title: Heat engine

text: Heat engines have been known since antiquity but were only made into useful devices at the time of the industrial revolution in the 18th century. They continue to be developed today.


title: Heat engine

text: Engineers have studied the various heat-engine cycles to improve the amount of usable work they could extract from a given power source. The Carnot cycle limit cannot be reached with any gas-based cycle, but engineers have found at least two ways to bypass that limit and one way to get better efficiency without bending any rules:


title: Falchion

text: A falchion (; Old French: "fauchon"; Latin: "falx", "sickle") is a one-handed, single-edged sword of European origin. Falchions are found in different forms from around the 13th century up to and including the 16th century. In some versions, the falchion looks rather like the seax and later the sabre, and in other versions more like a machete with a crossguard.


title: Falchion

text: The blade designs of falchions varied widely across the continent and over time. They almost always included a single edge with a slight curve on the blade towards the point on the end and most were also affixed with a quilloned crossguard for the hilt in the manner of the contemporary arming swords. Unlike the double-edged swords of Europe, few actual swords of this type have survived to the present day; fewer than a dozen specimens are currently known. A number of weapons superficially similar to the falchion existed in Western Europe, including the Messer, hanger and the backsword. Two basic types of falchion can be identified:


title: Falchion

text: One of the few surviving falchions (the Conyers falchion) is shaped very much like a large meat cleaver, or large bladed machete. This type is also illustrated in art. The type seems to be confined to the 13th and 14th centuries. However apart from the profile they present a very thin blade, often only 1.2 mm thick spines, 7 cm from the point with a slight taper leading near to the edge before dropping into a secondary bevel which brings the blade to a very acute edge while maintaining some durability. Current theories are that they were the anti-cloth armour weapon of the day.


title: Falchion

text: The majority of the depictions in art reflect a design similar to that of the "großes Messer". The Thorpe Falchion, a surviving example from England's 13th century, was just under in weight. Of its length, are the straight blade which bears a cusped or flare-clipped tip similar to the much later kilij of Turkey. This type of sword continued in use into the 16th century.


title: Falchion

text: In addition, there are a group of 13th- and early 14th-century weapons sometimes identified with the falchion. These have a falchion-like blade mounted on a wooden shaft long, sometimes ending in a curve like an umbrella. These are seen in numerous illustrations in the mid-13th-century Maciejowski Bible.


title: Falchion

text: A falchion had a lower quality and status than the longer, more expensive swords, as almost none of them survive today. Falchions are sometimes misunderstood and thought of as being similar to machetes; however, the ancient falchions that have been discovered are very thin and on average, lighter than a double-edged blade. These weapons were therefore not cleaving or chopping weapons similar to the machete, but quick slashing weapons more similar to shamshir or sabres despite their wide blade. While falchions are commonly thought to be peasants' weapons this is not always the case; the Conyers falchion belonged to a landed family, and the falchion is shown in illustrations of combat between mounted knights. Some later falchions were ornate and used by the nobility; there is an elaborately engraved and gold plated falchion from the 1560s in the Wallace Collection, engraved with the personal coat of arms of Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany.


title: Neurodevelopmental disorder

text: Neurodevelopmental disorders are a group of disorders that affect the development of the nervous system, leading to abnormal brain function which may affect emotion, learning ability, self-control, and memory. The effects of neurodevelopmental disorders tend to last for a person's lifetime.


title: Neurodevelopmental disorder

text: Neurodevelopmental disorders are impairments of the growth and development of the brain and/or central nervous system. A narrower use of the term refers to a disorder of brain function that affects emotion, learning ability, self-control and memory which unfolds as an individual develops and grows.


title: Neurodevelopmental disorder

text: There are neurodevelopmental research projects examining potential new classifications of disorders including:


title: Neurodevelopmental disorder

text: The multitude of neurodevelopmental disorders span a wide range of associated symptoms and severity, resulting in different degrees of mental, emotional, physical, and economic consequences for individuals, and in turn families, social groups, and society.


title: Neurodevelopmental disorder

text: The development of the nervous system is tightly regulated and timed; it is influenced by both genetic programs and the environment. Any significant deviation from the normal developmental trajectory early in life can result in missing or abnormal neuronal architecture or connectivity. Because of the temporal and spatial complexity of the developmental trajectory, there are many potential causes of neurodevelopmental disorders that may affect different areas of the nervous system at different times and ages. These range from social deprivation, genetic and metabolic diseases, immune disorders, infectious diseases, nutritional factors, physical trauma, and toxic and environmental factors. Some neurodevelopmental disorders, such as autism and other pervasive developmental disorders, are considered multifactorial syndromes which have many causes that converge to a more specific neurodevelopmental manifestation.


title: Neurodevelopmental disorder

text: Deprivation from social and emotional care causes severe delays in brain and cognitive development. Studies with children growing up in Romanian orphanages during Nicolae Ceauşescu's regime reveal profound effects of social deprivation and language deprivation on the developing brain. These effects are time-dependent. The longer children stayed in negligent institutional care, the greater the consequences. By contrast, adoption at an early age mitigated some of the effects of earlier institutionalization (abnormal psychology).


title: Neurodevelopmental disorder

text: A prominent example of a genetically determined neurodevelopmental disorder is Trisomy 21, also known as Down syndrome. This disorder usually results from an extra chromosome 21, although in uncommon instances it is related to other chromosomal abnormalities such as translocation of the genetic material. It is characterized by short stature, epicanthal (eyelid) folds, abnormal fingerprints, and palm prints, heart defects, poor muscle tone (delay of neurological development), and intellectual disabilities (delay of intellectual development).


title: Neurodevelopmental disorder

text: Less commonly known genetically determined neurodevelopmental disorders include Fragile X syndrome. Fragile X syndrome was first described in 1943 by Martin and Bell, studying persons with family history of sex-linked "mental defects". Rett syndrome, another X-linked disorder, produces severe functional limitations. Williams syndrome is caused by small deletions of genetic material from chromosome 7.


title: Neurodevelopmental disorder

text: The most common recurrent Copy Number Variant disorder is 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (formerly DiGeorge or velocardiofacial syndrome), followed by Prader-Willi syndrome and Angelman syndrome.


title: Neurodevelopmental disorder

text: Immune reactions during pregnancy, both maternal and of the developing child, may produce neurodevelopmental disorders. One typical immune reaction in infants and children is PANDAS, or "Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated with Streptococcal infection". Another disorder is Sydenham's chorea, which results in more abnormal movements of the body and fewer psychological sequellae. Both are immune reactions against brain tissue that follow infection by "Streptococcus" bacteria. Susceptibility to these immune diseases may be genetically determined, so sometimes several family members may have one or both of them following an epidemic of Strep infection.


title: Neurodevelopmental disorder

text: Systemic infections can result in neurodevelopmental consequences, when they occur in infancy and childhood of humans, but would not be called a primary neurodevelopmental disorder. For example HIV Infections of the head and brain, like brain abscesses, meningitis or encephalitis have a high risk of causing neurodevelopmental problems and eventually a disorder. For example, measles can progress to subacute sclerosing panencephalitis.


title: Neurodevelopmental disorder

text: A number of infectious diseases can be transmitted congenitally (either before or at birth), and can cause serious neurodevelopmental problems, as for example the viruses HSV, CMV, rubella (congenital rubella syndrome), Zika virus, or bacteria like "Treponema pallidum" in congenital syphilis, which may progress to neurosyphilis if it remains untreated. Protozoa like "Plasmodium" or "Toxoplasma" which can cause congenital toxoplasmosis with multiple cysts in the brain and other organs, leading to a variety of neurological deficits.


title: Neurodevelopmental disorder

text: Some cases of schizophrenia may be related to congenital infections, though the majority are of unknown causes.


title: Neurodevelopmental disorder

text: Metabolic disorders in either the mother or the child can cause neurodevelopmental disorders. Two examples are diabetes mellitus (a multifactorial disorder) and phenylketonuria (an inborn error of metabolism). Many such inherited diseases may directly affect the child's metabolism and neural development but less commonly they can indirectly affect the child during gestation. (See also teratology).


title: Neurodevelopmental disorder

text: In a child, type 1 diabetes can produce neurodevelopmental damage by the effects of excess or insufficient glucose. The problems continue and may worsen throughout childhood if the diabetes is not well controlled. Type 2 diabetes may be preceded in its onset by impaired cognitive functioning.


title: Neurodevelopmental disorder

text: A non-diabetic fetus can also be subjected to glucose effects if its mother has undetected gestational diabetes. Maternal diabetes causes excessive birth size, making it harder for the infant to pass through the birth canal without injury or it can directly produce early neurodevelopmental deficits. Usually the neurodevelopmental symptoms will decrease in later childhood.


title: Neurodevelopmental disorder

text: Phenylketonuria, also known as PKU, can induce neurodevelopmental problems and children with PKU require a strict diet to prevent intellectual disability and other disorders. In the maternal form of PKU, excessive maternal phenylalanine can be absorbed by the fetus even if the fetus has not inherited the disease. This can produce intellectual disability and other disorders.


title: Neurodevelopmental disorder

text: Nutrition disorders and nutritional deficits may cause neurodevelopmental disorders, such as spina bifida, and the rarely occurring anencephaly, both of which are neural tube defects with malformation and dysfunction of the nervous system and its supporting structures, leading to serious physical disability and emotional sequelae. The most common nutritional cause of neural tube defects is folic acid deficiency in the mother, a B vitamin usually found in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and milk products. (Neural tube defects are also caused by medications and other environmental causes, many of which interfere with folate metabolism, thus they are considered to have multifactorial causes.) Another deficiency, iodine deficiency, produces a spectrum of neurodevelopmental disorders ranging from mild emotional disturbance to severe intellectual disability. (see also congenital iodine deficiency syndrome).


title: Neurodevelopmental disorder

text: Excesses in both maternal and infant diets may cause disorders as well, with foods or food supplements proving toxic in large amounts. For instance in 1973 K.L. Jones and D.W. Smith of the University of Washington Medical School in Seattle found a pattern of "craniofacial, limb, and cardiovascular defects associated with prenatal onset growth deficiency and developmental delay" in children of alcoholic mothers, now called fetal alcohol syndrome, It has significant symptom overlap with several other entirely unrelated neurodevelopmental disorders.


title: Neurodevelopmental disorder

text: Brain trauma in the developing human is a common cause (over 400,000 injuries per year in the US alone, without clear information as to how many produce developmental sequellae) of neurodevelopmental syndromes. It may be subdivided into two major categories, congenital injury (including injury resulting from otherwise uncomplicated premature birth) and injury occurring in infancy or childhood. Common causes of congenital injury are asphyxia (obstruction of the trachea), hypoxia (lack of oxygen to the brain), and the mechanical trauma of the birth process itself.


title: Neurodevelopmental disorder

text: Although it not clear yet as strong is the correlation between placenta and brain, a growing number of studies are linking placenta to fetal brain development.


title: Neurodevelopmental disorder

text: Neurodevelopmental disorders are diagnosed by evaluating the presence of characteristic symptoms or behaviors in a child, typically after a parent, guardian, teacher, or other responsible adult has raised concerns to a doctor.


title: Neurodevelopmental disorder

text: Neurodevelopmental disorders may also be confirmed by genetic testing. Traditionally, disease related genetic and genomic factors are detected by karyotype analysis, which detects clinically significant genetic abnormalities for 5% of children with a diagnosed disorder. , chromosomal microarray analysis (CMA) was proposed to replace karyotyping because of its ability to detect smaller chromosome abnormalities and copy-number variants, leading to greater diagnostic yield in about 20% of cases. The American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics and the American Academy of Pediatrics recommend CMA as standard of care in the US.


title: Vanitas

text: A vanitas (Latin for 'vanity') is a symbolic work of art showing the transience of life, the futility of pleasure, and the certainty of death, often contrasting symbols of wealth and symbols of ephemerality and death. Best-known are "vanitas" still lifes, a common genre in the Low Countries of the 16th and 17th centuries; they have also been created at other times and in other media and genres.


title: Vanitas

text: The Latin noun "vanitas" (from the Latin adjective "vanus" 'empty') means "emptiness", "futility", or "worthlessness", the traditional Christian view being that earthly goods and pursuits are transient and worthless. It alludes to Ecclesiastes , where "vanitas" translates the Hebrew word "hevel", which also includes the concept of transitoriness.


title: Vanitas

text: Vanitas themes were common in medieval funerary art, with most surviving examples in sculpture. By the 15th century, these could be extremely morbid and explicit, reflecting an increased obsession with death and decay also seen in the "Ars moriendi," the "Danse Macabre", and the overlapping motif of the "Memento mori." From the Renaissance such motifs gradually became more indirect and, as the still-life genre became popular, found a home there. Paintings executed in the vanitas style were meant to remind viewers of the transience of life, the futility of pleasure, and the certainty of death. They also provided a moral justification for painting attractive objects.


title: Vanitas

text: Common vanitas symbols include skulls, which are a reminder of the certainty of death; rotten fruit (decay); bubbles (the brevity of life and suddenness of death); smoke, watches, and hourglasses (the brevity of life); and musical instruments (brevity and the ephemeral nature of life). Fruit, flowers and butterflies can be interpreted in the same way, and a peeled lemon was, like life, attractive to look at but bitter to taste. Art historians debate how much, and how seriously, the vanitas theme is implied in still-life paintings without explicit imagery such as a skull. As in much moralistic genre painting, the enjoyment evoked by the sensuous depiction of the subject is in a certain conflict with the moralistic message.


title: Vanitas

text: "Composition of flowers" is a less obvious style of vanitas by Abraham Mignon in the National Museum, Warsaw. Barely visible amid vivid and perilous nature (snakes, poisonous mushrooms), a bird skeleton is a symbol of vanity and shortness of life.


title: Kia K5

text: The Kia K5, formerly known as the Kia Optima, is a mid-size car manufactured by Kia since 2000 and marketed globally through various nameplates. First generation cars were mostly marketed as the Optima, although the Kia Magentis name was used in Europe and Canada when sales began there in 2002. For the second-generation models, Kia used the Kia Lotze and Kia K5 name for the South Korean market, and the Magentis name globally, except in the United States, Canada and Malaysia, where the Optima name was retained until the 2021 model year. The K5 name is used for all markets since the introduction of the fifth generation in 2019.


title: Kia K5

text: From 2000–2005, Optimas were a rebadged variant of the Hyundai Sonata, differing from the Sonata only in minor exterior styling details and equipment content. It was first shown in South Korea in July 2000 and was the first product of the Kia-Hyundai platform integration plan.


title: Kia K5

text: In Australia, the Optima was introduced in May 2001, offered only with a 2.5 L V6 engine, and choice of manual or automatic transmission. The updated Optima was offered with a new 2.7 L engine, 4-speed automatic (the manual was dropped), and features such as full leather interior and alloy wheels were made standard. Thanks in part to better marketing, sales increased to 41,289 units in 2005, an all-time high. The Optima was sold until 2006, when it was replaced by the Magentis.


title: Kia K5

text: The 2001 Optima received Poor to Average ratings from the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS).


title: Kia K5

text: The 2002 Optima received a minor update. A luxurious version of the Optima was sold in South Korea as the "Optima Regal", using the 2-liter four or the 2.5-liter V6 only. The grille was redesigned for the United States in 2003 (2004 model year) to feature the Kia badge, and the headlamps were restyled for 2004 (2005 model year).


title: Kia K5

text: The second generation Optima, known as the Kia Magentis globally except in United States and Malaysia, and as the Kia Lotze in South Korea, was launched in South Korea in November 2005. This generation differed further from the Hyundai Sonata donor vehicle than the previous model. Unlike the previous Optima though, this vehicle uses a global platform, unique to Kia, designated "MG". The car continues to be built in South Korea and shares its 2.4-liter inline-four engine, five-speed "Sportmatic" automatic or five-speed manual transmission with the Sonata.


title: Kia K5

text: The second generation Kia Optima was launched in Malaysia on 15 August 2007 powered by a 2.0 liter Theta DOHC CVVT engine with a 4-speed automatic transmission.


title: Kia K5

text: The Optima received a crash test rating of five stars from the NHTSA, and four stars from Euro NCAP. The 2006 Optima received Marginal to Good ratings from the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS).


title: Kia K5

text: The Optima was revised and updated in 2008, debuting at the New York International Auto Show (as a 2009 model year). This update features new front-end styling and tail lamps. In addition to the revised exterior, length is also slightly increased by roughly to approximately long. There is also a new engine and the interior has also been revised. Main changes in the interior are a redesigned instrument cluster and a Sirius Satellite Radio/AM/FM/MP3/CD with an auxiliary jack. In certain markets, the option of satellite navigation is offered.


title: Kia K5

text: The new "Theta II" 2.4-liter I4 employs dual continuously variable valve timing (CVVT) and a variable intake system (VIS) to increase power to , while returning improved fuel consumption over its predecessor. Torque is rated at . There is a 2.0L I4 for other markets with either a 5 speed manual or 4 speed automatic transmission. Power is rated at at 6200 RPM and of torque. Acceleration for the 2.0L is in 9.2 seconds for the 5 speed manual and 10.1 seconds for the 4 speed automatic. Top speed rated up to outside of the US. The 2.7-liter V6 offers few changes to the previous model, though power is increased to , and torque to . Acceleration for the 5-speed automatic takes it from in 8.9sec with a top speed up to . A five-speed manual transmission is standard in the base model, and a five-speed automatic is included with mid- and high-end levels (or as an option in the base model).


title: Kia K5

text: 2010 models see the addition of a Proximity Key with Push-Button Start and paddle shifters on SX models.


title: Kia K5

text: In Australia, the Magentis was introduced in August 2006, and replaced the Optima. Initially available with a choice of 2.4 L 4-cylinder or 2.7 L V6 engines, the Magentis' sales never caught on, with sales peaking at only 741 units in 2007. In 2008, the V6 engine was dropped, as was the EX-L model, leaving only the entry-level 2.4 L EX on sale until its discontinuation in 2009. While the facelifted 2010 model was never officially launched, a very small number were imported for "evaluation" purposes, and eventually sold to the public as demos.


title: Kia K5

text: The completely redesigned Optima, sharing the same platform as its sibling Hyundai i40, named the Kia K5 in the South Korean and Chinese markets, made its world debut at the 2010 New York International Auto Show. It features a much sleeker, sportier profile designed by new Kia design chief Peter Schreyer, following the new design language featured on the Kia Forte, Kia Sorento, and upcoming Kia Sportage and Kia Cadenza — and using Kia's new corporate grille, known as the Tiger Nose, also designed by Schreyer. Lead designer of the TF in the team of Peter Schreyer and Miklos Kovacs was the Italian Davide Limongelli. For the first time, this model will be using the Optima name worldwide, where the Magentis name had been used previously.


title: Kia K5

text: As with its Hyundai Sonata sibling, the Optima's lineup has been replaced with a universal GDI 2.4-liter 4-cylinder engine, either mated to a 6-speed automatic transmission with Eco dash display, or to a 6-speed manual transmission that is standard on only the LX model. Sales began in fall 2010. The new K5 was released in the South Korean market on 29 April 2010.


title: Kia K5

text: The new Optima retains its trim lines of the base LX, upscale EX, and sporty SX models. Standard equipment includes safety features such as electronic stability control (ESC) and ABS brakes, as well as Sirius Satellite Radio, cooled glove box, iPod connectivity, and handsfree Bluetooth phone operation. Starting in October 2013, on LX models, Kia will offer the UVO infotainment system by Microsoft as part of the convenience package. EX model options include Kia's new UVO infotainment system by Microsoft, integrated backup camera, and Proximity Key with Push-Button Start. A panoramic moonroof, heated and cooled front seats, heated rear seats and a navigation system are also available. SX models add a rear spoiler, metal pedals, black hybrid metal and carbon insert trim, paddle shifters, and illuminated scuff plates. The third generation Optima came with two different ignition options. On some, the ignition is fitted to the steering column with a turn key. In certain specifications, the keyhole is inside of the glove box, with a start button located on the dashboard.


title: Kia K5

text: A Hybrid model and a Turbo model were also released. In addition, a wagon version was planned for European markets, and two-door coupé version was mooted for the United States. The turbo model will have the same powertrain as the Hyundai Sonata 2.0T. The turbocharged model will have and of torque in the North American model. The car is estimated to obtain on the highway.


title: Kia K5

text: The third generation Kia Optima is built and manufactured in West Point, Georgia, which began in 2011 with the 2012 model.


title: Kia K5

text: In Australia, the new Optima went on sale in January 2011. Initially available in only one grade, the highly specified "Platinum", it was later joined by an entry-level "Si" model in the 2012 model year. Both models feature a 2.4L GDI engine with 6-speed automatic. A manual was not offered.


title: Kia K5

text: The third generation Kia Optima was launched in Malaysia on 27 December 2011 powered by a 2.0 liter Theta II MPI engine with a 6-speed automatic transmission and in January 2014 the facelift version was launched in Malaysia.


title: Kia K5

text: The 2011 Optima received a "Top Safety Pick" rating from the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS).


title: Kia K5

text: In a March 2012 comparison test by "Car and Driver", the Optima came in third place out of six cars behind the first place Volkswagen Passat and the second place Honda Accord.


title: Kia K5

text: The 2011 Kia Optima Hybrid was unveiled at the 2010 Los Angeles Auto Show, and was launched in the U.S. market in November 2011. During its first month in the market sold 524 units. Considering cumulative sales in the U.S. market through December 2011, with 19,672 units sold, together the Hyundai Sonata Hybrid and the Kia Optima Hybrid ranked second in hybrid sales for calendar year 2011, after the Toyota Prius.


title: Kia K5

text: The Optima Hybrid uses the Hyundai Sonata Hybrid powertrain, combining a 2.4-liter MPI engine with a six-speed automatic transmission, and a 30kW electric motor and lightweight lithium polymer batteries to produce a full gasoline-electric hybrid with an estimated fuel consumption of city and highway. The Optima Hybrid is able to travel up to in full electric mode, which helps it stand apart from many competitors. Korean and European markets will get the Optima Hybrid with a 2.0-liter turbocharged engine.


title: Kia K5

text: The only externally apparent features that differentiate it from the Kia Optima are the hybrid badging, application specific wheel design, a lowered ride height by approximately , and the availability of a special light platinum graphite paint color. It also utilizes an active shutter system behind the upper grille, allowing the car to redirect airflow when the gas engine's heat levels allow (such as when the car is operating in EV mode to improve aerodynamics, or to assist in more rapid warming up of the gas engine).


title: Kia K5

text: In September 2011, the Optima Hybrid set a Guinness World Record for "Lowest Fuel Consumption in a Hybrid Gasoline Vehicle" while driving across the continental United States for 14 days, starting from the Kia factory in West Point, Georgia. In its 7,899-mile drive across the 48 states, the car recorded an average of 64.55 miles per gallon while consuming a total of five and a half tanks of gasoline. In order to qualify for the record, the car had two people and luggage throughout the entire trip.


title: Kia K5

text: The 2016 Kia Optima went on-sale towards the end of 2015. It shares a platform with the 2015 Hyundai Sonata, and offers a new design, with new features and enhancements. As with the previous-generation Optima, the new model was designed by Kia's Chief of Design, Peter Schreyer. The new K5 was released in the South Korean market on 15 July 2015.


title: Kia K5

text: For the Malaysian market, the fourth generation Kia Optima was launched in May 2017 powered by the Theta II 2.0 liter turbocharged four-cylinder gasoline engine with a 6-speed automatic transmission.


title: Kia K5

text: At the 2016 Geneva Motor Show, Kia revealed the Sportswagon variant of the Optima. Developed mainly for the European market by Kia's European design team, Kia says the model represents a significant growth opportunity in Europe, as two thirds of all models sold in the class are estates, rising to three quarters when looking purely at fleet sales. In its case, Kia says the estate could outsell the sedan version six to one.


title: Kia K5

text: A plug-in hybrid variant was unveiled at the 2016 Chicago Auto Show. The Kia Optima PHEV shares the powertrain of the Hyundai Sonata PHEV, and like its sibling, it has a 9.8 kWh battery pack that delivers an all-electric range of , but the Optima plug-in hybrid has a lower drag coefficient, which at 0.24 Cd is on par with the all-electric Tesla Model S. The Optima PHEV has an active grille, which automatically opens and closes at high and low speeds, contributing to reduce the Cd. The plug-in hybrid features a 50 kW electric motor and 2.0-liter “Nu” four-cylinder GDI engine, mated to a six-speed automatic transmission.


title: Kia K5

text: The facelifted Kia Optima was officially revealed at the 2018 Geneva Motor Show. In January, the facelifted Kia K5 was introduced in South Korean market.


title: Kia K5

text: The 2017 Optima received a "Top Safety Pick+" rating from the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS).


title: Kia K5

text: The Optima is a two-time winner of the International Car of the Year award. it also won the 2016 Red Dot "Best of the Best" Award.


title: Kia K5

text: The Kia Optima Convertible Concept was shown in 2015; a 4-door concept car similar to the Kia Optima sedan without a roof and rear-hinged doors for the rear passengers in place of the front-hinged doors of the production car.


title: Kia K5

text: The fifth generation Optima is badged as the K5 worldwide. Its overall design is similar to that of the Sonata, with a fastback-like profile, a trend that began in the 1940s. However, the styling is unique, featuring Z-shaped running lights, a textured grille and a chrome strip that runs along the window line and becomes more prominent at the C-pillar. The interior has been redesigned significantly as well, with an optional 12.3-inch digital cluster and 10.3-inch center screen, augmented by Apple CarPlay and Android Auto and an optional 12-speaker Bose audio system.


title: Kia K5

text: Under the hood, engines mostly mirror that of the Sonata, with the base 4-cylinder turbo 1.6-liter engine producing 180 hp and 195 lb⋅ft of torque and the GT receiving a high-performance 2.5-liter turbocharged four-cylinder unit with 286 hp and 311 lb⋅ft of torque. All-wheel drive is newly available on some trim levels, distinguishing it from the Sonata.


title: Kia K5

text: Depending on the market, Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) include Forward Collision-avoidance Assist (FCA), Blind-spot View Monitor (BVM) with Surround View Monitor (SVM) and Blind-spot Collision-avoid Assist (BCA), Smart Cruise Control (SCC) or Navigation-based SCC (NSCC), Lane Following Assist (LFA), Driver Attention Warning (DAW), and Highway Driving Assist (HDA).


title: Kia K5

text: Kia confirmed that the vehicle is not engineered for the European market or any right-hand-drive markets due to the shrinking traditional sedan market.


title: Kia K5

text: In June 2020, Kia unveiled the US-market K5, renaming it from the Optima. Both the 1.6-liter turbocharged and 2.5-liter naturally aspirated Smartstream inline four-cylinder gasoline engines will be available with either front wheel drive or all wheel drive; the 2.5-liter turbocharged engine is available only in front wheel drive and is mated to an eight-speed wet dual-clutch transmission. Trim levels include LX, LXS, GT-Line, EX, and GT. US specification models will be assembled at Kia's West Point, Georgia assembly plant (KMMG).


title: Kia K5

text: The third generation Kia Optima was an official entry in the Pirelli World Challenge. In June 2012, Michael Galati drove the Infinity Audio-sponsored Optima to Kia's first victory in round 8 of the 2012 season at Canadian Tire Motorsport Park in Bowmanville, Ontario, Canada, while teammate Mark Wilkins finished in second place.


title: Kia K5

text: Kia Racing clinched the 2014 Pirelli World Challenge Grand Touring Sport (GTS) Class Manufacturer Championship in only its third season of competition. Kia defeated rivals Ford, Chevrolet, Porsche, Aston Martin and Nissan to become the first Korean auto manufacturer to win the championship. Kia Racing finished the season with 13 podium finishes, including 5 race wins. Meanwhile, the turbocharged Optima race cars led more on-track miles than any other manufacturer in the class this season.


title: Kia K5

text: The race car weighs and is powered by an inline 4-cylinder engine generating 368 horsepower and uses a 6-speed sequential transmission. It reaches in 4.7 seconds and has a top speed of .


title: Mattock

text: A mattock is a hand tool used for digging, prying, and chopping. Similar to the pickaxe, it has a long handle and a stout head which combines either a vertical axe blade with a horizontal adze (cutter mattock), or a pick and an adze (pick mattock). A cutter mattock is similar to a Pulaski used in fighting fires. It is also commonly known in North America as a "grub axe".


title: Mattock

text: A mattock has a shaft, typically made of wood, which is long. The head consists of two ends, opposite each other and separated by a central eye. A mattock head typically weighs . The form of the head determines the kind and uses of the mattock:


title: Mattock

text: Both are used for grubbing in hard soils and rocky terrain, with the pick mattock having the advantage of a superior penetrating tool over the cutter mattock, which excels at cutting roots.


title: Mattock

text: Mattocks are "the most versatile of hand-planting tools". They can be used to chop into the ground with the adze and pull the soil towards the user, opening a slit to plant into. They can also be used to dig holes for planting into, and are particularly useful where there is a thick layer of matted sod. The use of a mattock can be tiring because of the effort needed to drive the blade into the ground, and the amount of bending and stooping involved.


title: Mattock

text: Cutter mattocks () are used in rural Africa for removing stumps from fields, including unwanted banana suckers.


title: Mattock

text: As a simple but effective tool, mattocks have a long history. Their shape was already established by the Bronze Age in Asia Minor and ancient Greece. According to Sumerian mythology, the mattock was invented by the god Enlil. Mattocks () are the most commonly depicted tool in Byzantine manuscripts of Hesiod's "Works and Days".


title: Mattock

text: Mattocks made from antlers first appear in the British Isles in the Late Mesolithic. They were probably used chiefly for digging, and may have been related to the rise of agriculture. Mattocks made of whalebone were used for tasks including flensing – stripping blubber from the carcass of a whale – by the broch people of Scotland and by the Inuit.


title: Mattock

text: The word "mattock" is of unclear origin; one theory traces it from Proto-Germanic, from Proto-Indo-European. There are no clear cognates in other Germanic languages, and similar words in various Celtic languages are borrowings from the English (e.g. , , ). However, there are proposed cognates in Old High German and Middle High German, and more speculatively with words in Balto-Slavic languages, including Old Church Slavonic ' and Lithuanian ', and even Sanskrit. It may be cognate to or derived from the unattested Vulgar Latin "", meaning club or cudgel. The "New English Dictionary" of 1906 interpreted "mattock" as a diminutive, but there is no root to derive it from, and no semantic reason for the diminutive formation. Forms such as "mathooke", "motthook" and "mathook" were produced by folk etymology. Although used to prepare whale blubber, which the Inuit call ""mattaq"", no such connection is known.


title: Mattock

text: While the noun "mattock" is attested from Old English onwards, the transitive verb "to mattock" or "to mattock up" first appeared in the mid-17th century.


title: Paul Dooley

text: Paul Dooley (born Paul Brown; February 22, 1928) is an American character actor, writer and comedian. He is known for his roles in "Breaking Away", "Sixteen Candles", and "Popeye".


title: Paul Dooley

text: Dooley was born Paul Brown on February 22, 1928, in Parkersburg, West Virginia, the son of Ruth Irene (née Barringer), a homemaker, and Pete James Brown, a factory worker.


title: Paul Dooley

text: He has said that Parkersburg had few attractions that interested him, as there were not many cultural opportunities. He enjoyed listening to comedians on the radio, especially Jimmy Durante.


title: Paul Dooley

text: Dooley was a cartoonist as a youth and drew a strip for a local paper in Parkersburg. In 1946, he joined the United States Navy and served for 2 years before then returning home and graduating from West Virginia University in 1952.


title: Paul Dooley

text: After graduating from West Virginia University, Dooley went to New York City to try his luck in the entertainment industry. He initially found work as a clown for children's birthday parties.


title: Paul Dooley

text: In New York he soon found success as a regular on the stage. In the early 1950s, he made his debut on the New York stage and was discovered by Mike Nichols. The director gave him his first break by casting him in 1965's "The Odd Couple" on Broadway. Dooley appeared as Oscar's poker crony, Homer "Speed" Deegan and understudied Art Carney, who portrayed Felix Unger; when Carney left the play later on, Dooley assumed the role of Felix. Dooley was represented by the William Morris Agency, thanks to a referral from Walter Matthau, who played Oscar Madison in the play.


title: Paul Dooley

text: Also having an interest in comedy, Dooley was a stand-up comedian for five years, eventually landing on "The Tonight Show," and a member of the Compass Players and The Second City troupe in New York City. Fellow members of The Second City at that time were Alan Arkin and Alan Alda.


title: Paul Dooley

text: Dooley also worked as a writer. He created and was one of the head writers on "The Electric Company," produced by the Children's Television Workshop for PBS in the United States. Dooley wrote "runners", a series of short sketches with 8 or 10 characters that were broadcast over the course of several weeks. He found out years later that Carl Reiner had recommended him for the job. Some of the characters Dooley created for "The Electric Company" included "Easy Reader" (Morgan Freeman) and "Fargo North, Decoder" (Skip Hinnant), as well as the soap opera spoof "Love of Chair".


title: Paul Dooley

text: Dooley formed a company with Andrew Duncan and Lynne Lipton called All Over Creation to create commercials for radio and television. They produced around 500 TV commercials and 1,000 radio spots. A character named Paul the Gorilla that appeared in television commercials was named after him.


title: Paul Dooley

text: Dooley has appeared in such films as "Sixteen Candles", "Popeye", "", "Breaking Away", and the voice of Sarge in the Disney/Pixar films "Cars", "Cars 2" and "Cars 3."


title: Paul Dooley

text: He worked with Robert Altman regularly and is known as a prolific journeyman character actor. After Altman saw Dooley in the Jules Feiffer comedy "Hold Me", he signed him for a role in his film "A Wedding."


title: Paul Dooley

text: He was also in the director's cut of "Little Shop of Horrors", but was replaced by Jim Belushi in the final cut.


title: Paul Dooley

text: Dooley has also appeared as a variety of recurrent characters on numerous television shows, including "My So-Called Life", "Dream On", "Grace Under Fire", "thirtysomething", "Curb Your Enthusiasm", "ALF" (playing Whizzer Deaver), "Chicago Hope", and "" where he played the recurring role of . He guest starred in other primetime shows like "Bewitched", "The Wonder Years", "Sabrina, the Teenage Witch", "The Golden Girls", "Hot in Cleveland", and "Desperate Housewives". Dooley starred in the short-lived comedy about a couple living in an Arizona retirement community, "Coming of Age", opposite veteran actors Phyllis Newman, Glynis Johns and Alan Young. In 2000, he was nominated for an Emmy Award for his role as an eccentric judge on "The Practice".


title: Paul Dooley

text: In 2010, Dooley played the part of the head chef at Camp Victory, a fictional fat camp, on the short-lived ABC Family original series "Huge," which was created and written by his wife and daughter.


title: Paul Dooley

text: In 2014 he appeared in an episode of the NBC series "Parenthood" as Rocky, a fellow vet and retiree to Craig T. Nelson's Zeek Braverman.


title: Paul Dooley

text: In 2017 he appeared in the episode "22 Steps" of the ABC series "The Good Doctor" as Glenn, a 72-year-old man with a failing heart who breaks his pacemaker because he wants to die due to the constant pain he is suffering.


title: Paul Dooley

text: Dooley co-wrote the play, "Assisted Living," with his wife Winnie Holzman. It was their first theatrical collaboration. The play premiered on April 5, 2013.


title: Paul Dooley

text: Dooley has been married to Winnie Holzman, whom he first met at an improv acting class in New York, since November 18, 1984. The couple have a daughter Savannah and live in Toluca Lake in Los Angeles, California.


title: Paul Dooley

text: He was previously married to Donna Lee Wasser on September 19, 1958, which ended in divorce. He has three children from his first marriage.


title: Queueing theory

text: Queueing theory is the mathematical study of waiting lines, or queues. A queueing model is constructed so that queue lengths and waiting time can be predicted. Queueing theory is generally considered a branch of operations research because the results are often used when making business decisions about the resources needed to provide a service.


title: Queueing theory

text: Queueing theory has its origins in research by Agner Krarup Erlang when he created models to describe the system of Copenhagen Telephone Exchange company, a Danish company. The ideas have since seen applications including telecommunication, traffic engineering, computing


title: Queueing theory

text: and, particularly in industrial engineering, in the design of factories, shops, offices and hospitals, as well as in project management.


title: Queueing theory

text: The spelling "queueing" over "queuing" is typically encountered in the academic research field. In fact, one of the flagship journals of the field is "Queueing Systems".


title: Queueing theory

text: A queue, or queueing node can be thought of as nearly a black box. Jobs or "customers" arrive to the queue, possibly wait some time, take some time being processed, and then depart from the queue.


title: Queueing theory

text: The queueing node is not quite a pure black box, however, since some information is needed about the inside of the queuing node. The queue has one or more "servers" which can each be paired with an arriving job until it departs, after which that server will be free to be paired with another arriving job.


title: Queueing theory

text: An analogy often used is that of the cashier at a supermarket. There are other models, but this is one commonly encountered in the literature. Customers arrive, are processed by the cashier, and depart. Each cashier processes one customer at a time, and hence this is a queueing node with only one server. A setting where a customer will leave immediately if the cashier is busy when the customer arrives, is referred to as a queue with no buffer (or no "waiting area", or similar terms). A setting with a waiting zone for up to "n" customers is called a queue with a buffer of size "n".


title: Queueing theory

text: The behaviour of a single queue (also called a "queueing node") can be described by a birth–death process, which describes the arrivals and departures from the queue, along with the number of jobs (also called "customers" or "requests", or any number of other things, depending on the field) currently in the system. An arrival increases the number of jobs ("k") by 1, and a departure (a job completing its service) decreases "k" by 1.


title: Queueing theory

text: The steady state equations for the birth-and-death process, known as the balance equations, are as follows. Here formula_1 denotes the steady state probability to be in state "n".


title: Queueing theory

text: which, together with the equation for formula_1 formula_11, fully describes the required steady state probabilities.


title: Queueing theory

text: Single queueing nodes are usually described using Kendall's notation in the form A/S/"c" where "A" describes the distribution of durations between each arrival to the queue, "S" the distribution of service times for jobs and "c" the number of servers at the node. For an example of the notation, the M/M/1 queue is a simple model where a single server serves jobs that arrive according to a Poisson process (where inter-arrival durations are exponentially distributed) and have exponentially distributed service times (the M denotes a Markov process). In an M/G/1 queue, the G stands for "general" and indicates an arbitrary probability distribution for service times.


title: Queueing theory

text: Further, let "E" represent the number of times the system enters state "n", and "L" represent the number of times the system leaves state "n". Then for all "n", |"E" − "L"| ∈ {0, 1}. That is, the number of times the system leaves a state differs by at most 1 from the number of times it enters that state, since it will either return into that state at some time in the future ("E" = "L") or not (|"E" − "L"| = 1).


title: Queueing theory

text: A common basic queuing system is attributed to Erlang, and is a modification of Little's Law. Given an arrival rate "λ", a dropout rate "σ", and a departure rate "μ", length of the queue "L" is defined as:


title: Queueing theory

text: Assuming an exponential distribution for the rates, the waiting time "W" can be defined as the proportion of arrivals that are served. This is equal to the exponential survival rate of those who do not drop out over the waiting period, giving:


title: Queueing theory

text: In 1909, Agner Krarup Erlang, a Danish engineer who worked for the Copenhagen Telephone Exchange, published the first paper on what would now be called queueing theory. He modeled the number of telephone calls arriving at an exchange by a Poisson process and solved the M/D/1 queue in 1917 and M/D/"k" queueing model in 1920. In Kendall's notation:


title: Queueing theory

text: The M/G/1 queue was solved by Felix Pollaczek in 1930, a solution later recast in probabilistic terms by Aleksandr Khinchin and now known as the Pollaczek–Khinchine formula.


title: Queueing theory

text: After the 1940s queueing theory became an area of research interest to mathematicians. In 1953 David George Kendall solved the GI/M/"k" queue and introduced the modern notation for queues, now known as Kendall's notation. In 1957 Pollaczek studied the GI/G/1 using an integral equation. John Kingman gave a formula for the mean waiting time in a G/G/1 queue: Kingman's formula.


title: Queueing theory

text: Leonard Kleinrock worked on the application of queueing theory to message switching in the early 1960s and packet switching in the early 1970s. His initial contribution to this field was his doctoral thesis at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1962, published in book form in 1964. His theoretical work published in the early 1970s underpinned the use of packet switching in the ARPANET, a forerunner to the Internet.


title: Queueing theory

text: The matrix geometric method and matrix analytic methods have allowed queues with phase-type distributed inter-arrival and service time distributions to be considered.


title: Queueing theory

text: Systems with coupled orbits are an important part in queueing theory in the application to wireless networks and signal processing.


title: Queueing theory

text: Server failures occur according to a stochastic process (usually Poisson) and are followed by the setup periods during which the server is unavailable. The interrupted customer remains in the service area until server is fixed.


title: Queueing theory

text: Arriving customers not served (either due to the queue having no buffer, or due to balking or reneging by the customer) are also known as dropouts and the average rate of dropouts is a significant parameter describing a queue.


title: Queueing theory

text: Networks of queues are systems in which a number of queues are connected by what's known as customer routing. When a customer is serviced at one node it can join another node and queue for service, or leave the network.


title: Queueing theory

text: For networks of "m" nodes, the state of the system can be described by an "m"–dimensional vector ("x", "x", ..., "x") where "x" represents the number of customers at each node.


title: Queueing theory

text: The simplest non-trivial network of queues is called tandem queues. The first significant results in this area were Jackson networks, for which an efficient product-form stationary distribution exists and the mean value analysis which allows average metrics such as throughput and sojourn times to be computed. If the total number of customers in the network remains constant the network is called a closed network and has also been shown to have a product–form stationary distribution in the Gordon–Newell theorem. This result was extended to the BCMP network where a network with very general service time, regimes and customer routing is shown to also exhibit a product-form stationary distribution. The normalizing constant can be calculated with the Buzen's algorithm, proposed in 1973.


title: Queueing theory

text: Networks of customers have also been investigated, Kelly networks where customers of different classes experience different priority levels at different service nodes. Another type of network are G-networks first proposed by Erol Gelenbe in 1993: these networks do not assume exponential time distributions like the classic Jackson Network.


title: Queueing theory

text: In discrete time networks where there is a constraint on which service nodes can be active at any time, the max-weight scheduling algorithm chooses a service policy to give optimal throughput in the case that each job visits only a single-person service node. In the more general case where jobs can visit more than one node, backpressure routing gives optimal throughput. A network scheduler must choose a queueing algorithm, which affects the characteristics of the larger network. See also Stochastic scheduling for more about scheduling of queueing systems.


title: Queueing theory

text: Mean-field models consider the limiting behaviour of the empirical measure (proportion of queues in different states) as the number of queues ("m" above) goes to infinity. The impact of other queues on any given queue in the network is approximated by a differential equation. The deterministic model converges to the same stationary distribution as the original model.


title: Queueing theory

text: In a system with high occupancy rates (utilisation near 1) a heavy traffic approximation can be used to approximate the queueing length process by a reflected Brownian motion, Ornstein–Uhlenbeck process, or more general diffusion process. The number of dimensions of the Brownian process is equal to the number of queueing nodes, with the diffusion restricted to the non-negative orthant.


title: Queueing theory

text: Fluid models are continuous deterministic analogs of queueing networks obtained by taking the limit when the process is scaled in time and space, allowing heterogeneous objects. This scaled trajectory converges to a deterministic equation which allows the stability of the system to be proven. It is known that a queueing network can be stable, but have an unstable fluid limit.


title: States of Austria

text: Austria is a federal republic made up of nine states (German: Länder). Since "Land" is also the German word for "country", the term Bundesländer (literally "federal states") is often used instead to avoid ambiguity. The Constitution of Austria uses both terms. Austrian states can pass laws that stay within the limits of the constitution, and each state has representatives in the main Austrian parliament.


title: States of Austria

text: The majority of the land area in the states of Upper Austria, Lower Austria, Vienna, and Burgenland is situated in the Danube valley and thus consists almost completely of accessible and easily arable terrain. The other five states, in contrast, are located in the Alps and thus are comparatively unsuitable for agriculture. Their terrain is also relatively unfavourable to heavy industry and long-distance trade. Accordingly, the population of what now is the Republic of Austria has been concentrated in the former four states since prehistoric times. Austria's most densely populated state is the city-state of Vienna, the heart of what is Austria's only metropolitan area. Lower Austria ranks only fourth in population density even though it contains Vienna's suburbs; this is due to large areas of land being predominantly agricultural. The alpine state of Tyrol, the less alpine but geographically more remote state of Carinthia, and the non-alpine but near-exclusively agricultural state of Burgenland are Austria's least densely populated states. The wealthy alpine state of Vorarlberg is something of an anomaly due to its small size, isolated location and distinct Alemannic culture.


title: States of Austria

text: Each Austrian state has an elected legislature, the "Landtag", and a state government ("Landesregierung") headed by a governor ("Landeshauptmann" or "Landeshauptfrau"). Elections are held every five years (six years in Upper Austria). The state constitution, among other things, determines how the seats in the state government are assigned to political parties, with most states having a system of proportional representation based on the number of delegates in the "Landtag" in place. The "Landeshauptmann" is elected by the "Landtag", though in practice the governor is the leader of the majority party or coalition in the "Landtag."


title: States of Austria

text: Vienna, the capital of Austria, plays a double role as city and "Bundesland." The mayor has the rank of a state governor, while the city council also functions as a "Landtag." Under the municipal constitution, however, city and state business must be kept separate. Hence, while the city council and "Landtag" have identical memberships, they hold separate meetings, and each body has separate presiding officers. When meeting as a city council, the deputies can only deal with city affairs; when meeting as a "Landtag," they can only deal with state affairs.


title: States of Austria

text: Austrian federalism is largely theoretical as the states are granted few legislative powers. The federal constitution initially granted all legislative powers to the states, but many powers have been subsequently taken away, and only a few remain, such as planning and zoning codes, nature protection, hunting, fishing, farming, youth protection, certain issues of public health and welfare and the right to levy certain taxes.


title: States of Austria

text: All other matters, including but not limited to criminal law, civil law, corporate law, most aspects of economic law, defense, most educational matters and academia, telecommunications, and much of the healthcare system are regulated by federal laws. There is also no judiciary of the Länder, since the federal constitution defines the judiciary as an exclusively federal matter. This centralisation follows a historic model where central power during the time of the empire was largely concentrated in Vienna.


title: States of Austria

text: However, the state governor ("Landeshauptmann") is in charge of the administration of much of federal administrative law within the respective state, which makes this post an important political position. Furthermore, state competences include zoning laws, planning issues and public procurement on the regional level, which adds considerable weight to state politics. As a practical matter, there have been cases where states have been able to block projects endorsed by the federal government, as in the case of a railway tunnel that was to be built below the Semmering.


title: States of Austria

text: Austrian "Länder" are endowed formally and practically with a much smaller degree of autonomy than American or German states. Even so, Austrians tend to identify passionately with their respective "Land" and often defend what little independent governance their states have. It is not unheard of for Austrians to consider themselves, for instance, Tyrolean first, Austrian second.


title: States of Austria

text: In terms of boundaries, the present-day states arose from the crown lands of Austria-Hungary, an extensive multiethnic realm whose German-speaking nucleus emerged as the Republic of Austria after the dissolution of the Dual Monarchy in the end of World War I.


title: States of Austria

text: The states of Upper Austria and Lower Austria are essentially equivalent to what were since 1783/84 the two autonomous halves of the Archduchy of Austria, a principality which formed the empire's historic heartland. Salzburg is coterminous with the former Austro-Hungarian Duchy of Salzburg (the former Archbishopric). Similarly, the state of Carinthia descends from the Duchy of Carinthia, the state of Styria descends from the Duchy of Styria, and the state of Tyrol descends from the Princely County of Tyrol; these states had to cede territories to Italy and Yugoslavia when Austria emerged in its present form. Also, the state of Vorarlberg had been a semi-autonomous part of the County of Tyrol since 1861.


title: States of Austria

text: The city-state of Vienna was a part of Lower Austria up until 1921. The state of Burgenland is made up of the predominantly German-speaking area that the Kingdom of Hungary until 1921 had to cede to the First Austrian Republic after World War I as a result of the Treaties of Trianon and Saint-Germain-en-Laye.


title: States of Austria

text: For the purpose of the above list, a city is a community defined to be a city by Austrian law; a town is a community not defined to be a city. Many of Austria's cities have population figures on the order of ten thousand inhabitants; some are even smaller.


title: Jennifer Holliday

text: Jennifer Yvette Holliday (born October 19, 1960) is an American actress and singer. She started her career on Broadway in musicals such as "Dreamgirls" (1981–83), "Your Arms Too Short to Box with God" (1980–1981) and later became a successful recording artist. She is best known for her debut single, the "Dreamgirls" number and rhythm-and-blues/pop hit, "And I Am Telling You I'm Not Going", for which she won a Grammy in 1983. She also won a 1982 Tony Award for "Dreamgirls".


title: Jennifer Holliday

text: Holliday landed her first big role on Broadway in 1979 at age 18, the same day she auditioned for the Broadway production of "Your Arms Too Short to Box with God." Her performance in that musical earned her a 1981 Drama Desk nomination. Her next role, which she began to act at age 21, was the role for which she became best known: the role of Effie Melody White in the Broadway musical "Dreamgirls." Holliday originated the role of Effie and remained with the show for nearly four years after its December 20, 1981 opening. Her performance was widely acclaimed, particularly in her iconic rendition of the musical number that ends Act I, "And I Am Telling You I'm Not Going."


title: Jennifer Holliday

text: Among the acclaim was Holliday's sweep of awards in 1982, including the Tony Award for Best Leading Actress in a Musical, a Grammy Award for her recorded version of the song, and Drama Desk and Theater World awards for her acting performance. Holliday also performed in the touring company of "Sing, Mahalia, Sing" in 1985. In 1998, Holliday was featured on the album, "My Favorite Broadway Ladies" as one of "The Queens of Broadway."


title: Jennifer Holliday

text: Holliday's version of the song "And I Am Telling You I'm Not Going" made her a star on Broadway and catapulted her to national stardom. In 1982, a pop version of the song was released as a single. The song became successful, peaking at number one on the "Billboard" R&B chart, and number 22 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. She continued to have success as a recording artist through the rest of the decade. Her follow-up song, "I Am Love", became another hit in 1983. Holliday's later R&B hits included "Hard Time For Lovers" (1985), "No Frills Love" (1985), "I'm On Your Side" (1991) and "A Woman's Got the Power" (2000). "A Woman's Got the Power" charted at number 7 in summer of 1999. It re-charted the following year, peaking at number 1. She continued to appear on the charts throughout the 1990s, but never had the same level of success she had in the 1980s. Holliday was a featured vocalist on the number one single "I Want to Know What Love Is" by Foreigner in 1985. A number of her songs became hits on the US Dance charts as well. A dance version of "And I Am Telling You I'm Not Going" peaked at number 6 on the Hot Dance Music/Club Play chart in 2001.


title: Jennifer Holliday

text: On October 30, 1986, Paul Simon hosted a Ken Ehrlich-produced "Gospel Session" originally televised as part of a series of "Cinemax Sessions" featuring Holliday, Luther Vandross, The Oak Ridge Boys, Andrae Crouch, The Edwin Hawkins Singers, and the Mighty Clouds of Joy. The show began with Holliday singing "His Eye Is On The Sparrow". Later, she returned to collaborate with Simon and Vandross on "Still Waters Run Deep," followed by an Aretha Franklin arrangement of "Bridge Over Troubled Water, "with the finale consisting of all the participants joining in "Gone at Last", followed by "Amazing Grace".


title: Jennifer Holliday

text: Holliday became popular with LGBT events and fundraisers, which she acknowledged on her gospel album "On & On." Because of this, the Atlantic Entertainment Group's Director of Live Talent, Scott Sherman, produced and promoted many Jennifer Holliday events for several years, acting as both Holliday's "de facto" agent and as her road manager. Under Sherman's aegis, Holliday went on a series of special tours and promotions, one-night-only performances, LGBT pride appearances, and special fundraising events.


title: Jennifer Holliday

text: In the 1990s, Holliday lost a substantial amount of weight and talked about her health struggles with depression during promotional interviews. Initially, the weight loss was attained strictly by diet. Eventually, in an effort to avoid regaining the weight, Holliday had gastric bypass surgery. After the initial weight loss, she released an LP and video titled "I’m On Your Side." The video, unlike most videos, was recorded live. In 1995, Holliday released the gospel album "On & On." In a March 2008 interview, she revealed that she was in the studio working on a new album, to be released later that year.


title: Jennifer Holliday

text: In April 2011, Holliday released a Christian CD titled "Goodness and Mercy" on her own Euphonic Records label. She produced it in conjunction and cooperation with the Rev. Raphael G. Warnock, later elected United States Senator from Georgia.


title: Jennifer Holliday

text: At the St. Louis Muny, Holliday reprised her role of Effie White in their production of "Dreamgirls", running from July 16 to July 22, 2012. She has stated that she does not plan to return to the role again.


title: Jennifer Holliday

text: Apart from her career in the music industry and on the stage, Holliday has also made appearances on primetime television. In addition to appearances on "Touched by an Angel" and "Hang Time," she had a half dozen appearances in a recurring guest star role on "Ally McBeal," where she acted out the role of choir director Lisa Knowles, often singing popular ballads.


title: Jennifer Holliday

text: In 2001, Holliday opened Unforgiven by singing "America the Beautiful", which was the first WWE pay-per-view to be held after the September 11 terrorist attacks.


title: Jennifer Holliday

text: On June 26, 2007, Holliday made a surprise appearance at the BET Awards, singing "And I Am Telling You I'm Not Going" in a duet with Jennifer Hudson, who had played Effie White in the 2006 film adaptation of "Dreamgirls", and won an Oscar for her performance. Holliday had not been offered a cameo role in the film and, feeling snubbed, had repeatedly expressed displeasure with the movie in the media. (Another original "Dreamgirls" cast member, Loretta Devine, did have a cameo in the film.)


title: Jennifer Holliday

text: More recently, it became possible to see Holliday in a YouTube video, singing a duet with Hudson. The two actresses-singers performed their live duet at a concert Hudson gave on April 16, 2009. The YouTube video has been viewed more than 1.3 million times as of July 2021.


title: Jennifer Holliday

text: On October 17, 2011, Holliday appeared on "The Wendy Williams Show" where, following a sit-down interview, Holliday performed "And I Am Telling You I'm Not Going" and received a standing ovation from the studio audience.


title: Jennifer Holliday

text: On May 23, 2012, Holliday performed "And I Am Telling You I'm Not Going" alongside "American Idol" finalist Jessica Sanchez during the "American Idol" Season 11 finale.


title: Jennifer Holliday

text: On October 2, 2018, Holliday surprised the seven year old viral singing sensation, Malea Emma Tjandrawidjaja on GMA Day, and they performed a duet of "And I Am Telling You I'm Not Going".


title: Jennifer Holliday

text: On July 30, 2020, Jennifer Holliday sang “Only What You Do for Christ Will Last” as well as "Take My Hand, Precious Lord" at the funeral of civil rights icon and congressman John Lewis at Ebenezer Baptist Church in Atlanta.


title: Jennifer Holliday

text: In 2022, Holliday competed in season seven of "The Masked Singer" as "Miss Teddy" of Team Cuddly. She was unmasked on April 13 alongside Duane Chapman as "Armadillo" of Team Good.


title: Jennifer Holliday

text: Holliday has been married twice. In March 1991, just two months after she met keyboardist Billy Meadows in a nightclub where she was singing, they married. "He had a great sense of humor and he made me laugh all the time," Holliday says of her first husband. "I had been feeling bad for so long, I wanted to laugh." But in December 1991, just nine months later, they divorced; the marriage, according to Holliday, "ran out of steam." She explained of Meadows: "We just didn't know each other well enough."


title: Jennifer Holliday

text: Her second marriage, which began on March 21, 1993, and ended in 1994, was to Rev. Andre Woods, a minister in Detroit. "Jet" magazine covered the marriage in their April 19, 1993 issue. Though Woods was a charismatic Detroit preacher, she subsequently said that even so, he was a player who also ran through her money. Still, Holliday was devastated when, in 1994, that marriage, too, ended, just four months after her mother died of cancer. "It was like experiencing two deaths at the same time," she remembered. "The grief was overwhelming."


title: Jennifer Holliday

text: Holliday attended Texas Southern University. She later received a Doctor of Music "honoris causa" from Berklee College of Music, Boston in 2000. In 2001 she was presenter for the tap dance show "21 Below" at the Town Hall in New York, and also appeared in the Broadway Cares/Equity Fights AIDS' "Nothing Like a Dame" show at the St. James Theatre in 2002.


title: Jennifer Holliday

text: The Grammy Awards are awarded annually by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences. Holliday has received two awards out of four nominations.


title: Burial

text: Burial, also known as interment or inhumation, is a method of final disposition whereby a dead body is placed into the ground, sometimes with objects. This is usually accomplished by excavating a pit or trench, placing the deceased and objects in it, and covering it over. A funeral is a ceremony that accompanies the final disposition. Humans have been burying their dead since shortly after the origin of the species. Burial is often seen as indicating respect for the dead. It has been used to prevent the odor of decay, to give family members closure and prevent them from witnessing the decomposition of their loved ones, and in many cultures it has been seen as a necessary step for the deceased to enter the afterlife or to give back to the cycle of life.


title: Burial

text: Methods of burial may be heavily ritualized and can include natural burial (sometimes called "green burial"); embalming or mummification; and the use of containers for the dead, such as shrouds, coffins, grave liners, and burial vaults, all of which can retard decomposition of the body. Sometimes objects or grave goods are buried with the body, which may be dressed in fancy or ceremonial garb. Depending on the culture, the way the body is positioned may have great significance.


title: Burial

text: The location of the burial may be determined by taking into account concerns surrounding health and sanitation, religious concerns, and cultural practices. Some cultures keep the dead close to provide guidance to the living, while others "banish" them by locating burial grounds at a distance from inhabited areas. Some religions consecrate special ground to bury the dead, and some families build private family cemeteries. Most modern cultures document the location of graves with headstones, which may be inscribed with information and tributes to the deceased. However, some people are buried in anonymous or secret graves for various reasons. Sometimes multiple bodies are buried in a single grave either by choice (as in the case of married couples), due to space concerns, or in the case of mass graves as a way to deal with many bodies at once.


title: Burial

text: Alternatives to burial include cremation (and subsequent interment), burial at sea and cryopreservation. Some human cultures may bury the remains of beloved animals. Humans are not the only species to bury their dead; the practice has been observed in chimpanzees, elephants, and possibly dogs.


title: Burial

text: Intentional burial, particularly with grave goods, may be one of the earliest detectable forms of religious practice since, as Philip Lieberman suggests, it may signify a "concern for the dead that transcends daily life." Evidence suggests that the Neanderthals were the first human species to practice burial behavior and intentionally bury their dead, doing so in shallow graves along with stone tools and animal bones. Exemplary sites include Shanidar in Iraq, Kebara Cave in Israel and Krapina in Croatia. Some scholars, however, argue that these bodies may have been disposed of for secular reasons.


title: Burial

text: Though there is ongoing debate regarding the reliability of the dating method, some scholars believe the earliest human burial dates back 100,000 years. Human skeletal remains stained with red ochre were discovered in the Skhul cave at Qafzeh, Israel. A variety of grave goods were present at the site, including the mandible of a wild boar in the arms of one of the skeletons.


title: Burial

text: In ancient Egypt, customs developed during the Predynastic period. Round graves with one pot were used in the Badarian Period (4400-3800 B.C.E.), continuing the tradition of Omari and Maadi cultures.


title: Burial

text: Prehistoric cemeteries are referred to by the more neutral term grave field. They are one of the chief sources of information on prehistoric cultures, and numerous archaeological cultures are defined by their burial customs, such as the Urnfield culture of the European Bronze Age.


title: Burial

text: During the Early Middle Ages, the reopening of graves and manipulation of the corpses or artifacts contained within them was a widespread phenomenon and a common part of the life course of early medieval cemeteries across Western and Central Europe. The reopening of furnished or recent burials occurred over the broad zone of European row-grave-style furnished inhumation burial, especially from the 5th to the 8th centuries CE, which comprised the regions of Romania, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Switzerland, Austria, Germany, the Low Countries, France, and South-eastern England.


title: Burial

text: After death, a body will decay. Burial is not necessarily a public health requirement. Contrary to conventional wisdom, the WHO advises that only corpses carrying an infectious disease strictly require burial.


title: Burial

text: Human burial practices are the manifestation of the human desire to demonstrate "respect for the dead". Cultures vary in their mode of respect.


title: Burial

text: In many cultures, human corpses were usually buried in soil. The roots of burial as a practice reach back into the Middle Palaeolithic and coincide with the appearance of "Homo neanderthalensis" and "Homo sapiens", in Europe and Africa respectively. As a result, burial grounds are found throughout the world. Through time, mounds of earth, temples, and caverns were used to store the dead bodies of ancestors. In modern times, the custom of burying dead people below ground, with a stone marker to indicate the burial place, is used in most cultures; although other means such as cremation are becoming more popular in the West (cremation is the norm in India and mandatory in big metropolitan areas of Japan).


title: Burial

text: It is a common misconception that graves must be dug to a depth of six feet (1.8 metres). This is reflected in the common euphemism for death of "six feet under". In fact, graves are rarely dug to this depth except when it is intended to later bury a further coffin or coffins on top of the first one. In such cases, more than six feet may be dug, to provide the required depth of soil above the top coffin.


title: Burial

text: In the United States, there is no nationwide regulation of burial depth. Each local authority is free to determine its own rules. Requirements for depth can vary according to soil type and by method of burial. California, for instance, requires only 19 inches of soil above the top of the coffin, but more commonly 30 to 36 inches are required in other places. In some areas, such as central Appalachia, graves were indeed once dug to a depth of six feet to prevent the body being disturbed by burrowing animals. However, this was unnecessary once metal caskets and concrete vaults started to be used.


title: Burial

text: In the United Kingdom, soil is required to be to a depth of three feet above the highest point of the coffin, unless the burial authority consider the soil to be suitable for a depth of only two feet.


title: Burial

text: The earliest known reference to a requirement for a six-foot burial occurred in 1665 during the Great Plague of London. John Lawrence, the Lord Mayor of London, ordered that the bodies of plague victims "...shall be at least six foot deep." The city officials apparently believed this would inhibit the spread of the disease, not realising that the true vector was fleas living on rats in the streets. In the event, there were so many victims that very few were buried in individual graves. Most were placed in massive plague pits so it is unlikely that this event alone gave rise to the "six feet" tradition.


title: Burial

text: Natural burial—also called "green burial"—is the process by which a body is returned to the earth to decompose naturally in soil, and in some cases even protect native and endangered wildlife. Natural burial became popularized in the United Kingdom in the early 1990s by Ken West, a professional cremator operator for the city of Carlisle, responding to the U.K's call for changes in government that aligned with the United Nations' Environmental Program Local Agenda 21. In addition, there are multiple green burial sites in the United States. Green burials are developing in Canada (Victoria, BC, and Cobourg, Ontario), as well as in Australia and Ireland.


title: Burial

text: The increase in popularity of alternative burials can be seen as a direct choice of the individual's want to distance themselves from religious practices and spiritual locations as well as an opportunity to exercise their act of choice. The desire to live through nature as well as concern for the environment have been the backbone of the green burial movement. The use of coffins made from alternative materials such as wicker and biodegradable materials as well as trees and other flora are being used in place of headstones. Both practices provide sustainable alternatives to traditional burial practices.


title: Burial

text: Natural burials have been attracting people for reasons outside of environmental and sustainability factors as well. With the expansion of urban centres, ecological corridors gradually disappear. Cemeteries for burial plots preclude alternative uses of the land for a long time. By combining these two aspects (need for connectivity and land take imposed by cemeteries), two positive results can be achieved: protecting memories of the past and connecting ecosystems with multiple-use corridors. Green burials appeal to people for economic reasons. Traditional burial practices can be a financial burden causing some to turn to green burials as a cheaper alternative. Some people view green burials as more meaningful, especially for those who have a connection to a piece of land, such as current residence or other places that hold meaning for them.


title: Burial

text: Conservation burial is a type of burial where burial fees fund the acquisition and management of new land to benefit native habitat, ecosystems and species. This usually involves a legal document such as a conservation easement. Such burials go beyond other forms of natural burial, which aim to prevent environmental damage caused by conventional burial techniques, by actually increasing benefits for the environment. The idea is for the burial process to be a net positive for the earth rather than just neutral. Scientists have argued that such burials could potentially generate enough funds to save every endangered species on the planet. The Green Burial Council certifies natural and conservation burial grounds in the United States and Canada.


title: Burial

text: The memorial reef is a natural, alternative approach to burial. The cremated remains of a person are mixed in with concrete and then placed into a mold to make the memorial reef or eternal reef. After the concrete sets, family members are allowed to customize the reef with writing, hand prints and chalk drawings. After this, the eco-friendly reefs are placed into the ocean among other coral reefs where they help to repair damage to the reefs while also providing new habitats for fish and other sea communities. It has become a new way to memorialize the passing person while also protecting the marine environment. The high cost of the memorial reefs has caused this alternative form of burial to remain minimal and uncommon. This kind of natural burial is practiced in permitted oceans in the United States specifically in locations around Florida, South Carolina, North Carolina, Maryland, New Jersey, Texas and Virginia.


title: Burial

text: Alkaline hydrolysis, also referred to as resomation, is another approach to natural burial. It uses high temperature water mixed with potassium hydroxide to dissolve human remains. During this process, the body is put into an enclosed, stainless steel chamber. The chamber fills with the chemical and water solution and is then lightly circulated. After a couple of hours, the body is worn down and bone is the only thing that remains. The bones are then pressed down into a powder and returned to the associated family. The outcome is comparable to cremation but results in an environmentally friendly process that does not release chemical emissions and greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, as was confirmed after a review by the Health Council of the Netherlands. After this process, the water used goes to a regular water treatment facility where it is filtered and cleaned and returned to the water cycle. At this time, resomation is permitted for commercial use in areas throughout the United States. However, several other countries, including the United Kingdom are considering using this technology within their medical schools and universities.


title: Burial

text: Mushroom burial has been developed by Jae Rhim Lee and her colleagues to address the impact traditional burial approaches have on the environment. It is an eco-friendly process which consists of dressing the cadaver in a bodysuit with mushroom spores woven into it, nicknamed the Infinity Burial Suit. Rhim developed her own mushrooms by feeding them her hair, skin, and nails to create a mushroom variety that will best decompose human remains. As the mushrooms grow, they consume the remains within the suit as well as the toxins that are being released by the body. Rhim and her colleagues created this suit as a symbol of a new way for people to think about the relationship between their body after death and the environment.


title: Burial

text: Another method of natural burial is being developed to plant the human body in fetal position inside an egg shaped pod. The pod containing the body will form a biodegradable capsule that will not harm the surrounding earth. The biodegradable capsule doubles as a seed which can be customized to grow into either a birch, maple, or eucalyptus tree. The goal of this method is to create parks full of trees that loved ones can walk through and mourn, as opposed to a graveyard full of tombstones. This method aims to return the body to the earth in the most environmentally friendly way possible.


title: Burial

text: The tree pod method originated in the United Kingdom but is now becoming a more popular method of burial. The definition of natural burial grounds suggests that people are being buried without any kind of formaldehyde-based embalming fluid or synthetic ingredients, and that the bodies that are being returned to the earth will also be returning nutrients to the environment, in a way that is less expensive than other available burial methods. Not only are tree pods a more cost effective and environmentally friendly way to memorialize loved ones, this method also offers emotional support. The memories of loved ones will be immortalized through the concept of a deceased person having a medium (trees) that will continue to live and grow.


title: Burial

text: Embalming is the practice of preserving a body against decay and is used in many cultures. Mummification is a more extensive method of embalming, further delaying the decay process.


title: Burial

text: Bodies are often buried wrapped in a shroud or placed in a coffin (or in some cases, a casket). A larger container may be used, such as a ship. In the United States, coffins are usually covered by a grave liner or a burial vault, which prevents the coffin from collapsing under the weight of the earth or floating away during a flood.


title: Burial

text: These containers slow the decomposition process by (partially) physically blocking decomposing bacteria and other organisms from accessing the corpse. An additional benefit of using containers to hold the body is that if the soil covering the corpse is washed away by a flood or some other natural process then the corpse will still not be exposed to open air.


title: Burial

text: The body may be dressed in fancy and/or ceremonial clothes. Personal objects of the deceased, such as a favorite piece of jewelry or photograph, may be included with the body. This practice, also known as the inclusion of grave goods, serves several purposes:


title: Burial

text: Burials may be placed in a number of different positions. Bodies with the arms crossed date back to ancient cultures such as Chaldea in the 10th century BC, where the "X" symbolized their sky god. Later ancient Egyptian gods and royalty, from approximately 3500 B.C. are shown with crossed arms, such as the god Osiris, the Lord of the Dead, or mummified royalty with crossed arms in high and low body positions, depending upon the dynasty. The burial of bodies in the extended position, i.e., lying flat with arms and legs straight, or with the arms folded upon the chest, and with the eyes and mouth closed. Extended burials may be supine (lying on the back) or prone (lying on the front). However, in some cultures, being buried face down shows marked disrespect like in the case of the Sioux. Other ritual practices place the body in a flexed position with the legs bent or crouched with the legs folded up to the chest. Warriors in some ancient societies were buried in an upright position. In Islam, the body is placed in supine position, hands along the sides and the head is turned to its right with the face towards the Qibla. Many cultures treat placement of dead people in an appropriate position to be a sign of respect even when burial is impossible.


title: Burial

text: In nonstandard burial practices, such as mass burial, the body may be positioned arbitrarily. This can be a sign of disrespect to the deceased, or at least nonchalance on the part of the inhumer, or due to considerations of time and space.


title: Burial

text: Most often, a burial will be oriented to a specific direction for religious purposes, as are the case for persons of the Abrahamic faiths. Standard Jewish burials are made supine east-west, with the head at the western end of the grave, in order to face Jerusalem. In other cases, the body may be buried on a north-south axis, or, simply facing towards the exit of the cemetery or burial grounds. This is done in order to facilitate the return to Israel foretold of all those who are resurrected at the end of time following the coming of the Messiah. Historically, Christian burials followed similar principles, where the body was placed east-west, to mirror the layout of Christian churches, which were themselves oriented as such for much the same reason; to view the coming of Christ on Judgment day (Eschaton). In many Christian traditions, ordained clergy are traditionally buried in the opposite orientation, and their coffins carried likewise, so that at the General Resurrection they may rise facing, and ready to minister to, their people.


title: Burial

text: In an Islamic funeral, the grave should be aligned perpendicular to the Qibla (the direction to the Kaaba in Mecca) with the face turned to the right along the Qibla.


title: Burial

text: For humans, maintaining an upside down position, with the head vertically below the feet, is highly uncomfortable for any extended period of time, and consequently burial in that attitude (as opposed to attitudes of rest or watchfulness, as above) is highly unusual and generally symbolic. Occasionally suicides and assassins were buried upside down, as a post-mortem punishment and (as with burial at cross-roads) to inhibit the activities of the resulting undead.


title: Burial

text: Swift's notion of inverted burial might seem the highest flight of fancy, but it appears that among English millenarians the idea that the world would be "turned upside down" at the Apocalypse enjoyed some currency. There is at least one attested case of a person being buried upside down by instruction; a Major Peter Labilliere of Dorking (d. 4 June 1800) lies thus upon the summit of Box Hill. Similar stories have attached themselves to other noted eccentrics, particularly in southern England, but not always with a foundation in truth.


title: Burial

text: South Korea's funeral arrangements have drastically changed in the course of only two decades according to Chang-Won Park. Park states that around the 1980s at home funeral ceremonies were the general norm, straying away from anywhere that was not a family home. Dying close to home, with friends and family, was considered a 'good death', while dying away from home was considered a 'bad death'. This gradually changed as the upper and middle class started holding funerals in the mortuaries of hospitals. This posed an issue for hospitals because of the rapid increase in funerals being held and maxing occupancy. This resolved when a law was passed to allow the civilian population to hold funerals in the mortuaries of hospitals. The lower class then followed suit, copying the newly set traditions of the upper classes. With this change, the practice of cremation became viewed more as an alternative to traditional burials. Cremation was first introduced by Buddhism, but was banned in 1470. It wasn't until the Japanese colonization period that cremation was re-introduced in 1945 and later lifted the ban. It took until 1998 for cremation to rapidly grow in popularity.


title: Burial

text: A Ted Talk done by Kelli Swazey discusses how Tana Toraja, a Sulawesi province in Eastern Indonesia, experiences death as a process, rather than an event. The culture of Tana Toraja views funerals as the most important event in a person's life. Because of this importance placed on death, Tana Toraja landscape is covered in the rituals and events transpired after death. The hierarchy of an individual's life is based on the sacrifices of animals made after their death. Funerals tend to be celebrated by Tana Toraja people, typically lasting days to even weeks long. Death is seen as a transformation, rather than a private loss. A Torajan is not considered 'dead' until their family members are able to collect the resources necessary to hold a funeral that expresses the status of the deceased. Until these funerals are upheld the deceased are held in Tongkonan, built to house corpses that are not considered 'dead'. The deceased can be held in Tongkonan for years, waiting for their families to collect the necessary resources to hold a funeral. The Tongkonan represents both the identity of the family and the process of birth and death. The process of birth and death is shown by having the houses that individuals are born in be the same structure as the Tongkonan, houses that individuals die in. Up until the funeral the deceased being housed in the Tongkonan are symbolically treated as members of the family, still being cared for by family members.


title: Burial

text: Northern Territory Australian Aboriginals have unique traditions associated with a loved one's death. The death of a loved one sparks a series of events such as smoking out the spirit, a feast, and leaving out the body to decompose. Immediately after death, a smoking ceremony is held in the deceased's home. The smoking ceremonies purpose is to expel the spirit of the deceased from their living quarters. A feast is held where mourners are covered in ochre, an earthy pigment associated with clay, while they eat and dance. The traditional corpse disposal of the Aboriginals includes covering the corpse in leaves on a platform. The corpse is then left to decompose.


title: Burial

text: In the African-American slave community, slaves quickly familiarized themselves with funeral procedures and the location of gravesites of family and friends. Specific slaves were assigned to prepare dead bodies, build coffins, dig graves, and construct headstones. Slave funerals were typically at night when the workday was over, with the master present to view all the ceremonial procedures. Slaves from nearby plantations were regularly in attendance.


title: Burial

text: At death, a slave's body was wrapped in cloth. The hands were placed across the chest, and a metal plate was placed on top of their hands. The reasoning for the plate was to hinder their return home by suppressing any spirits in the coffin. Often, personal property was buried with slaves to appease spirits. The coffins were nailed shut once the body was inside, and carried by hand or wagon, depending on the property designated for slave burial site.


title: Burial

text: Slaves were buried oriented East to West, with feet at the Eastern end (head at the Western end, thus raising facing East). According to Christian doctrine, this orientation permitted rising to face the return of Christ without having to turn around upon the call of Gabriel's trumpet. Gabriel's trumpet would be blown near the Eastern sunrise.


title: Burial

text: In the Baháʼí Faith, burial law prescribes both the location of burial and burial practices and precludes cremation of the dead. It is forbidden to carry the body for more than one hour's journey from the place of death. Before interment the body should be wrapped in a shroud of silk or cotton, and a ring should be placed on its finger bearing the inscription ""I came forth from God, and return unto Him, detached from all save Him, holding fast to His Name, the Merciful, the Compassionate"". The coffin should be of crystal, stone or hard fine wood. Also, before interment, a specific Prayer for the Dead is ordained. The body should be placed with the feet facing the Qiblih. The formal prayer and the ring are meant to be used for those who have reached fifteen years of age.


title: Burial

text: Apart from sanitary and other practical considerations, the site of burial can be determined by religious and socio-cultural considerations.


title: Burial

text: Thus in some traditions, especially with an animistic logic, the remains of the dead are "banished" for fear their spirits would harm the living if too close; others keep remains close to help surviving generations.


title: Burial

text: Religious rules may prescribe a specific zone, e.g. some Christian traditions hold that Christians must be buried in consecrated ground, usually a cemetery; an earlier practice, burial in or very near the church (hence the word churchyard), was generally abandoned with individual exceptions as a high posthumous honour; also many existing funeral monuments and crypts remain in use.


title: Burial

text: Royalty and high nobility often have one or more "traditional" sites of burial, generally monumental, often in a palatial chapel or cathedral.


title: Burial

text: In North America, private family cemeteries were common among wealthy landowners during the 18th and 19th centuries. Many prominent people were buried in private cemeteries on their respective properties, sometimes in lead-lined coffins. Many of these family cemeteries were not documented and were therefore lost to time and abandon; their grave markers having long since been pilfered by vandals or covered by forest growth. Their locations are occasionally discovered during construction projects.


title: Burial

text: Most modern cultures mark the location of the body with a headstone. This serves two purposes. First, the grave will not accidentally be exhumed. Second, headstones often contain information or tributes to deceased. This is a form of remembrance for loved ones; it can also be viewed as a form of immortality, especially in cases of famous people's graves. Such monumental inscriptions may subsequently be useful to genealogists and family historians.


title: Burial

text: In many cultures graves will be grouped, so the monuments make up a necropolis, a "city of the dead" paralleling the community of the living.


title: Burial

text: In many cultures graves are marked with durable markers, or monuments, intended to help remind people of the buried person. An unmarked grave is a grave with no such memorial marker.


title: Burial

text: Another sort of unmarked grave is a burial site with an anonymous marker, such as a simple cross; boots, rifle and helmet; a sword and shield; a cairn of stones; or even a monument. This may occur when identification of the deceased is impossible. Although many unidentified deceased are buried in potter's fields, some are memorialized, especially in smaller communities or in the case of deaths publicized by local media. Anonymous burials also happen in poorer or disadvantaged populations' communities in countries such as South Africa, where in the past the Non-white population was simply too poor to afford headstones. At the cemetery in a small rural town of Harding, KwaZulu-Natal, many grave sites have no identification, and just have a border of stones which mark out the dimensions of the grave site itself.


title: Burial

text: Many countries have buried an unidentified soldier (or other member of the military) in a prominent location as a form of respect for all unidentified war dead. The United Kingdom's Tomb of the Unknown Warrior is in Westminster Abbey, France's is buried underneath the Arc de Triomphe, Italy's is buried in the Monumento al Milite Ignoto in Rome, Canada's is buried at the National War Memorial in Ottawa, Australia's Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is located at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra, New Zealand's Tomb of the Unknown Warrior is in Wellington, the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Russia is in Alexander Garden in Moscow and the United States' Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is located at Arlington National Cemetery.


title: Burial

text: Many cultures practice anonymous burial as a norm, not an exception. For instance, in 2002 a survey for the Federal Guild of German Stonemasons found that, depending on the location within Germany, from 0% to 43% of burials were anonymous. According to "Christian Century" magazine, the perspective of the Roman Catholic Church is that anonymous burials reflect a dwindling belief in God. Others claim that this trend is mainly driven by secularism and the high costs of traditional burials.


title: Burial

text: In rare cases, a known person may be buried without identification, perhaps to avoid desecration of the corpse, grave robbing, or vandalism of the burial site. This may be particularly the case with infamous or notorious figures. In other cases, it may be to prevent the grave from becoming a tourist attraction or a destination of pilgrimage. Survivors may cause the deceased to be buried in a secret location or other unpublished place, or in a grave with a false name (or no name at all) on the marker.