title: Spitting Image

text: Ian Botham was a violent drug addict, while Mike Gatting spoke with a high voice. Lester Piggott had to be subtitled. Boxing characters included Frank Bruno with his trademark laugh and catchphrase "where's 'Arry?", and Chris Eubank, with his lisp. Snooker player Steve Davis was boring, upset because he had no nickname, but thought himself interesting.


title: Spitting Image

text: News reporters were also depicted: Alastair Burnet was sycophantic towards the Royal Family and with a nose that inflated; Sandy Gall was effeminate, always worrying what coat he would wear; John Cole was incomprehensible and had to be dragged off-screen when he talked for too long; Nicholas Witchell was always turning up during a strike to work rather than report; Kate Adie was a thrill-seeker, and BBC Head of Bravery. Presenters were also seen: Jeremy Paxman appeared as uninterested and self-loving, and Trevor McDonald frequently lamented his lot after being paired with Ronnie Corbett as newscasters, with the latter always getting the punchlines. William Rees-Mogg was portrayed as a censorship-crazy person with eyes that would frequently pop out of the socket.


title: Spitting Image

text: David Coleman had a very loud ear prompter and sometimes did not know what he was commentating on; Frank Bough was portrayed as being a drug user; Bruce Forsyth spoke every sentence as though it was a catchphrase. Celebrity chef Keith Floyd was always getting drunk on wine, while film critic Barry Norman was not a fan of his puppet, because it had an inexplicable wart on its forehead, which he did not have. Paul Daniels did not mind jokes about his toupée, but took offence to a sketch depicting him nuzzling his assistant Debbie McGee's breasts.


title: Spitting Image

text: Comedians were satirised: Billy Connolly was portrayed as a jester; Jimmy Tarbuck was said to use old jokes and always take part in the Royal Variety Performance; Bernard Manning was an obese racist; and Ben Elton was always shown with a microphone.


title: Spitting Image

text: Writer and MP Jeffrey Archer appeared as an annoying, self-commenting writer whose books were not read by anyone. Kenneth Williams was depicted with a large nose and big teeth, and Harry Secombe was depicted as overly religious. Alan Bennett was shown at home as watching "Spitting Image" on TV. Esther Rantzen always had a permanent grin and was frequently carrying an onion (reflecting a concurrent running joke in "Private Eye" suggesting insincere theatrical tears), whilst Cilla Black had large teeth and a thick Scouse accent.


title: Spitting Image

text: A Mick Jagger character seemed perpetually high, and Keith Richards so old and haggard that he thought he was dead. Ringo Starr was a drunkard, and Paul McCartney was always releasing albums and films that flopped. Madonna changed her hair and clothes with every episode, and Michael Jackson's skin turned lighter. Kylie Minogue was depicted as a vain robot; Luciano Pavarotti was hugely overweight and ate everything he saw; Matt and Luke Goss of the band Bros were depicted as children wanting to grow up.


title: Spitting Image

text: Actor Dustin Hoffman spoke nasally and was parodied for his method acting; John Gielgud and Laurence Olivier lamented their friends, and even their own death. James Bond actor Roger Moore was depicted "with a wooden delivery" – only his eyebrows moved; Moore quipped, "My acting range has always been something between the two extremes of 'raises left eyebrow' and 'raises right eyebrow'." Arnold Schwarzenegger was muscle-bound but insecure about the size of his genitals; Donald Sinden was parodied as also trying to become the greatest Shakespearian actor and get a knighthood. Clint Eastwood was frequently portrayed as an uncompromising tough guy, and Sylvester Stallone nearly always appeared dressed up as John Rambo.


title: Spitting Image

text: Archbishop Robert Runcie, Mary Whitehouse and Cliff Richard were portrayed as Christian censors. Ian Paisley was always shouting and dressed in black. Bishop David Jenkins was depicted as not believing in anything. Pope John Paul II was a banjo-playing womaniser who spoke with a hip urban African-American accent.


title: Spitting Image

text: Media moguls Robert Maxwell and Rupert Murdoch were also on the show, the latter depicted as an extremely flatulent individual encouraging obscenity in his mass media.


title: Spitting Image

text: The first single from "Spitting Image", released in 1984, was a rework of the Crystals' "Da Doo Ron Ron". The "Spitting Image" version, "Da Do Run Ron", was a spoof election campaign song for Ronald Reagan, featuring Nancy Reagan listing reasons to elect her husband. The cover of the single featured Reagan as a biker with Nancy riding pillion.


title: Spitting Image

text: The B-side of this single was entitled "Just A Prince Who Can't Say No" and poked fun at the sexual indiscretions of Prince Andrew. The TV version of this song (featured in the second episode) was heavily censored by Central Television on broadcast but presented uncut on vinyl. In the television series he was shown surrounded by various famous women including Joan Collins, Mary Whitehouse and Linda McCartney.


title: Spitting Image

text: In 1986, the "Spitting Image" puppets released "The Chicken Song", a parody of "Agadoo" by Black Lace – one of several parodies to have featured in the programme, mimicking novelty records and holiday songs with a repetitive tunes and nonsensical lyrics. Ironically, The Chicken Song hit number 1 in the UK Singles Chart for 3 weeks from 17 May 1986 – 3 June 1986. VH1 US named it as one of the worst number 1 nominations.


title: Spitting Image

text: The other songs released by "Spitting Image" were "I've Never Met a Nice South African" (which was on the B-Side of "The Chicken Song" and was a savage indictment of the apartheid-ridden country), "We're Scared Of Bob" (a parody of "We Are The World") and "Hello You Must Be Going" (which mocked Phil Collins's divorce ballads and was on the 12" release of The Chicken Song), "Santa Claus Is on the Dole" (backed with "The Atheist Tabernacle Choir"), "The Christmas Singles" and "Cry Gazza Cry" (based on footballer Paul Gascoigne's tears in the 1990 World Cup).


title: Spitting Image

text: "The Chicken Song" was by far the most successful of all of their music and not-so-subtle references were made to it in subsequent sketches in the show itself. In 1986, a compilation LP "Spit In Your Ear" was produced, featuring some of their sketches over time along with a few of their songs, followed in 1990 by "20 Great Golden Gobs", a songs-only collection from the 1986–1990 series.


title: Spitting Image

text: In 1986, the "Spitting Image" team experienced some real musical success when they created the video for "Land of Confusion" by Genesis, a song which implied that Thatcher and Reagan were about to bring the world to a nuclear war. Phil Collins saw a disfigured version of himself on the show and contacted the show's producers with the idea to produce the video. Three new puppets were created depicting all members of Genesis (including a less exaggerated version of Collins), which also appear on the sleeve of the 45 (and later CD) single. The video was depicted as a nightmare Reagan was having, which left him completely immersed in sweat from worrying. It won a Grammy Award for Best Concept Music Video in 1987.


title: Spitting Image

text: The end of the 1987 election featured a young boy, dressed as a city banker, singing "Tomorrow Belongs to Me", a parody of the film "Cabaret", when a member of the Hitler Youth starts singing the same song. In a series 5 episode, Labour leader Neil Kinnock is portrayed singing a self-parody to the tune "My eyes are fully open" from Gilbert and Sullivan's "Ruddigore", supported by members of his shadow cabinet.


title: Spitting Image

text: In one instance Sting was persuaded to sing a re-worded version of "Every Breath You Take", titled "Every Bomb You Make" (series 1, episode 12), to accompany a video showing the "Spitting Image" puppets of world leaders and political figures of the day, usually with the figure matching the altered lyrics


title: Spitting Image

text: The video ended with the grim reaper appearing in front of a sunset. This version was due to be resurrected by Sting at the Live 8 concert, and the parody lyrics were cleared with their writers Quentin Reynolds and James Glen, but plans were abandoned at the last minute.


title: Spitting Image

text: The closing music for series 8 episode 3 featured an ensemble of characters performing "We All Hate Jeremy Beadle", in reference to the light entertainment host of that name. In series 9 episode 4, the show ended with "Why Can't Life Be Like Hello?", sung by June Brown (who was commonly known as the "EastEnders" character Dot Cotton). The song pastiches "Hello" magazine, in satire of post-Big Bang UK consumerist culture.


title: Spitting Image

text: Other musical parodies featured Mick Jagger, Michael Jackson, David Bowie, Kylie Minogue, The Monkees, Pulp, Brett Anderson of Suede, Pet Shop Boys, R.E.M., Björk, East 17, Elvis Presley, Oasis, ZZ Top, Prince and Barbra Streisand.


title: Spitting Image

text: The new 2020 release of the show features such songs as a mockery of celebrities’ use of social media and a parody of New Zealand Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern’s domestic policies. In the song, a Jacinda Ardern puppet dressed as Mary Poppins serenades with the Spitting Image original song, "Super-Kiwi-socialistic-extra-nice-Jacinda," a play on "Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious".


title: Spitting Image

text: "Spitting Image" launched the careers of and featured many then-unknown British comedians and actors, including Hugh Dennis, Steve Coogan and Harry Enfield.


title: Spitting Image

text: The writers, Mark Burton, John O'Farrell, Pete Sinclair, Stuart Silver, and Ray Harris quit the show in 1993 and in 1995, and with viewing figures in decline, production was cancelled. The final series was initially planned for broadcast in autumn 1995 but was subsequently broadcast in January and February 1996, with the final episode featuring "The Last Prophecies of Spitting Image" in which Labour moved into Number 10. A few years later, most of the puppets were sold at an auction hosted by Sotheby's, including a puppet of Osama bin Laden never used in the series.


title: Spitting Image

text: During 2004, the idea of the series coming back started to appear after John Lloyd held talks with ITV executives about the show's return. John Lloyd also held talks with a number of people who voiced the "Spitting Image" puppets, including John Sessions, Harry Enfield and Rory Bremner, with all responding positively.


title: Spitting Image

text: Lloyd said: "There's enormous enthusiasm from ITV to do it. We're just trying to work out how it would be affordable. The budget is about to go off to ITV. Everybody seems to have residual affection for "Spitting Image". It could be scrappy and uneven, but it's rather like a newspaper. You don't expect it to be brilliant every time, but there's something delicious in every edition."


title: Spitting Image

text: By early 2006, ITV were producing a documentary celebrating the series and if the audience figures were good a full series might have been produced. On 25 June 2006, ITV transmitted "Best Ever Spitting Image" as a one-off special of "Spitting Image" which took a nostalgic look back at the programme's highlights. This special actually prevented ITV directly resurrecting the famous satire as they had planned, because it featured new puppets of Ant and Dec – a move which was against the wishes of Roger Law, who owns the rights to the "Spitting Image" brand.


title: Spitting Image

text: "Spitting Image", as ITV's primary satirical programme, was succeeded by "2DTV", a cartoon format that had five series between 2001 and 2004. In 2008 ITV created a CGI version to caricature and lampoon the famous, called "Headcases", but it only aired for one series. Satirical puppets finally returned to ITV in 2015, in "Newzoids".


title: Spitting Image

text: In 2018, "Spitting Image" co-creator Roger Law donated his entire archive – which includes original scripts, puppet moulds, drawings and recordings – to Cambridge University. The collection is located in the university library, with its librarian Dr Jessica Gardner describing the collection as a "national treasure". She added, ""Spitting Image" was anarchic, it was creative, it entered the public imagination like nothing else from that era. It is an extraordinary political and historical record. Great satire holds up a mirror, it questions and challenges."


title: Spitting Image

text: All episodes and specials were broadcast on Sunday, usually at 10 pm. The programme was also picked up overseas. It aired on Canada's CBC Television on Sunday nights in the late 1980s. The American network NBC aired several prime-time specials in the same period. Austrian public broadcaster ORF broadcast "Spitting Image" in English with German subtitles late on Friday nights in approximately four-week intervals in the late 1980s and early 1990s, introducing it to the German-speaking world (where foreign programming is usually dubbed into German). "Spitting Image" was also briefly shown in France on the private TV channel M6 in English with French subtitles. The show was also aired in New Zealand on TVNZ in the 1980s.


title: Spitting Image

text: From November 1996 "Spitting Image" Series 1–11 were on UK Gold until September 1998. Edited episodes from Series 1–3 and 7 were on Granada Plus from 2001 to 2003.


title: Spitting Image

text: In February 2008, Comedy Central Extra started showing regular repeats of "Spitting Image" from 9 pm on Tuesday evenings, with a whole weekend's worth of evenings devoted to the first two series. It reappeared in a late night slot in November 2010, through to 18 December 2010 and has not been aired since then. From 2001 to 2004 the ITV series "2DTV" had a similar style, but using computer animation instead of puppets.


title: Spitting Image

text: In an attempt to crack the American market, there were some attempts to produce a US version of the show. A 45-minute 'made for market' show by the original "Spitting Image" team, titled "Spitting Image: Down and Out in the White House" was produced in 1986 by Central for the NBC network. NBC did not give this high priority. During the late summer, when viewership was traditionally low and the networks aired reruns of the previous season, NBC broke the special into two half-hour episodes and slotted them into its schedule on 30 August and 6 September of that year, following reruns of "The Golden Girls".


title: Spitting Image

text: Introduced by David Frost, it departed from the sketch-based format in favour of an overall storyline involving the upcoming (at that time) Presidential election. The plot involved a conspiracy to replace Ronald Reagan with a double (actually actor Dustin Hoffman in disguise). This plan was hatched by the Famous Corporation, a cabal of the ultra-rich headed by Johnny Carson's foil Ed McMahon (in the show, Carson was his ineffectual left-hand man) who met in a secret cavern hollowed out behind the façade of Mount Rushmore. Eventually, their plot foiled, the famous corporation activated their escape pod – Abraham Lincoln's nose – and left Earth for another planet, but (in a homage to the beginning of the "Star Wars" movies) were destroyed during a collision with 'a nonsensical prologue in gigantic lettering'.


title: Spitting Image

text: The show did not achieve high ratings. It did, however, receive great praise from critics and it was followed by several more television specials: "The Ronnie & Nancy Show" (also satirising the Reagans), "The 1987 Movie Awards" (sending up the Academy Awards), "Bumbledown: The Life and Times of Ronald Reagan" (a quasi-documentary about the President), and "The Sound of Maggie" (satirising Thatcher and parodying several musicals such as "Oliver!", "West Side Story" and many others).


title: Spitting Image

text: In September 2019, the show was confirmed to be returning 23 years after it originally ended, with the unveiling of the puppets of Greta Thunberg, Donald Trump, Vladimir Putin, Mark Zuckerberg, Prince Harry and Meghan Markle. Roger Law stated that the pilot for the new series had been filmed and that talks were in progress with US networks to take the show to a larger, global audience, and that the revival is set to have a global appeal through a "uniquely British eye". Among the writers for the revival will be Jeff Westbrook of "Futurama" (who also serves as executive producer), Al Murray, "The Windsors" creators Bert Tyler-Moore and George Jeffrie, Bill Odenkirk, David X. Cohen, Jason Hazeley, Keisha Zollar, Patric Verrone, Phil Wang, and Sophie Duker.


title: Spitting Image

text: On 4 March 2020, the show was announced to be returning on the streaming service BritBox, as its first official commission. The show premiered on the service on 3 October 2020, featuring the voices of Billy West, Debra Stephenson, Debra Wilson, Guz Khan, Indira Varma, Jess Robinson, John DiMaggio, Lewis MacLeod, Lobo Chan, Matt Forde, and Phil LaMarr. It was cancelled on October 24, 2022.


title: Spitting Image

text: The programme was first released on video in 1986 in a series of three collections, each a compilation of material from the first two series: "Spit – With Polish!", "A Floppy Mass Of Blubber" & "Rubber Thingies". All carried a 15 certificate and were reissued in 1988, also as a box set. 1989 saw the release by Central Video of two complete specials, "Bumbledown: The Life & Times Of Ronald Reagan" and "The Sound Of Maggie" and was also released in the US by BFS Video. Next was a video containing a collection of the music videos from the programme, titled "The Klassik Music Video Vol 1", released in 1991 by Central Video under The Video Collection Ltd (VCI or 2entertain); there was never a Volume 2.


title: Spitting Image

text: "Is Nothing Sacred?" was released in 1992 by Surprise Video, compiling material from 1990 to 1991. The free booklet was written by Stewart Lee and Richard Herring. "Havin' It Off: The Bonker's Guide" was released in 1993. In 1996 "FA to Fairplay" was released on VHS, later reissued on DVD in 2005. Made specially for video, it provided an alternative look at the 1996 European football championship held in England.


title: Spitting Image

text: The Ronald Reagan song "Da Do Run Ron" featured in a straight to video release called "Rockin' Ronnie" (1986), an otherwise unrelated compilation of movie clips released by ATI Video.


title: Spitting Image

text: The first 12 series including An 11-disc set (containing the first seven series broadcast 1984–89) have been released by Network Distributing under licence by ITV Studios, so far. Series 1–7 individual releases are now deleted. DVD releases do not include any of the specials made.


title: Darcy LaPier

text: LaPier graduated from Portland State University. She also studied drama at the University of Oregon and Huntington Film Institute in Florida.


title: Darcy LaPier

text: She was first married, at the age of 19, to Larry Ray Robertson (from 1984 to 1993), but, whilst participating in a Hawaiian Tropic Beauty Pageant in 1985, she caught the eye of Ron Rice, Hawaiian Tropic's founder. After one date, they quickly became inseparable and were married in 1991. This union produced a daughter, Sterling. Whilst still married to Ron Rice, she met and fell in love with Actor Jean-Claude Van Damme, who was married to bodybuilder Gladys Portugues at the time. After learning of Darcy's affair with Van Damme, Rice began divorce proceedings, but upon learning that at the time of their marriage she was not yet divorced from her first husband, he had the marriage annulled. (As a consequence, LaPier was entitled to child support, but not alimony, from Ron Rice.) She then married a now-divorced Van Damme in Bangkok, Thailand in February 1994; their marriage lasted until November 1997. This marriage produced a son, Nicholas van Varenberg (born October 10, 1995). Van Damme later went on to remarry Gladys Portugues.


title: Darcy LaPier

text: On Valentine's Day 1999, LaPier married Mark R. Hughes, founder of Herbalife, at Beverly Hills Presbyterian Church. The wedding was attended by many of Herbalife's top distributors, and was broadcast on HBN (Herbalife Broadcast Network) to distributors worldwide. Hughes died in his sleep on May 21 the following year. In the days following his death, LaPier had the grounds of their Malibu estate covered in 14,000 red roses.


title: Darcy LaPier

text: After Hughes' death, LaPier moved back to Oregon. She married Brian Snodgrass (of the Seven Dees nursery family) in 2002, and had a daughter, Madison Snodgrass. On her ranch in Oregon with her family, LaPier transformed herself into a rodeo barrel racer. In 2013, she produced and starred in A&E's reality series "Rodeo Girls".


title: Sirf Tum (TV series)

text: Sirf Tum () was an Indian Hindi romantic drama television series created by Rashmi Sharma. Aired on Colors TV and Voot, the show starred Vivian Dsena and Eisha Singh. It went off air on 16 September 2022.


title: Sirf Tum (TV series)

text: Vikrant Oberoi is a wealthy yet arrogant businessman. As he falls in love with Mamta Verma, he marries her after disowning his first wife Asha and their newborn son Ansh, throwing them out. Asha moves to a rented house with Ansh, though she swears to destroy the Oberois, by telling Ansh the truth and raising him to grow to take revenge from the Oberois especially from Mamta and Vikrant's son, Ranveer, who got all the things and name which Ansh lost.


title: Sirf Tum (TV series)

text: Angry and strong minded, Ranveer has grown up to hate his own father Vikrant, after he learnt how he cheated on Mamta by still being in an illegitimate relationship with another woman still after their marriage. On the other hand, Vikrant's manager Rakesh Sharma lives with his loving family including his simple and kind-hearted daughter Suhaani, an aspiring doctor.


title: Sirf Tum (TV series)

text: Ranveer and Ansh study in the same college. As Ranveer is unaware always that Asha was Vikrant's first wife and Ansh was their son, he only thinks Ansh to be his sworn enemy. Suhaani signs up the same college. As she's new, Rakesh requests Ranveer to take Suhaani's responsibility, who agrees. In the meantime they become good friends. Riya, a close friend of Ranveer and Suhaani, also studies there who loves Ranveer since childhood, but he realises he is falling love with Suhaani.


title: Sirf Tum (TV series)

text: Ansh, to avenge Asha's insult from Oberois, targets and intends to separate Ranveer and Suhaani with Riya's help, but in vain. Suhaani also eventually realises she loves Ranveer. They confess their feelings. Initially hesitant to accept their alliance due to being not well rich than Vikrant, Rakesh finally gives his nod when he understands Ranveer is perfect for Suhaani.


title: Sirf Tum (TV series)

text: Ranveer and Suhaani get engaged much to Vikrant, Riya and Ansh's dismay. Ansh who can't tolerate Ranveer's happiness, finally reveals to him that he is his half-brother, and also hits him hard on his head. Ranveer is left drunk and unconscious, whose proof Ansh shows to Rakesh, saying Ranveer won't come. Rakesh then announces Ansh and Suhaani's marriage. She marries him in a dilemma as Ranveer gets late to reach the venue. After Ranveer learns the truth of their marriage, he angrily beats Ansh and burns the wedding venue. Later Ansh reveals to Suhani that he married her to snatch every happiness from Ranveer. The trio comes to college. Ranveer attempts to kill Ansh. Suhani asks him to leave ansh. Ranveer says that i would leave Ansh if you divorce him and marry me. He asks Suhani to sign the divorce papers. She does not listen to him and tears the papers. Later, Suhaani breaks her marriage with Ansh. Vikrant fixes Ranveer's marriage with Riya, but Ranveer married Suhani instead and Vikrant married Asha, while Ansh married Honey - a girl who has returned from mental asylum. Family arguments start. She points gun at Ranveer, but Ansh gets shot and dies. Asha apologises to Mamta, understanding her mistakes, and leaves Vikrant's house. Ranveer insults Suhani, she leaves him and moves to other city with her family members. Honey abducts her and tries to kill her stating she's doing that on Ranvir's orders, which causes Suhani to hate Ranveer. She made a similar misunderstanding with Ranveer, so that he also despises Suhani. At the end, Dr. Aditya (a college student) saves Suhani and offers her and her family a place to stay. Vikrant realises his misdeeds and seeks forgiveness from Mamta.


title: Sirf Tum (TV series)

text: Suhani and her family lives with Dr. Aditya, time comes when Suhani returns her house and goes to college and meets Ranveer. Aditya starts falling for Suhani. Ranveer and Suhaani get kidnapped, Aditya finds them and rescues them. He (Dr. Aditya) blames Ranveer saying because of him, Suhaani got kidnapped. Aditya takes Suhaani in his lap and Ranveer hits him and says that Suhaani is his wife, arguments start between them. However Ranveer breaks his relationship with Suhaani.


title: Sirf Tum (TV series)

text: Ranveer treats a criminal patient . He hates suhani. However police came to hospital to arrest him . Ranveer stops police.However, suhani bails him. Ranveer again falls in love with suhani. He refuses to come home.Later ranveer asks suhani to divorce him. Suhani did not divorce him and story ended by ranveer and suhani reuniting.


title: Identity (social science)

text: Identity is the qualities, beliefs, personality traits, appearance, and/or expressions that characterize a person or group.


title: Identity (social science)

text: In sociology, emphasis is placed on collective identity, in which an individual's identity is strongly associated with role-behavior or the collection of group memberships that define them. According to Peter Burke, "Identities tell us who we are and they announce to others who we are." Identities subsequently guide behavior, leading "fathers" to behave like "fathers" and "nurses" to act like "nurses."


title: Identity (social science)

text: In psychology, the term "identity" is most commonly used to describe personal identity, or the distinctive qualities or traits that make an individual unique. Identities are strongly associated with self-concept, self-image (one's mental model of oneself), self-esteem, and individuality. Individuals' identities are situated, but also contextual, situationally adaptive and changing. Despite their fluid character, identities often feel as if they are stable ubiquitous categories defining an individual, because of their grounding in the sense of personal identity (the sense of being a continuous and persistent self).


title: Identity (social science)

text: Erik Erikson (1902–1994) became one of the earliest psychologists to take an explicit interest in identity. An essential feature of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development was the idea of the ego identity (often referred to as the "self"), which is described as an individual's personal sense of continuity. He suggested that people can attain this feeling throughout their lives as they develop and is meant to be an ongoing process. The ego-identity consists of two main features: one's personal characteristics and development, and the culmination of social and cultural factors and roles that impact one's identity. In Erikson's theory, he describes eight distinct stages across the lifespan that are each characterized by a conflict between the inner, personal world and the outer, social world of an individual. Erikson identified the conflict of identity as occurring primarily during adolescence and described potential outcomes that depend on how one deals with this conflict. Those who do not manage a resynthesis of childhood identifications are seen as being in a state of 'identity diffusion' whereas those who retain their given identities unquestioned have 'foreclosed' identities. On some readings of Erikson, the development of a strong ego identity, along with the proper integration into a stable society and culture, lead to a stronger sense of identity in general. Accordingly, a deficiency in either of these factors may increase the chance of an identity crisis or confusion.


title: Identity (social science)

text: The "Neo-Eriksonian" "identity status" paradigm emerged in 1966, driven largely by the work of James Marcia. This model focuses on the concepts of "exploration" and "commitment". The central idea is that an individual's sense of identity is determined in large part by the degrees to which a person has made certain explorations and the extent to which they have commitments to those explorations or a particular identity. A person may display either relative weakness or strength in terms of both exploration and commitments. When assigned categories, there were four possible results: identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, identity moratorium, and identity achievement. Diffusion is when a person avoids or refuses both exploration and making a commitment. Foreclosure occurs when a person does make a commitment to a particular identity but neglected to explore other options. Identity moratorium is when a person avoids or postpones making a commitment but is still actively exploring their options and different identities. Lastly, identity achievement is when a person has both explored many possibilities and has committed to their identity.


title: Identity (social science)

text: Although the self is distinct from identity, the literature of self-psychology can offer some insight into how identity is maintained. From the vantage point of self-psychology, there are two areas of interest: the processes by which a self is formed (the "I"), and the actual content of the schemata which compose the self-concept (the "Me"). In the latter field, theorists have shown interest in relating the self-concept to self-esteem, the differences between complex and simple ways of organizing self-knowledge, and the links between those organizing principles and the processing of information.


title: Identity (social science)

text: Weinreich's identity variant similarly includes the categories of identity diffusion, foreclosure and crisis, but with a somewhat different emphasis. Here, with respect to identity diffusion for example, an optimal level is interpreted as the norm, as it is unrealistic to expect an individual to resolve all their conflicted identifications with others; therefore we should be alert to individuals with levels which are much higher or lower than the norm – highly diffused individuals are classified as diffused, and those with low levels as foreclosed or defensive. Weinreich applies the identity variant in a framework which also allows for the transition from one to another by way of biographical experiences and resolution of conflicted identifications situated in various contexts – for example, an adolescent going through family break-up may be in one state, whereas later in a stable marriage with a secure professional role may be in another. Hence, though there is continuity, there is also development and change.


title: Identity (social science)

text: Laing's definition of identity closely follows Erikson's, in emphasising the past, present and future components of the experienced self. He also develops the concept of the "metaperspective of self", i.e. the self's perception of the other's view of self, which has been found to be extremely important in clinical contexts such as anorexia nervosa. Harré also conceptualises components of self/identity – the "person" (the unique being I am to myself and others) along with aspects of self (including a totality of attributes including beliefs about one's characteristics including life history), and the personal characteristics displayed to others.


title: Identity (social science)

text: At a general level, self-psychology is compelled to investigate the question of how the personal self relates to the social environment. To the extent that these theories place themselves in the tradition of "psychological" social psychology, they focus on explaining an individual's actions within a group in terms of mental events and states. However, some "sociological" social psychology theories go further by attempting to deal with the issue of identity at both the levels of individual cognition and of collective behaviour.


title: Identity (social science)

text: Many people gain a sense of positive self-esteem from their identity groups, which furthers a sense of community and belonging. Another issue that researchers have attempted to address is the question of why people engage in discrimination, i.e., why they tend to favour those they consider a part of their "in-group" over those considered to be outsiders. Both questions have been given extensive attention by researchers working in the social identity tradition. For example, in work relating to social identity theory, it has been shown that merely crafting cognitive distinction between in- and out-groups can lead to subtle effects on people's evaluations of others.


title: Identity (social science)

text: Different social situations also compel people to attach themselves to different self-identities which may cause some to feel marginalized, switch between different groups and self-identifications, or reinterpret certain identity components. These different selves lead to constructed images dichotomized between what people want to be (the ideal self) and how others see them (the limited self). Educational background and occupational status and roles significantly influence identity formation in this regard.


title: Identity (social science)

text: Another issue of interest in social psychology is related to the notion that there are certain "identity formation strategies" which a person may use to adapt to the social world. Cote and Levine developed a typology which investigated the different manners of behavior that individuals may have. Their typology includes:


title: Identity (social science)

text: Kenneth Gergen formulated additional classifications, which include the "strategic manipulator", the "pastiche personality", and the "relational self". The strategic manipulator is a person who begins to regard all senses of identity merely as role-playing exercises, and who gradually becomes alienated from their social self. The pastiche personality abandons all aspirations toward a true or "essential" identity, instead viewing social interactions as opportunities to play out, and hence become, the roles they play. Finally, the relational self is a perspective by which persons abandon all sense of exclusive self, and view all sense of identity in terms of social engagement with others. For Gergen, these strategies follow one another in phases, and they are linked to the increase in popularity of postmodern culture and the rise of telecommunications technology.


title: Identity (social science)

text: Anthropologists have most frequently employed the term "identity" to refer to this idea of selfhood in a loosely Eriksonian way properties based on the uniqueness and individuality which makes a person distinct from others. Identity became of more interest to anthropologists with the emergence of modern concerns with ethnicity and social movements in the 1970s. This was reinforced by an appreciation, following the trend in sociological thought, of the manner in which the individual is affected by and contributes to the overall social context. At the same time, the Eriksonian approach to identity remained in force, with the result that identity has continued until recently to be used in a largely socio-historical way to refer to qualities of sameness in relation to a person's connection to others and to a particular group of people.


title: Identity (social science)

text: The first favours a primordialist approach which takes the sense of self and belonging to a collective group as a fixed thing, defined by objective criteria such as common ancestry and common biological characteristics. The second, rooted in social constructionist theory, takes the view that identity is formed by a predominantly political choice of certain characteristics. In so doing, it questions the idea that identity is a natural given, characterised by fixed, supposedly objective criteria. Both approaches need to be understood in their respective political and historical contexts, characterised by debate on issues of class, race and ethnicity. While they have been criticized, they continue to exert an influence on approaches to the conceptualisation of identity today.


title: Identity (social science)

text: These different explorations of 'identity' demonstrate how difficult a concept it is to pin down. Since identity is a virtual thing, it is impossible to define it empirically. Discussions of identity use the term with different meanings, from fundamental and abiding sameness, to fluidity, contingency, negotiated and so on. Brubaker and Cooper note a tendency in many scholars to confuse identity as a category of practice and as a category of analysis. Indeed, many scholars demonstrate a tendency to follow their own preconceptions of identity, following more or less the frameworks listed above, rather than taking into account the mechanisms by which the concept is crystallised as reality. In this environment, some analysts, such as Brubaker and Cooper, have suggested doing away with the concept completely. Others, by contrast, have sought to introduce alternative concepts in an attempt to capture the dynamic and fluid qualities of human social self-expression. Stuart Hall for example, suggests treating identity as a process, to take into account the reality of diverse and ever-changing social experience. Some scholars have introduced the idea of identification, whereby identity is perceived as made up of different components that are 'identified' and interpreted by individuals. The construction of an individual sense of self is achieved by personal choices regarding who and what to associate with. Such approaches are liberating in their recognition of the role of the individual in social interaction and the construction of identity.


title: Identity (social science)

text: Anthropologists have contributed to the debate by shifting the focus of research: One of the first challenges for the researcher wishing to carry out empirical research in this area is to identify an appropriate analytical tool. The concept of boundaries is useful here for demonstrating how identity works. In the same way as Barth, in his approach to ethnicity, advocated the critical focus for investigation as being "the ethnic boundary that defines the group rather than the cultural stuff that it encloses", social anthropologists such as Cohen and Bray have shifted the focus of analytical study from identity to the boundaries that are used for purposes of identification. If identity is a kind of virtual site in which the dynamic processes and markers used for identification are made apparent, boundaries provide the framework on which this virtual site is built. They concentrated on how the idea of community belonging is differently constructed by individual members and how individuals within the group conceive ethnic boundaries.


title: Identity (social science)

text: As a non-directive and flexible analytical tool, the concept of boundaries helps both to map and to define the changeability and mutability that are characteristic of people's experiences of the self in society. While identity is a volatile, flexible and abstract 'thing', its manifestations and the ways in which it is exercised are often open to view. Identity is made evident through the use of markers such as language, dress, behaviour and choice of space, whose effect depends on their recognition by other social beings. Markers help to create the boundaries that define similarities or differences between the marker wearer and the marker perceivers, their effectiveness depends on a shared understanding of their meaning. In a social context, misunderstandings can arise due to a misinterpretation of the significance of specific markers. Equally, an individual can use markers of identity to exert influence on other people without necessarily fulfilling all the criteria that an external observer might typically associate with such an abstract identity.


title: Identity (social science)

text: Boundaries can be inclusive or exclusive depending on how they are perceived by other people. An exclusive boundary arises, for example, when a person adopts a marker that imposes restrictions on the behaviour of others. An inclusive boundary is created, by contrast, by the use of a marker with which other people are ready and able to associate. At the same time, however, an inclusive boundary will also impose restrictions on the people it has included by limiting their inclusion within other boundaries. An example of this is the use of a particular language by a newcomer in a room full of people speaking various languages. Some people may understand the language used by this person while others may not. Those who do not understand it might take the newcomer's use of this particular language merely as a neutral sign of identity. But they might also perceive it as imposing an exclusive boundary that is meant to mark them off from the person. On the other hand, those who do understand the newcomer's language could take it as an inclusive boundary, through which the newcomer associates themself with them to the exclusion of the other people present. Equally, however, it is possible that people who do understand the newcomer but who also speak another language may not want to speak the newcomer's language and so see their marker as an imposition and a negative boundary. It is possible that the newcomer is either aware or unaware of this, depending on whether they themself knows other languages or is conscious of the plurilingual quality of the people there and is respectful of it or not.


title: Identity (social science)

text: Nietzsche called for a rejection of "Soul Atomism" in The Gay Science. Nietzsche supposed that the Soul was an interaction of forces, an ever-changing thing far from the immortal soul posited by both Descartes and the Christian tradition. His "Construction of the Soul" in many ways resembles modern social constructivism.


title: Identity (social science)

text: Heidegger, following Nietzsche, did work on identity. For Heidegger, people only really form an identity after facing death. It's death that allows people to choose from the social constructed meanings in their world, and assemble a finite identity out of seemingly infinite meanings. For Heidegger, most people never escape the "they", a socially constructed identity of "how one ought to be" created mostly to try to escape death through ambiguity.


title: Identity (social science)

text: Ricoeur has introduced the distinction between the ipse identity (selfhood, 'who am I?') and the idem identity (sameness, or a third-person perspective which objectifies identity).


title: Identity (social science)

text: A religious identity is the set of beliefs and practices generally held by an individual, involving adherence to codified beliefs and rituals and study of ancestral or cultural traditions, writings, history, mythology, and faith and mystical experience. Religious identity refers to the personal practices related to communal faith along with rituals and communication stemming from such conviction. This identity formation begins with an association in the parents' religious contacts, and individuation requires that the person chooses the same or different religious identity than that of their parents.


title: Identity (social science)

text: The Parable of the Lost Sheep is one of the parables of Jesus, it is about a shepherd who leaves his flock of ninety-nine sheep in order to find the one which is lost. The parable of the lost sheep is an example of the rediscovery of identity their aim is to lay bare the nature of the divine response to the recovery of the lost, the lost sheep represents a lost human being.


title: Identity (social science)

text: Christian meditation is a specific form of personality formation, though often used only by certain practitioners to describe various forms of prayer and the process of knowing the contemplation of God.


title: Identity (social science)

text: In Western culture, personal and secular identity are deeply influenced by the formation of Christianity, throughout history, various Western thinkers who contributed to the development of European identity were influenced by classical cultures and incorporated elements of Greek culture as well as Jewish culture, leading to some movements such as Philhellenism and Philosemitism.


title: Identity (social science)

text: The implications are multiple as various research traditions are now heavily utilizing the lens of identity to examine phenomena. One implication of identity and of identity construction can be seen in occupational settings. This becomes increasing challenging in stigmatized jobs or "dirty work". Tracy and Trethewey state that "individuals gravitate toward and turn away from particular jobs depending in part, on the extent to which they validate a "preferred organizational self". Some jobs carry different stigmas or acclaims. In her analysis Tracy uses the example of correctional officers trying to shake the stigma of "glorified maids". "The process by which people arrive at justifications of and values for various occupational choices." Among these are workplace satisfaction and overall quality of life. People in these types of jobs are forced to find ways in order to create an identity they can live with. "Crafting a positive sense of self at work is more challenging when one's work is considered "dirty" by societal standards". "In other words, doing taint management is not just about allowing the employee to feel good in that job. "If employees must navigate discourses that question the viability of their work, and/ or experience obstacles in managing taint through transforming dirty work into a badge of honor, it is likely they will find blaming the client to be an efficacious route in affirming their identity".


title: Identity (social science)

text: In any case, the concept that an individual has a unique identity developed relatively recently in history. Factors influencing the emphasis on personal identity may include:


title: Plantar reflex

text: The plantar reflex is a reflex elicited when the sole of the foot is stimulated with a blunt instrument. The reflex can take one of two forms. In healthy adults, the plantar reflex causes a downward response of the hallux (flexion). An upward response (extension) of the hallux is known as the Babinski response or Babinski sign, named after the neurologist Joseph Babinski. The presence of the Babinski sign can identify disease of the spinal cord and brain in adults, and also exists as a primitive reflex in infants.


title: Plantar reflex

text: While first described in the medical literature by Babinski in 1896, the reflex has been identified in art at least as early as Botticelli's "Virgin and Child with an Angel", painted in the mid-15th century.


title: Plantar reflex

text: The lateral side of the sole of the foot is rubbed with a blunt instrument or device so as not to cause pain, discomfort, or injury to the skin; the instrument is run from the heel along a curve to the toes (metatarsal pads). Many reflex hammers taper at the end of the handle to a point which was used for testing the plantar response in the past; due to the tightening of infection control regulation this is no longer recommended. Either a single use device or the thumb nail should be used.


title: Plantar reflex

text: As the lesion responsible for the sign expands, so does the area from which the afferent Babinski response may be elicited. The Babinski response is also normal while asleep and after a long period of walking.


title: Plantar reflex

text: The Babinski sign can indicate upper motor neuron lesion constituting damage to the corticospinal tract. Occasionally, a pathological plantar reflex is the first and only indication of a serious disease process and a clearly abnormal plantar reflex often prompts detailed neurological investigations, including CT scanning of the brain or MRI of the spine, as well as lumbar puncture for the study of cerebrospinal fluid.


title: Plantar reflex

text: Infants will usually show an extensor response. In one study of 256 healthy infants, the response to testing was extensor in 73.8%, flexor in 8.9%, and equivocal in 17.3% This extensor response occurs because the corticospinal pathways that run from the brain down the spinal cord are not fully myelinated at this age, so the reflex is not inhibited by the cerebral cortex. The extensor response usually disappears – giving way to the flexor response – by 12 months of age. Its persistence beyond age 2–3 indicates a problem in the brain or spinal cord.


title: Plantar reflex

text: The Hoffmann's reflex is sometimes described as the upper limb equivalent of the Babinski sign because both indicate upper motor neuron dysfunction. Mechanistically, they differ significantly; the finger flexor reflex is a simple monosynaptic spinal reflex involving the flexor digitorum profundus that is normally fully inhibited by upper motor neurons. The pathway producing the plantar response is more complicated, and is not monosynaptic.


title: Plantar reflex

text: The plantar reflex can be elicited in a number of ways, which were described in the late 19th and early 20th century. These have their own eponyms.


title: Ty Warner

text: H. Ty Warner (born September 3, 1944) is an American billionaire toy manufacturer, businessman, and former actor. He is the CEO, sole owner and founder of Ty Inc. which manufactures and distributes stuffed toys, including Beanie Babies and other lines. He is also the owner of Four Seasons Hotel New York, which he bought with profits earned selling Beanie Babies during a fad in the late 1990s. In 2020, he was No. 359 on the "Forbes" 400 list of the richest people in America, with a net worth of US$2.3 billion.


title: Ty Warner

text: Warner was born on September 3, 1944, in Chicago, Illinois, and grew up in suburban La Grange, in a Prairie-style house designed in the early 1890s by Frank Lloyd Wright, now known as the Peter Goan House. His father was Harold "Hal" Warner, a jeweler and toy salesman. His mother was Georgia Warner, a pianist. He has a much younger sister, Joyce. He was named after baseball player Ty Cobb.


title: Ty Warner

text: At the age of 14, Warner went to Lyons Township High School (north campus) in La Grange, Illinois. He then went to St. John's Military Academy in Delafield, Wisconsin and graduated in 1962. Warner attended Kalamazoo College in Michigan but dropped out after a year.


title: Ty Warner

text: Warner's relationships with both parents were strained. Georgia was noted for erratic and sometimes abusive or dangerous behavior and was diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia in the 1970s. When Ty was an adult and his parents divorced, he was said to have attempted to seduce several of his father's girlfriends out of jealousy or competitiveness.


title: Ty Warner

text: Warner moved to Los Angeles to start a career in acting. He had little success as an actor and returned to Chicago after five years. There he began working for plush toy maker Dakin as a salesman, the same company where his father worked. He was described by a former co-worker as possessing "uncanny" instincts as a salesman to retail shops, knowing which items would be most successful. In 1980, he was fired by Dakin, reportedly for selling his own products to established customers in competition with the company's line. After spending a three-year sabbatical in Italy, Warner returned to Chicago.


title: Ty Warner

text: In 1986, he mortgaged his home and invested his life savings and a bequest from his father into founding Ty Inc. Warner started out selling stuffed toy cats (inspired by some plush he had seen in Italy).


title: Ty Warner

text: In 1993, Ty Inc. launched Beanie Babies, a series of small plush toys shaped like various animals. He focused on selling the $5 or $10 Beanie Babies to small independent toy stores rather than large retailers like Toys R Us, Target, or Walmart, preferring to have multiple small clients rather than a handful of large ones. He drove up demand by artificially restricting items shipped to each store below requested orders, and by creating deliberate shortages by discontinuing old items and introducing new ones in an essentially arbitrary manner rather than the more common toy industry pattern of releasing new items once or twice a year. A secondary market developed when collectors began reselling the toys at greatly inflated prices, and various books, magazines, and accessories like carrying cases devoted to Beanie Babies appeared. At the peak of the Beanie craze circa 1999, the privately owned Ty Inc. is believed to have earned over $700 million in profits in a year. The Beanie Babies phenomenon, coupled with the rise of the Internet, is cited as elevating Warner to billionaire status with a net worth of over $2.5 billion.


title: Ty Warner

text: Lina Trivedi was a college student when she worked at Ty Inc. and she approached Warner to talk about a new development that existed on college campuses called the Internet. She indicated that the Internet was primarily a research tool, however, college students were starting to make personal websites and she thought creating a website for Beanie Babies could present an unprecedented opportunity to engage the market uniquely. She brought to Ty's office a 14.4k modem and demonstrated how the Internet works. Mr. Warner was intrigued and gave Trivedi a free license to create a website using her judgment and skills. By the time the first iteration of the Ty website was published in late 1995, only 1.4% of Americans were using the Internet. The population of people using the Internet grew exponentially in the following years, along with the popularity of Beanie Babies.


title: Ty Warner

text: In 2007, Ty Inc. went head to head with MGA Entertainment, the makers of the Bratz dolls, with the release of the Ty Girlz dolls and virtual world.


title: Ty Warner

text: He also has significant investments in hotels, property and golf courses. Ty Warner Hotels and Resorts include the Four Seasons Hotel in New York City, the Sandpiper golf course, the Four Seasons Resort and San Ysidro Ranch in Montecito, California, the Kona Village resort in Hawaii (purchased in July 2004), the Montecito Country Club and the Las Ventanas al Paraiso Resort in Los Cabos, Mexico (acquired in September 2004). In 2005, Warner also bought the beachfront Miramar resort and Rancho San Marcos golf course but sold the Miramar hotel in 2007 to Caruso Affiliated.


title: Ty Warner

text: He has donated in excess of $6 million to the Andre Agassi Foundation for underprivileged children in Las Vegas and $3 million for the creation of Ty Warner Park in Westmont, Illinois. He also donated $1.5 million for the creation of the Ty Warner Sea Center in Santa Barbara, California and donated one million Beanie Babies for children in Iraq. Warner also donated more than $300 million worth of soft toys for a Red Cross blood drive. Additionally, Warner has designed a number of Beanie Babies with the intention of donating all of the profits to charity. Ty Inc.'s charity releases have raised millions for a variety of charities, including the Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation, the American Red Cross, and the Princess Diana Memorial Fund.


title: Ty Warner

text: In 2006, he received the Children's Champion Award from Children's Hunger Fund for his philanthropic efforts—Ty Inc. donated 1 million Beanie Babies to Children's Hunger Fund relief efforts in Iraq and Afghanistan.


title: Ty Warner

text: In 2012, Warner stopped a woman and asked for directions in Santa Barbara, California. The woman was trying to raise money for a stem-cell procedure she needed to save her life. After learning of her condition, he gave her $20,000 for the procedure.


title: Ty Warner

text: In 2014, Warner was sentenced to two years of probation plus community service for tax evasion. Since 1996, he had maintained a secret offshore account in Switzerland with UBS, which according to the prosecution concealed at one time $107 million. Later, Warner used Zurcher Kantonalbank to maintain his offshore account. His philanthropic activities were considered when sentencing him and he paid a $53 million fine.


title: Ty Warner

text: Warner had tried to take advantage of the IRS tax amnesty that was offered in the wake of the UBS 2008–10 tax scandal, but the government refused to accept him. His lawyers, including former IRS Deputy Commissioner Mark M. Matthews who is now a Member of Caplin & Drysdale, successfully used the "Olenicoff Defense" to convince the judge that Warner did not deserve the year-and-one-day prison sentence recommended by prosecutors. The defense was based on the government's treatment of Igor Olenicoff, a California real estate tycoon. The lawyers cited Olenicoff for getting off without a jail sentence when he was sentenced for tax evasion via offshore accounts.


title: Ty Warner

text: Warner's pre-sentencing report that called for a jail sentence said his offshore account was the biggest ever found. In fact, the lawyers pointed out, Olenicoff had $240 million stashed offshore. The Olenicoff defense worked. On January 14, 2014, District Court Judge Charles P. Kocoras sentenced Warner to two years' probation and 500 hours of community service. The judge rejected the prosecution's recommendation for jail time of one year and one day, to serve as a deterrent to other tax cheats. Olenicoff, who also got two years' probation and community service, pleaded guilty to filing a false tax return—a felony. Warner pleaded guilty to the more serious charge of tax evasion.


title: Ty Warner

text: Two of Warner's long-term girlfriends (Patricia Roche and Faith McGowan) were closely involved in the operations of Ty, Inc. during the development and success of Beanie Babies. However, he never married and has no children. Warner maintains a low public profile, rarely granting media interviews or releasing personal or company information.


title: Apologetics

text: Apologetics (from Greek , "speaking in defense") is the religious discipline of defending religious doctrines through systematic argumentation and discourse. Early Christian writers (c. 120–220) who defended their beliefs against critics and recommended their faith to outsiders were called Christian apologists. In 21st-century usage, "apologetics" is often identified with debates over religion and theology.


title: Apologetics

text: The term "apologetics" derives from the Ancient Greek word (). In the Classical Greek legal system, the prosecution delivered the (), the accusation or charge, and the defendant replied with an "", the defence. The was a formal speech or explanation to reply to and rebut the charges. A famous example is Socrates' Apologia defense, as chronicled in Plato's "Apology".


title: Apologetics

text: In the Koine Greek of the New Testament, the Apostle Paul employs the term "apologia" in his trial speech to Festus and Agrippa when he says "I make my defense" in Acts 26:2. A cognate form appears in Paul's Letter to the Philippians as he is "defending the gospel" in Philippians 1:7, and in "giving an answer" in 1 Peter 3:15.


title: Apologetics

text: Although the term "apologetics" has Western, primarily Christian origins and is most frequently associated with the defense of Christianity, the term is sometimes used referring to the defense of any religion in formal debate involving religion.


title: Apologetics

text: Many apologetic books have been written in defence of the history or teachings of the Baháʼí Faith. The religion's founders wrote several books presenting proofs of their religion; among them are the Báb's "Seven Proofs" and Bahá'u'lláh's "Kitáb-i-Íqán". Later Baháʼí authors wrote prominent apologetic texts, such as Mírzá Abu'l-Fadl's "The Brilliant Proof" and Udo Schaefer et al.'s "Making the Crooked Straight".


title: Apologetics

text: One of the earliest Buddhist apologetic texts is "The Questions of King Milinda", which deals with the Buddhist metaphysics such as the "no-self" nature of the individual and characteristics such as of wisdom, perception, volition, feeling, consciousness and the soul. In the Meiji Era (1868-1912), encounters between Buddhists and Christians in Japan as a result of increasing contact between Japan and other nations may have prompted the formation of , including the apologetic Shin Bukkyō () magazine. In recent times, A. L. De Silva, an Australian convert to Buddhism, has written a book, "Beyond Belief", providing Buddhist apologetic responses and a critique of Christian Fundamentalist doctrine. Gunapala Dharmasiri wrote an apologetic critique of the Christian concept of God from a Theravadan Buddhist perspective.


title: Apologetics

text: Christian apologetics combines Christian theology, natural theology, and philosophy to present a rational basis for the Christian faith, to defend the faith against objections and misrepresentation, and that the Christian doctrine is the only world view that is faultless and consistent with all fundamental knowledge and questions.


title: Apologetics

text: Christian apologetics has taken many forms over the centuries. In the Roman Empire, Christians were severely persecuted, and many charges were brought against them. J. David Cassel gives several examples: Tacitus wrote that Nero fabricated charges that Christians started the burning of Rome. Other charges included cannibalism (due to a literal interpretation of the Eucharist) and incest (due to early Christians' practice of addressing each other as "brother" and "sister"). Paul the Apostle, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus and others often defended Christianity against charges that were brought to justify persecution.


title: Apologetics

text: Later apologists have focused on providing reasons to accept various aspects of Christian belief. Christian apologists of many traditions, in common with Jews, Muslims, and some others, argue for the existence of a unique and personal God. Theodicy is one important aspect of such arguments, and Alvin Plantinga's arguments have been highly influential in this area. Many prominent Christian apologists are scholarly philosophers or theologians, frequently with additional doctoral work in physics, cosmology, comparative religions, or other fields. Others take a more popular or pastoral approach. Some prominent modern apologists are Douglas Groothuis, Frederick Copleston, John Lennox, Walter R. Martin, Dinesh D'Souza, Douglas Wilson, Cornelius Van Til, Gordon Clark, Francis Schaeffer, Greg Bahnsen, Edward John Carnell, James White, R.C. Sproul, Hank Hanegraaff, Alister McGrath, Lee Strobel, Josh McDowell, Peter Kreeft, G. K. Chesterton, William Lane Craig, J. P. Moreland, Hugh Ross, David Bentley Hart, Gary Habermas, Norman Geisler, Scott Hahn and RC Kunst.


title: Apologetics

text: Notable apologists within the Catholic Church include Bishop Robert Barron, G. K. Chesterton, Dr. Scott Hahn, Trent Horn, Jimmy Akin, Patrick Madrid, Kenneth Hensley, Karl Keating, Ronald Knox and Peter Kreeft.


title: Apologetics

text: John Henry Newman (February 21, 1801 – August 11, 1890) was an English convert to Roman Catholicism, later made a cardinal, and beatified in 2010. In early life he was a major figure in the Oxford Movement to bring the Church of England back to its Catholic roots. Eventually his studies in history persuaded him to become a Roman Catholic. When John Henry Newman entitled his spiritual autobiography "Apologia Pro Vita Sua" in 1864, he was playing upon both this connotation, and the more commonly understood meaning of an expression of contrition or regret.


title: Apologetics

text: Christian apologists employ a variety of philosophical and formal approaches, including ontological, cosmological, and teleological arguments. The Christian presuppositionalist approach to apologetics utilizes the transcendental argument for the existence of God.


title: Apologetics

text: Tertullian was a notable early Christian apologist. He was born, lived and died in Carthage. He is sometimes known as the "Father of the Latin Church". He introduced the term "Trinity" () to the Christian vocabulary and also probably the formula "three Persons, one Substance" as the Latin "tres Personae, una Substantia" (itself from the Koine Greek "treis Hypostaseis, Homoousios"), and also the terms "Vetus Testamentum" (Old Testament) and "Novum Testamentum" (New Testament).


title: Apologetics

text: There are notable Latter-day Saint apologists who focus on the defense of Mormonism, including early church leaders such as Parley P. Pratt, John Taylor, B. H. Roberts, James E. Talmage and more modern figures such as Hugh Nibley, Daniel C. Peterson, John L. Sorenson, John Gee, Orson Scott Card, and Jeff Lindsay.


title: Apologetics

text: Several well-known apologetic organizations of the Church Of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, such as the Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies (a group of scholars at Brigham Young University) and FairMormon (an independent, not-for-profit group run by Latter Day Saints), have been formed to defend the doctrines and history of the Latter Day Saint movement in general and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in particular.


title: Apologetics

text: Deism is a form of theism in which God created the universe and established rationally comprehensible moral and natural laws but no longer intervenes in human affairs. Deism is a natural religion where belief in God is based on application of reason and evidence observed in the designs and laws found in nature. The World Order of Deists maintains a web site presenting deist apologetics that demonstrate the existence of God based on evidence and reason, absent divine revelation.


title: Apologetics

text: Hindu apologetics began developing during the British colonial period. A number of Indian intellectuals had become critical of the British tendency to devalue the Hindu religious tradition. As a result, these Indian intellectuals, as well as a handful of British Indologists, were galvanized to examine the roots of the religion as well as to study its vast arcana and corpus in an analytical fashion. This endeavor drove the deciphering and preservation of Sanskrit. Many translations of Hindu texts were produced which made them accessible to a broader reading audience.


title: Apologetics

text: A range of Indian philosophers, including Swami Vivekananda and Aurobindo Ghose, have written rational explanations regarding the values of the Hindu religious tradition. More modern proponents such as the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi have also tried to correlate recent developments from quantum physics and consciousness research with Hindu concepts. The late Reverend Pandurang Shastri Athavale has given a plethora of discourses regarding the symbolism and rational basis for many principles in the Vedic tradition. In his book "The Cradle of Civilization", David Frawley, an American who has embraced the Vedic tradition, has characterized the ancient texts of the Hindu heritage as being like "pyramids of the spirit".


title: Apologetics

text: "'Ilm al-Kalām", literally "science of discourse", usually foreshortened to "kalam" and sometimes called "Islamic scholastic theology", is an Islamic undertaking born out of the need to establish and defend the tenets of Islamic faith against skeptics and detractors. A scholar of "kalam" is referred to as a "mutakallim" (plural "mutakallimūn") as distinguished from philosophers, jurists, and scientists.


title: Apologetics

text: Jewish apologetic literature can be traced back as far as Aristobulus of Paneas, though some discern it in the works of Demetrius the chronographer (3rd century BCE) traces of the style of "questions" and "solutions" typical of the genre. Aristobulus was a Jewish philosopher of Alexandria and the author of an apologetic work addressed to Ptolemy VI Philometor. Josephus's Contra Apion is a wide-ranging defense of Judaism against many charges laid against Judaism at that time, as too are some of the works of Philo of Alexandria.


title: Apologetics

text: In response to modern Christian missionaries, and congregations that "are designed to appear Jewish, but are actually fundamentalist Christian churches, which use traditional Jewish symbols to lure the most vulnerable of our Jewish people into their ranks", Jews for Judaism is the largest counter-missionary organization in existence, today. Kiruv Organization (Mizrachi), founded by Rabbi Yosef Mizrachi, and Outreach Judaism, founded by Rabbi Tovia Singer, are other prominent international organizations that respond "directly to the issues raised by missionaries and cults, by exploring Judaism in contradistinction to fundamentalist Christianity."


title: Apologetics

text: Some pantheists have formed organizations such as the World Pantheist Movement and the Universal Pantheist Society to promote and defend the belief in pantheism.


title: Apologetics

text: In a famous speech called "Red Jacket on Religion for the White Man and the Red" in 1805, Seneca chief Red Jacket gave an apologetic for Native American religion.


title: Apologetics

text: Plato's "Apology" may be read as both a religious and literary apology; however, more specifically literary examples may be found in the prefaces and dedications, which proceed many Early Modern plays, novels, and poems. Eighteenth century authors such as Colley Cibber, Frances Burney, and William Congreve, to name but a few, prefaced the majority of their poetic work with such apologies. In addition to the desire to defend their work, the apologetic preface often suggests the author's attempt to humble his- or herself before the audience.


title: Guinevere Turner

text: Guinevere Jane Turner is an American actress, screenwriter, and film director. She has written such films as "American Psycho" and "The Notorious Bettie Page" and played the lead role of the dominatrix Tanya Cheex in "Preaching to the Perverted".


title: Guinevere Turner

text: Turner was born in Boston, and is the oldest of six children. Her paternal grandmother, Elizabeth Hobbs Turner, was a member of the United States Marine Corps in 1944 during World War II.


title: Guinevere Turner

text: Turner spent the first eleven years of her life as part of the Lyman Family, raised in various communes around the U.S. with over 100 members who were devotees of Mel Lyman and who believed they would eventually live on Venus. Though Turner acknowledged that the Lyman Family had been portrayed as a cult she argued against using the word to describe them. In accordance with the customs of the Lyman Family, Turner was not raised by her mother, but she and her younger sister were eventually ejected from the Family after their mother chose to leave. Turner considered rejoining the group when she was 18, but eventually chose to attend college.


title: Guinevere Turner

text: Turner emerged on the scene with the film "Go Fish", which she co-wrote and co-produced with her then-girlfriend, Rose Troche. Turner also starred in the film, portraying a young woman named Max whose friends help her find a new girlfriend, Ely, portrayed by VS Brodie. Director Kevin Smith was a fan of the movie, particularly a scene in it wherein, in an imagined sequence, some of a character's friends chastise her for "selling out" and sleeping with a man, and used it as an inspiration for his own take on a similar theme in his own film "Chasing Amy". Turner has cameos in both "Chasing Amy" and Smith's later film "Dogma". Smith also named Joey Lauren Adams' character in Smith's "Mallrats" after Turner. Another early film appearance was in Cheryl Dunye's 1996 independent film "The Watermelon Woman".


title: Guinevere Turner

text: Turner and "I Shot Andy Warhol" director Mary Harron wrote the screenplay for the film version of Bret Easton Ellis' "American Psycho", which Harron directed. Turner has a brief cameo in the film, in which she delivers the in-joke, "I'm not a lesbian!". There is also a line about attending Sarah Lawrence College, Turner's real-life alma mater.


title: Guinevere Turner

text: A writer and story editor for the first two seasons of "The L Word", Turner also made several guest appearances on the show as Alice Pieszecki's screenwriter ex-girlfriend, Gabby.


title: Guinevere Turner

text: In 2005, Turner wrote the script for "BloodRayne". It was nominated for a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Screenplay in 2006. In the documentary "Tales from the Script", she stated in an interview that director Uwe Boll only used about 25% of her screenplay. In 2005, she co-wrote the script for "The Notorious Bettie Page" with Mary Harron, who directed the film. Turner and Harron collaborated again as screenwriter and director, respectively, on the 2018 film "Charlie Says".


title: Guinevere Turner

text: Turner's first foray into web television was the 2008 online drama series, "FEED", directed by Mel Robertson, launched on AfterEllen.com. In 2014 she appeared alongside Nayo Wallace, Candis Cayne and Cathy DeBuono in Jane Clark's horror comedy film "Crazy Bitches".


title: Guinevere Turner

text: Turner has directed several short films, such as "The Hummer" and "Hung", which have appeared in many international film festivals.


title: Robert Smalls

text: Robert Smalls (April 5, 1839 – February 23, 1915) was an American politician, publisher, businessman, and maritime pilot. Born into slavery in Beaufort, South Carolina, he freed himself, his crew, and their families during the American Civil War by commandeering a Confederate transport ship, CSS "Planter", in Charleston harbor, on May 13, 1862, and sailing it from Confederate-controlled waters of the harbor to the U.S. blockade that surrounded it. He then piloted the ship to the Union-controlled enclave in Beaufort–Port Royal–Hilton Head area, where it became a Union warship. His example and persuasion helped convince President Abraham Lincoln to accept African-American soldiers into the Union Army.


title: Robert Smalls

text: After the American Civil War, he returned to Beaufort and became a politician, winning election as a Republican to the South Carolina Legislature and the United States House of Representatives during the Reconstruction era. Smalls authored state legislation providing for South Carolina to have the first free and compulsory public school system in the United States. He founded the Republican Party of South Carolina. Smalls was the last Republican to represent South Carolina's 5th congressional district until the election of Mick Mulvaney in 2011.


title: Robert Smalls

text: Robert Smalls was born in 1839 to Lydia Polite, a woman enslaved by Henry McKee. She gave birth to him in a cabin behind McKee's house, at 511 Prince Street in Beaufort, South Carolina. He grew up in the city under the influence of the Lowcountry Gullah culture of his mother. His mother lived as a servant in the house but grew up in the fields. Robert was favored over other enslaved people, so his mother worried that he might grow up not understanding the plight of enslaved field workers, and asked for him to be made to work in the fields and to witness whipping.


title: Robert Smalls

text: When he was 12, at the request of his mother, Smalls' master sent him to Charleston to hire out as a laborer for sixteen dollars a week, of which he was allowed to keep one dollar, the rest of the wage being paid to his enslaver. The youth first worked in a hotel, then became a street lamplighter. In his teen years, his love of the sea led him to find work on Charleston's docks and wharves. Smalls worked as a longshoreman, rigger and sail maker, and he eventually worked his way up to become a wheelman, more or less a helmsman, though enslaved people were not permitted that title. As a result, he was very knowledgeable about Charleston Harbor.


title: Robert Smalls

text: At age 17, Smalls married Hannah Jones, an enslaved hotel maid, in Charleston on December 24, 1856. She was five years his senior and already had two daughters. Their own first child, Elizabeth Lydia Smalls, was born in February 1858. Three years later they had a son, Robert Jr., who died at age two. Robert aimed to pay for their freedom by purchasing them outright, but the price was steep, $800 (). He had managed to save up only $100. It might have taken him decades to reach $800.


title: Robert Smalls

text: In April 1861, the American Civil War began with the Battle of Fort Sumter in nearby Charleston Harbor. In the fall of 1861, Smalls was assigned to steer the CSS "Planter", a lightly armed Confederate military transport under the command of Charleston's District Commander Brigadier General Roswell S. Ripley. "Planter"s duties were to survey waterways, to lay mines, and to deliver dispatches, troops, and supplies. Smalls piloted the "Planter" throughout Charleston harbor and beyond, on area rivers and along the South Carolina, Georgia and Florida coasts. From Charleston harbor, Smalls and the "Planter"s crew could see the line of federal blockade ships in the outer harbor, seven miles away. Smalls appeared content and had the confidence of the "Planter"s crew and owners, and at some time in April 1862, he began to plan an escape. He discussed the matter with all the other enslaved people in the crew except one, whom he did not trust.


title: Robert Smalls

text: On May 12, 1862, the "Planter" traveled ten miles southwest of Charleston to stop at Coles Island, a Confederate post on the Stono River that was being dismantled. There the ship picked up four large guns to transport to a fort in Charleston harbor. Back in Charleston, the crew loaded of ammunition and of firewood onto the "Planter".


title: Robert Smalls

text: On the evening of May 12, the "Planter" was docked as usual at the wharf below General Ripley's headquarters. Its three white officers disembarked to spend the night ashore, leaving Smalls and the crew on board, "as was their custom." (Afterward, the three Confederate officers were court-martialed and two convicted, but the verdicts were later overturned.) Before the officers departed, Smalls asked Captain Relyea if the crews’ families could visit, which was occasionally allowed, and he approved on condition that they depart before curfew. When the families arrived, the men revealed the plan to them.


title: Robert Smalls

text: This was the first the women and children had heard of it, although Smalls recently had told [his wife] Hannah. She had known that Smalls longed to escape but hadn’t realized that he was formulating a plan and intended to execute it. She was taken aback but quickly regained her composure and told him, “It is a risk, dear, but you and I, and our little ones must be free. I will go, for where you die, I will die.The other women were less steadfast. They cried and screamed when they learned what they had stumbled into, and the men struggled to quiet them... Later, once the shock had worn off, those women admitted that they were glad for a chance at freedom...


title: Robert Smalls

text: At some point, three crew members pretended to escort family members back home but circled around and hid aboard another steamer docked at the North Atlantic wharf. At about 3 a.m. May 13, Smalls and seven of the eight enslaved crewmen made their previously planned escape to the Union blockade ships. Smalls put on the captain's uniform and wore a straw hat similar to the captain's. He sailed the "Planter" past what was then called Southern Wharf and stopped at another wharf to pick up his wife and children and the families of other crewmen.


title: Robert Smalls

text: Smalls guided the ship past the five Confederate harbor forts without incident, as he gave the correct steam whistle signals at checkpoints. The "Planter" had been commanded by Captain Charles C. J. Relyea, and Smalls copied Relyea's manners and straw hat on deck to fool Confederate onlookers from shore and the forts. The "Planter" sailed past Fort Sumter at about 4:30 a.m.


title: Robert Smalls

text: As the nearly-free slaves approached Fort Sumter, their apprehension grew. It was the most heavily armed of the Confederate forts and tended to be manned by the most suspicious soldiers. One of the men aboard later said, “When we drew near the fort every man but Robert Smalls felt his knees giving way and the women began crying and praying again." As the "Planter" approached the fort, several men urged Smalls to give it a wide berth. Smalls refused, saying that such behavior would almost certainly arouse suspicion. He steered the ship along its normal path, slowly, as though he were merely enjoying the early morning air and in no particular hurry. When Fort Sumter flashed the challenge signal, Smalls again gave the correct hand signs. There was a long pause. The fort didn’t immediately respond, and Smalls now expected cannon fire to shred the "Planter" at any moment. Finally, the fort signaled that all was well, and Smalls sailed his ship out of the harbor.


title: Robert Smalls

text: The alarm was only raised after the ship was beyond gun range, for rather than turn east towards Morris Island, Smalls had headed straight for the Union Navy fleet, replacing the rebel flags with a white bed sheet which was brought by his wife. The "Planter" had been seen by the , which was about to fire until a crewman spotted the white flag. In the dark, the sheet was difficult to see, but the sunrise arrived which allowed viewing.


title: Robert Smalls

text: Just as No. 3 port gun was being elevated, someone cried out, "I see something that looks like a white flag"; and true enough there was something flying on the steamer that would have been white by application of soap and water. As she neared us, we looked in vain for the face of a white man. When they discovered that we would not fire on them, there was a rush of contrabands out on her deck, some dancing, some singing, whistling, jumping; and others stood looking towards Fort Sumter, and muttering all sorts of maledictions against it, and "de heart of de Souf," generally. As the steamer came near, and under the stern of the "Onward", one of the Colored men stepped forward, and taking off his hat, shouted, "Good morning, sir! I've brought you some of the old United States guns, sir!" That man was Robert Smalls.


title: Robert Smalls

text: The "Onward"s captain, John Frederick Nickels, boarded the "Planter", and Smalls asked for a United States flag to display. He surrendered the "Planter" and its cargo to the United States Navy. Smalls' escape plan had succeeded.


title: Robert Smalls

text: The "Planter" and description of Smalls' actions were forwarded by Lt. Nickels to his commander, Capt. E.G. Parrott. In addition to its own light guns, "Planter" carried the four loose artillery pieces from Coles Island and 200 pounds of ammunition. Most valuable, however, were the captain's code book containing the Confederate signals and a map of the mines and torpedoes that had been laid in Charleston's harbor. Smalls' own extensive knowledge of the Charleston region's waterways and military configurations proved highly valuable. Parrott again forwarded the "Planter" to flag officer Du Pont at Port Royal, describing Smalls as very intelligent. Smalls gave detailed information about Charleston's defenses to Du Pont, commander of the blockading fleet. Federal officers were surprised to learn from Smalls that contrary to their calculations, only a few thousand troops remained to protect the area, the rest having been sent to Tennessee and Virginia. They also learned that the Coles Island fortifications on Charleston's southern flank were being abandoned and were without protection. This intelligence allowed Union forces to capture Coles Island and its string of batteries without a fight on May 20, a week after Smalls' escape. The Union would hold the Stono inlet as a base for the remaining three years of the war. Du Pont was impressed, and wrote the following to the Navy secretary in Washington: "Robert, the intelligent slave and pilot of the boat, who performed this bold feat so skillfully, informed me of [the capture of the Sumter gun], presuming it would be a matter of interest." He "is superior to any who have come into our lines — intelligent as many of them have been."


title: Robert Smalls

text: Smalls, having just turned 23, quickly became known in the North as a hero for his daring exploit. Newspapers and magazines reported his actions. The U.S. Congress passed a bill awarding Smalls and his crewmen the prize money for the "Planter" (valuable not only for its guns but also its low draft in Charleston bay); Southern newspapers demanded harsh discipline for the Confederate officers whose joint shore leave had allowed Smalls and his men to steal the boat. Smalls' share of the prize money came to . Immediately after the capture, Smalls was invited to travel to New York to help raise money for formerly enslaved people, but Admiral DuPont vetoed the proposal and Smalls began to serve the Union Navy, especially with his detailed knowledge of mines laid near Charleston. However, with the encouragement of Major General David Hunter, the Union commander at Port Royal, Smalls went to Washington, D.C., in August 1862 with Rev. Mansfield French, a Methodist minister who had helped found Wilberforce University in Ohio and had been sent by the American Missionary Association to help formerly enslaved people at Port Royal. They wanted to persuade Lincoln and Secretary of War Edwin Stanton to permit Black men to fight for the Union. Although Lincoln had previously rescinded orders by Hunter and Generals Fremont and Sherman to mobilize Black troops, Stanton soon signed an order permitting up to 5,000 African Americans to enlist in the Union forces at Port Royal. Those who did were organized as the 1st and 2nd South Carolina Regiments (Colored). Smalls worked as a civilian with the Navy until March 1863, when he was transferred to the Army. By his own account, Smalls was present at 17 major battles and engagements in the Civil War.


title: Robert Smalls

text: After capture, the "Planter" required some repairs, which were performed locally, and went into Union service near Fort Pulaski. The boat was valued for its shallow draft, compared to other boats in the fleet. Smalls was made pilot of the under Captain Alexander Rhind. In June of that year, Smalls was piloting the "Crusader" on Edisto in Wadmalaw Sound when the "Planter" returned to service, and an infantry regiment engaged in the Battle of Simmon's Bluff at the head of the Edisto River. He continued to pilot the "Crusader" and the "Planter". While enslaved, he had assisted in laying mines (then called "torpedoes") along the coast and river. Now, as a pilot, he helped find and remove them and serviced the blockade between Charleston and Beaufort. He was also present when the "Planter" was fired upon at several fights at Adam's Run on the Dawho River and at battles at Rockville, at John's Island, and at the Second Battle of Pocotaligo.


title: Robert Smalls

text: He was made pilot of the ironclad , again under captain Rhind, and took part in the attack on Fort Sumter on April 7, 1863, which was a preamble to the Second Battle of Fort Sumter later that fall. The "Keokuk" took 96 hits and retired for the night, sinking the next morning. Smalls and much of the crew moved to the "Ironside" and the fleet returned to Hilton Head.


title: Robert Smalls

text: In June 1863, David Hunter was replaced as commander of the Department of the South by Quincy Adams Gillmore. With Gillmore's arrival, Smalls was transferred to the quartermaster's department. Smalls was pilot of the , later recommissioned in the Confederate Navy the "Stono" in the expedition on Morris Island. When Union troops took the south end of the Island, Smalls was put in charge of the Light House Inlet as pilot.


title: Robert Smalls

text: On December 1, 1863, Smalls was piloting the "Planter" under Captain James Nickerson on Folly Island Creek when Confederate batteries at Secessionville opened. Nickerson fled the pilot house for the coal-bunker. Smalls refused to surrender, fearing that the Black crewmen would not be treated as prisoners of war and might be summarily killed. Smalls entered the pilothouse and took command of the boat and piloted it to safety. For this, he was reportedly promoted by Gillmore to the rank of captain and made acting captain of the "Planter".


title: Robert Smalls

text: In May 1864, he was voted an unofficial delegate to the Republican National Convention in Baltimore. Later that spring, Smalls piloted the "Planter" to Philadelphia for an overhaul. In Philadelphia, he supported what was known as the Port Royal Experiment, an effort to raise money to support the education and development of formerly enslaved people. At the outset of the Civil War, Smalls could not read or write, but he achieved literacy in Philadelphia. In 1864, Smalls was in a streetcar in Philadelphia and was ordered to give his seat to a white passenger. Rather than ride on the open overflow platform, Smalls left the car. This incident of humiliating a heroic veteran was cited in the debate that resulted in the legislature's passing a bill to integrate public transportation in Pennsylvania in 1867.


title: Robert Smalls

text: In December 1864, Smalls and the "Planter" moved to support William T. Sherman's army in Savannah, Georgia, at the destination point of his March to the Sea. Smalls returned with the "Planter" to Charleston harbor in April 1865 for the ceremonial raising of the American flag again at Fort Sumter. Smalls was discharged on June 11, 1865. Other vessels Smalls piloted during the war include the and the . He continued to pilot the "Planter," serving a humanitarian mission of taking food and supplies to freedmen who had lost their homes and livelihoods during the war. On September 30, the "Planter" entered the service of the Freedmen's Bureau.


title: Robert Smalls

text: Smalls' position in the Union Army and Navy has been disputed and his reward for the capture of the "Planter" has been criticized. During his life, articles about Smalls state that when he was assigned to pilot the "Planter", the Navy did not allow him to hold the rank of pilot because he was not a graduate of a naval academy, a requirement at that time. To assure he received proper pay for a captain, he was commissioned second lieutenant of the 1st South Carolina Volunteers (later re-designated as the 33rd US Colored Infantry) and detailed to act as pilot. Many sources also state that General Gillmore promoted Smalls to captain in December 1863 after he saved the "Planter" when it was under attack near Secessionville. Later sources state that Smalls did receive a commission either in the Army or the Navy, but he was likely officially a civilian throughout the war. In 1865, his salary as "commander" of the "Planter" was given in a newspaper as $1,800 (); he and the "Planter" were in Charleston harbor with the Union ships in 1865 and transported from shore all the African Americans who wanted to attend the flag-raising ceremony at Ft. Sumter.


title: Robert Smalls

text: Later in his life, when Smalls sought a Navy pension, he learned that he had not been officially commissioned. He claimed he had received an official commission from Gillmore but had lost it. In 1883, a bill passed committee to put him on the Navy retired list, but in the end was halted, allegedly due to Smalls being Black. In 1897, a special act of Congress granted Smalls a pension of $30 per month, equal to the pension for a Navy captain.


title: Robert Smalls

text: In 1883, during discussion of the bill to put Smalls on the Navy retired list, a report stated that the 1862 appraisal of the "Planter" was "absurdly low" and that a fair valuation would have been over $60,000. However, Smalls received no further payment until 1900. That year, Congress passed a statute paying Smalls $5,000, less the amount paid to him in 1862 ($1,500), for his capture of the steamship. Many still felt that this was less than his due.


title: Robert Smalls

text: Immediately following the war, Smalls returned to his native Beaufort, where he purchased his former master's house at 511 Prince St, which Union tax authorities had seized in 1863 for refusal to pay taxes. Later, the former owner sued to regain the property, but Smalls retained ownership in the court case. The case became an important precedent in other, similar cases. His mother, Lydia, lived with him for the remainder of her life. He allowed his former master's wife, the elderly Jane McKee, to move into her former home prior to her death. Smalls spent nine months learning to read and write. He purchased a two-story Beaumont building to use as a school for African-American children.


title: Robert Smalls

text: In 1866 Smalls went into business in Beaufort with Richard Howell Gleaves, a businessman from Philadelphia. They opened a store to serve the needs of freedmen. Smalls also hired a teacher to help him study. That April, the Radical Republicans who controlled Congress overrode President Andrew Johnson's vetoes and passed a Civil Rights Act. In 1868, they passed the 14th Amendment, which was ratified by the states to extend full citizenship to all Americans regardless of race.


title: Robert Smalls

text: Smalls invested significantly in the economic development of the Charleston-Beaufort region. In 1870, in anticipation of a Reconstruction-based prosperity, Smalls, with fellow representatives Joseph Rainey, Alonzo Ransier and others, formed the Enterprise Railroad, an 18-mile horse-drawn railway line that carried cargo and passengers between the Charleston wharves and inland depots. Except for one white director ("Carpetbagger" newspaper editor legislator and county treasurer Timothy Hurley), the railroad's board of directors was entirely African American. Richard H. Cain was its first president. Author Bernard E. Powers describes it as "the most impressive commercial venture by members of Charleston's black elite." Smalls owned and helped publish a Black-owned newspaper, the "Beaufort Southern Standard", starting in 1872.


title: Robert Smalls

text: Small' wartime fame and his fluency with the Gullah dialect gave him an avenue for political advancement.


title: Robert Smalls

text: Smalls was a loyal Republican, which dominated the Northern States and passed laws granting protections for African Americans, whereas the Democrats, who dominated the South, opposed these measures. After the Civil War, Republicans passed laws that granted protections for African Americans and advanced social justice; again, Democrats largely opposed these initiatives. On August 22, 1912, Smalls wrote to U.S. Senator Knute Nelson, "I never lose sight of the fact that had it not been for the Republican Party, I never would have been an office-holder of any kind—from 1862 to the present." In words that became famous, he described his party as "the party of Lincoln...which unshackled the necks of four million human beings." He wrote this line on September 12, 1912, in a letter expressing his anxiety over the looming presidential election. In that letter, he concluded: "I ask that every colored man in the North who has a vote to cast would cast that vote for the regular Republican Party and thus bury the Democratic Party so deep that there will not be seen even a bubble coming from the spot where the burial took place."


title: Robert Smalls

text: Smalls was a delegate at the 1868 South Carolina Constitutional Convention where he worked to make free, compulsory schooling available to all South Carolina children. He served as a delegate at several Republican National Conventions, and also participated in the South Carolina Republican State conventions.


title: Robert Smalls

text: In 1868, Smalls was elected to the South Carolina House of Representatives. He was very effective, introducing the Homestead Act and the Civil Rights bill, the latter of which he worked to pass. In 1870, Jonathan Jasper Wright was elected judge of the South Carolina Supreme Court and Smalls was elected to fill his unexpired time in the Senate. He continued in the Senate, winning the 1872 election against W. J. Whipper. In the senate he was considered a very good speaker and debater. He was on the Finance Committee and chairman of the Public Printing Committee.


title: Robert Smalls

text: Smalls was a delegate to the National Republican Convention in 1872 in Philadelphia, which nominated the incumbent Grant for re-election as president; in 1876 in Cincinnati, which nominated Hayes; and in 1884 in Chicago, which nominated Blaine—and then continuously to all conventions until 1896. He was elected vice-president of the South Carolina Republican Party at their 1872 state convention.


title: Robert Smalls

text: In 1873 Smalls was appointed lieutenant-colonel of the Third Regiment, South Carolina State Militia. He was later promoted to brigadier-general of the Second Brigade, South Carolina Militia, and to major-general of the Second Division, South Carolina State Militia. He held this position until 1877, when Democrats took control of the state government.


title: Robert Smalls

text: In 1874, Smalls was elected to the United States House of Representatives, where he served two terms from 1875 to 1879. From 1882 to 1883, he represented South Carolina's 5th congressional district in the House. The state legislature gerrymandered district boundaries, thereby including Beaufort and other heavily Black coastal areas in South Carolina's 7th congressional district, and providing other nearby districts substantial white majorities. Smalls was elected from the 7th district and served from 1884 to 1887. He was a member of the 44th, 45th, 47th, 48th, and 49th U.S. Congresses.