title: National Reconnaissance Office

text: The NRO works closely with its intelligence and space partners, which include the National Security Agency (NSA), the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA), the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA), the United States Strategic Command, the United States Space Command, Naval Research Laboratory, and other agencies and organizations.


title: National Reconnaissance Office

text: The NRO was established on August 25, 1960, after management problems and insufficient progress with the USAF satellite reconnaissance program (see SAMOS and MIDAS). The formation was based on a 25 August 1960 recommendation to President Dwight D. Eisenhower during a special National Security Council meeting, and the agency was to coordinate the USAF and CIA's (and later the navy and NSA's) reconnaissance activities.


title: National Reconnaissance Office

text: The NRO's first photo reconnaissance satellite program was the Corona program, the existence of which was declassified February 24, 1995, and which existed from August 1960 to May 1972 (although the first test flight occurred on February 28, 1959). The Corona system used (sometimes multiple) film capsules dropped by satellites, which were recovered mid-air by military craft. The first successful recovery from space (Discoverer XIII) occurred on August 12, 1960, and the first image from space was seen six days later. The first imaging resolution was 8 meters, which was improved to 2 meters. Individual images covered, on average, an area of about . The last Corona mission (the 145th), was launched May 25, 1972, and this mission's last images were taken May 31, 1972. From May 1962 to August 1964, the NRO conducted 12 mapping missions as part of the "Argon" system. Only seven were successful.


title: National Reconnaissance Office

text: In 1963, the NRO conducted a mapping mission using higher resolution imagery, as part of the "Lanyard" program. The Lanyard program flew one successful mission.


title: National Reconnaissance Office

text: NRO missions since 1972 are classified, and portions of many earlier programs remain unavailable to the public.


title: National Reconnaissance Office

text: On August 18, 2000, the National Reconnaissance Office recognized its ten original Founders. They were: William O. Baker, Merton E. Davies, Sidney Drell, Richard L. Garwin, Amrom Harry Katz, James R. Killian, Edwin H. Land, Frank W. Lehan, William J. Perry, Edward M. Purcell. Although their early work was highly classified, this group of men went on to extraordinary public accomplishments, including a Secretary of Defense, a Nobel Laureate, a president of MIT, a recipient of the Presidential Medal of Science, a renowned planetary scientist, and more.


title: National Reconnaissance Office

text: The NRO was first mentioned by the press in a 1971 New York Times article. The first official acknowledgement of NRO was a Senate committee report in October 1973, which inadvertently exposed the existence of the NRO. In 1985, a "New York Times" article revealed details on the operations of the NRO.


title: National Reconnaissance Office

text: The existence of the NRO was declassified on September 18, 1992, by the Deputy Secretary of Defense, as recommended by the Director of Central Intelligence.


title: National Reconnaissance Office

text: A "Washington Post" article in September 1995 reported that the NRO had quietly hoarded between $1 billion and $1.7 billion in unspent funds without informing the Central Intelligence Agency, the Pentagon, or Congress.


title: National Reconnaissance Office

text: The CIA was in the midst of an inquiry into the NRO's funding because of complaints that the agency had spent $300 million of hoarded funds from its classified budget to build a new headquarters building in Chantilly, Virginia, a year earlier.


title: National Reconnaissance Office

text: In total, NRO had accumulated US$3.8 billion (inflation adjusted US$ billion in ) in forward funding. As a consequence, NRO's three distinct accounting systems were merged.


title: National Reconnaissance Office

text: The presence of the classified new headquarters was revealed by the Federation of American Scientists who obtained unclassified copies of the blueprints filed with the building permit application. After 9/11 those blueprints were apparently classified. The reports of an NRO slush fund were true. According to former CIA general counsel Jeffrey Smith, who led the investigation: "Our inquiry revealed that the NRO had for years accumulated very substantial amounts as a 'rainy day fund.'"


title: National Reconnaissance Office

text: In 1999 the NRO embarked on a $25 billion project with Boeing entitled Future Imagery Architecture to create a new generation of imaging satellites. In 2002 the project was far behind schedule and would most likely cost $2 billion to $3 billion more than planned, according to NRO records. The government pressed forward with efforts to complete the project, but after two more years, several more review panels and billions more in expenditures, the project was killed in what the Times report calls "perhaps the most spectacular and expensive failure in the 50-year history of American spy satellite projects."


title: National Reconnaissance Office

text: On August 23, 2001, Brian Patrick Regan, a civilian employee of TRW at NRO, was arrested at Dulles International Airport outside Washington while boarding a flight for Zurich. He was carrying coded information about Iraqi and Chinese missile sites. He also had the addresses of the Chinese and Iraqi Embassies in Switzerland and Austria. He was sentenced to life in prison without parole for offering to sell intelligence secrets to Iraq and China.


title: National Reconnaissance Office

text: In January 2008, the government announced that a reconnaissance satellite operated by the NRO would make an unplanned and uncontrolled re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere in the next several months. Satellite watching hobbyists said that it was likely the USA-193, built by Lockheed Martin Corporation, which failed shortly after achieving orbit in December 2006. On February 14, 2008, the Pentagon announced that rather than allowing the satellite to make an uncontrolled re-entry while still in one piece, it would instead be shot down by a missile fired from a Navy cruiser. The intercept took place on February 21, 2008, resulting in the satellite breaking up into multiple pieces.


title: National Reconnaissance Office

text: In July 2008, the NRO declassified the existence of its Synthetic Aperture Radar satellites, citing difficulty in discussing the creation of the Space-Based Radar with the United States Air Force and other entities. In August 2009, FOIA archives were queried for a copy of the NRO video, "Satellite Reconnaissance: Secret Eyes in Space." The seven-minute video chronicles the early days of the NRO and many of its early programs. It was proposed that the NRO share the imagery of the United States itself with the National Applications Office for domestic law enforcement purposes. The NAO was disestablished in 2009. The NRO is a non-voting associate member of the Civil Applications Committee (CAC). The CAC is an inter-agency committee that coordinates and oversees the Federal- Civil use of classified collections. The CAC was officially chartered in 1975 by the Office of the President to provide Federal- Civil agencies access to National Systems data in support of mission responsibilities. According to "Asia Times Online", one important mission of NRO satellites is the tracking of non-US submarines on patrol or on training missions in the world's oceans and seas. At the National Space Symposium in April 2010, NRO director General Bruce Carlson, United States Air Force (Retired) announced that until the end of 2011, NRO is embarking on "the most aggressive launch schedule that this organization has undertaken in the last twenty-five years. There are a number of very large and very critical reconnaissance satellites that will go into orbit in the next year to a year and a half."


title: National Reconnaissance Office

text: In 2012, a McClatchy investigation found that the NRO was possibly breaching ethical and legal boundaries by encouraging its polygraph examiners to extract personal and private information from DoD personnel during polygraph tests that were limited to counterintelligence issues. Allegations of abusive polygraph practices were brought forward by former NRO polygraph examiners. In 2014, an inspector general's report concluded that NRO failed to report felony admissions of child sexual abuse to law enforcement authorities. NRO obtained these criminal admissions during polygraph testing but never forwarded the information to police. NRO's failure to act in the public interest by reporting child sexual predators was first made public in 2012 by former NRO polygraph examiners. On August 30, 2019, Donald Trump tweeted an image of “the catastrophic accident during final launch preparations for the Safir SLV Launch at Semnan Launch Site One in Iran”. The image almost certainly came from a satellite known as USA 224, according to Marco Langbroek, a satellite tracker based in the Netherlands. The satellite was launched by the National Reconnaissance Office in 2011. On January 31, 2020, Rocket Lab successfully launched a NROL-151 payload for the NRO.


title: National Reconnaissance Office

text: On December 19, 2020, NROL-108 was successfully launched aboard SpaceX's Falcon 9 rocket. On July 15, 2020, NROL-149 was successfully launched aboard the first launch of Northrop Grumman's new Minotaur IV rocket. On April 27, 2021, NROL-82 was successfully launched aboard United Launch Alliance’s Delta IV rocket. On June 15, 2021, NROL-111, a set of three classified satellites, was successfully launched aboard a Northrop Grumman Minotaur I rocket. On July 13, 2022, NROL-162 was launched aboard a Rocket Lab Electron rocket from Mahia, New Zealand. On September 24, 2022, NROL-91 (USA 338) was launched from Vandenberg Space Force Base's Space Launch Complex 6 (SLC-6) aboard a United Launch Alliance Delta IV Heavy.


title: National Reconnaissance Office

text: The NRO is part of the Department of Defense. The Director of the NRO is appointed by the President of the United States, by and with the consent of the Senate in accordance with Title 50 of U.S. code. Traditionally, the position was given to either the Under Secretary of the Air Force or the Assistant Secretary of the Air Force for Space, but with the appointment of Donald Kerr as Director of the NRO in July 2005 the position is now independent. The Agency is organized as follows:


title: National Reconnaissance Office

text: In 2007, the NRO described itself as "a hybrid organization consisting of some 3,000 personnel and jointly staffed by members of the armed services, the Central Intelligence Agency and DOD civilian personnel." Between 2010 and 2012, the workforce is expected to increase by 100. The majority of workers for the NRO are private corporate contractors, with $7 billion of the agency's $8 billion budget going to private corporations.


title: National Reconnaissance Office

text: The NRO derives its funding both from the US intelligence budget and the military budget. In 1971, the annual budget was estimated to be around $1 billion in nominal dollars ($ billion real in ). A 1975 report by Congress's Commission on the Organization of the Government for the Conduct of Foreign Policy states that the NRO had "the largest budget of any intelligence agency". By 1994, the annual budget had risen to $6 billion (inflation adjusted $ billion in ), and for 2010 it is estimated to amount to $15 billion (inflation adjusted $ billion in ). This would correspond to 19% of the overall US intelligence budget of $80 billion for FY2010. For Fiscal Year 2012 the budget request for science and technology included an increase to almost 6% (about $600 million) of the NRO budget after it had dropped to just about 3% of the overall budget in the years before.


title: National Reconnaissance Office

text: Under the Freedom of Information Act, the NRO declassified a list of secret directives for internal use. The following is a list of the released directives, which are available for download:


title: National Reconnaissance Office

text: At a mid-2019 press event just prior to the establishment of USSPACECOM, then-Air Force General John W. Raymond (set to lead the new command) stated that the NRO will “respond to the direction of the United States Space Command commander” to “protecting and defending those (space) capabilities”. General Raymond further stated that “we [NRO and USSPACECOM] have a shared concept of operations, we have a shared vision and a shared concept of operations. We train together, we exercise together, we man the same C2 center, if you will, at the National Space Defense Center."


title: National Reconnaissance Office

text: In December 2019, the United States Space Force (USSF) was established, also helmed by John Raymond, now a Space Force General and Chief of Space Operations (CSO). NRO continued its close relationship with American military space operations, partnering with the Space Force's Space and Missile Systems Center (SMC) to manage the National Security Space Launch (NSSL) program, which uses government and contract spacecraft to launch important government payloads. NSSL supports both the USSF and NRO, as well as the Navy. NRO Director Scolese has characterized his agency as critical to American space dominance, stating that NRO provides “unrivaled situational awareness and intelligence to the best imagery and signals data on the planet.”


title: National Reconnaissance Office

text: In August 2021, “Scolese said he, Raymond, and Dickinson recently agreed to a Protect and Defend Strategic Framework covering national security in space and the relationship between DOD and the intelligence community on everything from acquisition to operations”.


title: National Reconnaissance Office

text: NRO's technology is likely more advanced than its civilian equivalents. In the 1980s, the NRO had satellites and software that were capable of determining the exact dimensions of a tank gun. In 2012 the agency donated two space telescopes to NASA. Despite being stored unused, the instruments are superior to the Hubble Space Telescope. One journalist observed, "If telescopes of this caliber are languishing on shelves, imagine what they're actually "using"."


title: National Reconnaissance Office

text: The NRO Management Information System (NMIS) is a computer network used to distribute NRO data classified as Top Secret. It is also known as the Government Wide Area Network (GWAN).


title: National Reconnaissance Office

text: The Verge published an article in July 2019 describing Sentient as a product of the NRO, which is “an omnivorous analysis tool, capable of devouring data of all sorts, making sense of the past and present, anticipating the future, and pointing satellites toward what it determines will be the most interesting parts of that future”.


title: National Reconnaissance Office

text: In October 2008, NRO declassified five mission ground stations: three in the United States, near Washington, D.C.; Aurora, Colorado; and Las Cruces, New Mexico, and a presence at RAF Menwith Hill, UK, and at the Joint Defence Facility Pine Gap, Australia.


title: Sweet Home (webtoon)

text: Sweet Home () is a South Korean webtoon written by Kim Carnby and illustrated by Hwang Young-chan. First published in Naver Webtoon, the webtoon ran for a total of 140 chapters plus 1 prologue from October 12, 2017, to July 2, 2020. It centers on a suicidal high school boy who, along with a group of fellow apartment residents, tries to survive a "monsterization" apocalypse ("goemulhwa") where people turn into monsters that reflect their innermost, most desperate desires.


title: Sweet Home (webtoon)

text: The webtoon is the second collaborative work by Kim and Hwang, the first being "Bastard" (2014–16). As of January 2021, its official English version garnered 2.4 million subscribers and 15.2 million likes. A print version of "Sweet Home" was released since February 28, 2020 by Wisdom House. It has also been adapted into a Netflix series of the same name released on December 18, 2020. A prequel titled "Shotgun Boy", written by Kim and illustrated by Hongpil with Hwang providing editorial supervision, was released in Naver Webtoon starting February 22, 2021.


title: Sweet Home (webtoon)

text: After his family died in a vehicular accident, suicidal 18-year-old boy Cha Hyun-soo moves into Room 1410 of an apartment complex called Green Home. He and the people around him start being afflicted with strange symptoms, including malevolent talking voices and nosebleeds. One night, through his video door-phone, he witnesses his girl neighbor from Room 1411 transform into a human-eating monster.


title: Sweet Home (webtoon)

text: Two days later, Hyun-soo realizes that the world around him has fallen into chaos as people turn into monsters in what the Internet calls a "monsterization" apocalypse ("goemulhwa"). Downstairs, his fellow residents, led by Lee Eun-hyuk, fend off the first monster from outside to attack the apartment but not before it claims its first victim. Multiple residents are killed in the struggle against the monsters. To survive potential monster attacks, Hyun-soo arms himself with a makeshift spear with a knife as a spearhead and, upon the advise of Room 1408's Han Du-shik, uses his phone as a monster tracker: if he makes a phone call and hears a beeping noise, it is a sign of a nearby monster. He sneaks himself to Room 1408 where Du-shik modifies his spear so that an electric charge passes through the knife and Hyun-soo can both stab and shock a monster.


title: Sweet Home (webtoon)

text: Hyun-soo extracts two bereaved children, 9-year-old Kim Soo-young and 6-year-old Kim Young-soo, in Room 1210. His return to Room 1408 is impeded by his inner monster's attempt to fully monsterize him and another monster attack, which separates him from the kids. Room 1510's Yoon Ji-soo and Room 1506's Jung Jae-heon rescue him. Soo-young and Young-soo become trapped in the midst of a fight between two monsters, but another half-monsterized woman Im Myung-sook defends the children. Hyun-soo, Ji-soo and Jae-heon come to her aid.


title: Sweet Home (webtoon)

text: After staying for a day at Room 1408, Hyun-soo, Ji-soo and Jae-heon decide to join the survivors in the ground floor; the trio entrusts Myung-sook, Soo-young and Young-soo to Du-shik. Hyun-soo gets knocked out in a battle against a monster. While unconscious, his inner monster gives him a taste of a parallel world where Hyun-soo's desire—watching his best-loved film "Maria From the Sky"—is fully met. Sensing that he is just inside a hallucination, Hyun-soo rejects his inner monster's temptations and finally wakes up. By his side are Eun-hyuk and his younger sister Lee Eun-yoo: he had survived the battle and reached the ground floor.


title: Sweet Home (webtoon)

text: A meeting is convened in order to discuss whether or not the Green Home residents must expel Hyun-soo for being half-monsterization. Eun-hyuk suggests resolving the issue through voting, telling the group that indiscriminately expelling Hyun-soo would be tantamount to murdering him. The voting results in a tie; when an imperious elderly man Kim Seok-hyun expresses objection, his nose bleeds, unintentionally exposing his impending monsterization to his fellow residents. Later, Eun-hyuk asks Hyun-soo and a gangster-like man Pyeon Sang-wook to extract the survivors in Room 1408 so that they can take advantage of Du-shik's technical skills. While Hyun-soo and Sang-wook leave the ground floor for the mission, Myung-sook finally succumbs to her inner monster, but her strong desire to be reunited with her lost baby turns Myung-sook into a harmless, giant fetus monster inside the Room 1408 bathroom


title: Sweet Home (webtoon)

text: Along the way to Room 1408, Hyun-soo and Sang-wook meet other survivors, an elderly man Ahn Gil-seop and his caretaker Park Yoo-ri, after battling against multiple monsters. Hyun-soo and Sang-wook return to the ground floor with Du-shik while Gil-seop, Yoo-ri and the children remain in Room 1408. Du-shik fixes one of the apartment's elevators but it inadvertently leads to the fully monsterized security guard to enter the ground floor and killing a few survivors, including Jae-heon. The shock of seeing Jae-heon's dead body makes Hyun-soo's inner monster to temporarily manifest. Upon regaining control, Hyun-soo kills the monsterized security guard. The remaining survivors in Room 1408 use the elevator and reunite with Hyun-soo and the survivors in the ground floor.


title: Sweet Home (webtoon)

text: A team consisting of Hyun-soo, Sang-wook, Ji-soo, Gil-seop and Yoo-ri successfully reclaims the underground parking lot from the monsters. Du-shik revamps a car into an armored vehicle. Hyun-soo, Sang-wook, Gil-seop and another survivor Byung-il use this car to venture outside Green Home in an attempt to gather food and medical supplies. A monster attack jeopardizes the party's mission; Gil-seop is killed while Byung-il escapes from the scene. Eun-hyuk and the other survivors prepare to step out of Green Home to help Hyun-soo and Sang-wook. Just in time, a prison bus suddenly arrives and drives into the monster, killing it. Byung-il emerges from the bus accompanied by a group of outsiders, the first four recognized by Sang-wook to be criminals—group leader Shin Joong-seop, con-man Im Hyun-shik, rapist Seo Kap-soo, gangster Baek Ho-yeon, and a young man Jo Yi-hyun.


title: Sweet Home (webtoon)

text: The Green Home survivors are forced to take in the outsiders; tensions rise as the outsiders implement their secret plan to take over the apartment. As Hyun-shik attempts at spreading fear and discord among the Green Home survivors, Joong-seop tries to invite Hyun-soo to join their group and reveals Yi-hyun to be a strong half-monster. The criminals soon assume superiority, leading to some Green Home survivors to join their side, including Hyun-soo. After not sharing any plans to the criminals, Eun-hyuk is locked up with Sang-wook. Eun-hyuk reveals to Sang-wook that he actually has a plan that only he and Du-shik knows; his nose starts to bleed and he faints. Du-shik is forced to reveal to Joong-seop a large box containing what appears to be a rope made of a chain of clothes; when Joong-seop dismisses it, Du-shik is relieved: the rope is actually over 100 meters long and has a grappling hook attached in the end.


title: Sweet Home (webtoon)

text: On Joong-seop's orders, Hyun-soo and Yi-hyun search the upper levels of Green Home for other monsters. By letting his inner monster communicate with Hyun-soo's, Yi-hyun discovers the harmless giant fetus monster in the Room 1408 bathroom and, controlled by his inner monster, intends to kill it. Hyun-soo battles against Yi-hyun to defend the fetus monster and manages to knock Yi-hyun back to his normal self. Hyun-soo and Yi-hyun goes to Room 1408 to check on the monster and, to Hyun-soo's shock, discovers in its place a human-sized cocoon-like structure. Hyun-soo deduces that the thing is alive when he hears its heartbeat. Fearing it could be a threat, Yi-hyun tries to destroy the cocoon but his half-monsterization abilities strangely fights back and knocks him out.


title: Sweet Home (webtoon)

text: Ji-soo goes to Room 1408 and finds Hyun-soo who is hesitant to destroy the monster-turned-cocoon. Though she also perceives it as a possible threat, Ji-soo is just as hesitant to destroy the cocoon, and reveals to Hyun-soo about Eun-hyuk and Sang-wook being locked up. Yi-hyun wakes up in his inner monster's personality and tosses a lighter to the cocoon, setting it on fire. All monsters in the vicinity sense the destruction of the cocoon and angrily swarm to the apartment. Yi-hyun rushes to the rooftop where he apparently sees a naked woman standing on the parapet. Sang-wook escapes from imprisonment, carrying Eun-hyuk with him. Eun-hyuk wakes up and suggests going to the outsiders' prison bus, where they find coolers containing chopped up human cadaver. Sang-wook tries to lure the monsters away from the apartment using the human cadaver as bait and ends up in a grove where four cocoons stand. While in hiding, he witnesses to his shock a naked human being emerge from one of the cocoons.


title: Sweet Home (webtoon)

text: As the enraged monsters start to breach the front door barricade, Eun-hyuk confirms to Du-shik that they have to proceed with their plan: the survivors shall escape from the apartment by launching the grappling hook from the rooftop and using the rope to zipline to a hill 80 meters behind the apartment. The survivors flee to upper floors as Eun-yoo uses Ji-soo's smartphone as a distraction for the monsters. Sang-wook uses the prison bus to block the front door and flings Joong-seop to the monsters. The monsterizing Du-shik decides to stay behind in the underground parking lot and starts a fire that burns multiple monsters. As Eun-hyuk and the other survivors climb to the rooftop with the escape equipment, Hyun-soo goes to the parking lot, only to find Du-shik dying. A naked man, one of the emergent humans, appears to Hyun-soo, declares "[their] time has finally come," and puts his hands on Hyun-soo's shoulders, instantly triggering another hallucination with Hyun-soo's inner monster.


title: Sweet Home (webtoon)

text: The inner monster reveals the nature of the monsterization phenomena, which he calls a "revolution" and a "new beginning." An inner monster—revealed to be a malevolent form of the host's soul—takes advantage of its host's. When the host succumbs to the inner monster's calling, the inner monster transforms the host into a monster reflecting that desire, while the host's subconscious is held in a parallel world where those desires are fully met ("a paradise of desires"). After the host exhausts his or her desires, they transform into a new human being (i.e. the emergent humans) void of desires and emotions and thriving on a "sense of futility." Hyun-soo firmly rejects the inner monster's temptation, deciding to stay as himself and continue the fight against the monsters.


title: Sweet Home (webtoon)

text: Sang-wook and Hyun-sik joins Hyun-soo in the underground parking lot and kills the fully monsterized Du-shik. As Eun-hyuk's party reaches the rooftop, Ji-soo leaves the group and goes back to her room where she uses her bass guitar and amplifier to lure the monsters away from the rooftop, leaving a manageable number that the survivors can fight against. Hearing the bass guitar, Hyun-soo lets his inner monster control him and rescues Ji-soo in his near-monsterized form. After Eun-hyuk and Byung-il successfully install the escape equipment, Eun-hyuk decides to stay in the building due to his ongoing monsterization.


title: Sweet Home (webtoon)

text: The women and children zipline to the hill first using all available pulleys. Eun-hyuk, Sang-wook and Yi-hyun join Hyun-soo and Ji-soo's battle against the monsters in the building. They all go to the roof afterwards but their escape from the building is thwarted by the overwhelmingly powerful, fully monsterized Joong-seop. Left with no other choice, Hyun-soo makes the ultimate sacrifice by fully succumbing to his monsterization, which turns him into a powerful monster in the form of his favorite character from "Maria From the Sky". The monsterized Hyun-soo defeats the monsterized Joong-seop with one blow. Ji-soo tries to communicate with it, but the true Hyun-soo inside the "paradise of desires" responds only faintly to her voice and the physical monster reacts to her with utmost hostility. Eun-hyuk decides also to let himself be fully monsterized in order to subdue the monsterized Hyun-soo. As the remaining survivors zipline to their haven, Eun-hyuk's monsterization turns him into a large tangled mass that completely covers the monsterized Hyun-soo, killing them both.


title: Sweet Home (webtoon)

text: Soon after, rain falls over the dead remains of the monsterized Hyun-soo and Eun-hyuk. Most of the tangled mass disintegrates and two cocoons materialize; one of them hatches and a new Hyun-soo emerges from the cocoon. He descends the building and, upon reaching the ground floor, he notices Ji-soo's smartphone which Eun-yoo had used earlier to distract the monsters. It is already unlocked and displays a music player app. Hyun-soo picks it up and plays an audio file: it is the musical piece that Ji-soo composed and was supposed to have lyrics written by the old Hyun-soo. Strangely, the new Hyun-soo listens to the music and sheds tears.


title: Sweet Home (webtoon)

text: Winter, in the post-apocalyptic world—the Green Home survivors live in a military camp. Byung-il, who guards the perimeter, suddenly sees something. Ji-soo is fetched from one of the tents. She rushes to the perimeter and sees the new Hyun-soo clad in thin clothing and walking towards the camp, barefooted on the snow. Upon seeing Ji-soo, the new Hyun-soo smiles teary-eyed. Ji-soo steps out of the camp in tears and hugs Hyun-soo tightly as the other Green House survivors rush out to meet him.


title: Sweet Home (webtoon)

text: The artistic style of "Sweet Home" is characterized by maintaining a "claustrophobic and grotesque atmosphere." There is additional emphasis on the characters' appearance: the human characters' facial expressions, and the monsters' physical forms which take on a "familiar yet horrific twist". The webtoon also exhibits multiple changes in font style which help set the atmosphere of various scenes, through "color changes, opacity changes, capitalization, size changes, and font changes."


title: Sweet Home (webtoon)

text: Just like many modern, third-generation webtoons, "Sweet Home" uses built-in background music, particularly in its 140th chapter (epilogue) which contains a track titled "MZ - Sweet Home (incomplete ver.)."


title: Sweet Home (webtoon)

text: Among thriller-horror stories that deal with gruesome characters such as zombies and monsters, "Sweet Home" is notable for treating a relatively similar set of characters in a different light. This is evident by its introduction of the idea of human beings turning into monsters not through external factors (e.g. virus, curse) but through the expression of their desires.


title: Sweet Home (webtoon)

text: The webtoon is also said to go beyond simple horror storytelling and focuses on character development, especially on its protagonist Cha Hyun-soo. In the webtoon, Hyun-soo is portrayed as a reclusive boy who, at first, lives only for himself and is ready to die. But as soon as the monsterization apocalypse begins, he makes a big change by wanting to step out of his room, connecting with other people and staying alive.


title: Sweet Home (webtoon)

text: "Sweet Home" marks the second collaborative work between webtoon writer Kim Carnby and webtoon artist Hwang Young-chan. The first work by Kim and Hwang is "Bastard" (2014–16), a thriller story about son who lives with his father, a serial killer.


title: Sweet Home (webtoon)

text: First published in Naver Webtoon, "Sweet Home" ran on a weekly basis on Thursdays. Its prologue was uploaded on October 12, 2017, followed by the first chapter on October 19; the webtoon ended with the uploading of its epilogue and 140th chapter on July 2, 2020. The official English version of the webtoon (Prologue up to Chapter 139) was uploaded on Mondays in WEBTOON starting January 15, 2018, while Chapter 140 (Epilogue) was uploaded on September 29, 2020. It is also available in Chinese, Japanese, French, Indonesian, Spanish and Thai.


title: Sweet Home (webtoon)

text: After the success of "Sweet Home", Kim collaborated with webtoon illustrator Hongpil for its prequel titled "Shotgun Boy" which was released in Naver Webtoon starting February 22, 2021 with Hwang providing editorial supervision. The webtoon tells the story of the titular "shotgun [high school] boy" Han Kyu-hwan and the events prior to "Sweet Home".


title: Sweet Home (webtoon)

text: A print version of "Sweet Home" from the prologue up to Chapter 105 was released on February 28, 2020 (volumes 1–3), October 15, 2020 (volumes 4–6) and April 29, 2021 (volumes 7–9) by Wisdom House.


title: Sweet Home (webtoon)

text: As of January 2021, the official English version of "Sweet Home" garnered 2.4 million subscribers and 15.2 million likes. The print version of the webtoon was also recognized by the Korea Manhwa Contents Agency (KOMACON) as one of the "50 Best Comic Books of 2020." ATK Magazine's Kate Maugans called the webtoon a "wild ride" and marked its "compelling story and intriguing art."


title: Sweet Home (webtoon)

text: "Sweet Home" has been adapted by Studio Dragon and Studio N into a Netflix series of the same name starring Song Kang, Lee Jin-wook and Lee Si-young who play Hyun-soo, Sang-wook and a new character Seo Yi-kyeong, respectively. Netflix officially announced the series' cast on December 18, 2019. Helmed by director Lee Eung-bok, the series was released on December 18, 2020, to mixed reviews.


title: Kuwait Airways

text: Kuwait Airways (, ) is the national carrier of Kuwait, with its head office on the grounds of Kuwait International Airport, Al Farwaniyah Governorate. It operates scheduled international services throughout the Middle East, to the Indian subcontinent, Europe, Southeast Asia and North America, from its main base at Kuwait International Airport.


title: Kuwait Airways

text: The carrier traces its history back to 1953, when "Kuwait National Airways" was formed by a group of Kuwaiti businessmen; initially, the government took a 50% interest. That year, a five-year management contract was signed with "British International Airlines" (BIA), a BOAC subsidiary in Kuwait that operated charter flights and provided maintenance services. Two Dakotas were bought, and operations started on . The carrier transported 8,966 passengers in its first year of operations. In , the name "Kuwait Airways" was adopted. In , a new contract for management and operation was signed, directly with BOAC this time. BIA was taken over by Kuwait Airways in .


title: Kuwait Airways

text: On 8 August 1962, Kuwait Airways became the first foreign customer in ordering the Trident when two aircraft of the type were acquired, and an option for a third was taken. The deal was valued at £5.5 million, and also included a Comet 4C. At the same time, the carrier had also a £3 million order in place for three BAC One-Elevens, with an option for a fourth. The airline took delivery of the first Comet of its own in , but Comet operations had started in the previous year with an aircraft on lease from MEA. In , a second Comet was ordered. The delivery of this second airframe established an unofficial record in early 1964, when it flew between London and Kuwait, a distance of , at on average. On 1 June 1963, the government increased its participation in the airline to 100%. In , the carrier added its first European destination to the route network when flights to London were inaugurated using Comet equipment; from that time, services between London and some points in the Middle East, including Abadan, Bahrain, Beirut, Dhahran, Doha and Kuwait, started being operated in a pool agreement between the carrier and BOAC and MEA. A month later, the airline absorbed Trans Arabia Airways.


title: Kuwait Airways

text: In , the route network had expanded to include Abadan, Baghdad, Bahrain, Beirut, Bombay, Cairo, Damascus, Doha, Frankfurt, Geneva, Jerusalem, Karachi, London, Paris and Teheran. At this time, the fleet was comprised two Comet 4Cs, three DC-6Bs, two Twin Pioneers and three Viscount 700s; the carrier had two Trident 1Es and three One-Elevens pending delivery. The first Trident was handed over by the aircraft manufacturer in , and the second followed in the same year. In the interim, a third aircraft of the type was ordered. On the other hand, the One-Elevens were never delivered: in the carrier stated that the simultaneous introduction of both types of aircraft was not possible due to a tightened budget, and postponed their delivery; it was informed late that year that the airline would not take them. Three Boeing 707-320Cs were ordered in . The carrier made its first profit ever in 1968, with a net income of £910,000.


title: Kuwait Airways

text: During 1972, Kuwait Airways' consecutive profitable year, the airline had a net profit of £2.9 million. By , the fleet had reduced to five Boeing 707-320C aircraft. That year, flights to Colombo were launched. At , Faisal Saud Al-Fulaij, who employed 1,800, was the chairman of the corporation. In a deal worth  million, two additional ex-Pan American Boeing 707-320Cs were subsequently purchased that year, with the first one entering the fleet in . The carrier ordered its first Boeing 737 that year, slated for delivery in . Kuwait Airways became the Boeing 727s worldwide customer in 1979, when it ordered three of these aircraft for delivery in late 1980 and early 1981.


title: Kuwait Airways

text: By , chairmanship was held by Ghassan Al-Nissef, the number of employees had grown to 5,400 and the fleet comprised eight Boeing 707-320Cs, one Boeing 737-200, three Boeing 747-200Bs and one JetStar; three Boeing 727-200s were pending delivery. In mid-1980, six Airbus A310-200s were ordered to replace the Boeing 707s on routes to Asia, Europe and the Middle East, with deliveries starting in 1983; five more A310 aircraft were added to the order late that year.


title: Kuwait Airways

text: After India's air market was deregulated in 1992, Kuwait Airways and Gulf Air participated in the formation of Jet Airways, each holding a 20% equity stake, with a total investment estimated in  million. Following the enactment of a law that banned the investment of foreign carriers in domestic Indian operators, both airlines had to divest their shareholding in the Indian company. Kuwait Airways' 20% stake in Jet Airways was sold to chairman Naresh Goyal for  million.


title: Kuwait Airways

text: In , the carrier modified a previous order that included Boeing 747 aircraft, and placed an order worth  million for two Boeing 777-200s, with purchase rights for another aircraft of the type. The operation made Kuwait Airways the customer of the type worldwide. The airframer handed over the first Boeing 777-200 in early 1998. In December 1998 a code-share agreement was signed with Trans World Airlines to begin in the Spring of 1999.


title: Kuwait Airways

text: In October 2007, the new CEO pledged that the airline should be privatised in order for it to compete efficiently against other airlines. He says that the airline will encounter difficulty in advancing, especially in fleet renewal, without the privatisation.


title: Kuwait Airways

text: Flights to Iraq were resumed in ; Kuwait Airways had discontinued services to the country in 1990 following the invasion of Kuwait. After a 17-year hiatus, the carrier resumed flying to Munich in . Also in July 2015, the airline restarted flights to Istanbul-Atatürk; the city had not been served for three years. Bangalore was added to the carrier network in .


title: Kuwait Airways

text: Privatisation started being considered in the mid-1990s, in a period that followed the Gulf War when the carrier experienced a heavy loss on its assets. The company was turned into a corporation in 2004. A draft decree for its privatisation was approved by the government on 21 July 2008. Plans were to sell up to 35% of the stake to a long-term investor and another 40% allotted to the public, whereas the government would hold the remaining 25%. These plans also contemplated the exclusion of domestic carrier competitors, such as Jazeera Airways, as potential bidders. Furthermore, the government also committed to keep the workforce invariant for at least years and those who were not to be retained would be offered the opportunity to be transferred to other government dependencies without altering their salaries and holding similar working conditions.


title: Kuwait Airways

text: In 2011, the privatisation committee valued the carrier at  million, following advice by the Citigroup, Ernst & Young and Seabury. The process was expected to be concluded by . However, in that year the committee recommended the airline to go through a reorganisation process before continuing with the privatisation programme, something that was approved by Kuwait Council of Ministers. The privatisation draft was amended and the government signed a contract with the International Air Transport Association for the provision of consultation expertise. The law for the privatisation of Kuwait Airways Corporation was passed in .


title: Kuwait Airways

text: The Kuwait Airways headquarters is located on the grounds of Kuwait International Airport in Al Farwaniyah Governorate, Kuwait. The head office was built for 15.8 million Kuwaiti dinars (US $ 53.6 million). Ahmadiah Contracting & Trading Co. served as the main contractor. The headquarter was constructed from 1992 to 1996. The construction of the head office was the first time that structural glazing for curtain walls was used in the State of Kuwait. The previous headquarters was on the grounds of the airport.


title: Kuwait Airways

text: Kuwait Airways has several subsidiaries that are going through a similar privatization process as KAC.


title: Kuwait Airways

text: Kuwait Airways also went into alliances with several airlines to keep up with demand and to continue its operations during the 1990 War.


title: Kuwait Airways

text: From its hub at Kuwait International Airport, Kuwait Airways flies to 34 international destinations across Asia, Europe, North America and the Middle East, .


title: Kuwait Airways

text: Kuwait Airways was accused of discriminating against holders of Israeli passports, for refusing in 2013 and 2014 to sell tickets from New York to London to people holding Israeli passports. In response, Senator Richard Blumenthal, along with five other senators, wrote a letter to Transportation Secretary Anthony Foxx in May 2015 urging him to investigate the allegations. In October 2015, at the conclusion of an investigation, the Department of Transportation issued Kuwait Airways an order to "cease and desist from refusing to transport Israeli citizens between the U.S. and any third country where they are allowed to disembark" In the letter, the DOT also accused Kuwait Airways of following the Arab League boycott of Israel. Additionally, New York City Councilmember Rory Lancman asked the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, which operates JFK Airport, to "terminate the airline’s lease if it doesn’t immediately change its policy". For its part, the airline said that it is in compliance with Kuwaiti Law which prohibits the company from entering "into an agreement, personally or indirectly, with entities or persons residing in Israel, or with Israeli citizenship." The airline also petitioned the Federal Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia to review the dispute.


title: Kuwait Airways

text: The matter was settled on December 15, 2015, when Kuwait Airlines informed the United States Department of Transportation that it will eliminate service between JFK and London Heathrow, with "The Daily Telegraph" reporting that tickets for the route were no longer being sold effective the following week. Councilmember Lancman responded saying "If you’re so anti-Semitic that you would rather cancel a flight than provide service to Israeli passport holders, then good riddance".


title: Kuwait Airways

text: In a similar 2017 lawsuit filed by the Lawfare Project, a German court upheld the airline's right to refuse to allow Israelis on an flight from Frankfurt to Bangkok with a layover in Kuwait. In August 2019, Kuwait Airways Chairman Yousef A. M. J. Alsaqer stated that the airlines plans to spend $2.5 billion on new aircraft that due to be delivered by 2026


title: Kuwait Airways

text: Kuwait Airways operates aircraft for official State business. The fleet has a Kuwait Airways inspired livery with State of Kuwait titles, and is composed of one Airbus A300-600, one A310-300, one A319, one A320, two A340-500 and one Boeing 747-8BBJ.


title: Kuwait Airways

text: In , Kuwait Airways had one of the oldest aircraft fleets in the Middle East, with an average age of 20 years. That month, the carrier opened its maintenance facilities to the press for them to check that the fleet was kept in condition, amid rumours of deficiencies in their maintenance. In the same year, the carrier signed a memorandum of understanding with Airbus for the acquisition of A320neos and A350-900s. These aircraft would be handed over between 2019 and 2022. For the interim period, the deal includes the lease of seven A320s and five A330-200s from the aircraft manufacturer; deliveries would start in late 2014. In a deal valued at  billion, the order including A350-900s and A320neos was confirmed in . Kuwait Airways' intentions to purchase Boeing 777-300ERs were informed in . The order was firmed up a month later for  billion with deliveries expected to start in November 2016. Also in , Kuwait Airways took delivery of its first sharketled Airbus A320 as part of the airline fleet renewal programme. Kuwait Airways received four leased aircraft of the type, marking the first fleet upgrade in 17 years. The carrier became a new customer for the Airbus A330 when it received the first aircraft of the type in .


title: Kuwait Airways

text: Following the airline's rebranding initiative in October 2016, Kuwait Airways received its first Boeing 777-300ER in December 2016, marking the arrival of the airline's first fully owned new aircraft in nearly twenty years. Introduced in 1995, the Airbus A340-300 was retired from service by the airline in 2017. In October 2018, Kuwait Airways amended a pre-existing commitment with Airbus for 10 A350-900s by reducing it to five of these aircraft, and ordered eight Airbus A330-800s, which were scheduled to be delivered from March 2019. The first two Airbus A330-800s were handed over to the airline by the aircraft manufacturer in October 2020.


title: Hanbali

text: The Hanbali school () is one of the four major traditional Sunni schools ("madhahib") of Islamic jurisprudence. It is named after the Arab scholar Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 855), and was institutionalized by his students. The Hanbali madhhab is the smallest of four major Sunni schools, the others being the Hanafi, Maliki and Shafi`i.


title: Hanbali

text: The Hanbali school derives "sharia" primarily from the "Qur'an", the "Hadiths" (sayings and customs of Muhammad), and the views of Sahabah (Muhammad's companions). In cases where there is no clear answer in sacred texts of Islam, the Hanbali school does not accept "istihsan" (jurist discretion) or "'urf" (customs of a community) as a sound basis to derive Islamic law, a method that Hanafi and Maliki Sunni "madh'habs" accept. Hanbali school is the strict traditionalist school of jurisprudence in Sunni Islam. It is found primarily in the countries of Saudi Arabia and Qatar, where it is the official "Fiqh". Hanbali followers are the demographic majority in four emirates of UAE (Sharjah, Umm al-Quwain, Ras al-Khaimah and Ajman). Large minorities of Hanbali followers are also found in Bahrain, Syria, Oman and Yemen and among Iraqi and Jordanian bedouins.


title: Hanbali

text: The Hanbali school experienced a reformation during the 18th-century Wahhabi movement. Historically the school was small; during the 18th to early-20th century Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab and Al Saud greatly aided its propagation around the world by way of their interpretation of the school's teachings. As a result of this, the school's name has become a controversial one in certain quarters of the Islamic world due to the influence he is believed by some to have had upon these teachings, which cites Ahmad Ibn Hanbal as a principal influence along with the thirteenth-century Hanbali reformer Ahmad Ibn Taymiyyah. However, it has been argued by certain scholars that Ibn Hanbal's own beliefs actually played "no real part in the establishment of the central doctrines of Wahhabism," as there is evidence, according to the same authors, that "the older Hanbalite authorities had doctrinal concerns very different from those of the Wahhabis," as medieval Hanbali literature is rich in references to saints, grave visitation, miracles, and relics. For example, contemporary Hanbali scholars, Muhammad Abdul-Wahid Al-Azhari and Yusuf Sadiq, openly criticize the followers of Ibn Abdul Wahhab and the former says they are not to be called Hanbalis. Historically, the Hanbali school was treated as simply another valid interpretation of "Shariat" (Islamic law), and many prominent medieval Sufis, such as Abdul Qadir Gilani, were Hanbali jurists and mystics at the same time.


title: Hanbali

text: Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal, the founder of Hanbali school of thought ("madhab"), was a disciple of the Sunni Imam Al-Shafi‘i, who was reportedly a student of Imam Malik ibn Anas, who was a student of the Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq, like Imam Abu Hanifa. Thus all of the four great Imams of Sunni "Fiqh" are connected to Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq from the "Bayt" (Household) of Muhammad, whether directly or indirectly.


title: Hanbali

text: Like Al-Shafi'i and Dawud al-Zahiri, Ahmad was deeply concerned with the extreme elasticity being deployed by many jurists of his time, who used their discretion to reinterpret the doctrines of "Qur'an" and "Hadiths" to suit the demands of Caliphs and wealthy. Ibn Hanbal advocated for a literal interpretation of "Qur'an" and "Hadiths". Influenced by the debates of his time, he was known for rejecting religious rulings ("fatwas") from the "'Ijma" (consensus) of jurists of his time, which he considered to be speculative theology ("Kalam"). He associated them with the Mu'tazilis, whom he despised. Ibn Hanbal was also hostile to the discretionary principles of rulings in jurisprudence ("Usul al-fiqh") mainly championed by the people of opinion, which was established by Abu Hanifa, although he did adopt al-Shafi'i's method in usul al-fiqh. He linked these discretionary principles with "kalam". His guiding principle was that the "Quran" and Sunnah are the only proper sources of Islamic jurisprudence, and are of equal authority and should be interpreted literally in line with the Athari creed. He also believed that there can be no true consensus ("Ijma") among jurists ("mujtahids") of his time, and preferred the consensus of Muhammad's companions ("Sahaba") and weaker hadiths. Imam Hanbal himself compiled "Al-Musnad", a text with over 30,000 saying, actions and customs of Muhammad.


title: Hanbali

text: Ibn Hanbal never composed an actual systematic legal theory on his own, and was against setting up juristic superstructures. He devoted himself to the task of collection and study of Hadith; and believed that legal rulings must be derived by referring directly to the "Qur'an" and "Sunnah"; instead of referring to a body of religious jurisprudence. However; his followers would later establish a systematic legal methodology some generations after Ibn Hanbal's death. Much of the work of preserving the school based on Ibn Hanbal's method was laid by his student Abu Bakr al-Khallal; his documentation on the founder's views eventually reached twenty volumes. The original copy of the work, which was contained in the House of Wisdom, was burned along with many other works of literature during the Mongol siege of Baghdad. The book was only preserved in a summarized form by the Hanbali jurist al-Khiraqi, who had access to written copies of al-Khallal's book before the siege.


title: Hanbali

text: Relations with the Abbasid Caliphate were rocky for the Hanbalites. Led by the Hanbalite scholar Al-Hasan ibn 'Ali al-Barbahari, the school often formed mobs of followers in 10th-century Baghdad who would engage in violence against fellow Sunnis suspected of committing sins and all Shi'ites. During al-Barbahari's leadership of the school in Baghdad, shops were looted, female entertainers were attacked in the streets, popular grievances among the lower classes were agitated as a source of mobilization, and public chaos in general ensued. Their efforts would be their own undoing in 935, when a series of home invasions and mob violence on the part of al-Barbahari's followers in addition to perceived deviant views led to the Caliph Ar-Radi publicly condemning the school in its entirety and ending its official patronage by state religious bodies.


title: Hanbali

text: At some point between the 10th and 12th centuries, the Hanbali scholars began adopting the term “Salafi". The influential 13th century Hanbali theologian Ibn Taymiyya advocated Salafi thought as a theological endeavour and his efforts would create a lasting impact on the subsequent followers of the Hanbali school.


title: Hanbali

text: Like all other schools of Sunni Islam, the Hanbali school holds that the two primary sources of Islamic law are the Qur'an and the Sunnah found in Hadiths (compilation of sayings, actions and customs of Muhammad). Where these texts did not provide guidance, Imam Hanbal recommended guidance from established consensus of Muhammad's companions (Sahabah), then individual opinion of Muhammad's companions, followed in order of preference by weaker hadiths, and in rare cases qiyas (analogy). The Hanbali school, unlike Hanafi and Maliki schools, rejected that a source of Islamic law can be a jurist's personal discretionary opinion or consensus of later generation Muslims on matters that serve the interest of Islam and community. Hanbalis hold that this is impossible and leads to abuse. The Hanbali school also rejects "taqlid" (blind adherence to scholarly opinions) and encourages the practice of "Ijtihad" (independent reasoning) through the study of "Quran" and "Hadith".


title: Hanbali

text: Ibn Hanbal rejected the possibility of religiously binding consensus ("Ijma"), as it was impossible to verify once later generations of Muslims spread throughout the world, going as far as declaring anyone who claimed as such to be a liar. Ibn Hanbal did, however, accept the possibility and validity of the consensus of the "Sahaba" the first generation of Muslims. Later followers of the school, however, expanded on the types of consensus accepted as valid, and the prominent Hanbalite Ibn Taymiyyah expanded legal consensus to later generations while at the same time restricting it only to the religiously learned. Analogical reasoning ("Qiyas"), was likewise rejected as a valid source of law by Ibn Hanbal himself, with a near-unanimous majority of later Hanbalite jurists not only accepting analogical reasoning as valid but also borrowing from the works of Shafi'ite jurists on the subject.


title: Hanbali

text: Ibn Hanbal's strict standards of acceptance regarding the sources of Islamic law were probably due to his suspicion regarding the field of "Usul al-Fiqh", which he equated with speculative theology ("kalam"). While demanding strict application of "Qur'an" and "Hadith", Hanbali "Fiqh" is nonetheless flexible in areas not covered by Scriptures. In issues where the "Qur'an" and the "Hadiths" were ambigous or vague; the Hanbali "Fuqaha" (jurists) engaged in "Ijtihad" to derive rulings. Additionally, the Hanbali madh'hab accepted the Islamic principle of "Maslaha" ('public interest') in solving the novel issues. In the modern era, Hanbalites have branched out and even delved into matters regarding the upholding ("Istislah") of public interest ("Maslaha") and even juristic preference ("Istihsan"), anathema to the earlier Hanbalites as valid methods of determining religious law.


title: Hanbali

text: Ibn Hanbal taught that the Qur'an is uncreated due to Muslim belief that it is the word of God, and the word of God is not created. The Muʿtazilites taught that the Qur'an, which is readable and touchable, is created like other creatures and created objects. Ibn Hanbal viewed this as heresy, replying that there are things which are not touchable but are created, such as the Throne of God. Unlike the other three schools of Islamic jurisprudence (Hanafi, Maliki, and Shafi), the Hanbali madhab remained largely traditionalist or Athari in theology and it was primarily Hanbali scholars who codified the Athari school of thought.


title: Hanbali

text: The Hanbali school is now accepted as the fourth of the mainstream Sunni schools of law. It has traditionally enjoyed a smaller following than the other schools. In the earlier period, Sunni jurisprudence was based on four other schools: Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i and Zahiri; later on, the Hanbali school supplanted the Zahiri school's spot as the fourth mainstream school. Hanbalism essentially formed as a traditionalist reaction to what they viewed as "bid'ah" (innovations) on the part of the earlier established schools.


title: Hanbali

text: Historically, the school's legitimacy was not always accepted. Muslim exegete Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, founder of the now extinct Jariri school of law, was noted for ignoring the Hanbali school entirely when weighing the views of jurists; this was due to his view that the founder, Ibn Hanbal, was merely a scholar of "Hadith" (prophetic traditions) and was not a "Faqih" (jurist) at all. The Hanbalites, led by Al-Barbahari, reacted by stoning Tabari's home several times, inciting riots so violent that Abbasid authorities had to subdue them by force. Upon Tabari's death, the Hanbalites formed a violent mob large enough that Abbasid officials buried him in secret, in an attempt to prevent further riots. Similarly, the Andalusian Malikite Jurist and theologian Ibn 'Abd al-Barr made a point to exclude Ibn Hanbal's views from the books on Sunni Muslim jurisprudence.


title: Hanbali

text: Eventually, the Mamluk Sultanate and later the Ottoman Empire codified Sunni Islam as four schools, including the Hanbalite school at the expense of the Zahirites. The Hanafis, Shafi'is and Malikis agreed on important matters and recognized each other's systems as equally valid; this was not the case with the Hanbalites, who were recognized as legitimate by the older three schools but refused to return the favor.


title: Hanbali

text: In contrast to the Hanafis and the Malikis, in the absence of a "'Ijma" (juristic consensus), the opinion of a Sahabi (companion of Prophet Muhammad) is given priority over "Qiyas" (analogical reasoning, which early Hanbalis rejected) or "al-'urf" (customs of a land) which is completely rejected by Hanbalis. While Hanbalis require a unanimous consensus, Hanafis tend to follow the consensus of Kufa and Malikis that of al-Madina.


title: Hanbali

text: Zahiris, a less mainstream school, is sometimes seen as the closest to Hanbalis and Hanafis. However the similarities are only true for early Zahiris who followed the Athari creed. The branch that was largely instigated by Ibn Hazm which developed in al-Andalus, al-Qarawiyyin and later became the official school of the state under the Almohads, differed significantly from Hanbalism. It did not follow the Athari and "Taqlid" schools and opted for "logical Istidlal" (deductive demonstration/inference) as a way to interpret scripture that wasn't clear literally. Hanbalis rejected "kalam" as a whole and believed in the supremacy of the text over the mind and did not engage in dialectic debates with the "Mu'tazila". Ibn Hazm, on the other hand, engaged in these debates and believed in logical reasoning rejecting most of "Mu'tazila" claims as sophism and absurd. Ibn Hazm, also scrutinised "hadith" corpus more severely. He adopted an attitude where he'd reject "hadiths" if he discovered something suspicious about the lives of those who reported it, or in the case where a narrator in the "Sanad" (transmission chain) is not a widely known figure. In doing so, he was aided by his vast historical knowledge.


title: Hanbali

text: By the end of the classical era, the other three remaining schools had codified their laws into comprehensive jurisprudential systems; enforcing them far and wide. However, the Hanbalis stood apart from the other three "madh'habs"; by insisting on referring directly back to the "Qur’an" and "Sunnah", to arrive at legal rulings. They also opposed the codification of "Sharia" (Islamic law) into a comprehensive system of jurisprudence; considering the "Qur'an" and "Hadith" to be the paramount sources.


title: Hanbali

text: Sufism, often described as the inner mystical dimension of Islam, is not a separate "school" or "sect" of the religion, but, rather, is considered by its adherents to be an "inward" way of approaching Islam which complements the regular outward practice of the five pillars; Sufism became immensely popular during the medieval period in practically all parts of the Sunni world and continues to remain so in many parts of the world today. As Christopher Melchert has pointed out, both Hanbalism and classical Sufism took concrete shapes in the ninth and early tenth-centuries CE, with both soon becoming "essential components of the high-medieval Sunni synthesis." Although many Hanbali scholars today, identifying themselves with various Salafi movements and the contemporary manifestation of the Wahhabi movement within Hanbalism, shun Sufism and its practices such as the "Ziyarat" (visitations of the graves of "Awliyaa"), which they deem heretical innovations in religion; the Hanbali school of Sunni law had a very intimate relationship with Sufism throughout Islamic history.


title: Hanbali

text: There is evidence that many medieval Hanbali scholars were very close to the Sufi martyr and saint Hallaj, whose mystical piety seems to have influenced many regular jurists in the school. Many later Hanbalis, meanwhile, were often Sufis themselves, including figures not normally associated with Sufism, such as Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah. Both these men, sometimes considered to be completely anti-Sufi in their leanings, were actually initiated into the "Qadiriyya" order of the celebrated mystic and saint Abdul Qadir Gilani, who was himself a renowned Hanbali "Faqih". As the "Qadiriyya" "Tariqah" is often considered to be the largest and most widespread Sufi order in the world, with many branches spanning from Turkey to Pakistan, one of the largest Sufi branches is effectively founded on Hanbali school. Other prominent Hanbalite scholars who praised Sufism include Ibn 'Aqil, Ibn Qudamah, Ibn Rajab al-Hanbali, Muhammad Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, etc.


title: Hanbali

text: Although Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab is sometimes regarded as a denier of Sufism, both he and his early disciples acclaimed "Tasawwuf"; believing it to be an important discipline in Islamic religion. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab prescribed various Sufi spiritual exercises to his followers for attaining "Zuhd" (asceticism), in accordance with "Qur'an" and "Hadith". Extolling the virtuous Sufi "Awliya" (saints) who attained "Ma'rifa" (highest stage of mystical awareness in Sufism) as exemplars to his followers, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab stated: " “From among the wonders is to find a Sufi who is a "faqih" and a scholar who is an ascetic ("zahid").” For indeed those who are concerned with the piety of the heart are often associated with a lack of "ma‘rifah", which would necessitate abstinence from wrong and make "jihad" necessary. And those who are in-depth in knowledge at times mention such wickedness and doubts that place them in err and deviation... So, His love itself is the basis of His worship, and assigning equals ("shirk") in love is the basis of polytheism in His worship... This is why the "‘arif" Sufi "shaykhs" would advise many to pursue knowledge. Some of them would say: “A person only leaves a single "Sunnah" due to the pride in him.” "


title: The Mole (American TV series)

text: The Mole is an American reality game show that originally aired on ABC from 2001 to 2008 before being rebooted on Netflix in 2022. It is based on other versions of the original Belgian TV series "De Mol" that have aired in numerous countries. "The Mole" was produced by Stone Stanley Entertainment for its first four seasons. It was canceled but was later picked up again after a four-year hiatus. The fifth season was produced by Stone & Co. Entertainment. Netflix picked up the show after a fourteen-year hiatus. The sixth season premiered on October 7, 2022 and was produced by Eureka Productions.


title: The Mole (American TV series)

text: The series is a reality competition in which the contestants work as a group to add money to a pot that only one of them will eventually win. Among the contestants is one person who has secretly been designated "the Mole" by the producers and is tasked with sabotaging the group's money-making efforts. At the end of each episode, the contestant who knows the least about the mole, as determined by the results of a multiple-choice quiz, is eliminated from the game. The last contestant standing wins the game and all of the money in the pot.


title: The Mole (American TV series)

text: The series was first hosted by news reporter Anderson Cooper; for the third season, Ahmad Rashad replaced Cooper, and Rashad was in turn replaced by Jon Kelley for the fifth season. Alex Wagner hosted the show's reboot sixth season. The third and fourth seasons featured celebrity contestants instead of average citizens.


title: The Mole (American TV series)

text: The contestants typically meet for the first time at or shortly before the start of filming, just before their first task. They are given black duffel bags with the show's thumbprint logo and their names on them in which to keep their belongings. Each contestant is also given a numbered journal; this is the only method by which contestants are permitted to record information and thoughts about the other contestants.


title: The Mole (American TV series)

text: Each mission generally has a monetary reward towards the group pot for various levels of success. On occasion, a mission will have a cash penalty for failure. The missions comprise various physical and/or mental challenges posed to the contestants. While some are straightforward, with the rules and stakes fully explained to all contestants, on some occasions, not all aspects of the mission are fully explained to all contestants, increasing its difficulty. In those cases, perhaps only selected contestants are informed of the full nature of the challenge, and must work towards a different goal than the rest. In some instances, there are secret missions that only one or none of the contestants are aware of.


title: The Mole (American TV series)

text: Some missions require every team member to complete their task for the team to earn money, while other missions award money to each contestant that finished, regardless of the others. A common requirement is for the team to divide themselves into groups based on given attributes (e.g., "leaders" & "followers", "smart" & "dumb") before they learn what the task is.


title: The Mole (American TV series)

text: Secret missions may include "morality tests" where the players might be unexpectedly approached by a local (secretly arranged by the producers), for help (for instance, changing a tire for a stranded motorist). The contestants would later be informed that they won or lost the mission depending upon if they helped the person in need.


title: The Mole (American TV series)

text: In addition to challenges, violations of the game's rules by a player during certain seasons, such as going out after curfew or talking about a forbidden topic, can result in a deduction from the group pot as a penalty. Failing a secret "morality test" may also warrant a penalty. In some of the more difficult tasks, sometimes the players are given the opportunity to "buy" a clue(s) or "buy" extra time to complete the mission. Electing to do so takes a small amount of cash out of the amount they earn in that mission.


title: The Mole (American TV series)

text: At the end of each episode, all players (including the mole and any exempted players) take a multiple choice quiz about the identity of the mole. The questions reflect upon a variety of observations about the mole, including biographical information and what role(s) the mole took during that round's mission(s). Information from discussions, which the players open up to the others about their personal lives may also be included in questions. The final question of each quiz is always "Who is the Mole?", with all remaining players' names as options.


title: The Mole (American TV series)

text: After dinner, all players (including the mole and anyone with an exemption) take the quiz in private on a computer, and then sit together for an "Execution Ceremony" (or "Elimination Ceremony" in season six). The player who scores the lowest on the quiz is eliminated from the game ("executed", in the show's parlance). If there is a tie for the lowest score among two or more players, the tied player who completed the quiz in the slowest elapsed time would be executed. The Mole is always safe from execution and is guaranteed to be involved in the game until the very end, though he/she can never win. The players who survive execution are not given their quiz scores or any additional information about the quizzes, and must deduce for themselves how well they are doing.


title: The Mole (American TV series)

text: Contestants are sometimes awarded an "Exemption" from elimination or can win them in certain missions. An exempt contestant receives immunity from the next elimination. In some cases, exemptions are awarded to a single player for an exceptional effort or performance during that day's task. Sometimes the exempted player is chosen by the group, whether intentionally or unintentionally. Other times, the exemption comes in the form of a temptation to deliberately fail a task and forfeit money for the group pot; or as an unexpected consolation prize for failure during a task.


title: The Mole (American TV series)

text: In some cases, the exemption is a secret element of a mission, revealed only to the player(s) eligible. A player(s) may find themselves surprisingly eligible to receive an exemption by committing a simple, innocuous act such as being the last person to leave the breakfast table or eating the last piece of pie at dessert. Likewise, that player's ploy to achieving the exemption is often unbeknownst to the other players.


title: The Mole (American TV series)

text: In the second season, there was an additional element called the "Neutralizer" which prevented a contestant from being eligible for an exemption in that episode.


title: The Mole (American TV series)

text: The first season of "The Mole" consisted of nine episodes, first aired from January 9 to February 28, 2001. It featured ten civilian contestants, one of whom was the Mole. The maximum possible value of the pot was $1,000,000, and each quiz consisted of twenty questions.


title: The Mole (American TV series)

text: The contestants began the season in California, and traveled to France in the first episode. The remainder of the season took place in Europe, eventually traveling to Monaco, and Spain.


title: The Mole (American TV series)

text: Season 2 of "The Mole" was subtitled "The Next Betrayal". Fourteen civilian contestants, one of whom was the Mole, competed over the course of 13 episodes. The first three episodes aired September 21 to October 12, 2001, before going on hiatus until the next summer, starting again from the first episode on May 24, 2002. The season again took place in Europe, mainly featuring Switzerland and Italy. The maximum possible pot was again $1,000,000, but the quizzes were shortened to 10 questions. Various other minor format elements were changed for the second season.


title: The Mole (American TV series)

text: Season 3 was billed "Celebrity Mole: Hawaii" and featured a cast of seven celebrities. The season, which was only six episodes long, was filmed on the Big Island of Hawaii. The possible maximum jackpot was also reduced to $250,000. The season aired from January 8 to February 12, 2003.


title: The Mole (American TV series)

text: The fourth season was billed "Celebrity Mole: Yucatan", and featured eight celebrity contestants, including two returning from the previous season. The season was again a short seven episodes long, and was filmed on the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico. The season aired from January 7 to February 18, 2004.


title: The Mole (American TV series)

text: "The Mole" returned after a four-year hiatus for a fifth season, returning to the civilian contestant format. Twelve contestants, one of whom was the mole, competed for a maximum pot of $500,000. The setting for this season was Argentina and Chile. The season aired from June 2 to August 11, 2008. This season received an Emmy nomination for best theme song composition.


title: The Mole (American TV series)

text: "The Mole" returned after a fourteen-year hiatus for a sixth season, switching over to Netflix. The season featured twelve contestants, one of whom was the Mole. The setting for this season was Australia, with Alex Wagner as host. The season aired for three weeks from October 7 to 21, 2022.


title: The Mole (American TV series)

text: Following the conclusion of Season 5 of "The Mole", ABC did not comment on its consideration for a sixth season. On April 8, 2009, they announced that the show had been cancelled. Fans have also created their own private site to encourage the signing of an online petition, e-mailing ABC executives, as well as sending "lemon-heads" to ABC headquarters in New York. (This is in reference to an occurrence on the fifth season of the show.) The latter of these techniques for being noticed is in reference to the successful revival of the television drama "Jericho" on CBS by bombarding their offices with packages of peanuts. On May 3, 2021, BuzzerBlog posted an article seeming to confirm that a show known as "The Insider" on casting sites is likely a new season of "The Mole" filming in Australia in June and July 2021. Netflix added seasons 1 and 2 of "The Mole" to its US streaming library in June 2021, leading to speculation they will air a new season of the series. In a three-week release, the reboot of "The Mole" launched on Netflix on October 7, 2022.


title: Sauce

text: In cooking, a sauce is a liquid, cream, or semi-solid food, served on or used in preparing other foods. Most sauces are not normally consumed by themselves; they add flavor, moisture, and visual appeal to a dish. "Sauce" is a French word taken from the Latin "salsa", meaning "salted". Possibly the oldest recorded European sauce is garum, the fish sauce used by the Ancient Romans, while doubanjiang, the Chinese soy bean paste is mentioned in "Rites of Zhou" in the 3rd century BC.


title: Sauce

text: Sauces may be used for sweet or savory dishes. They may be prepared and served cold, like mayonnaise, prepared cold but served lukewarm like pesto, cooked and served warm like bechamel or cooked and served cold like apple sauce. They may be freshly prepared by the cook, especially in restaurants, but today many sauces are sold premade and packaged like Worcestershire sauce, HP Sauce, soy sauce or ketchup. Sauces for salad are called salad dressing. Sauces made by deglazing a pan are called pan sauces.


title: Sauce

text: In traditional British cuisine, gravy is a sauce used on roast dinner. The sole survivor of the medieval bread-thickened sauces, bread sauce is one of the oldest sauces in British cooking. Apple sauce, mint sauce and horseradish sauce are used on meat (usually on pork, lamb and beef respectively). Redcurrant jelly, mint jelly, and white sauce may also be used. Salad cream is sometimes used on salads. Ketchup and brown sauce are used on fast-food type dishes. Strong English mustard is also used on various foods, as is Worcestershire sauce. Custard is a popular dessert sauce. Other popular sauces include mushroom sauce, marie rose sauce (as used in a prawn cocktail), whisky sauce (for serving with haggis), Albert sauce (horseradish sauce to enhance flavour of braised beef) and cheddar sauce (as used in cauliflower or macaroni and cheese). In contemporary British cuisine, owing to the wide diversity of British society today, there are also many sauces that are of British origin but based upon the cuisine of other countries, particularly former colonies such as India.


title: Sauce

text: There are many varied cuisines in China, but many of them compose dishes from sauces including different kinds of soy sauce, fermented bean paste including doubanjiang, chili sauces, oyster sauce, and also many oils and vinegar preparations. These ingredients are used to build up a range of different sauces and condiments used before, during, or after cooking the main ingredients for a dish:


title: Sauce

text: In some Chinese cuisines, such as Cantonese, dishes are often thickened with a slurry of cornstarch or potato starch and water.


title: Sauce

text: Filipino cuisine typically uses "toyomansi" (soy sauce with kalamansi lime) as well as different varieties of suka, patis, bagoong and banana ketchup, among others.


title: Sauce

text: Sauces in French cuisine date back to the Middle Ages. There were many hundreds of sauces in the culinary repertoire. In "cuisine classique" (roughly from the end of the 19th century until the advent of "nouvelle cuisine" in the 1980s), sauces were a major defining characteristic of French cuisine.


title: Sauce

text: In the early 19th century, the chef Marie-Antoine Carême created an extensive list of sauces, many of which were original recipes. It is unknown how many sauces Carême is responsible for, but it is estimated to be in the hundreds. Most of them have been listed in Carême reference cookbook "The art of French Cuisine in the 19th century" (The French Title: "L'art de la cuisine française au XIXe siècle").


title: Sauce

text: Carême considered the four "grandes sauces" to be Espagnole, Velouté, Allemande, and Béchamel, from which a large variety of petites sauces could be composed.


title: Sauce

text: In the early 20th century, the chef Auguste Escoffier refined Carême's list of basic sauces in his classic "Le Guide culinaire", which in the most recent 4th edition that was published in 1921, listed the foundation or basic sauces as Espagnole, Velouté, Béchamel, and Tomate. Sauce Allemande, which was mentioned as a preparation of Velouté made with egg yolks, is replaced by Sauce Tomate. One other sauce-de-base that is mentioned in "Le Guide culinaire" is Sauce Mayonnaise, which Escoffier wrote was a sauce Mère akin to the sauces Espagnole and Velouté due to the number of derivative sauces that can be made.


title: Sauce

text: In "A Guide to Modern Cookery", an English abridged translation of Escoffier's 1903 edition of "Le Guide culinaire", Hollandaise was included in the list of basic sauces, which made for a list that is identical to the list of five fundamental "French Mother Sauces" that is acknowledged by a variety of sources:


title: Sauce

text: A sauce which is derived from one of the mother sauces by augmenting with additional ingredients is sometimes called a "daughter sauce" or "secondary sauce". Most sauces commonly used in classical cuisine are daughter sauces. For example, béchamel can be made into Mornay by the addition of grated cheese, and espagnole becomes bordelaise with the addition of reduction of red wine, shallots, and poached beef marrow.


title: Sauce

text: A specialized implement, the French sauce spoon, was introduced in the mid-20th century to aid in eating sauce in French cuisine, is enjoying increasing popularity at high-end restaurants.


title: Sauce

text: Indian cuisines use sauces such as tomato-based sauces with varying spice combinations such as tamarind sauce, coconut milk-/paste-based sauces, and chutneys. There are substantial regional variations in Indian cuisine, but many sauces use a seasoned mix of onion, ginger and garlic paste as the base of various gravies and sauces. Various cooking oils, ghee and/or cream are also regular ingredients in Indian sauces.


title: Sauce

text: Indonesian cuisine uses typical sauces such as "kecap manis" (sweet soy sauce), "bumbu kacang" (peanut sauce) and tauco, while popular hot and spicy sauces are sambal, colo-colo, dabu-dabu and rica-rica. Sambal is an umbrella term; there are many, many kinds of sambal.


title: Sauce

text: Italian sauces reflect the rich variety of the Italian cuisine and can be divided in several categories including:


title: Sauce

text: There are thousands of such sauces, and many towns have traditional sauces. Among the internationally well-known are:


title: Sauce

text: Sauces used in traditional Japanese cuisine are usually based on "shōyu" (soy sauce), "miso" or "dashi". "Ponzu", citrus-flavored soy sauce, and "yakitori no tare", sweetened rich soy sauce, are examples of shōyu-based sauces. Miso-based sauces include "gomamiso", miso with ground sesame, and "amamiso", sweetened miso. In modern Japanese cuisine, the word "sauce" often refers to Worcestershire sauce, introduced in the 19th century and modified to suit Japanese tastes. Tonkatsu, okonomiyaki, and yakisoba sauces are based on this sauce. Japanese sauce or wasabi sauce is used on sushi and sashimi or mixed with soy sauce to make wasabi-joyu.


title: Sauce

text: Salsas ("sauces" in Spanish) such as pico de gallo (tomato, onion and chili chopped with lemon juice), salsa cocida, salsa verde, chile, and salsa roja are an important part of many Latin and Spanish-American cuisines in the Americas. Typical ingredients include chili, tomato, onion, and spices; thicker sauces often contain avocado.


title: Sauce

text: Mexican cuisine includes sauces which may contain chocolate, seeds, and chiles collectively known by the Nahua name mole (compare guacamole).


title: Sauce

text: In Argentinian and Uruguayan cuisine, chimichurri is an uncooked sauce used in cooking and as a table condiment for grilled meat.


title: Sauce

text: Peruvian cuisine uses sauces based mostly in different varieties of "ají" combined with several ingredients, most notably salsa huancaína based on fresh cheese and salsa de ocopa based on peanuts or nuts.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: Human factors and ergonomics (commonly referred to as human factors) is the application of psychological and physiological principles to the engineering and design of products, processes, and systems. Four primary goals of human factors learning are to reduce human error, increase productivity, and enhance safety, system availability, and comfort with a specific focus on the interaction between the human and the engineered system.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: The field is a combination of numerous disciplines, such as psychology, sociology, engineering, biomechanics, industrial design, physiology, anthropometry, interaction design, visual design, user experience, and user interface design. Human factors research employs methods and approaches from these and other knowledge disciplines to study human behavior and generate data relevant to the four primary goals above. In studying and sharing learning on the design of equipment, devices, and processes that fit the human body and its cognitive abilities, the two terms "human factors" and "ergonomics" are essentially synonymous their referent and meaning in current literature.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: Human factors is employed to fulfill the goals of occupational health and safety and productivity. It is relevant in the design of such things as safe furniture and easy-to-use interfaces to machines and equipment. Proper ergonomic design is necessary to prevent repetitive strain injuries and other musculoskeletal disorders, which can develop over time and can lead to long-term disability. Human factors and ergonomics are concerned with the "fit" between the user, equipment, and environment or "fitting a job to a person" or "fitting the task to the man". It accounts for the user's capabilities and limitations in seeking to ensure that tasks, functions, information, and the environment suit that user.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: To assess the fit between a person and the used technology, human factors specialists or ergonomists consider the job (activity) being done and the demands on the user; the equipment used (its size, shape, and how appropriate it is for the task), and the information used (how it is presented, accessed, and changed). Ergonomics draws on many disciplines in its study of humans and their environments, including anthropometry, biomechanics, mechanical engineering, industrial engineering, industrial design, information design, kinesiology, physiology, cognitive psychology, industrial and organizational psychology, and space psychology.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: The term "ergonomics" (from the Greek ἔργον, meaning "work", and νόμος, meaning "natural law") first entered the modern lexicon when Polish scientist Wojciech Jastrzębowski used the word in his 1857 article (The Outline of Ergonomics; i.e. Science of Work, Based on the Truths Taken from the Natural Science). The French scholar Jean-Gustave Courcelle-Seneuil, apparently without knowledge of Jastrzębowski's article, used the word with a slightly different meaning in 1858. The introduction of the term to the English lexicon is widely attributed to British psychologist Hywel Murrell, at the 1949 meeting at the UK's Admiralty, which led to the foundation of The Ergonomics Society. He used it to encompass the studies in which he had been engaged during and after World War II.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: The expression "human factors" is a predominantly North American term which has been adopted to emphasize the application of the same methods to non-work-related situations. A "human factor" is a physical or cognitive property of an individual or social behavior specific to humans that may influence the functioning of technological systems. The terms "human factors" and "ergonomics" are essentially synonymous.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: Ergonomics comprise three main fields of research: physical, cognitive, and organizational ergonomics.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: There are many specializations within these broad categories. Specializations in the field of physical ergonomics may include visual ergonomics. Specializations within the field of cognitive ergonomics may include usability, human–computer interaction, and user experience engineering.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: Some specializations may cut across these domains: "Environmental ergonomics" is concerned with human interaction with the environment as characterized by climate, temperature, pressure, vibration, light. The emerging field of human factors in highway safety uses human factor principles to understand the actions and capabilities of road users – car and truck drivers, pedestrians, cyclists, etc. – and use this knowledge to design roads and streets to reduce traffic collisions. Driver error is listed as a contributing factor in 44% of fatal collisions in the United States, so a topic of particular interest is how road users gather and process information about the road and its environment, and how to assist them to make the appropriate decision.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: New terms are being generated all the time. For instance, "user trial engineer" may refer to a human factors engineering professional who specializes in user trials. Although the names change, human factors professionals apply an understanding of human factors to the design of equipment, systems and working methods to improve comfort, health, safety, and productivity.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: According to the International Ergonomics Association, within the discipline of ergonomics there exist domains of specialization.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: Physical ergonomics is concerned with human anatomy, and some of the anthropometric, physiological and bio mechanical characteristics as they relate to physical activity. Physical ergonomic principles have been widely used in the design of both consumer and industrial products for optimizing performance and to preventing / treating work-related disorders by reducing the mechanisms behind mechanically induced acute and chronic musculoskeletal injuries / disorders. Risk factors such as localized mechanical pressures, force and posture in a sedentary office environment lead to injuries attributed to an occupational environment. Physical ergonomics is important to those diagnosed with physiological ailments or disorders such as arthritis (both chronic and temporary) or carpal tunnel syndrome. Pressure that is insignificant or imperceptible to those unaffected by these disorders may be very painful, or render a device unusable, for those who are. Many ergonomically designed products are also used or recommended to treat or prevent such disorders, and to treat pressure-related chronic pain.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: One of the most prevalent types of work-related injuries is musculoskeletal disorder. Work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WRMDs) result in persistent pain, loss of functional capacity and work disability, but their initial diagnosis is difficult because they are mainly based on complaints of pain and other symptoms. Every year, 1.8 million U.S. workers experience WRMDs and nearly 600,000 of the injuries are serious enough to cause workers to miss work. Certain jobs or work conditions cause a higher rate of worker complaints of undue strain, localized fatigue, discomfort, or pain that does not go away after overnight rest. These types of jobs are often those involving activities such as repetitive and forceful exertions; frequent, heavy, or overhead lifts; awkward work positions; or use of vibrating equipment. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has found substantial evidence that ergonomics programs can cut workers' compensation costs, increase productivity and decrease employee turnover. Mitigation solutions can include both short term and long-term solutions. Short and long-term solutions involve awareness training, positioning of the body, furniture and equipment and ergonomic exercises. Sit-stand stations and computer accessories that provide soft surfaces for resting the palm as well as split keyboards are recommended. Additionally, resources within the HR department can be allocated to provide assessments to employees to ensure the above criteria are met. Therefore, it is important to gather data to identify jobs or work conditions that are most problematic, using sources such as injury and illness logs, medical records, and job analyses.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: Innovative workstations that are being tested include sit-stand desks, height adjustable desk, treadmill desks, pedal devices and cycle ergometers. In multiple studies these new workstations resulted in decreased waist circumference and improved psychological well-being. However a significant number of additional studies have seen no marked improvement in health outcomes.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: With the emergence of collaborative robots and smart systems in manufacturing environments, the artificial agents can be used to improve physical ergonomics of human co-workers. For example, during human–robot collaboration the robot can use biomechanical models of the human co-worker in order to adjust the working configuration and account for various ergonomic metrics, such as human posture, joint torques, arm manipulability and muscle fatigue. The ergonomic suitability of the shared workspace with respect to these metrics can also be displayed to the human with workspace maps through visual interfaces.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: Cognitive ergonomics is concerned with mental processes, such as perception, emotion, memory, reasoning, and motor response, as they affect interactions among humans and other elements of a system. (Relevant topics include mental workload, decision-making, skilled performance, human reliability, work stress and training as these may relate to human–system and human–computer interaction design.) Epidemiological studies show a correlation between the time one spends sedentary and their cognitive function such as lowered mood and depression.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: Organizational ergonomics is concerned with the optimization of socio-technical systems, including their organizational structures, policies, and processes. Relevant topics include human communication successes or failures in adaptation to other system elements, crew resource management, work design, work systems, design of working times, teamwork, participatory ergonomics, community ergonomics, cooperative work, new work programs, virtual organizations, remote work, and quality management. Safety culture within an organization of engineers and technicians has been linked to engineering safety with cultural dimensions including power distance and ambiguity tolerance. Low power distance has been shown to be more conducive to a safety culture. Organizations with cultures of concealment or lack of empathy have been shown to have poor safety culture.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: Some have stated that human ergonomics began with "Australopithecus prometheus" (also known as “little foot”), a primate who created handheld tools out of different types of stone, clearly distinguishing between tools based on their ability to perform designated tasks. The foundations of the science of ergonomics appear to have been laid within the context of the culture of Ancient Greece. A good deal of evidence indicates that Greek civilization in the 5th century BC used ergonomic principles in the design of their tools, jobs, and workplaces. One outstanding example of this can be found in the description Hippocrates gave of how a surgeon's workplace should be designed and how the tools he uses should be arranged. The archaeological record also shows that the early Egyptian dynasties made tools and household equipment that illustrated ergonomic principles.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: Bernardino Ramazzini was one of the first people to systematically study the illness that resulted from work earning himself the nickname “father of occupational medicine”. In the late 1600s and early 1700s Ramazzini visited many worksites where he documented the movements of laborers and spoke to them about their ailments. He then published “De Morbis Artificum Diatriba” (Latin for Diseases of Workers) which detailed occupations, common illnesses, remedies. In the 19th century, Frederick Winslow Taylor pioneered the "scientific management" method, which proposed a way to find the optimum method of carrying out a given task. Taylor found that he could, for example, triple the amount of coal that workers were shoveling by incrementally reducing the size and weight of coal shovels until the fastest shoveling rate was reached. Frank and Lillian Gilbreth expanded Taylor's methods in the early 1900s to develop the "time and motion study". They aimed to improve efficiency by eliminating unnecessary steps and actions. By applying this approach, the Gilbreths reduced the number of motions in bricklaying from 18 to 4.5, allowing bricklayers to increase their productivity from 120 to 350 bricks per hour.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: However, this approach was rejected by Russian researchers who focused on the well-being of the worker. At the First Conference on Scientific Organization of Labour (1921) Vladimir Bekhterev and Vladimir Nikolayevich Myasishchev criticised Taylorism. Bekhterev argued that "The ultimate ideal of the labour problem is not in it [Taylorism], but is in such organisation of the labour process that would yield a maximum of efficiency coupled with a minimum of health hazards, absence of fatigue and a guarantee of the sound health and all round personal development of the working people." Myasishchev rejected Frederick Taylor's proposal to turn man into a machine. Dull monotonous work was a temporary necessity until a corresponding machine can be developed. He also went on to suggest a new discipline of "ergology" to study work as an integral part of the re-organisation of work. The concept was taken up by Myasishchev's mentor, Bekhterev, in his final report on the conference, merely changing the name to "ergonology"


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: Prior to World War I, the focus of aviation psychology was on the aviator himself, but the war shifted the focus onto the aircraft, in particular, the design of controls and displays, and the effects of altitude and environmental factors on the pilot. The war saw the emergence of aeromedical research and the need for testing and measurement methods. Studies on driver behavior started gaining momentum during this period, as Henry Ford started providing millions of Americans with automobiles. Another major development during this period was the performance of aeromedical research. By the end of World War I, two aeronautical labs were established, one at Brooks Air Force Base, Texas and the other at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base outside of Dayton, Ohio. Many tests were conducted to determine which characteristic differentiated the successful pilots from the unsuccessful ones. During the early 1930s, Edwin Link developed the first flight simulator. The trend continued and more sophisticated simulators and test equipment were developed. Another significant development was in the civilian sector, where the effects of illumination on worker productivity were examined. This led to the identification of the Hawthorne Effect, which suggested that motivational factors could significantly influence human performance.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: World War II marked the development of new and complex machines and weaponry, and these made new demands on operators' cognition. It was no longer possible to adopt the Tayloristic principle of matching individuals to preexisting jobs. Now the design of equipment had to take into account human limitations and take advantage of human capabilities. The decision-making, attention, situational awareness and hand-eye coordination of the machine's operator became key in the success or failure of a task. There was substantial research conducted to determine the human capabilities and limitations that had to be accomplished. A lot of this research took off where the aeromedical research between the wars had left off. An example of this is the study done by Fitts and Jones (1947), who studied the most effective configuration of control knobs to be used in aircraft cockpits.