title: Chrysler LA engine

text: The last variation of the LA series to be introduced before the Magnum upgrade was the 1988-92 throttle-body fuel injection, roller cam engine. The first engines to receive these modifications were the V8 and V6 engines. A Holley/Chrysler-designed, single-point, twin-injector throttle body assembly that was mounted atop a slightly re-designed cast iron intake manifold. An in-tank electric pump and reservoir replaced the earlier mechanical (camshaft-eccentric driven) pump. The valvetrain was upgraded to include hydraulic roller lifters, however cam specs remained essentially unchanged. The resulting engine was somewhat improved as to power and efficiency. The 5.9 L V8 engines followed suit in 1989, but also received the overall improved "308" cylinder heads (casting number 4448308) that featured significantly higher flowing exhaust ports and a return to the original 1971 (non fast burn) combustion chamber. However, with other manufacturers already introducing the superior multi-point fuel injection system, Chrysler Corporation considered a more drastic upgrade program.


title: Chrysler LA engine

text: As the TBI engines were being introduced, the new upgrade program was initiated in the Chrysler engineering department. In 1992, with emissions standards becoming ever more stringent in the United States, Chrysler Corporation released the first of the upgraded engines.


title: Chrysler LA engine

text: In 1992, Chrysler introduced the first of a series of upgraded versions of the LA engines. The company named their engine the "Magnum", a marketing term that had been used by the company previously to describe both the Dodge Magnum automobile and an earlier Dodge passenger car (only) engine series; the latter was based on the big-block B/RB V8 engines of the 1960s-70s.


title: Chrysler LA engine

text: The Chrysler Magnum engines are a series of V6, V8, and V10 powerplants used in a number of Chrysler Corporation motor vehicles, as well as in marine and industrial applications. This family of gasoline-burning engines lasted for over a decade, were installed in vehicles sold across the globe, and were produced in the millions.


title: Chrysler LA engine

text: The Magnum engine is a direct descendant of the Chrysler LA engine, which began with the V8 in 1964. While the Magnum 3.9, Magnum 5.2, and Magnum 5.9 (1992-up) engines were significantly based on the 239, the 318, and the 360 — respectively — many of the parts will not directly interchange and the Magnums are not technically LA engines; the only major parts that are actually unchanged are the connecting rods.


title: Chrysler LA engine

text: The cylinder block remained basically the same. It was still a V-shaped, 90-degree design made of cast iron. The crankshaft, located to the bottom of the block by five main bearing caps, was cast nodular iron, and the eight connecting rods were forged steel. The pistons were cast aluminum, with a hypereutectic design. Cylinders were numbered from the front of the engine to the rear; cylinders 1, 3, 5 and 7 were found on the left (driver side) bank, or "bank 1", with the even numbers on the other bank.


title: Chrysler LA engine

text: Coolant passages were located between the cylinders. The gerotor-type oil pump was located at the bottom rear of the engine, and provided oil to both the crankshaft main bearings and the cylinder heads (via the lifters and pushrods, as opposed to a drilled passage on LA engines). Chrysler's engineers also redesigned the oil seals on the crankshaft to improve anti-leak seal performance. The oil pan was also made from thicker steel, and was installed with a more leak-resistant silicone-rubber gasket.


title: Chrysler LA engine

text: Gasoline was supplied to the intake manifold through a pair of steel rails that fed eight Bosch-type, top-fed, electronically actuated fuel injectors; there was one injector located in each intake runner. Each cylinder had its own injector, thus making the fuel system a "multi-point" type. Fuel pressure was regulated by a vacuum-controlled pressure regulator, located on the return side of the second fuel rail. Excess fuel was thereafter delivered back to the fuel tank. (Later versions had the regulator and filter mounted at the in-tank pump).


title: Chrysler LA engine

text: To support the new fuel system, the intake manifold was of a new design. Known colloquially as the "beer keg" or "kegger" manifold, the part was shaped like half of a beer barrel lying longitudinally atop the center of the V-shaped engine block. The intake runners, which supplied the fuel and air to each cylinder, fed each of the intake ports in the newly designed cylinder heads. The bolts that secured the intake manifold to the cylinder heads were installed at a different angle from those on the older LA engine; they threaded in vertically, rather than at the 45-degree angle of the 1966-up LA.


title: Chrysler LA engine

text: Air was provided from the air filter intake to the intake manifold by a Holley-designed, aluminum, twin-venturi, mechanically actuated throttle body, which was bolted atop the intake manifold. Each venturi was progressively bored and had a diameter of 50mm. To this unit were mounted the Throttle Position Sensor (TPS), Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP) sensor and Idle Air Control (IAC) valve (initially referred to as the "AIS Motor"). A steel cable connected the accelerator pedal inside the vehicle to a mechanical linkage at the side of the throttle body, which acted to open the air intake butterfly valves inside the venturis. During idle these butterfly valves were closed, so a bypass port and the IAC valve were used to control the intake of air.


title: Chrysler LA engine

text: The cylinder heads were another fundamental change of the Magnum engine, being designed to meet stricter requirements in both power and emissions by increasing efficiency. These heads were cast iron units with new wedge-shaped combustion chambers and high-swirl valve shrouding. Combustion chamber design was most important in these new heads: LA engine cylinder heads were given a full-relief open-chamber design, but the Magnum was engineered with a double-quench closed-chamber type. The higher-flowing intake ports stepped up intake flow dramatically in comparison to the original LA heads, and the exhaust ports improved cylinder evacuation as well. The shape and porting of the chambers allowed for more complete atomization of the air/fuel mixture, as well as contributing to more complete combustion; these virtues allowed for much greater efficiency of the engine as a whole. The intake and exhaust valves were located at the top of each combustion chamber. The valves themselves had shorter, 5/16" diameter stems, to allow for the more aggressive camshaft. Intake valves had a port diameter of 1.92", while exhaust valves were 1.600


title: Chrysler LA engine

text: ", with 60cc combustion chambers. Spark plugs were located at the peak of the combustion chambers' wedge, between the exhaust ports; press-in heat shields protected them from the heat of the exhaust manifolds.


title: Chrysler LA engine

text: Cast iron exhaust manifolds, less restrictive than units found on previous engines, were bolted to the outboard side of each head. The new cylinder heads also featured stud-mounted rocker arms, a change from the shaft-mounted LA arms. This last change was due to the different oiling system of the new engine, as described in the next paragraph. The valve covers on the Magnum have 10 bolts rather than the previous 5, for improved oil sealing. In addition, the valve covers were made of thicker steel than earlier parts, and were installed with a silicone gasket.


title: Chrysler LA engine

text: The valvetrain was also updated, although it was still based on a single, center-block-located camshaft pushing on hydraulic lifters and pushrods, one for each rocker arm. However, the cast nodular iron camshaft was of the "roller" type, with each lobe acting upon a hydraulic lifter with a roller bearing on the bottom; this made for a quieter, cooler-running valvetrain, but also allowed for a more aggressive valve lift. Each of the lifters acted upon a steel pushrod, which were of the "oil-through" type. This was another change for the Magnum. Because the new pushrods also served to provide oil to the top of the cylinder head, the rockers were changed to the AMC-style, screw-mounted, bridged half-shaft type. The new rockers also had a higher ratio: 1.6:1 compared to 1.5:1 in the LA engine, which increased leverage on the valves. In addition, the oil boss located at the end of the cylinder head on the LA engine was left undrilled, as it was no longer needed. However, the boss itself was left in place, perhaps to cut down on casting and machining costs, and to allow the use of earlier LA heads.


title: Chrysler LA engine

text: Engine timing was controlled by the all-steel, silent Morse timing chain (some early production engines had double-row roller timing sets), which was located beneath the aluminum timing cover at the front of the engine block. The timing chain sprockets, one each for the camshaft and crankshaft, were all-steel; for the last few years the LA engine came with nylon teeth on the sprockets. At the rear of the camshaft was cut a set of helical gear teeth, these being used to spin the distributor. Mounted to the front of the timing cover was a new-design counter-clockwise-rotation water pump, with much improved flow. Externally, the accessory drive belt was changed to a serpentine system; coupled with an automatic belt tensioner this increased belt life, reduced maintenance and contributed to lower noise and vibration levels.


title: Chrysler LA engine

text: The ignition system was also all-new for the Magnum. Controlled by a new micro-processor-equipped Single-Board Engine Controller (SBEC, also known as the ECM, or Engine Control Module), the ignition system included a distributor mounted at the rear of the engine. A 36,000-volt ignition coil, usually located at the front right of the engine, provided electrical power to the center of the distributor cap, where a spinning rotor directed the power to each of the individual cylinders' spark plug wires. Ignition dwell, advance and retardation were electronically controlled by the SBEC.


title: Chrysler LA engine

text: The SBEC controlled the ignition, as well as the opening and closing of the fuel injectors. During cold startup, wide-open throttle and deceleration, it did this based on "open-loop", pre-programmed operating parameters. During normal idle and cruising, it began "closed-loop" operation, during which the module acted based upon inputs from a variety of sensors. The basic sensors that provided input to the SBEC included the Oxygen sensor (O2), Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP) sensor, Throttle Position Sensor (TPS), Intake Air Temperature (IAT) sensor and Coolant Temperature sensor (CTS). The basic actuators controlled by the SBEC's outputs included the fuel injectors, ignition coil and pickup, and the Idle Air Control (IAC) valve. The latter controlled idle characteristics. However, the SBEC also controlled the operation of the charging system, air conditioning system, cruise control and, in some vehicles, transmission shifting. By centralizing control of these systems, the operation of the vehicle was simplified and streamlined.


title: Chrysler LA engine

text: Emissions output was controlled by several systems. The EGR, or Exhaust Gas Recirculation system, brought exhaust gas from the exhaust stream up to the intake manifold, lowering peak combustion temperatures, the goal being the reduction of NOX emissions. A PCV, or Positive Crankcase Ventilation system, introduced oil vapor and unburnt fuel vapors from the crankcase to the intake, allowing the engine to re-use these as well. Furthermore, gasoline vapors that would normally be released into the atmosphere were captured by the EVAP system, to then be introduced into the engine.


title: Chrysler LA engine

text: In 1996, the OBD-II on-board diagnostics system was introduced on all passenger vehicles in the United States, as per United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulation. As such, a new engine control computer was developed for vehicles powered by Magnum engines, known as the JTEC. The new Powertrain Control Module was more complex and more intelligent, and added programming meant it could also control automatic transmission and other powertrain functions; its firmware could also be reprogrammed ("reflashed") via the same OBD-II port. With the introduction of the JTEC, the EGR system was dropped from Magnum engines.


title: Chrysler LA engine

text: As the 5.2 L V8 was introduced in 1992, the often-forgotten V6 version of the Magnum engine became available in the Ram pickup and the more compact Dodge Dakota. Based on the LA-series V6, the 3.9 L featured the same changes and upgrades as the other Magnum engines. The 3.9 L can be better understood by imagining a 5.2 L V8 with two cylinders removed.


title: Chrysler LA engine

text: Power increased substantially to at 4,400 rpm and from at 3,200 rpm, as compared with the previous TBI engine. For 1994, horsepower was reduced to , mostly due to the installation of smaller-volume exhaust manifolds; torque ratings remained the same. For 1997, the 3.9 L engine's torque output was increased to , with a compression ratio of 9.1:1. Firing order was 1-6-5-4-3-2. This engine was last produced for the 2003 Dodge Dakota pickup. Starting in the 2004 model year it was entirely withdrawn from production and replaced with the 3.7 L PowerTech V6 engine.


title: Chrysler LA engine

text: The Magnum 5.2 L, released in 1992, was an evolutionary development of the 'LA' engine with the same displacement. The 5.2 L was the first of the Magnum upgraded engines, followed in 1993 by the 5.9 L V8 and the 3.9 L V6.


title: Chrysler LA engine

text: At the time of its introduction, the 5.2 L Magnum created at 4,100 rpm and at 3,000 rpm. Production of this engine lasted until 2002, when it was completely replaced by the newer 4.7 L PowerTech SOHC V8 engine.


title: Chrysler LA engine

text: In 1993, Chrysler Corporation released the next member of the Magnum family: the 5.9 L V8. This was based on the LA-series engine, and included the same upgrades and design features as the 5.2 L. The standard 5.9 L produced at 4,000 rpm and at 3,200 rpm; torque was increased to at 2,800 rpm in the heavy-duty version. It was upgraded in 1998 to at 4,000 rpm and at 3,250 rpm. The 5.9 L came factory-installed in 1998-2001 Dodge Dakota R/T pickups and 2000-2003 Dodge Durango R/T SUVs. It was also installed in the Jeep Grand Cherokee Limited 5.9, only available in 1998. The 5.9 L Magnum was available until the 2003 model year, when it was replaced with the 5.7 L Hemi V8 engine.


title: Chrysler LA engine

text: Although the pre-Magnum ('71-'92) and Magnum versions of the are both externally balanced, the two are balanced differently (the 360 Magnum uses lighter pistons) and each requires a uniquely balanced damper, flywheel, drive plate, or torque converter. Bore and stroke size was ; compression ratio was 9.1:1.


title: Chrysler LA engine

text: As the design for the 5.2 L Magnum V8 was coming together in 1988, consideration was given to the design of a larger V10 iteration, mainly intended for use in Dodge Ram 2500 and 3500 pickups. This was to be Chrysler's first 10-cylinder engine (before the '92 Viper, see below), and can best be understood as a 5.9 L V8 with two cylinders added. This engine was based on a cast iron block, and was rated for at 4,100 rpm and at 2,400 rpm. Bore and stroke was ; compression ratio was 8.4:1; firing order was 1-10-9-4-3-6-5-8-7-2. Valve covers were die cast magnesium (AZ91D alloy), rather than stamped steel; this lowered noise levels and made for better gasket sealing.


title: Chrysler LA engine

text: The 8.0 L Magnum V10 first became available in the 1994 model year Dodge Ram 2500 and 3500 pickups, and it was the most powerful gasoline-burning engine then available in any passenger pickup truck. The engine lasted through the 2003 model year, after which it was discontinued.


title: Chrysler LA engine

text: Chrysler offers a line of crate engines based on the Magnum designed to bolt into older muscle cars and street rods with little modification. Some of the changes to facilitate this were using a 1970-93 water pump so that older pulleys and brackets could be used, as well as an intake manifold that uses a carburetor instead of electronic fuel injection. With a high lift cam and single plane intake, the crate Magnum was rated at with the Magnum heads. Later models equipped with "R/T" or aluminum cylinder heads produced . A bolt-in fuel injection conversion kit is also available.


title: Chrysler LA engine

text: The easiest way to differentiate a bare Magnum block from a LA is by checking for the presence of the two crankshaft position sensor mounting bosses on the right rear top of the block, just to the rear of the cylinder head deck surface. Bosses = Magnum. Keeping in mind that the earlier TBI engines also have crank sensors in this position.


title: Chrysler LA engine

text: All Magnum engines were stamped with a unique engine ID number. This was located on a flat impression on the cylinder block's right side, near the oil pan gasket surface. From 1992 to 1998, the ID was 19 digits long. An example would be:


title: Chrysler LA engine

text: -The "M" stands for "Mound Road", the plant where the engine was assembled. Other characters found here would be "S" for Saltillo, "T" for Trenton and "K" for Toluca.


title: Chrysler LA engine

text: From 1998 to 2003, the engine ID was shortened to only 13 characters. It differed in that engine displacement was given in cubic inches rather than in liters, the usage character was dropped and the serial number was four instead of eight digits long.


title: Chrysler LA engine

text: To add some confusion, not only was the name Magnum used on Dodge passcar hi-po engines 1967-1970s, and vehicle lines in the late 1970s and 2000s, it was also applied 4.7L power tech v8 (1999+) and to the 5.7L "Hemi" V8 in pickup trucks (2003+).


title: Scopus

text: Scopus is Elsevier's abstract and citation database launched in 2004. Scopus covers nearly 36,377 titles (22,794 active titles and 13,583 inactive titles) from approximately 11,678 publishers, of which 34,346 are peer-reviewed journals in top-level subject fields: life sciences, social sciences, physical sciences and health sciences. It covers three types of sources: book series, journals, and trade journals. All journals covered in the Scopus database are reviewed for sufficiently high quality each year according to four types of numerical quality measure for each title; those are "h"-Index, CiteScore, SJR (SCImago Journal Rank) and SNIP (Source Normalized Impact per Paper). Searches in Scopus also incorporate searches of patent databases.


title: Scopus

text: Comparing ease of use and coverage of Scopus and the Web of Science (WOS), a 2006 study concluded that "Scopus is easy to navigate, even for the novice user. ... The ability to search both forward and backward from a particular citation would be very helpful to the researcher. The multidisciplinary aspect allows the researcher to easily search outside of his discipline" and "One advantage of WOS over Scopus is the depth of coverage, with the full WOS database going back to 1945 and Scopus going back to 1966. However, Scopus and WOS complement each other as neither resource is all-inclusive."


title: Scopus

text: Scopus also offers author profiles which cover affiliations, number of publications and their bibliographic data, references, and details on the number of citations each published document has received. It has alerting features that allow registered users to track changes to a profile and a facility to calculate authors' "h"-index. In 2016, a gratis website, Scopus CiteScore, was introduced. It provides citation data for all 25,000+ active titles such as journals, conference proceedings and books in Scopus and provides an alternative to the impact factor, a journal-level indicator which may correlate negatively with reliability.


title: Scopus

text: Scopus IDs for individual authors can be integrated with the non-proprietary digital identifier ORCID.


title: Scopus

text: In 2018, Scopus started embedding partial information about the open access status of works, using Unpaywall data.


title: Scopus

text: Since Elsevier is the owner of Scopus and is also one of the main international publishers of scientific journals, an independent and international Scopus Content Selection and Advisory Board (CSAB) was established in 2009 to prevent a potential conflict of interest in the choice of journals to be included in the database and to maintain an open and transparent content coverage policy, regardless of publisher. The board consists of scientists and subject librarians. Nevertheless, critique over a perceived conflict of interest has continued.


title: Scopus

text: CSAB team is responsible for inclusion and exclusion of different titles on Scopus. Since 2004, they have included 41525 and excluded 688 titles The re-evaluation policy is claimed to be based on four criteria of Publication Concern, Under Performance, Outlier Performance and Continuous curation. Since 2016, the CSAB has re-evaluated 990 titles published by 539 different publishers leading to 536 titles discontinued for indexing. Nevertheless, research continues to show the inclusion of predatory journals.


title: Scopus

text: According to the Scimago Journal Rankings, , "Nature" had the highest "h"-index, at 1011, and "CA - A Cancer Journal for Clinicians" had the highest SJR of 39.285, and CiteScore 2016 (89.23 in the 99th percentile). Scimagojr.com provides country ranking based on Total Published Documents, Citable documents, Citations, Self-Citations, Citations per Document and "h"-index. As per this website, , the United States ("h"-index : 2222) was in first place, the United Kingdom ("h"-index : 1373) was in the second place and Germany ("h"-index : 1203) was in third place based on national "h"-index.


title: Hastur

text: Hastur (The Unspeakable One, The King in Yellow, Him Who Is Not to be Named, Assatur, Xastur, H'aaztre, or Kaiwan) is an entity of cosmic horror.


title: Hastur

text: Hastur first appeared in Ambrose Bierce's short story "Haïta the Shepherd" (1893) as a benign god of shepherds.


title: Hastur

text: Subsequently Robert W. Chambers used the name in his late 1800s stories to represent both a person and a place associated with several stars, including Aldebaran.


title: Hastur

text: H. P. Lovecraft was inspired by Chambers's stories and briefly mentioned Hastur in "The Whisperer in Darkness" (1930). Later writers have also adapted Hastur in a variety of tales.


title: Hastur

text: In Bierce's "Haïta the Shepherd", which appeared in the collection "Can Such Things Be?", Hastur is more benevolent than he would later appear in August Derleth's mythos stories. Another story in the same collection ("An Inhabitant of Carcosa") referred to the place "Carcosa" and a person "Hali", names which later authors were to associate with Hastur.


title: Hastur

text: In Chambers' "The King in Yellow" (1895), a collection of horror stories, Hastur is the name of a potentially supernatural character (in "The Demoiselle D'Ys"), a place (in "The Repairer of Reputations"), and mentioned without explanation in "The Yellow Sign". The latter two stories also mention Carcosa, Hali, Aldebaran, and the Hyades, along with a "Yellow Sign" and a play called "The King in Yellow".


title: Hastur

text: H. P. Lovecraft read Chambers' book in early 1927 and was so enchanted by it that he added elements of it to his own creations. There are two places in Lovecraft's own writings in which Hastur is mentioned:


title: Hastur

text: I found myself faced by names and terms that I had heard elsewhere in the most hideous of connections—Yuggoth, Great Cthulhu, Tsathoggua, Yog-Sothoth, R'lyeh, Nyarlathotep, Azathoth, Hastur, Yian, Leng, the Lake of Hali, Bethmoora, the Yellow Sign, L’mur-Kathulos, Bran, and the Magnum Innominandum—and was drawn back through nameless aeons and inconceivable dimensions to worlds of elder, outer entity at which the crazed author of the "Necronomicon" had only guessed in the vaguest way.


title: Hastur

text: It is unclear from this quote if Lovecraft's Hastur is a person, a place, an object (such as the Yellow Sign), or a deity. This ambiguity is recurrent in Lovecraft's descriptions of mythic entities.


title: Hastur

text: Later in the same story, it is described that the Mi-Go have been attacked by followers of Hastur, and Hastur is an enemy of the Outer Ones whom the Mi-Go serve:


title: Hastur

text: Actually, they have never knowingly harmed men, but have often been cruelly wronged and spied upon by our species. There is a whole secret cult of evil men (a man of your mystical erudition will understand me when I link them with Hastur and the Yellow Sign) devoted to the purpose of tracking them down and injuring them on behalf of monstrous powers from other dimensions. It is against these aggressors—not against normal humanity—that the drastic precautions of the Outer Ones are directed.


title: Hastur

text: ...after stumbling queerly upon the hellish and forbidden book of horrors the two learn, among other hideous things which no sane mortal should know, that this talisman is indeed the nameless Yellow Sign handed down from the accursed cult of Hastur—from primordial Carcosa, whereof the volume treats...


title: Hastur

text: So, judging from these two quotes, it is quite possible that H. P. Lovecraft not only recognized Hastur as one of the mythos gods, but even made him so recalling Chambers' book.


title: Hastur

text: Derleth also developed Hastur into a Great Old One, spawn of Yog-Sothoth, the half-brother of Cthulhu, and possibly the Magnum Innominandum. In this incarnation, Hastur has several Avatars:


title: Hastur

text: Anders Fager's "Collected Swedish Cults" features a Stockholm-based coterie known as "The Carcosa Foundation" that worships Hastur.


title: Hastur

text: Hastur is amorphous, but he is said to appear as a vast, vaguely octopoid being, similar to his half-niece Cthylla. In the mythos, Hastur is presented as having "a strange effect on artists and playwrights".


title: Hastur

text: Hastur has appeared in other media. In the light novel and anime series "Haiyore! Nyaruko-san", which is based on the Cthulhu mythos, one of the main characters, , is a Japanized version of and direct reference to Hastur.


title: Hastur

text: Hastur is the name of a hunter in the video game "Identity V" who is also known as The Feaster and The King in Yellow.


title: Hastur

text: Hastur is also believed to be the King in Yellow in the video game "Vampire Survivors". The player also receives the Yellow Sign from them directly.


title: Hastur

text: The short story "Gramma" by Stephen King features a demonic entity named Hastur, who also appeared in the 18th episode of the 1985 "Twilight Zone" adaptation and the 2014 film adaptation, "Mercy".


title: Hastur

text: Though not named directly, The King in Yellow is mentioned and connected to Carcosa in the first season of the HBO Series True Detective.


title: Hastur

text: Hastur as The King in Yellow is portrayed in a short film titled "The King In Yellow" by experimental filmmaker Cole Frederick.


title: Hastur

text: In the Doctor Who Virgin New Adventures novel "All-Consuming Fire", Hastur the Unspeakable is either one of the names/titles belonging to or the original name of the Great Old One, Fenric.


title: Hastur

text: Hastur makes a few appearances in the Persona games. In Persona 5 Royal, Hastur appears as a Persona of the Star Arcana, only accessible for fusion in the true ending, alongside Fafnir, Byakhee, Alilat, Chimera, Macabre, and Loa. In the game, Hastur primarily specialises in Wind magic, and can compete with Vishnu and Baal as the strongest Wind Persona in the game. Hastur also gets his own personal move, Abyssal Eye, which is actually a reskin of the move Megidolaon, as it also does Severe Almighty damage to all opponents.


title: Hollywood Bowl

text: The Hollywood Bowl is an amphitheatre in the Hollywood Hills neighborhood of Los Angeles, California. It was named one of the 10 best live music venues in America by "Rolling Stone" magazine in 2018.


title: Hollywood Bowl

text: The Hollywood Bowl is known for its distinctive bandshell, originally a set of concentric arches that graced the site from 1929 through 2003, before being replaced with a larger one to begin the 2004 season. The shell is set against the backdrop of the Hollywood Hills and the famous Hollywood Sign to the northeast.


title: Hollywood Bowl

text: The "bowl" refers to the shape of the concave hillside into which the amphitheater is carved. The Bowl is owned by the County of Los Angeles and is the home of the Hollywood Bowl Orchestra, the summer home of the Los Angeles Philharmonic, and the host venue for hundreds of musical events each year.


title: Hollywood Bowl

text: It is located at 2301 North Highland Avenue, west of the (former) French Village. It is north of Hollywood Boulevard and approximately 1 mile (1.6 km) from the Hollywood/Highland Metro Rail station. It is adjacent to U.S. Route 101.


title: Hollywood Bowl

text: The site of the Hollywood Bowl was chosen in 1919 by William Reed and his son H. Ellis Reed, who were dispatched to find a suitable location for outdoor performances by the members of the newly formed Theatre Arts Alliance, headed by Christine Wetherill Stevenson. The Reeds selected a natural amphitheater, a shaded canyon and popular picnic spot known as 'Daisy Dell' in Bolton Canyon, which was chosen for its natural acoustics and its proximity to downtown Hollywood. The Community Park and Art Association, then headed by F. W. Blanchard, was the first organization to begin building the Bowl.


title: Hollywood Bowl

text: One of the earliest performances at the Bowl was Hollywood High School's Performance of Shakespeare's "Twelfth Night". The Women's World Peace Concert was held on November 11, 1921. On November 11, 1921, the first Sunrise Service took place at the bowl, in one of its first major events. With the building of the first actual stage, consisting of little more than wooden platforms and canvas, The Bowl officially opened on July 11, 1922.


title: Hollywood Bowl

text: The Bowl began as a community space rather than a privately owned establishment. Proceeds from the early events at the Bowl went to financing the construction of new elements of the bowl such as a stage and seating in 1922 and 1923 respectively. In 1924, a backdrop to the stage was added.


title: Hollywood Bowl

text: During the early years of the Bowl's existence, concert tickets were kept at the lowest available price of 25 cents using the slogan "popular prices will prevail", coined by F.W. Blanchard. While serving as the venue for concerts by the Los Angeles Philharmonic, the Bowl also served as a community space, used for Easter services, the Hollywood Community Chorus, as well as "Young Artists Nights" where younger musicians could perform well-known classical music. Children were also invited to perform at community events with the Los Angeles Philharmonic and the Hollywood Community Chorus, beginning with Sibelius’ "Finlandia" in 1921.


title: Hollywood Bowl

text: The Bowl was home to much more than western music, hosting a variety of Native American tribal events, as well as international music ensembles.


title: Hollywood Bowl

text: Many of the key influential figures in the founding of the Hollywood Bowl were women, most notably the pianist Artie Mason Carter, whose connections with the Los Angeles arts patrons were vital in the early days of the Bowl's existence. Christine Wetherill Stevenson and Marie Rankin Clarke both donated $21,000 to purchase the land on which the bowl was built. E.J. Wakeman, Leiland Atherton Irish, Harriet Clay Penman, and composers Gertrude Ross and Carrie Jacobs Bond all contributed to the Bowl through fundraising drives.


title: Hollywood Bowl

text: Frank Lloyd Wright, Jr. (commonly known as Lloyd Wright) designed the second and third band shells. The original 1926 shell, designed by the Allied Architects group, was considered unacceptable both visually and acoustically. Wright's 1927 shell had a pyramidal shape and a design reminiscent of southwest American Indian architecture. Its acoustics generally were regarded as the best of any shell in Bowl history. But its appearance was considered too avant-garde, or even ugly, and it was demolished at the end of the season. His 1928 wooden shell had the now-familiar concentric ring motif, covered a 120-degree arc, and was designed to be easily dismantled. Unfortunately it was neglected and ruined by water damage.


title: Hollywood Bowl

text: For the 1929 season, the Allied Architects built the shell that stood until 2003, using a transite skin over a metal frame. Its acoustics, though not nearly as good as those of the Lloyd Wright shells, were deemed satisfactory at first, and its clean lines and white, semicircular arches were copied for music shells elsewhere. As the acoustics deteriorated, various measures were used to mitigate the problems, starting in the 1970s with an inner shell made from large cardboard tubes, which were replaced in the early 1980s by large fiberglass spheres (both designed by Frank Gehry) that remained until 2003. These dampened the unfavorable acoustics, but required massive use of electronic amplification to reach the full audience, particularly since the background noise level had risen sharply since the 1920s. The appearance underwent other visual changes as well, including the addition of a broad outer arch (forming a proscenium) where it had once had only a narrow rim, and a reflecting pool in front of the stage that lasted from 1953 till 1972. Sculptor George Stanley, designer of the Oscar statuette, designed the Muse Fountain which has stood outside the Hollywood Bowl's main entrance since 1940.


title: Hollywood Bowl

text: Shortly after the end of the 2003 summer season, the 1929 shell was replaced with a new, somewhat larger, acoustically improved shell, which had its debut in the 2004 summer season. Preservationists fiercely opposed the demolition for many years, citing the shell's storied history. However, even when it was built, the 1929 shell was (at least acoustically) only the third-best shell in the Bowl's history, behind its two immediate predecessors. By the late 1970s, the Hollywood Bowl became an acoustic liability because of continued hardening of its transite skin. The new shell incorporates design elements of not only the 1929 shell, but of both the Lloyd Wright shells. During the 2004 summer season, the sound steadily improved, as engineers learned to work with its live acoustics.


title: Hollywood Bowl

text: The current sound reinforcement system is a line-array configuration of multiple loudspeaker enclosures hung vertically in a curved manner, with the lower enclosures facing the front sections, and the upper enclosures angled towards the rear sections. It is manufactured by L'Acoustics, and includes state-of-the-art audio processing, allowing each individual loudspeaker enclosure to be "tuned" and directed towards the near-precise location of the listener, regardless of where in the venue they are sitting. This results in the audience in the rear sections hearing the same audio, at the same level, as in the front sections. This electronic processing includes sound level, frequency equalization, occasional special effects, and time delay (sound passes through wire much faster than through air, therefore the sound coming from the speakers must be delayed, allowing the actual sound from the stage to "catch up" so both sources reach the listeners' ears simultaneously). The system is maintained by Rat Sound Systems, the same company that has provided audio for the Coachella Festival, since its inception.


title: Hollywood Bowl

text: The 2004 shell incorporates the prominent front arch of the 1926 shell, the broad profile of the 1928 shell, and the unadorned white finish (and most of the general lines) of the 1929 shell. In addition, the ring-shaped structure hung within the shell, supporting lights and acoustic clouds, echoes a somewhat similar structure hung within the 1927 shell. During the 2004 season, because the back wall was not yet finished, a white curtain was hung at the back; beginning with the 2005 season, the curtain was removed to reveal a finished back wall. The architectural design for the shell was developed by the Los Angeles-based architectural practice Hodgetts and Fung, with the structural concept developed by the local office of Arup.


title: Hollywood Bowl

text: At the same time the new shell was being constructed the bowl received four new video screens and towers. During most concerts, three remotely-operated cameras in the shell, and a fourth, manually-operated camera among the box seats, provide the audience with close-up views of the musicians.


title: Hollywood Bowl

text: The Hollywood Bowl has had several house orchestras. A "Bowl Orchestra" performed in 1925, and a "Hollywood Bowl Orchestra" made a live recording in 1928. Later, the "Hollywood Bowl Symphony Orchestra" made several classical recordings under music director Leopold Stokowski from 1945 to 1946, and released a number of recordings on the Capitol Records label in the 1950s and 1960s.


title: Hollywood Bowl

text: The Hollywood Bowl Orchestra was re-launched by the Los Angeles Philharmonic Association in 1991 under principal conductor John Mauceri, who finished his tenure in 2006.


title: Hollywood Bowl

text: The first appointed conductor of the Bowl ensemble was Emil Oberhoffer, who served for one year. Oberhoffer was proceeded by Alfred Hertz for two years. In 1925 Fritz Reiner migrated to the orchestra from the Cincinnati Symphony. Reiner was supplanted by Sir Henry Wood several years later.. German-born Frederick Stark, who would later become a music librarian at Walt Disney Studios, occasionally served as conductor.


title: Hollywood Bowl

text: Ballet dancer Maud Allen performed during the production of the "Pathétique" Symphony by Tschaikowsky under the direction of Alfred Hertz in 1926. Ernest Belcher arranged a ballet scene for "Bowl Dedication Night," and dancers from the Belcher Ballet School performed the "Beautiful Galatea," "Enchanted Hour," and "Venesive Festival". In 1932, the Belcher's ballet was performed in Greek Costumes as a dedication to the Olympic-Games Athletes. Alexis and Theodore Kosloff performed the ballet "Scheherazade" with dancers from Hollywood and the Klosloff Dancing School. In 1932, Theodore Klosloff performed the "Flower". Also in 1932, the ballet "Chopiniana" was performed. Ballet Dancers Ruth St. Denis and Ted Shawn performed solo dances under direction of Hertz in 1927. Ruth St. Denis and Ted Shawn raised their arms to point at the California Stars during the Russian Ballet "sur le point" at the Hollywood Bowl. In 1928, Andreas Pavley, a tenor, and Serge Oukrainsky, a ballet dancer, performed at the Hollywood Bowl. Oukrainsky performed in the ballet "La Fete a Robinson" alone after Pavley's death. In 1929, Norma Gould brought her Los Angeles dancers to the bowl to perform during Schubert's "Unfinished Symphony" and Tschaikowsky's "Nut-Cracker Suite". In August 1930, Michio Ito brought five dancers to the Hollywood Bowl to perform in the Russian Ballet "Prince Igor". In 1931, Adolph Bolm performed at the Bowl for Debussy's "Les Nuages". He also performed "The Spirt factory". This was later called the Mechanical Ballet, composed by Alaxander Mosolov. Dancers Elise Reiman and Robert Bell also performed in the Mechanical Ballet.


title: Hollywood Bowl

text: In 1931, Los Angeles Grand Opera performed segments of "Marouf". Early Hollywood Bowl appearances of opera include "Carmen," "Aida", and "Shanewis". In 1929, a concertized form of the opera "Carmen" was performed by Alice Genytle, Paul Althouse and Alexander Kisselburgh. The same cast later performed moments from the opera "Tannhäuser". In 1932, "Samson and Delilah" was performed by Paul Althouse, local singers, the Belcher Ballet and the Civic Chorus in concert style. In 1927, Elsa Alsen performed "Santuzza" in "Cavalleria". In 1934, Nina Koshetz performed Carmen and Nelson Eddy sang Escamillo in the opera "Carmen". Koshetz also sang the lead in Tschaikowsky's "Eugene Onegin". In the 1930s, Verdi's "Aida" was performed by Dan Gridley, Clemence Gifford, Eleanor Woodforde and Richard Bonelli with the Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra. In 1935, "Lohengrin" was performed, with Jeanette Vreeland performing Elsa and Dan Gridley performing Lonhengrin.


title: Hollywood Bowl

text: The first season at the Hollywood Bowl began on July 11, 1922, with conductor Alfred Hertz and the Los Angeles Philharmonic.


title: Hollywood Bowl

text: In 1945, Leopold Stokowski formed the Hollywood Bowl Symphony Orchestra, drawing its players from among members of the Los Angeles Philharmonic and various film studios orchestras. He made a number of 78 rpm recordings with them for RCA Victor during his two seasons there (1945–46) before returning to New York. The Hollywood Bowl Symphony's name was retained for a series of Capitol LPs made in the 1950s under such conductors as Felix Slatkin and Carmen Dragon.


title: Hollywood Bowl

text: In 1951, a financial crisis closed the Hollywood Bowl during its summer season. Dorothy Chandler chaired a committee that organized a series of fundraising concerts that was able to reopen it.


title: Hollywood Bowl

text: The film-and-orchestra concert Bugs Bunny on Broadway, subsequently called "Bugs Bunny at the Symphony," has played the Hollywood Bowl a record 21 times—19 times with the Los Angeles Philharmonic, and twice with the Hollywood Bowl Orchestra, all conducted by George Daugherty. In September 2003, "Bugs Bunny On Broadway" was the final Los Angeles Philharmonic concert to be performed in the 1929 shell before its demolition started the following day, making way for the new shell.


title: Hollywood Bowl

text: For years The Hollywood Bowl produced popular musicals that are in the mainstream and are sometimes accessible for families, such as:


title: Hollywood Bowl

text: Chicago starring Samantha Barks and Ashlee Simpson, A Chorus Line starring Ross Lynch and George Lopez, Annie starring Lea Salonga and Ana Gasteyer, Les Misérables starring Lea Michele and Rosie O'Donnell, Hair starring Kristen Bell and Hunter Parrish, West Side Story starring Jeremy Jordan and Karen Olivo, Into The Woods starring Sutton Foster and Skylar Astin, My Fair Lady starring John Lithgow and Melissa Erico, Rent starring Vanessa Hudgens and Aaron Tveit, Mamma Mia starting Dove Cameron and Corbin Bleu and more.


title: Hollywood Bowl

text: The next was about to be School Of Rock starring Cynthia Erivo but that was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Hollywood Bowl

text: The Hollywood Bowl Museum is located at the bottom of Peppertree Lane. It was formerly known as the Tea Room which opened in 1984. In 1996, it was rebuilt as the Edmund D. Edelman Hollywood Bowl Museum. It features many historical exhibits including: Summer Nights: Jazz at the Bowl, Hollywood Bowl: Music For Everyone, Postcards from the Bowl, Beatles at the Bowl, Concert Programs and Live from the Bowl. These exhibits feature vintage photographs, vintage sound equipment, newspaper clippings, postcards, live video recordings, and live audio recordings. The Hollywood Bowl Museum also features memorabilia and artifacts about the history of the Hollywood Bowl and performances. The museum includes the Hollywood Bowl Hall of Fame, whose honorees include John Williams, Reba McEntire, Garth Brooks, Stevie Wonder, Brian Wilson, Henry Mancini, Sarah Chang, Bernadette Peters, George Harrison, Frank Sinatra and more. The Hollywood Bowl Museum offers free admission, free self-guided tour options, free guided tour options and educational programs. The educational program, Music Mobile, is a volunteer program and offers musical instrument lessons to students twice a year. If the Hollywood Bowl Museum is closed visitors can walk through "The Bowl Walk" which features historical photographs of the Hollywood Bowl.


title: Hollywood Bowl

text: "The Hollywood Bowl is the first amphitheater in California to be certified as an Audubon Society Cooperative Sanctuary." Los Angeles Philharmonic Association and Los Angeles County are partners with the Hollywood Bowl and encourage recycling. The Hollywood Bowl has many recycling bins located throughout the venue. The Hollywood Bowl has also partnered with Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority (formerly Southern California Rapid Transit District) since 1953 and provides the public with green alternatives to driving, including shuttle buses. "Know Before You Go" is provided as a detailed guide offering public transport information and free bike parking options. The Hollywood Bowl has waterless urinals and flush-reducing toilets to preserve water as well as a satellite-based irrigation system to control water use. This irrigation system also provides water based on the needs of animal life. The Hollywood Bowl has stainless steel grates and water filters to keep its irrigation system clean.


title: Perfidy

text: In the context of war, perfidy is a form of deception in which one side promises to act in good faith (such as by raising a flag of truce) with the intention of breaking that promise once the unsuspecting enemy is exposed (such as by coming out of cover to take the "surrendering" prisoners into custody).


title: Perfidy

text: Perfidy constitutes a breach of the recognized laws of war and so is considered a war crime, as it degrades the protections and mutual restraints developed in the interest of all parties, combatants and civilians.


title: Perfidy

text: Perfidy is specifically prohibited under the 1977 "Protocol I Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949", which states:


title: Perfidy

text: Disapproval of perfidy was part of the customary laws of war long before the prohibition of perfidy was included in Protocol I. For example, in the 1907 Hague Convention "IV - The Laws and Customs of War on Land", Article 23 includes:


title: Perfidy

text: During the Pacific Theatre of World War II, Japanese soldiers were reported to often booby-trap their dead and wounded and to fake surrenders or injuries to lure Allied troops into a trap then surprise attack them. One example was the "Goettge Patrol", during the early days of the Guadalcanal Campaign in 1942, in which an allegedly fake Japanese surrender resulted in more than 20 US deaths. It has been asserted that the incident, along with many other perfidious actions of the Japanese throughout the Pacific War, led to an Allied tendency to shoot the dead or wounded Japanese soldiers and those who were attempting to surrender and not to take them as POWs easily.


title: Perfidy

text: At the Dachau Trials, the issue of whether the donning of enemy uniforms to approach the enemy without drawing fire was within the laws of war was established under international humanitarian law at the trial in 1947 of the planner and commander of Operation Greif, Otto Skorzeny. He was found not guilty by a US military tribunal of a crime by ordering his men into action in US uniforms. He had passed on to his men the warning of German legal experts that if they fought in US uniforms, they would be breaking the laws of war. During the trial, a number of arguments were advanced to substantiate this position and that the German and US militaries seem to be in agreement on it. In its judgement, the tribunal noted that the case did not require that the tribunal make findings other than those of guilty or not guilty and so no safe conclusion could be drawn from the acquittal of all accused. The tribunal also emphasized the difference between using enemy uniforms in espionage versus combat.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The 1998 Winter Olympics, officially known as the and commonly known as Nagano 1998 (), was a winter multi-sport event held from 7 to 22 February 1998, mainly in Nagano, Japan, with some events taking place in the nearby mountain communities of Hakuba, Karuizawa, Nozawa Onsen, and Yamanouchi. The city of Nagano had previously been a candidate to host the 1940 Winter Olympics (which were later cancelled), as well as the 1972 Winter Olympics, but had been eliminated at the national level by Sapporo on both occasions.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: Nagano was selected to host the 1998 Games on 15 June 1991, beating Salt Lake City, Östersund, Jaca, and Aosta. This was the second Winter Olympics to be held in Japan, and the third Olympic Games overall, after the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo and the 1972 Winter Olympics in Sapporo. The 1998 Winter Olympics were succeeded by the 1998 Winter Paralympics from 5 to 14 March. These were the final Winter Olympic Games under the IOC presidency of Juan Antonio Samaranch.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: There were 2,176 athletes from 72 nations, competing in 7 sports and 68 events. The numbers of athletes and participating nations were, at the time, a record for the Winter Olympics. These Games saw the introduction of curling, snowboarding, and women's ice hockey. Professional players from the National Hockey League were allowed to participate in the men's ice hockey for the first time. Azerbaijan, Kenya, Macedonia, Uruguay, and Venezuela made their Winter Olympic debuts.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: Germany topped the medal table with 29 medals, including 12 gold, followed by Norway and Russia, who won 25 and 18 medals respectively. Canada finished fourth with 15 medals, including six gold, making this their most successful Winter Olympics to date. The most decorated athlete was the Russian cross-country skier Larisa Lazutina who won five medals, including three gold. Norwegian cross-country skier Bjørn Dæhlie won four medals, including three gold, which took his total Olympic medal haul to 12, including eight gold, a record for the Winter Olympics. Ski jumper Kazuyoshi Funaki won two gold medals and one silver for host nation Japan. The Czech Republic won the gold medal in the men's ice hockey tournament. American figure skater Tara Lipinski became the youngest champion in Olympic history at the age of 15 years and 255 days.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: Hosting the Games brought about improvements to Nagano's transportation networks with the construction of the high-speed "shinkansen" line, the Nagano Shinkansen (now the Hokuriku Shinkansen), between Tokyo and Nagano Station, via Ōmiya and Takasaki. In addition, new highways were built, including the Nagano Expressway and the Jōshin-etsu Expressway and upgrades were made to existing roads.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: In 1932, Japan won the rights to host the 1940 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. At that time, organizers of the Summer Olympics had priority in choosing the venue for the Winter Olympics the same year. Several Japanese cities, including Nagano, prepared a bid. Sapporo was chosen; however, the games never took place because of World War II. In 1961, Nagano declared its intention to host the 1968 Winter Olympics but lost to Sapporo, the winning Japanese bid, who lost to Grenoble, France, and Sapporo eventually won the right to host the 1972 Winter Olympics.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: Japanese private sector organizations, in 1983, began publicly discussing a possible bid. Two years later, in 1985, the Nagano Prefectural Assembly, decided to begin the process to bid, for its third time, for a Winter Olympics. The bid committee was established in July 1986, they submitted their bid to the Japanese Olympic Committee (JOC) in November of the same year. Other Japanese cities that were bidding were Asahikawa, Yamagata, and Morioka. 1 June 1988, the JOC selected Nagano in the first round of national voting, receiving 34 of 45 votes. In 1989, the bid committee was reorganized, with the Japanese Prime Minister as head of the committee. The number of committee members was 511.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: On 12 February 1990, the bid delegation presented its candidature at the International Olympic Committee in Lausanne before Juan Antonio Samaranch. Other candidate cities for the 1998 Olympics were Aosta, Italy; Jaca, Spain; Östersund, Sweden; Salt Lake City, United States, and Sochi, Soviet Union (now Russia). The host city selection was held in Birmingham, United Kingdom, on 15 June 1991, at the 97th IOC session. After the first round of voting, Nagano led, with Aosta and Salt Lake City tied for last. Aosta was eliminated in a run-off against Salt Lake City. After the second round of voting, Nagano led with Salt Lake City in second, and Jaca was eliminated. Following round 3, Nagano continued to lead, with Salt Lake City in second, and Östersund was eliminated. Finally, Nagano prevailed over Salt Lake City by just 4 votes in the fifth round of voting, becoming the third Japanese city to host the games after Tokyo in 1964 Summer Olympics and Sapporo in 1972. Nagano, at 36°N, is the southernmost city in the Northern hemisphere to host the Winter Olympics (1960 Winter Olympics host Squaw Valley, California is 39°N). In June 1995, Salt Lake was chosen as the host of the following 2002 Winter Olympics.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: Following a 2002 Winter Olympic bid scandal that occurred in the summer of 2000, Atlanta, host of the 1996 Summer Olympics, Nagano, and Sydney, host of the 2000 Summer Olympics, were suspected of similar improprieties in bidding practices. Although nothing illegal was ever done, gifts to IOC members were considered morally dubious. The Nagano Olympic bid committee spent approximately $14 million to entertain the 62 International Olympic Committee members and many of their companions. The precise figures are unknown since Nagano, after the IOC asked that the entertainment expenditures not be made public, destroyed the financial records, according to bid member Junichi Yamaguchi.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: Five months after the city was selected, the Nagano Olympic Organizing Committee (NAOC) was created. Eishiro Saito, Chairman of Japan Business Federation (Keidanren) was selected as president of the committee. There were four Vice Presidents: Goro Yoshimura, the Governor of Nagano Prefecture; Hironoshin Furuhashi, president of the Japanese Olympic Committee; Yoshiaki Tsutsumi, the president of the Ski Association of Japan; and Tasuku Tsukada, the Mayor of Nagano City. In addition, the Vice Minister of the Ministry of Home Affairs, Tadashi Tsuda, served as director-general. Tsuda was replaced by Makoto Kobayashi in 1993.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The organizing committee recognized three goals for the games, which they referred to as "Games from the Heart": promote youth participation, coexistence with nature, create a festival with peace and friendship at its centre. To realize the first goal, a camp bringing together 217 young people from 51 countries was created, along with the program of "One school, one country" in Nagano Prefecture. This program organized cultural exchanges with other countries. In addition, more than 100,000 tickets were reserved for children. For the second point, the organizers attempted to minimize the impact on their nature and the local ecosystem. Regarding the third point, an international truce organized by the United Nations in 1997 was adopted during the games.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: In June 1998, four months after the Games, the NAOC presented a donation of US$1 million to the Olympic Museum in Lausanne. This value come of the revenue of tickets sales and another actions from the committee. In October of the same year, NAOC also donated the 3-D high vision theater system that was inside the Olympic Village to the Olympic Museum.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: In February 1999, one year after the Games, the IOC awarded the Nagano the Olympic Cup, and presented the city a replica of the sculpture of stylized athletes raising the Olympic Flag by the Swiss artist Nag Arnoldi.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The costs of construction and of the land of the Olympic venues totaled ¥106.6 billion, approximately 914 million US dollars. Of this, the Japanese national government spent ¥51.1 billion, the Nagano prefectural government spent ¥29.6 billion, and the cities and towns of Nagano, ¥23.4 billion; Hakuba, ¥1 billion; and Nozawa Onsen, ¥1.1 billion; shared the remaining ¥25.5 billion. The most expensive venue was impressive M-Wave, the indoor rink which hosted the long-track speed skating events. It cost near ¥34.8 billion. The two ice hockey venues, Big Hat and Aqua Wing Arena cost ¥19.1 and ¥9.1 billion respectively. The White Ring (arena), which hosted figure skating and short-track speed skating cost ¥14.2 billion, the Spiral, which hosted bobsleigh, luge, and skeleton, cost ¥10.1 billion. Another ¥8.6 billion was spent on the Hakuba Ski Jumping Stadium, ¥7 billion for Snow Harp – the cross-country skiing venue, and ¥3 billion for the biathlon venue at Nozawa Onsen Snow Resort.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The organizing committee financed all costs, totaling ¥113.9 billion. It spent ¥99.4 billion for operational expenses, ¥21.6 billion for public relations, ¥20.7 billion for installations, ¥18.4 billion for telecommunications, ¥15.9 billion for running the competitions, and ¥14.4 billion for administration. Television rights were worth ¥35.4 billion, and marketing earned ¥31.3 billion. Ticket sales were worth ¥10.5 billion. The total cost of the Nagano Games is estimated to have been US$15.25 billion (in 2015), of which the largest factor in the cost of the games was the extension of the shinkansen to Nagano. This compares, for example, with US$2.5 billion for the 2002 Winter Olympics, US$4.35 billion for the 2006 Winter Olympics, US$7.56 billion for the 2010 Winter Olympics, and US$51 billion for the 2014 Winter Olympics


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: Nagano is situated at the Japanese Alps area and receives large snowfalls every year. These combined to make transportation an important challenge for the organizing committee. In addition, the Olympic Village was a distance of 7 kilometers from the center of the city, and sporting events were spread over five surrounding cities. The complicating matters were that many of the venues had one single road in-out, which limited possibilities and led to traffic jams.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: To improve access to Nagano, the government decided to link the prefecture with the high-speed "shinkansen" train network. Called Nagano Shinkansen, (now the Hokuriku Shinkansen), was inaugurated five months before the start of the Games. This reduced by half the travel time between Tokyo and Nagano, to 79 minutes for 221 kilometers. The length of the track between Takasaki Station and Nagano Station is 125.7 km, which includes 63.4 km of tunnels. The high speed train network carried 655,000 passengers during the Games.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: Two highways, the Nagano Expressway and the Jōshin-etsu Expressway, were also built in the Nagano region. In May 1993, the 75.8-kilometer section of the Nagano Expressway was completed, and in October 1997, the 111.4 kilometer section of the Jōshin-etsu Expressway was completed. In addition, another 114.9 kilometers of roads within Nagano Prefecture were improved.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: Transportation systems for the Games ran for 33 days, from the opening of the Athletes Village until 3 days after the Paralympics closing ceremony. Approximately 64% of the athletes arrived between 1 and 6 February, and 74% left Nagano between 22 and 25 February. Transportation operations were directed from a transportation centre situated at the same building of the organizing committee. Two regional transportation hubs were created in Hakuba and Yamanouchi, as well as a traffic center for vehicles in Karuizawa. The media, as well as representatives of different national Olympic committees generally were transported by car, from their arrival airport, that was the Narita International Airport, but some delegations arrived by Kansai International Airport and Chubu Centrair International Airport in Nagoya, to the three Olympic Villages. The members of the IOC traveled by Shinkansen.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: To improve transportation for spectators, the number and hours of local trains were extended. During the heaviest traffic days, more cars were put in service and up to 68 parking areas, for 8,000 vehicles were at available for various Olympic delegations, and another 17 parking areas for 23,000 cars for spectators. Approximately 1,200 vehicles had navigation systems which transmitted their locations in real time.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: As one of the principal aims of the Games was to respect nature, many vehicles were considered ecological or semi-ecological. In addition, there were more than 100 electric vehicles, hybrid mini-buses and other environmentally-friendly vehicles.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The emblem of the 1998 Winter Olympics consisted of a stylized snow flower with each petal representing an athlete participating in a winter sport. The figure could also represent a snowflake, or a mountain flower, which refers to the importance of the natural environment to the city of Nagano. Similarly, Tokyo used cherry blossoms in its logo for its candidature for the 2020 Summer Olympics.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: Landor Associates conceived the official mascots that were used by the communication team for the Games. They consisted of four owlets, Sukki, Nokki, Lekki and Tsukki, also called "Snowlets". The names were chosen from more than 47,000 suggestions. Four represents the number of years between each Olympic Games, and also represent the four elements, fire, air, earth, and water.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The official poster for the Games was designed by the graphic designer Masuteru Aoba presented a thrush perched on ski poles with light in the background shining on snow-capped mountain peaks. Here, as with the emblem and the mascots, the importance of the natural environment in these Olympic Games and a desire to create harmony between athletes and the natural surroundings are shown. In addition to the official poster, a separate poster was created for the opening ceremony. Marketing for the games cost the organizing committee 5.9 billion yen.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: These Olympic Games were sponsored by 11 worldwide partners, 8 gold partners, and 18 official supports and suppliers. Marketing revenues for sponsoring or for the rights to use the emblems and mascots of the Games totaled 31.3 billion yen.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: Sukki, Nokki, Lekki and Tsukki, also known as the Snowlets, are the 1998 Winter Olympic mascots and are four snowy owls. They represent respectively fire (Sukki), air (Nokki), earth (Lekki) and water (Tsukki) and together they represent the four major islands of Japan.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The development of Rights Packages were based on International Olympic Committee policy of offering exclusive rights to a limited number of companies, with one company allowed to purchase the rights for any single product or service category, and these were based on previous Games, with adaptations for the local market. Sponsors were permitted to use the emblem and mascots as long as consent was obtained from the International Olympic Committee, Japanese Olympic Committee, and the NAOC. Hospitality packages for sponsors included priority for accommodations, tickets, and transportation services. The Sponsor Hospitality Village, next to the Nagano Olympic Stadium, welcomed 32,000 guests.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: To promote awareness of the sponsors, advertising was done in various media from 1995, and on banners and buses immediately before the games. Dick Pound noted, during the Games, the excellence of the marketing program, citing the ""perfect example of how the private and public sectors can work together"".


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The Games had 11 Worldwide Olympic Partners, eight Gold Sponsors and 18 Official Supporters and Suppliers.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: From 7 February 1997, the organizing committee put up for sale 1,286,000 tickets for the various competitions and ceremonies. The number of tickets sold was 1,149,615, which represented 89.4% of available tickets. Including people connected to the Games, the total number of spectators was 1,275,529. This number was slightly higher than in 1994 but slightly lower than the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary. Tickets sales were a success in Japan with a reservation list of 6 million. For the most popular sports, a lottery was used. In total, ticket sales raised 10.5 billion yen for the organizing committee.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The ice hockey matches represented 295,802 tickets sold, 26% of the total. Tickets sold for alpine skiing totaled 166,092; for ski jumping, 96,000, and speed skating, 93,000. For multiple sports, ski jumping, Nordic combined jumps, freestyle skiing, all three skating disciplines, bobsleigh, and curling, as well as the ceremonies, all tickets were sold. By contrast, only 56.6% of the 146,000 available tickets for cross-country skiing were sold.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: "The Oxford Olympics Study" established the outturn cost of the Nagano 1998 Winter Olympics at US$2.2 billion in 2015-dollars and cost overrun at 56% in real terms. This includes sports-related costs only, that is, (i) "operational costs" incurred by the organizing committee for the purpose of staging the Games, e.g., expenditures for technology, transportation, workforce, administration, security, catering, ceremonies, and medical services, and (ii) "direct capital costs" incurred by the host city and country or private investors to build, e.g., the competition venues, the Olympic village, international broadcast center, and media and press center, which are required to host the Games. Indirect capital costs are "not" included, such as for road, rail, or airport infrastructure, or for hotel upgrades or other business investment incurred in preparation for the Games but not directly related to staging the Games. The cost and cost overrun for Nagano 1998 compares with costs of US$2.5 billion and a cost overrun of 13% for Vancouver 2010, and costs of US$51 billion and a cost overrun of 289% for Sochi 2014, the latter being the most costly Olympics to date. Average cost for Winter Games since 1960 is US$3.1 billion, average cost overrun is 142%.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: For the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan, a total of fourteen sports venues, all within Nagano Prefecture, were used. Construction of these venues, and of the Olympic Stadium which hosted the ceremonies, began in 1990 and lasted until 1997, with construction and land costs totaling 106.6 billion yen. The most expensive venue constructed for the games was the long-track speed skating venue, M-Wave built 5 kilometers from Nagano Station. Between March 1996 and November 1997, these sites were tested with 16 different world champion events, world cups, and other international competitions to allow the organizers to prepare for the running of the Games.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: Five sites, all constructed for the Games, are located in the city of Nagano. Minami Nagano Sports Park, built to serve as a baseball park, was constructed in the south section of the city, near Shinonoi Station, and approximately 9 kilometers from Nagano Station. The stadium, which held the opening and closing ceremonies, resembles a cherry blossom, a symbol of Japan. The stadium can accommodate 50,000 with temporary stands added, but usually accommodates 35,000 spectators. Big Hat, named for its shape, was the principal site of ice hockey. Big Hat, located approximately 2 kilometers from Nagano Station, has a capacity of 10,104 spectators. Aqua Wing Arena was the second ice hockey arena at the Games. Shaped like a wing, it had a capacity of 6000 during the Olympics. After the Games, it was modified into an interior swimming pool. Aqua Wing is approximately 5 kilometers from Nagano Station. Its closest stations are Kita-Nagano Station and Asahi Station. M-Wave, used for speed skating, is the first indoor, long-track speed skating venue in Japan. It was built to accommodate 10,000 spectators. The venue, which gets its name from its M-shape, representing the surrounding mountains, is approximately 5 kilometers from Nagano Station. Finally, White Ring, with a maximum capacity of 7,351 spectators, was built for figure skating and short track speed skating. White Ring, which is used as a public gymnasium, is approximately 6 kilometers from Nagano Station.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: Hakuba village is situated 50 kilometers west of the city of Nagano. Hakuba hosted three Olympics sites. Alpine skiing's Downhill, Super G and Combined were situated at Happo'one Resort. Three courses between altitudes of 840 meters and 1,765 meters were used, one for the men's, women's and Combined for both men's and women's. The site has a capacity of 20,000 spectators. Hakuba Ski Jumping Stadium was the first ski jump built in Japan with parallel 90 and 120 K-point hills. The ski jumping stadium can accommodate 45,000 spectators. Snow Harp Kamishiro was built for cross country skiing and Nordic combined. It includes three tracks of 4.8, 4.8, and 7.8 kilometers, 6 meters wide. The stadium is another 1.2 kilometers. In total, Snow Harp has 19 kilometers of tracks. Up to 20,000 spectators can be accommodated.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: Nozawa Onsen Ski Resort, in the town of Nozawaonsen, was site of biathlon. Nozawa is approximately 50 kilometers north of Nagano. At Nozawa Onsen, the stadium was built around six existing tracks. Two tracks, of 4 kilometers and 7 kilometers, were used for the Games. The stadium can accommodate 20,000 spectators.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: Two sites in the town of Yamanouchi, approximately 30 kilometers northeast of Nagano, were used. Giant Slalom was held at Mount Yakebitai at Shiga Kogen Resort, at an altitude between 1,530 and 1,969 meters. The site can accommodate 20,000 spectators. Also in Shiga Kogen, at Mount Higashidate, giant slalom events in Alpine skiing and snowboarding were held. Kanbayashi Snowboard Park was the site of the half pipe events. The track is 120 meters long and 15 meters wide, with walls of 3.5 meters. 10,000 spectators can be accommodated at Kanbayashi.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The town of Iizuna, approximately 12 kilometers northwest of Nagano, was the site of freestyle skiing and bobsleigh, luge, and skeleton at Iizuna Kogen Ski Area. 8,000 spectators can watch the free style skiing on a course that 250 meters long and 12,000 can watch the jumps. The Spiral, which held the sledding events, was the first artificially refrigerated track in Asia. It is 1700 meters long, with a difference in height of 114 meters and 15 turns. At the Spiral, approximately 40,000 saplings, mainly beech and oak, were planted two per square meter, as part of the environmental stewardship committed during the Winter Games. The site can accommodate 10,000 spectators.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: Finally, the town of Karuizawa, approximately 80 southwest of Nagano, hosted the curling events at Kazakoshi Park Arena. The venue was built as a multi-purpose venue. Its ice surface is 60 meters by 30. Its maximum capacity is 1,924 spectators. The town of Karuizawa also hosted the equestrian events at the 1964 Summer Olympics, thus becoming the first place in the world to host both the Summer Olympics and Winter Olympics.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: To accommodate the athletes and officials during the Games, the Olympic Village was constructed in Imai district, approximately 7 kilometers south of Nagano Station. Along with the construction of the village, Imai Station was opened in 1997. The village was constructed by the city of Nagano as public residential housing, and loaned to the organizing committee during the Games. The Village occupies an area that is 19 hectares, composed of 23 buildings with a total of 1,032 apartments. Temporary restaurants and shops were also available during the Games. The Village was open from 24 January to 25 February 1998, and accommodated 3,200 people. Several prominent people were recognized as faces of the Olympic Village, including the "Honorary Mayor" Yasuko Konoe, "Mayor" Shozo Sasahara, and "Deputy Mayors" Takanori Kono, Hiroko Chiba, and Shun'ichi Bobby Hirai.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: Because the curling arena was in Karuizawa, 90 kilometers away, a satellite village was built in Karuizawa, 7 kilometers from the arena. It was open from 4 to 16 February 1998. In addition, a section of the Shiga Kogen Prince Hotel, 58 kilometers from the Olympic Village, was reserved for 180 snowboarders and officials.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: In addition to athletes and officials, members of the Olympic family and other personnel were housed in 900 hotels in Nagano and surrounding region, which represented 234,207 nights between 24 January to 25 February 1998. The members of the International Olympic Committee stayed athletes the Kokusai 21 Hotel in downtown Nagano. In total, the Olympic family included 18,350 people. Finally, two media villages were built in the districts of Yanagimachi, near Nagano Station, and Asahi, across the street from the M-Wave.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The Olympic torch was lit by sunlight during a ceremony organized by the Temple of Hera at Olympia, Greece on 19 December 1997. A Greek alpine skier started the relay towards Athens where a ceremony was held at the Panathenaic Stadium. On 22 December, the flame was transported to Japan by airplane. On 4 January, the 1998 Winter Olympics torch relay flame was divided into three parts in order for it to pass through every Japanese prefecture by three distinct routes: the Sea of Japan Route, the Pacific Route, and the Eastern Route. The start, on 6 January, was from Okinawa, Kagoshima, and Hokkaido. By 23 January, the relay had travelled through all 120 municipalities of Nagano Prefecture, and finally arrived in Nagano City on 5 February. The following day, after traveling through each district of the city, the relay arrived at the central square where three former athletes passed the flames to three members of the organizing committee. These three committee members then lit a torch held by Juan Antonio Samaranch. On 7 February, the flame travelled another 10 kilometers, and the figure skater Midori Ito lit the cauldron at Nagano Olympic Stadium during the opening ceremonies.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The Olympic Flame Relay in Japan was sponsored by Coca-Cola, lasted 33 days and travelled 1,162 kilometers. A group of 5.5 million people took part in relay activities. Over the distance of the relay, which was run or skied, the flame was always followed by a group of six people: the runner who carried the flame, some who accompanied the carrier, and four people in supporting roles, for a total of 6,901 people. In addition, each relay was followed by two groups of 11 vehicles and more than 20 people.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The shape of the torch represented a traditional Japanese torch called "taimatsu". It was built with aluminum, was 55 centimeters long, and weighed 1.3 kilograms. The exterior of the torch was painted silver, to represent winter. Runners were blue and white uniforms symbolizing the color of the games and of snow. The runners' uniforms included logos for the Nagano Olympics and the Olympic Games, a logo of the relay, and of Coca-Cola.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: 72 nations participated in the 1998 Winter Olympic Games for a total of 2,176 athletes, of which 787 were female and 1,389 were male. With the addition of five countries and another 439 athletes since the 1994 Winter Olympic Games at Lillehammer, Norway, these were the largest Winter Olympics ever at the time. The nations of Azerbaijan, Kenya, Macedonia, Uruguay, and Venezuela participated in their first Winter Olympic Games. Iran returned to the Winter games after a 22-year absence, and North Korea, India, Ireland, and Yugoslavia returned after 6 years. Five countries, Fiji, Mexico, San Marino, American Samoa, and Senegal, which were at the 1994 Games, did not participate in 1998.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The United States had the largest athlete delegation with 186, followed by host Japan with 156, Canada with 144, and Germany with 125. Despite the large number of participating delegations, 40 of the 72 delegations had less than 10 athletes, with 12 nations having one sole athlete. 15 nations had between 11 and 50 athletes, 11 nations had between 51 and 100 athletes, and six nations had more than 101 athletes. Nations that participated in the ice hockey tournaments generally had the largest athlete delegations. With the exception of Norway and Switzerland, all 12 national delegations with 60 or more athletes participated in either or both of the female or male ice hockey tournaments.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The 1998 Winter Olympics were held from Saturday, 7 February to Sunday, 22 February. This was 16 days and included three weekends. The number of events increased from 61 at the 1994 Winter Olympics to 68 in 1998. Two sports, curling and snowboarding were added to the program, as was women's ice hockey. This increased the number of sports to seven, and the number of disciplines to 14. The sporting program started and ended with ice hockey. The first matches started at 4:00 pm on 7 February featuring Kazakhstan defeating Italy 5–3, and Slovakia tying Austria 2–2. The final match was played on Sunday 22 February from 1:45 pm, and the Czech Republic defeated Russia 1–0.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: Due to averse weather conditions, multiple events were delayed, including six alpine skiing races, snowboarding, and biathlon. Of these, the men's downhills was delayed five days.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The opening ceremony took place at Nagano Olympic Stadium, Nagano, Japan, on 7 February 1998. Japanese figure skater, Midori Ito, the first female skater to land seven triple jumps in a free skating competition, and the silver medalist at the 1992 Winter Olympics, lit the cauldron during the ceremony.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: Seiji Ozawa, a Japanese conductor, directed an orchestra from five continents, performing the fourth movement of Beethoven's Symphony No. 9 (Ode to Joy).


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: In all, 2,302 athletes from 72 countries and regions participated in the Games, including 814 female athletes and 1488 male athletes. Both the number of participating delegations and the number of athletes participating in the competition were, at the time, the most ever hosted at the Winter Olympics.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The medal ceremonies for indoor events (skating, ice hockey, and curling) were held at the venues immediately after the finals, with the exception of the bronze medal presentations for the ice hockey events, which took place directly after the bronze medal matches. The Olympic Charter determines the outdoor events (skiing, biathlon, bobsleigh and luge), there was a simple ceremony in which bouquets of flowers were presented, and the medal ceremonies are held on Medals Plaza that was localizated at the Nagano City Central Square, approximately midway between Nagano Station and Zenkō-ji. A short fanfare of music was played, the athletes has positioned, and the medals, in the order of gold, silver, and bronze, were awarded. Finally, the national flags of the athletes were raised, and the national anthem of the winning athlete(s) was played. In all, 167,200 people attended the medal ceremonies, which were held at 7:00 p.m. each night. National and international artists presented every evening at the place before the medal presentations.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The gold, silver, and bronze medals each measured 80 mm in diameter and 9.7 mm in thickness. The gold medals weighed 256 g, the silver 250 g, and the bronze 230 g. The medals were made using a traditional Japanese lacquerware technique known as , in which a brass core is imprinted with the design by layering gold powder onto the wet lacquer using a method called maki-e. On the front of the medals are borders of olive leaves, and in the center, a "maki-e" morning sun rises over a cloisonné emblem of the Nagano Olympics. On the reverse side, the snowflower emblem of the Games sits above a "maki-e" image of the mountains surrounding Nagano glowing in the morning sunrise. The initial lacquering was handcrafted by artisans from the region of Kiso, Nagano, and the medals were completed at the Mint Bureau of the Japanese Ministry of Finance.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: In addition to the medals awarded to the athletes in each event, more than 19,000 commemorative medals were given to all athletes, officials, International Olympic Committee members, media personnel, volunteers and others. These medals, made by the Mint Bureau in cooperation with NAOC, were made from an alloy of 90% copper and 10% zinc. As the Olympic Charter also determines, diplomas, written in Japanese, French, and English, were given to the top eight finishers in each event, and every participant also received a commemorative diploma.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The closing ceremonies, like those of the opening, took place in the Nagano Olympic Stadium, with 60,000 spectators, including Akihito, the Emperor of Japan at the time, and his wife Empress Michiko. After the athletes entered, hundreds of drums were beat and a traditional hose and lion dance was presented. At the Antwerp Ceremony, Tasuku Tsukada, then mayor of Nagano presented the Olympic Flag to Deedee Corradini, then mayor of Salt Lake City, the host of the 2002 Winter Olympics, after this moment Juan Antonio Samaranch declared the games closed. This was followed by a performance from the Japanese singer Anri and the Olympic Cauldron was extinguished. The ceremony ended with the words "" ("Goodbye, Thank you") and a major fireworks performance accompanied by the song: "Ile Aiye" or "Let's Make a Circle and Dance" performed by Japanese pop group Agharta.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: In all, 24 of the 72 participating nations at these Games won at least one medal, as shown in the table below. A total of 15 countries won at least one gold medal and 18 nations won two or more medals. In total, 205 medals were distributed. Germany finished on top of the table with 29 medals, including 12 gold, nine silver, and eight bronze. Germany, which finished in third place in the medal standings at the 1994 Winter Olympics, won most of its medals in Alpine skiing, speed skating, and luge, in which it won all three gold medals. German female athletes won 22 of the country's 29 medals. Norway finished in second, as in 1994, with 25 medals, including nine won in cross-country skiing and five in biathlon. Russia, which finished atop the medals standing in 1994, finished in third in 1998, with 9 gold medals, including the five gold at the stake on the women's cross-country skiing. Canada moved from a discret seventh in 1994 to fourth in 1998 with 6 gold medals, and the United States remained in fifth place. Netherlands finished in 6th place, 12 places higher than in 1994 and their domination at the speed skating started with 5 gold medals. Host Japan beat its previous record of medals at a Winter Games, with 10 medals, including respectable 5 gold medals. Australia became the second country from the Southern Hemisphere to win a medal, a bronze in alpine skiing. Also, Denmark each won your first ever medal, the silver at women's curling. In addition, Bulgaria and the Czech Republic each won their first gold medals at a Winter Olympics in women's biathlon and men's ice hockey respectively. Finally, Kazakhstan won its first medal from a female athlete.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The 1998 Winter Olympics featured 68 medal events over 14 disciplines in seven sports. This was an increase from 61 events in 12 disciplines across six sports from the 1994 Winter Olympics. Curling was the additional sport, snowboarding was an additional discipling in skiing, and women's ice hockey was added to the ice hockey program.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The biathlon competitions took place at Nozawa Onsen Snow Resort, north of Nagano City. The six events were the sprint, individual, and relay, for both men and women. In all, 183 athletes took part, including 96 men and 87 women from 32 countries. Norway and Germany each won five medals, with Uschi Disl from the latter country winning one gold, one silver, and one bronze.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The first event was the women's 15 km individual race that took place in falling snow on 9 February. The surprise gold medalist was Ekaterina Dafovska from Bulgaria, who had been ranked 51st at the previous Biathlon World Cup. Her gold medal was the first-ever Bulgarian gold medal at a Winter Olympics. Her time was 54:52.0, with only one target missed. Olena Petrova from Ukraine won the silver, 17.8 seconds behind, and Uschi Disl won the bronze, 25.9 seconds behind Dafovska.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The first men's event, the 20 km individual race, took place on 11 February. The Norwegian Halvard Hanevold missed his second-last target, but finished first in a time of 56:16.4. The Italian Pieralberto Carrara, who missed no targets, target, won the silver, 5.05 seconds behind. The Belarusian Alexei Aidarov was 30.1 seconds behind the Norwegian, and won the bronze.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The bobsleigh competitions took place at the Spiral, in Iizuna, just north of Nagano City. The Spiral course measured 1700 m in length, with fifteen curves, descended 113 m from start to finish, and included two short uphill sections. The two events were the two-man and four-man, for men only. Female competitors would begin competing in the two woman events at the subsequent Winter Olympics, the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: In all, 156 athletes took part from 28 countries. The bobsleigh events resulted in two ties, for the two-man gold and for the four-man bronze. This was the first time in Olympic bobsleigh history that there were ties for the medal positions. Christoph Langen and Markus Zimmermann won bronze in the two-man competition and were part of the winning four-man team. In all, Germany win one gold and one bronze; Italy and Canada also won one gold each when the two-man team. Six team in all won medals. The first time since the 1968 Winter Olympics did more than four countries win bobsleigh medals. In addition, Germany and Switzerland were the only two countries to place two sleds in the top ten of either event.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The 1996 and 1997 Bobsleigh World Champions were teams from Germany and Italy respectively. However, Günther Huber and Antonio Tartaglia from Italy tied with the two-man team from Canada, Pierre Lueders: and Dave MacEachern for the gold medal, each with combined times of 3:37.24. No silver medal was awarded. The German team of Christoph Langen and Markus Zimmermann were 0.65 seconds behind, and were awarded the bronze.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: In the four-man event, bad weather restricted the competition to three runs only. The German team of Christoph Langen, Markus Zimmermann, Marco Jakobs and Olaf Hampel completed the three runs in 2:39.41 for the gold medal. The Swiss team of Marcel Rohner, Markus Nüssli, Markus Wasser, and Beat Seitz finished second with a time of 2:40.01. Two teams, were awarded bronze medals after completing the three runs in 2:40.06. These were the team from Great Britain, made up of Sean Olsson, Dean Ward, Courtney Rumbolt, and Paul Attwood; and the team from France, composed of Bruno Mingeon, Emmanuel Hostache, Éric Le Chanony, and Max Robert.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: Curling was included in the program for the Nagano Olympics in 1993 following discussions that had begun in 1992. At the time, it was considered that curling was making its official Olympic debut following its appearance as a demonstration sport at the 1932, 1988, and 1992. At the Games in Nagano, both the men's and the women's curling tournament took place at Kazakoshi Park Arena in Karuizawa, Nagano, 30 minutes by bullet train ("shinkansen") south of Nagano City. Eight teams played a total of seven games in the round robin in both tournaments, with the four best teams going to the semifinals. Canada won gold in the women's competition and silver in the men's; Switzerland won the gold in the men's tournament.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: In the men's tournament, the Mike Harris team from Canada easily completed the round-robin tournament winning six of its seven games, only losing to the Eigil Ramsfjell team from Norway. In the semi-finals, the Canadian team defeated Tim Somerville's team from the United States by a score of 7–1; and in the other semi-final, the team from Switzerland led by Patrick Hürlimann defeated Norway 8–7. In the gold medal game, Switzerland shocked Canada by winning 9–3. In the bronze medal game, Eigil Ramsfjell's team from Norway defeated Tim Somerville's USA team by a score of 9–4.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: In the women's tournament, the Sandra Schmirler team from Canada and the Elisabet Gustafson team from Sweden easily completed the round-robin tournament, with both teams winning six of their seven games. Canada only lost to the Dordi Nordby team from Norway, and Sweden's only loss was to Canada. In the semi-finals, the Canadian team defeated the team led by Kirsty Hay representing team Great Britain by a score of 6–5; and in the other semi-final, the team from Denmark led by Helena Blach Lavrsen defeated Sweden 7–5. In the gold medal game, Canada defeated Denmark by a score of 7–5. In the bronze medal game, Elisabet Gustafso's team from Sweden defeated Kirsty Hay's GB team by a score of 10–6.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The ice hockey matches took place at two purpose-built arenas in Nagano City, Big Hat and Aqua Wing Arena. The ice hockey events were significant for two reasons: the first Olympic ice hockey tournament for women and the participation of players from the NHL. The Czech Republic defeated Russia in the gold medal game for the men's final, and Americans defeated Canadians in the gold medal game for the women's final.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The men's competition began on 7 February with eight teams playing in two groups of four, Group A and B, with each team playing three games. The winners of these two groups, Kazakhstan and Belarus, advanced to join Groups C and D, composed of the six highest ranked men's national ice hockey teams in the world. Russia, Czech Republic, and Finland were joined by Kazakhstan in Group C; Canada, Sweden, and USA were joined by Belarus in Group D. On 22 February, with 10,010 spectators in attendance at Big Hat, the Czech Republic defeated Russia in the gold medal game for the men's final, 1–0, with the lone goal of the match scored with 12 minutes remaining. Finland defeated Canada for the bronze medal by a score of 3–2.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The first women's ice hockey world championship, a biennial tournament, took place in 1990. Discussions to include women's ice hockey at the 1998 games began in 1992, and it was decided to include them in the program in 1993. The tournament included six teams playing in a one-group round-robin tournament. The top two team advanced to the gold medal game, and the teams ranked third and fourth played in the bronze medal match. The favorites were the Canadians, who had won the three previous world championships, with the Americans finishing second each time. In the round-robin tournament, the Americans finished first, with the Canadians second. In the last round-robin game, the Americans handily defeated the Canadians, 7–4, with the two teams scoring nine goals in the third period. In the gold medal match, with 8,626 fans in attendance at Big Hat, the Americans defeated the Canadians 3–1. Team Finland defeated Team China 4–1 for the bronze medal.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The luge competitions took place in Iizuna, Nagano, at the Spiral (Nagano Bobsleigh-Luge Park), the first purpose-built permanent bobsleigh, luge, and skeleton track in Asia. In all, 24 nations took part in the luge events, with four countries, India, South Korea, New Zealand, and Venezuela making their Olympic debut in luge events. There were three events, men's single, women's single, and doubles. Germany won all three gold medals, one silver, and one bronze. The United States won one silver and one bronze. Italy and Austria rounded out the medal table.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The first event with 24 lugers was the men's singles. Each athlete completed four runs over two days, 8 and 9 February. The German athlete, Georg Hackl, who had won gold at the 1992 Winter Olympics and 1994 Winter Olympics, had entered the competition winless in the 1997–1998 season. Hackl raced in a newly designed luge and aerodynamic shoes. Several team protested but these protests were rejected. Hackl dominated all four races, and finished with a time of 3:18.436, half a second ahead of the Italian Armin Zöggeler. Zöggeler finished .154 seconds ahead of Jens Müller of Germany, who had won gold at the 1988 Winter Olympics when he competed for East Germany.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: On 10 and 11 February, the women's singles event took place, with each athlete completing four runs. In all, 29 athletes took part. The race for gold was very tight between two German athletes, Silke Kraushaar and Barbara Niedernhuber, with Kraushaar winning by .002 seconds, with a total time of 3:23.779 – the smallest margin of victory ever at the Olympics. Angelika Neuner of Austria won the bronze, 0.474 seconds behind the gold medalist.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The two-race doubles competition, which in theory were open to females, consisted of 17 male pairs. The event took place 13 February. The Germans Stefan Krauße and Jan Behrendt, who had competed together for 14 years, won the gold medal with a time of 1:41.105. Two American teams won silver and bronze, with Chris Thorpe and Gordy Sheer finishing .022 seconds behind the gold medalists and Brian Martin and Mark Grimmette a further .09 seconds behind. The win by Krauße and Behrendt was their


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: four medal at the Olympics since they won silver at the 1988 Winter Olympics when they competed for East Germany. This was the first time since the introduction of luge at the 1964 Winter Olympics that athletes other than those from Austria, Germany, Italy, and the Soviet Union won medals.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The figure skating events took place at the White Ring (arena), an indoor arena built for the Games in Nagano City. Medals were awarded in four events: men's and women's singles, pair skating, and ice dance. The pairs event took place from 8–10 February, followed by the men's singles from 12 to 14 February, the ice dance from 13 to 16 February, and the women's singles from 18 to 20 February. The exhibition gala took place on 21 February. Russia won five medals, including three gold and two silver. The USA won one gold and one silver. France won two bronze medals. Canada won one silver, with China and Germany each winning one bronze. American figure skater Tara Lipinski became the youngest competitor in Winter Olympics history to earn a gold medal in an individual event.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: Six short track speed skating events took place at the White Ring (arena) from 17 to 21 February. A total of 18 nations were representing among the skaters. Four countries won medals. South Korea won six medals, including three gold. Canada won four medals, including two gold. Host Japan won one gold and one silver; and China won five silver and one bronze medal.


title: 1998 Winter Olympics

text: The 14th ranked Japanese skater Takafumi Nishitani beat the Olympic record in the 500m semi-finals. In the final, he led from the start and won the gold medal with a time of 42.862 seconds. The Canadian Marc Gagnon, who was in second place, fell with two laps remaining. The Chinese skater An Yulong won the silver with a time of 43.022, 0.5 seconds of the Japanese skater Hitoshi Uematsu. In the 1000 meters, world record holder Marc Gagnon was disqualified for obstruction in the quarter-finals. The Chinese skater Li Jiajun, who led for most of the final, was passed by the South Korean skater, Kim Dong-sung, in the final corner. Kim won with a time of 1:32.375, 0.053 seconds ahead of the silver medalist. The Canadian Éric Bédard won the bronze, .223 seconds further behind. In the 5000m relays, world-title holders from Italy led at the beginning of the relay but were passed by the Canadians, and fell. With about one-quarter of the race left, a Chinese skater fell, bringing down with him a South Korean skater, allowing the Canadians to easily win the gold, with a time of 7:06.075. The South Koreans were .701 seconds behind, with the Chinese finishing with the bronze a further 4 seconds back. The Japanese team won the B-Final with a time that was five seconds faster than the gold medalists.