, the provincial capital. Two of Pakistan's largest highways, the Indus Highway and the National Highway join at Hyderabad. Several towns surrounding the city include Kotri at , Jamshoro at , Hattri at and Husri at .


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: Hyderabad has a hot desert climate (Köppen "BWh"), with warm conditions year-round. The city is famous for its winds which moderate the otherwise hot climate. As a result, Hyderabadi homes traditionally feature "wind-catching" towers that funnel breezes down into living quarters in order to alleviate heat.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: The period from mid-April to late June (before the onset of the monsoon) is the hottest of the year, with highs peaking in May at


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: . During this time, winds that blow usually bring along clouds of dust, and people prefer staying indoors in the daytime, while the breeze that flows at night is more pleasant. Winters are warm, with highs around , though lows can often drop below at night. The highest temperature of was recorded on 25 May 2018, while the lowest temperature of was recorded on 8 February 2012.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: In recent years, Hyderabad has seen great downpours. In February 2003, Hyderabad received of rain in 12 hours, leaving many dead. The years of 2006 and 2007 saw close contenders to this record rain with death tolls estimated in the hundreds. The highest single-day rain total of was recorded on 12 September 1962, while the wettest month was September 1962, at .


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: The city was initially founded on a limestone ridge on the eastern bank of the Indus River known as "Ganjo Takkar", or "Bald Hill." The limestone outcropping provided several scenic vistas in the city, as well as inclined routes. The most famous incline, the Tilak Incline, is named after the early 20th century independence activist Lokmanya Tilak.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: The industrial sector contributes 25% to the GDP of Pakistan, with a major concentration of industry in an arc stretching from Karachi to Hyderabad. 75% of Sindh's industry is located in the Karachi-Hyderabad region. The Sindh Industrial Trading Estate, home to 439 industrial units, was established on the outskirts of Hyderabad in 1950 which prospered with until the urban violence of the 1980s. Much of the city's industrial base was weakened by ethnic violence in urban Sindh in the 1980s, although poor infrastructure and supply of electricity has also hampered growth.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: Hyderabad is an important commercial center where industries includes: textiles, sugar, cement, manufacturing of mirror, soap, ice, paper, pottery, plastics, tanneries, hosiery mills and film. There are hide tanneries and sawmills. Handicraft industries, including silver and gold work, lacquer ware, ornamented silks, and embroidered leather saddles, are also well established.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: Hyderabad produces almost all of the ornamental glass bangles in Pakistan, as well as layered glass inlay for jewelry. The glass industry employs an estimated 300,000-350,000 people in manufacturing units centered on the "Churi Parah" neighbourhood. The industry frequently uses recycled glass as material for its bangles.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: Hyderabad is surrounded by fertile alluvial plains, and is a major commercial center for the agricultural produce of the surrounding area, including millet, rice, wheat, cotton, and fruit.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: Hyderabad's local architectural patterns reflect the region's harsh climate and local customs. Walls of most traditional-style buildings were made of mud bricks, which helped keep the structure cool in summer and warm in winter. Hyderabad is famed for its heat-relieving winds, and so homes also featured wind-catchers that directed cool breezes into each homes' living quarters.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: Residential structures in Hyderabad's Old City, and in Hirabad typically have a small inward facing courtyard that afforded privacy from the city's streets. Walls facing the street are typically plain, though the home may display an elaborate entryway. Inner courtyards and doorways of more elaborate homes would be decorated with "jharoka" balconies, floral motifs, ornamented ceilings, and decorative arches. Most residential homes, however, were utilitarian in design.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: Homes built during the British colonial period contain introduced architectural elements like balconies and decorative columns as part of an elaborate outward-facing façade. Such examples can be found in the Saddar neighborhood of Hyderabad. Large decorated windows were featured as part of Hyderabad's colonial style in order to ventilate the building. Tall and multi-sectional windows with stained glass windows became a hallmark of Hyderabad's colonial-era architecture. Homes of wealthy residents, especially among the city's "Bhaiband" community, the presence of windows was a marker of status, and allowed wealthy Hindus to practice the custom of purdah. Balconies were sometimes affixed to the front of a building, and were typically made of wood or cast-iron. Such homes would also sometimes have painted facades.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: Before the government of Abubaker Nizamani, the District Hyderabad included the present-day District of Badin. The longest-serving mayor of Hyderabad was Jamil Ahmed, who served from 1962 to 1971.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: In 2005/2006, General Pervaiz Musharraf again divided it into four more districts Matiyari, Tando Allahyar, Tando Mohammad Khan and Hyderabad. Hyderabad district was subdivided into four talukas


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: Court of District & Sessions Judge Hyderabad was established in 1899 under the subordination of Judicial Commissioner of Sindh.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: The M-9 motorway is a six-lane motorway that connects Hyderabad to Karachi, 136 kilometers away. The city will also be connected to Sukkur by the M-6 motorway, being built as part of the wider China-Pakistan Economic Corridor. From Sukkur, motorways will continue onward to Multan, Lahore, Islamabad, Faisalabad, and Peshawar.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: Hyderabad Junction railway station serves as the city's main rail station. Passenger services are provided exclusively by Pakistan Railways. The city's station is serviced by the Allama Iqbal Express to Sialkot, the Badin Express, and the Khyber Mail to Peshawar. Hyderabad has trains to Nawabshah, Badin, Tando Adam Junction, Karachi, and points in northern Pakistan.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: Hyderabad Airport is no longer served by commercial air traffic. The last services were suspended in 2013. Passengers must now instead rely entirely on Karachi's Jinnah International Airport.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: 75% of males and 65% of females over the age of 10 were literate in Hyderabad District in 2010, a region which includes rural areas around the city. In 2010-2011, 2.96 Billion Rupees were spent on public education in Hyderabad District, and number which increased to 3.99 Billion Rupees in 2011-2012. 26% of children in Hyderabad District were enrolled in paid private schools in 2010.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: The University of Sindh was founded in Karachi in 1947, before moving to Hyderabad in 1951. The Liaquat University of Medical and Health Sciences was founded in nearby Jamshoro in 1951.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: The Niaz Stadium of Hyderabad, with a seating capacity of 15,000 is home to the Hyderabad cricket team since 1961. It is known for Pakistani bowler Jalal-ud-Din's hat-trick, which was the first ever hat-trick taken by a bowler in a one-day match in 1982. Hyderabad also has a hockey stadium. Hyderabad has also Sport Club name "Sindh Sports Board Hyderabad Club" which is a platform to boost sports activity.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: As tradition goes, Sindh had always been a hub for Sufi poets. With a foothold on strong educational foundations, the city of Hyderabad was made into a refuge for thriving literary advocates. Of the few, Mirza Kalich Beg received education from the Government High School, Hyderabad and carried the banner of Sindhi literature across borders. Modern novelists, writers, columnists and researchers like Musharraf Ali Farooqi, Ghulam Mustafa Khan and Qabil Ajmeri also hail from Hyderabad.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: Hyderabad has served many Sindhi literary campaigns throughout the history of Pakistan as is evident from the daily newspapers and periodicals that are published in the city. A few worth mention dailies are the Kawish,


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: With the inauguration of a new broadcasting house at Karachi in 1950, it was possible to lay the foundations for the Hyderabad radio station in 1951. The initial broadcast was made capable using 1 kW medium-wave transmitter. With the first successful transmissions on the FM 100 bandwidth in Karachi, Lahore and Islamabad in October 1998, the Government decided on opening transmissions to other cities where Radio Pakistan had found success. This made available the FM 101 bandwidth transmissions to Hyderabad and other cities in Sindh.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: A relief from the regular broadcasts in other cities, entertainment content on the Hyderabad radio gave birth to many a star whose names became an attribute to Hyderabad's richer media content. Among them were actor Shafi Mohammad, a young man who had recently finished his postgraduate degree from the University of Sindh. Such fresh and young talent became a trademark to entertainment in Hyderabad.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: Pakistan Television had only had half-a-decade broadcast success from 1963 to 1969 that people in the radio entertainment business felt destined to make a mark on the television circuits. Prominent radio personalities from the Hyderabad radio station like Shafi Muhammad Shah and Mohammad Ali left the airwaves to hone their acting skills on the television. Television shows and content enriched with the inclusion of Hyderabadi names however PTV never opened a television station in Hyderabad.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: While the year 2005 saw new FM regular stations set up at Gawadar, Mianwali, Sargodha, Kohat, Bannu and Mithi, private radio channels began airing in and around Hyderabad. Of late, stations like Sachal FM 105 and some others have gained popularity. But the unavailability of an up-to-date news and current affairs platform renders the services of such stations of not much value to the masses but nonetheless appealing to youngsters.


title: Hyderabad, Sindh

text: As the Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority (abbreviated as PEMRA) gave licenses to private radio channels, so were television channels owned privately given a right to broadcast from the year 2002, and Daily Kawish, a prominent Sindhi newspaper published from Hyderabad opened a one-of-its-kind private Sindhi channel Kawish Television Network. Many followed in its path namely Sindh TV, Dhoom TV and Kashish TV premiering Sindhi content.


title: Jah

text: Jah or Yah (, "Yāh") is a short form of (YHWH), the four letters that form the tetragrammaton, the personal name of God: Yahweh, which the ancient Israelites used. The conventional Christian English pronunciation of "Jah" is , even though the letter J here transliterates the palatal approximant (Hebrew י Yodh). The spelling "Yah" is designed to make the pronunciation explicit in an English-language context (see also romanization of Hebrew), especially for Christians who may not use Hebrew regularly during prayer and study.


title: Jah

text: This short form of the name occurs 50 times in the text of the Hebrew Bible, of which 24 form part of the phrase "Hallelujah", a phrase that continues to be employed by Jews and Christians to give praise to Yahweh. In the Christian King James Version (1611) there is a single instance of "JAH" (capitalized), in Psalm 68:4. "An American Translation" (1939) and the New King James Version "NKJV" (1982) follows KJV in using "Yah" in this verse.


title: Jah

text: While pronouncing the tetragrammaton is forbidden for Jews, articulating "Jah"/"Yah" is allowed, but is usually confined to prayer and study.


title: Jah

text: The name of the national god of the kingdoms of Israel (Samaria) and Judah is written in the Hebrew Bible as יהוה (YHWH), which modern scholars often render as "Yahweh". The short form "Jah/Yah", appears in Exodus 15:2 and 17:16, Psalm 89:9, (arguably, by emendation) Song of Songs 8:6, as well as in the phrase "Hallelujah". The name of Yahweh is also incorporated into several theophoric names, however, in almost all cases the Hebrew name itself uses "-yāhū", not "-yāh". This does not preclude the translation of several "-yāhū" names without the added "ū", such as Elijah ("ʾĒlīyyāhū") or Hezekiah ("H̱īzəqīyyahū"), or the existence of several Hebrew names which "do" use the "-yāh" form, such as Jedidjah, Malchijah, and Adonijah.


title: Jah

text: Yah occurs 50 times: 43 times in the Psalms, in Exodus 15:2; 17:16; and Isaiah 12:2; 26:4, as well as twice in Isaiah 38:11.


title: Jah

text: At Revelation 19:1-6, "Jah" is embedded in the phrase "hallelujah" (Tiberian "halləlûyāh"), a Hebrew expression that literally means "Praise Jah". The short form "IA" (Yah or Jah (יה)) in the phrase hallelouia (Ἁλληλουιά) is transcribed by the Greek "ia".


title: Jah

text: In the King James Version of the Christian Bible, the Hebrew יהּ is transliterated as "JAH" (capitalised) in only one instance: "Sing unto God, sing praises to his name: extol him that rideth upon the heavens by his name JAH, and rejoice before him". "An American Translation" renders the Hebrew word as "Yah" in this verse. In the 1885 Revised Version and its annotated study edition, The Modern Reader's Bible, which uses the Revised Version as its base text, also transliterates "JAH" in Psalms 89:8 which reads, "O LORD God of hosts, who is a mighty one, like unto thee, O JAH? and thy faithfulness is round about thee".


title: Jah

text: With the rise of the Reformation, reconstructions of the Tetragrammaton became popular. The Tyndale Bible was the first English translation to use the anglicized reconstruction. The modern letter "J" settled on its current English pronunciation only around 500 years ago; in Ancient Hebrew, the first consonant of the Tetragrammaton always represents a "Y" sound.


title: Jah

text: Rotherham's "Emphasised Bible" includes 49 uses of "Jah". In the "Sacred Scriptures Bethel Edition" Bible, the Jerusalem Bible, and the New Jerusalem Bible (prior to 1998) the name "YHWH" and its abbreviated form "Yah" is found. The "New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures", used primarily by Jehovah's Witnesses, employs "Jah" in the Hebrew Scriptures, and translates "Hallelujah" as "Praise Jah" in the Greek Scriptures. The Divine Name King James Bible employs "JAH" in 50 instances within the Old Testament according to the Divine Name Concordance of the Divine Name King James Bible, Second Edition.


title: Jah

text: The Spanish language Reina Valera Bible employs "JAH" in 21 instances within the Old Testament according to the "Nueva Concordancia Strong Exhaustiva". The Darby Bible, Young's Literal Translation, The Jubilee Bible 2000, Lexham English Bible, The Complete Jewish Bible, Names of God Bible, The Recovery Version, Green's Literal Translation, the New Jewish Publication Society or NJPS Tanakh and World English Bible includes "Jah" (Yah in the Lexham English Bible, Complete Jewish Bible, the NJPS Tanakh and the World English Bible) numerous times within the Old Testament (as well as in the New Testament or New Covenant as is the case in Christian and Messianic Jewish Bibles) as "Hallelujah!" or "Alleluia!" (Praise Jah or Yah in either instance) which is also employed throughout the Old Testament of these Bible versions.


title: Jah

text: "Hallelujah!" or "Alleluia!" is also used in other Bible versions such as the Divine Name King James Bible, American Standard Version, the Recovery Version, The Tree of Life Version, Amplified Bible, God's Word Translation, Holman Christian Standard Bible, International Standard Version, The Message, New American Bible Revised Edition, The Jerusalem Bible, The New Jerusalem Bible, NJPS Tanakh, The first JPS translation, The Living Bible, The Bible in Living English, Young's Literal Translation, King James Version, The Spanish language Reina Valera and even in Bible versions that otherwise do not generally use the Divine Name such as the New King James Version, English Standard Version, J.B. Phillips New Testament, New International Version, Douay-Rheims Version, God's Word Translation, Revised Standard Version, New Revised Standard Version, The Jubilee Bible 2000, New American Standard Bible, New Century Version, New International Reader's Version and several other versions, translations and/or editions in English and other languages varying from once to numerous times depending on the Bible version especially and most notably in Revelation Chapter 19 in Christian and Messianic Jewish Bibles.


title: Jah

text: Rastafari use the terms "Jah" or sometimes "Jah Jah" as a term for the Lord God of Israel or Haile Selassie, who some Rastafari regard as the incarnation of the God of the Old Testament or as the reincarnation of Jesus Christ, who is also known by the Ethiopian title "Janhoy".


title: Cotopaxi

text: Cotopaxi () is an active stratovolcano in the Andes Mountains, located in Latacunga city of Cotopaxi Province, about south of Quito, and northeast of the city of Latacunga, Ecuador. It is the second highest summit in Ecuador, reaching a height of . Cotopaxi is among the highest active volcanoes in the world. Its most recent eruption began on 14 August 2015, and ended on 24 January 2016.


title: Cotopaxi

text: Cotopaxi is known to have erupted 87 times, resulting in the creation of numerous valleys formed by lahars (mudflows) around the volcano. The last eruption lasted from August 2015 to January 2016. Cotopaxi was officially closed by the authorities to climbing until it reopened on October 7, 2017.


title: Cotopaxi

text: On a clear day, Cotopaxi is clearly visible on the skyline from Latacunga and Quito. It is part of the chain of volcanoes around the Pacific plate known as the Pacific Ring of Fire. It has an almost symmetrical cone that rises from a highland plain of about , with a width at its base of about . It has one of the few equatorial glaciers in the world, which starts at the height of . At its summit, Cotopaxi has an wide crater which is deep. The crater consists of two concentric crater rims, the outer one being partly free of snow and irregular in shape. The crater interior is covered with ice cornices and rather flat. The highest point is on the outer rim of the crater on the north side.


title: Cotopaxi

text: According to locals who speak Quechua, "coto" means 'neck' and "paxi" means 'moon' (Quechua "q'oto" 'throat' + Aymara "phakhsi" 'moon'). This refers to the crater of Cotopaxi that looks like a crescent moon. The mountain was honored as a sacred mountain by local Andean people, even before the Inca invasion in the 15th century. It was worshiped as rain sender, which served as the guarantor of the land's fertility, and at the same time its summit was revered as a place where gods lived.


title: Cotopaxi

text: With 87 known eruptions, Cotopaxi is one of Ecuador's most active volcanoes. The first recorded eruption of Cotopaxi was in 1534. This eruption appears to have deposited an ash layer in the lakes of El Cajas National Park that has been dated to 450±70 cal BP.


title: Cotopaxi

text: Cotopaxi's most violent eruptions in historical times occurred in the years 1742, 1744, 1768, and 1877. The 1744 and 1768 events destroyed the colonial town of Latacunga. During the June 26, 1877 eruption, pyroclastic flows descended on all sides of the mountain melting the entire ice cap, with lahars traveling more than into the Pacific Ocean and western Amazon basin draining the valley. The city of Latacunga was again leveled completely due to the mudslide deposits.


title: Cotopaxi

text: The eruption on 19 June 1742 was witnessed by the scientists Pierre Bouguer and Charles-Marie de La Condamine, members of the French Geodesic Mission, as they descended from nearby Guagua Pichincha.


title: Cotopaxi

text: There was a major eruption from 1903 to 1904, and minor activity persisted until at least 1940 and possibly 1942. (Note that direct observations of minor eruptions can be difficult because of bad weather, hence the uncertainty about the 1942 "eruption.") The same source also reported increased thermal/seismic, non-eruptive activity in 1975 and 2002. In the increased activity of 2002, fumarolic activity and sulfuric emissions increased and ice around the inside and on the southeastern side of the cone started to melt. However, no actual eruption was observed.


title: Cotopaxi

text: In 2015, two large phreatic (steam) eruptions on the morning of August 14 marked a new phase of volcanic activity. The volcano "remains in a very abnormal situation. In August, 2,100 earthquakes were recorded and emission rates of sulfur dioxide reach approximately . The government estimates some 300,000 people are at risk from the volcano in the provinces of Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, Napo and Pichincha.


title: Cotopaxi

text: The first European who tried to climb the mountain was Alexander von Humboldt in 1802; however, he only reached a height of about . In 1858 Moritz Wagner investigated the mountain, but he could not reach the summit either.


title: Cotopaxi

text: On November 28, 1872, German geologist Wilhelm Reiss and his Colombian partner, Angel Escobar, finally reached the summit of Cotopaxi.


title: Cotopaxi

text: In 1873 it was summitted by German Geologist Moritz Alphons Stübel and four Ecuadorians, Rafael Jantui, Melchor Páez, Vicente Ramón and Eusebio Rodriguez.


title: Cotopaxi

text: In 1880 British mountaineer Edward Whymper and the Italian guides Jean-Antoine Carrel and Louis Carrel made the third recorded ascent of Cotopaxi and spent a night on the summit.


title: Cotopaxi

text: Painters and Hans Meyer reached the summit in 1903, and many of Reschreiter's paintings feature a view of Cotopaxi.


title: Cotopaxi

text: In the late 20th century, summiting Cotopaxi became a major tourist draw. The José F. Ribas Refuge ("Refugio José Félix Ribas") was built in 1971 at an elevation of and enlarged in 2005.


title: Cotopaxi

text: A tragedy occurred here on Easter Sunday 1996 when an avalanche partially buried the Refuge and dozens of tourists. The glacier above the Refuge was probably weakened by an earthquake that had shaken the entire Province of Cotopaxi for several days prior to the avalanche. In the warm midday sun a huge portion of the ice wall broke loose. Being Easter, there were many day visitors on the mountain who were buried in the ice and snow. Those trapped in the Refuge broke windows on the downhill side to climb to safety, but 13 people died on the slope above. The Refuge itself is located in a valley and consequently vulnerable to future avalanches.


title: Cotopaxi

text: Climbing Cotopaxi to the summit is quite popular, with up to 100 climbers attempting it on weekends. Today, mountain guide companies offer regular guided climbs of the mountain. Climbers grade the conventional route alpine PD (Peu Difficile) or WS (Wenig Schwierig) — or PD/WS+ (indicating "Mildly Difficult PLUS"). Use of crampons and ice axes is mandatory as snow and ice slopes of up to 50 degrees (1 in 2) are encountered, and climbers should be on belay and use aluminum ladders to cross one or two of the crevasses. A 4WD track goes up from the national park entrance to a carpark at altitude on north side, just below the José F. Ribas Refuge. This stone mountain hut — owned and operated by Grupo Ascensionismo del Colegio San Gabriel — is situated higher at (a 40-80 minute uphill hike). Here climbers can spend the night and begin their summit bid in the early morning without any intermediate camps. (Typically no more than about half of those attempting to summit Cotopaxi make it to the top after a daunting — though non-technical — six-hour scramble.) Summiting normally starts around 12:30 am, to reach the summit at latest 7:30 am and then return to the hut before the snow melts and glacier crevasses move/evolve. As of July 28, 2014, the Ribas Refuge is under construction. Tour operators shuttle their clients up to the top of the 4WD track once in the afternoon for a glacier skills class, and then again to start the climb around midnight, spending the intervening hours eating dinner and resting at a hostel lower down by the lakes. Adventure tourism operators in Quito also offer mountain biking tours from the Refuge downhill along the dirt track.


title: Cotopaxi

text: In April 2015, the volcano began to show signs of unrest, and came back to life. There was a large increase in earthquakes (including harmonic tremors) and SO emissions. IGEPN reported slight deformation of the edifice, suggesting an intrusion of magma under the volcano. As of 25 July, the unrest continued, and the most recent significant eruption was a phreatic (ash and steam) eruption that occurred on August 14 and 15, 2015. Ash was deposited heavily in areas close to the volcano, including damaging farmlands on the flanks of neighbouring volcanoes such as El Corazon, and thinly as far as Quito, affecting southern and central areas of the city.


title: Cotopaxi

text: Future Cotopaxi eruptions pose a high risk to the local population, their settlements and fields. The main danger of a significant eruption of Cotopaxi would be the flash-melting of its summit glacier, resulting in devastating lahars which would travel down the flanks of the volcano, guided by river valleys whose origins lie at the volcano. Danger from normal, explosive eruptive activity is limited to within Cotopaxi National Park. However, the great distances that lahars of the significant size that Cotopaxi's glacier produces could travel greatly increase the hazard areas to include all river valleys leading from the volcano. If there were to be a very large explosion, it would destroy many northerly settlements within the valley in the suburban area of Quito (pop. more than 2,000,000). Another city which would be in great danger is the regional capital Latacunga, which is located in the south valley, and has been destroyed at least twice in recent history (1768, 1877) by lahars caused by volcanic activity.


title: Antivenom

text: Antivenom, also known as antivenin, venom antiserum, and antivenom immunoglobulin, is a specific treatment for envenomation. It is composed of antibodies and used to treat certain venomous bites and stings. Antivenoms are recommended only if there is significant toxicity or a high risk of toxicity. The specific antivenom needed depends on the species involved. It is given by injection.


title: Antivenom

text: Side effects may be severe. They include serum sickness, shortness of breath, and allergic reactions including anaphylaxis. Antivenom is traditionally made by collecting venom from the relevant animal and injecting small amounts of it into a domestic animal. The antibodies that form are then collected from the domestic animal's blood and purified.


title: Antivenom

text: Due to the high cost of producing antibody-based antivenoms and their short shelf lives when not refrigerated, alternative methods of production of antivenoms are being actively explored. One such different method of production involves production from bacteria. Another approach is to develop targeted drugs (which, unlike antibodies, are usually synthetic and easier to manufacture at scale).


title: Antivenom

text: Antivenom was first developed in the late 19th century and came into common use in the 1950s. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.


title: Antivenom

text: Antivenom is used to treat certain venomous bites and stings. They are recommended only if there is significant toxicity or a high risk of toxicity. The specific antivenom needed depends on the venomous species involved.


title: Antivenom

text: In the US, approved antivenom, including for pit viper (rattlesnake, copperhead and water moccasin) snakebite, is based on a purified product made in sheep known as CroFab. It was approved by the FDA in October, 2000. U.S. coral snake antivenom is no longer manufactured, and remaining stocks of in-date antivenom for coral snakebite expired in the Fall of 2009, leaving the U.S. without a coral snake antivenom. Efforts are being made to obtain approval for a coral snake antivenom produced in Mexico which would work against U.S. coral snakebite, but such approval remains speculative.


title: Antivenom

text: As an alternative when conventional antivenom is not available, hospitals sometimes use an intravenous version of the antiparalytic drug neostigmine to delay the effects of neurotoxic envenomation through snakebite. Some promising research results have also been reported for administering the drug nasally as a "universal antivenom" for neurotoxic snakebite treatment.


title: Antivenom

text: A monovalent antivenom is specific for one toxin or species, while a polyvalent one is effective against multiple toxins or species.


title: Antivenom

text: The majority of antivenoms (including all snake antivenoms) are administered intravenously; however, stonefish and redback spider antivenoms are given intramuscularly. The intramuscular route has been questioned in some situations as not uniformly effective.


title: Antivenom

text: Antivenoms bind to and neutralize the venom, halting further damage, but do not reverse damage already done. Thus, they should be given as soon as possible after the venom has been injected, but are of some benefit as long as venom is present in the body. Since the advent of antivenoms, some bites which were previously invariably fatal have become only rarely fatal provided that the antivenom is given soon enough.


title: Antivenom

text: Antivenoms are purified from animal serum by several processes and may contain other serum proteins that can act as immunogens. Some individuals may react to the antivenom with an immediate hypersensitivity reaction (anaphylaxis) or a delayed hypersensitivity (serum sickness) reaction, and antivenom should, therefore, be used with caution. Although rare, severe hypersensitivity reactions including anaphylaxis to antivenom are possible.<ref name="10.4103/0972-5229.164807"></ref> Despite this caution, antivenom is typically the sole effective treatment for a life-threatening condition, and once the precautions for managing these reactions are in place, an anaphylactoid reaction is not grounds to refuse to give antivenom if otherwise indicated. Although it is a popular myth that a person allergic to horses "cannot" be given antivenom, the side effects are manageable, and antivenom should be given rapidly as the side effects can be managed.


title: Antivenom

text: Antivenoms act by binding to and neutralizing venoms. The principle of antivenom is based on that of vaccines, developed by Edward Jenner; however, instead of inducing immunity in the person directly, it is induced in a host animal and the hyperimmunized serum is transfused into the person. The host animals may include horses, donkeys, goats, sheep, rabbits, chickens, llamas, and camels. In addition, opossums are being studied for antivenom production. Antivenoms for medical use are often preserved as freeze-dried ampoules, but some are available only in liquid form and must be kept refrigerated. They are not immediately inactivated by heat, however, so a minor gap in the cold chain is not disastrous.


title: Antivenom

text: Surgeon-Major Edward Nicholson wrote in the November 1870 Madras Medical Journal that he had witnessed a Burmese snake-catcher inoculating himself with cobra venom. However, the snake-catcher was unsure whether this was actually effective and therefore continued to treat his snakes with care. Nicholson, along with other Britons, began to consider that venom might provide its own cure. Although Scottish surgeon Patrick Russell had noted in the late 18th century that snakes were not affected by their own venom, it was not until the late 19th century that Joseph Frayer, Lawrence Waddell, and others began to consider venom-based remedies again. However, they and other naturalists working in India did not have the funding to fully develop their theories. Not until 1895 did Sir Thomas Fraser, Professor of Medicine at the University of Edinburgh, pick up Fayrer and Waddell's research to produce a serum to act against cobra venom. His 'Antivenin' was effective, but failed to make an impact as the public were focused on contemporary Pasteurian discoveries.


title: Antivenom

text: Another anti-ophidic serum was developed by Albert Calmette, a French scientist of the Pasteur Institute working at its Indochine branch in 1895, to treat the bites of the Indian Cobra ("Naja naja").


title: Antivenom

text: In 1901, Vital Brazil, working at the Instituto Butantan in São Paulo, Brazil, developed the first monovalent and polyvalent antivenoms for Central and South American "Crotalus" and "Bothrops" genera, as well as for certain species of venomous spiders, scorpions, and frogs.


title: Antivenom

text: In Australia, the Commonwealth Serum Laboratories (CSL) began antivenom research in the 1920s. CSL has developed antivenoms for the redback spider, funnel-web spiders and all deadly Australian snakes.


title: Antivenom

text: There is an overall shortage of antivenom to treat snakebites. Because of this shortage, clinical researchers are considering whether lower doses may be as effective as higher doses in severe neurotoxic snake envenoming.


title: Antivenom

text: Snake antivenom is complicated and expensive for manufacturers to produce. When weighed against profitability (especially for sale in poorer regions), the result is that many snake antivenoms, world-wide, are very expensive. Availability, from region to region, also varies.


title: Antivenom

text: Internationally, antivenoms must conform to the standards of pharmacopoeia and the World Health Organization (WHO). Antivenoms have been developed for the venoms associated with the following animals:


title: Antivenom

text: The name "antivenin" comes from the French word "venin", meaning venom, which in turn was derived from Latin "venenum", meaning poison.


title: Antivenom

text: Historically, the term "antivenin" was predominant around the world, its first published use being in 1895. In 1981, the World Health Organization decided that the preferred terminology in the English language would be "venom" and "antivenom" rather than "venin" and "antivenin" or "venen" and "antivenene".


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: An epicyclic gear train (also known as a planetary gearset) consists of two gears mounted so that the center of one gear revolves around the center of the other. A carrier connects the centers of the two gears and rotates the planet and sun gears mesh so that their pitch circles roll without slip. A point on the pitch circle of the planet gear traces an epicycloid curve. In this simplified case, the sun gear is fixed and the planetary gear(s) roll around the sun gear.


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: An epicyclic gear train can be assembled so the planet gear rolls on the inside of the pitch circle of a fixed, outer gear ring, or ring gear, sometimes called an "annular gear". In this case, the curve traced by a point on the pitch circle of the planet is a hypocycloid.


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: The combination of epicycle gear trains with a planet engaging both a sun gear and a ring gear is called a "planetary gear train". In this case, the ring gear is usually fixed and the sun gear is driven.


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: "Epicyclic gearing" or "planetary gearing" is a gear system consisting of one or more outer, or "planet", gears or pinions, revolving about a central "sun gear" or "sun wheel". Typically, the planet gears are mounted on a movable arm or "carrier", which itself may rotate relative to the sun gear. Epicyclic gearing systems also incorporate the use of an outer "ring" gear or "annulus", which meshes with the planet gears. Planetary gears (or epicyclic gears) are typically classified as simple or compound planetary gears. Simple planetary gears have one sun, one ring, one carrier, and one planet set. Compound planetary gears involve one or more of the following three types of structures: meshed-planet (there are at least two more planets in mesh with each other in each planet train), stepped-planet (there exists a shaft connection between two planets in each planet


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: train), and multi-stage structures (the system contains two or more planet sets). Compared to simple planetary gears, compound planetary gears have the advantages of larger reduction ratio, higher torque-to-weight ratio, and more flexible configurations.


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: The axes of all gears are usually parallel, but for special cases like pencil sharpeners and differentials, they can be placed at an angle, introducing elements of bevel gear (see below). Further, the sun, planet carrier and ring axes are usually coaxial.


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: Epicyclic gearing is also available which consists of a sun, a carrier, and two planets which mesh with each other. One planet meshes with the sun gear, while the second planet meshes with the ring gear. For this case, when the carrier is fixed, the ring gear rotates in the same direction as the sun gear, thus providing a reversal in direction compared to standard epicyclic gearing.


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: Around 500 BCE, the Greeks invented the idea of epicycles, of circles travelling on the circular orbits. With this theory Claudius Ptolemy in the "Almagest" in 148 CE was able to approximate planetary paths observed crossing the sky. The Antikythera Mechanism, circa 80 BCE, had gearing which was able to closely match the moon's elliptical path through the heavens, and even to correct for the nine-year precession of that path. (The Greeks interpreted the motion they saw, not as elliptical, but rather as epicyclic motion.)


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: In the 2nd century AD treatise "The Mathematical Syntaxis" (a.k.a. "Almagest"), Claudius Ptolemy used rotating deferent and epicycles that form epicyclic gear trains to predict the motions of the planets. Accurate predictions of the movement of the Sun, Moon, and the five planets, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, across the sky assumed that each followed a trajectory traced by a point on the planet gear of an epicyclic gear train. This curve is called an epitrochoid.


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: Epicyclic gearing was used in the Antikythera Mechanism, circa 80 BCE, to adjust the displayed position of the moon for the ellipticity of its orbit, and even for its orbital apsidal precession. Two facing gears were rotated around slightly different centers; one drove the other, not with meshed teeth but with a pin inserted into a slot on the second. As the slot drove the second gear, the radius of driving would change, thus invoking a speeding up and slowing down of the driven gear in each revolution.


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: Richard of Wallingford, an English abbot of St. Albans monastery, later described epicyclic gearing for an astronomical clock in the 14th century. In 1588, Italian military engineer Agostino Ramelli invented the bookwheel, a vertically revolving bookstand containing epicyclic gearing with two levels of planetary gears to maintain proper orientation of the books.


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: French mathematician and engineer Desargues designed and constructed the first mill with epicycloidal teeth .


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: In order that the planet gear teeth mesh properly with both the sun and ring gears, assuming formula_1 equally spaced planet gears, the following equation must be satisfied:


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: If one is to create an asymmetric carrier frame with non-equiangular planet gears, say to create some kind of mechanical vibration in the system, one must make the teething such that the above equation complies with the "imaginary gears". For example, in the case where a carrier frame is intended to contain planet gears spaced 0°, 50°, 120°, and 230°, one is to calculate as if there are actually 36 planetary gears (10° equiangular), rather than the four real ones.


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: The gear ratio of an epicyclic gearing system is somewhat non-intuitive, particularly because there are several ways in which an input rotation can be converted into an output rotation. The four basic components of the epicyclic gear are:


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: The overall gear ratio of a simple planetary gearset can be calculated using the following two equations, representing the sun-planet and planet-ring interactions respectively:


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: In many epicyclic gearing systems, one of these three basic components is held stationary (hence set formula_15 for whichever gear is stationary); one of the two remaining components is an "input", providing power to the system, while the last component is an "output", receiving power from the system. The ratio of input rotation to output rotation is dependent upon the number of teeth in each of the gears, and upon which component is held stationary.


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: Alternatively, in the special case where the number of teeth on each gear meets the relationship formula_16 the equation can be re-written as the following:


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: These relationships can be used to analyze any epicyclic system, including those, such as hybrid vehicle transmissions, where two of the components are used as "inputs" with the third providing "output" relative to the two inputs.


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: In one arrangement, the planetary carrier (green in the diagram above) is held stationary, and the sun gear (yellow) is used as input. In that case, the planetary gears simply rotate about their own axes (i.e., spin) at a rate determined by the number of teeth in each gear. If the sun gear has formula_19 teeth, and each planet gear has formula_20 teeth, then the ratio is equal to formula_21 For instance, if the sun gear has 24 teeth, and each planet has 16 teeth, then the ratio is , or ; this means that one clockwise turn of the sun gear produces 1.5 "counterclockwise" turns of each of the planet gear(s) about its axis.


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: Rotation of the planet gears can in turn drive the ring gear (not depicted in diagram), at a speed corresponding to the gear ratios: If the ring gear has formula_22 teeth, then the ring will rotate by formula_23 turns for each turn of the planetary gears. For instance, if the ring gear has 64 teeth, and the planets 16 teeth, one clockwise turn of a planet gear results in , or clockwise turns of the ring gear. Extending this case from the one above:


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: So, with the planetary carrier locked, one turn of the sun gear results in formula_26 turns of the ring gear.


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: The ring gear may also be held fixed, with input provided to the planetary gear carrier; output rotation is then produced from the sun gear. This configuration will produce an increase in gear ratio, equal to formula_27


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: If the ring gear is held stationary and the sun gear is used as the input, the planet carrier will be the output. The gear ratio in this case will be formula_28 which may also be written as formula_29 This is the lowest gear ratio attainable with an epicyclic gear train. This type of gearing is sometimes used in tractors and construction equipment to provide high torque to the drive wheels.


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: In bicycle hub gears, the sun is usually stationary, being keyed to the axle or even machined directly onto it. The planetary gear carrier is used as input. In this case the gear ratio is simply given by formula_30 The number of teeth in the planet gear is irrelevant.


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: From the above formulae, we can also derive the accelerations of the sun, ring and carrier, which are:


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: In epicyclic gears, two speeds must be known, in order to determine the third speed. However, in a steady state condition, only one torque must be known, in order to determine the other two torques. The equations which determine torque are:


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: <br> where: formula_40 — Torque of ring (annulus), formula_41 — Torque of sun, formula_42— Torque of carrier. For all three, these are the torques applied to the mechanism (input torques). Output torques have the reverse sign of input torques.


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: In the cases where gears are accelerating, or to account for friction, these equations must be modified.


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: A convenient approach to determine the various speed ratios available in a planetary gear train begins by considering the speed ratio of the gear train when the carrier is held fixed. This is known as the fixed carrier train ratio.


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: In the case of a simple planetary gear train formed by a carrier supporting a planet gear engaged with a sun and ring gear, the fixed carrier train ratio is computed as the speed ratio of the gear train formed by the sun, planet and ring gears on the fixed carrier. This is given by


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: The fundamental formula of the planetary gear train with a rotating carrier is obtained by recognizing that this formula remains true if the angular velocities of the sun, planet and ring gears are computed relative to the carrier angular velocity. This becomes,


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: This formula provides a simple way to determine the speed ratios for the simple planetary gear train under different conditions:


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: Each of the speed ratios available to a simple planetary gear train can be obtained by using band brakes to hold and release the carrier, sun or ring gears as needed. This provides the basic structure for an automatic transmission.


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: A spur gear differential is constructed from two identical coaxial epicyclic gear trains assembled with a single carrier such that their planet gears are engaged. This forms a planetary gear train with a fixed carrier train ratio "R" = −1.


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: Thus, the angular velocity of the carrier of a spur gear differential is the average of the angular velocities of the sun and ring gears.


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: In discussing the spur gear differential, the use of the term "ring gear" is a convenient way to distinguish the sun gears of the two epicyclic gear trains. Ring gears are normally fixed in most applications as this arrangement will have a good reduction capacity. The second sun gear serves the same purpose as the ring gear of a simple planetary gear train but clearly does not have the internal gear mate that is typical of a ring gear.


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: Some epicyclic gear trains employ two planetary gears which mesh with each other. One of these planets meshes with the sun gear, the other planet meshes with the ring gear. This results in different ratios being generated by the planetary and also causes the sun gear to rotate in the same direction as the ring gear when the planet carrier is the stationary. The fundamental equation becomes:


title: Epicyclic gearing

text: "Compound planetary gear" is a general concept and it refers to any planetary gears involving one or more of the following three types of structures: "meshed-planet" (there are at least two or more planets in mesh with each other in each planet train), "stepped-planet" (there exists a shaft connection between two planets in each planet train), and "multi-stage structures" (the system contains two or more planet sets).