title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: Victoria Adjo Climbié was born on 2 November 1991 in Abobo, Ivory Coast, the fifth of seven children. Her parents were Francis Climbié and his wife Berthe Amoissi. Marie-Thérèse Kouao, Francis' aunt, was born on 17 July 1956 in Bonoua, Ivory Coast, and lived in France with her three sons, claiming welfare benefits. She divorced her former husband in 1978, and he died in 1995. Kouao was attending her brother's funeral in the Ivory Coast when she visited the Climbié family in October 1998. She informed them that she wanted to take a child back to France with her and arrange for their education; this sort of informal fosterage is common in the family's society. Victoria was apparently happy to be chosen, and although her parents had met Kouao only a few times, they were satisfied with the arrangements.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: From that point onwards, Kouao fraudulently maintained that Victoria was her daughter. Kouao had originally planned to take another young girl called Anna Kouao, but Anna's parents changed their minds. Victoria travelled on a French passport in the name of Anna Kouao, and was known as "Anna" throughout her life in the United Kingdom. It is not known exactly when Kouao started abusing Victoria. Victoria’s parents received three messages about her from when she left them until her death, all saying she was in good health.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: Marie-Therese Kouao and Victoria Climbié left the Ivory Coast possibly in November 1998 and flew to Paris, France, where Victoria enrolled at school. By December 1998, however, Kouao began to receive warnings about Victoria’s absenteeism, and in February 1999, the school issued a child-at-risk notification and a social worker became involved. The school observed how Victoria tended to fall asleep in class, and the headteacher later recalled Kouao's mentioning Victoria suffering from some form of dermatological condition and that, on her last visit to the school on 25 March 1999, Victoria had a shaven head and was wearing a wig. When they left France, Kouao owed the authorities £2,000, after being wrongly paid in child benefit, and it is claimed that Kouao viewed Victoria as a useful tool for claiming benefits. Kouao had also been evicted from her home in France because of rent arrears.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: On 24 April 1999, Kouao and Victoria left France and relocated to the United Kingdom, where they settled in Ealing, West London. They had a reservation in a bed and breakfast at Twyford Crescent, Acton, where they lived until 1 May 1999, when they moved to Nicoll Road, Harlesden, in the London Borough of Brent. On 25 April 1999, Kouao and Victoria visited Esther Ackah, a distant relative of Kouao by marriage, and a midwife, counsellor, and preacher. Ackah and her daughter noted that Victoria was wearing a wig and looked small and frail. On 26 April 1999, Kouao and Victoria visited the Homeless Persons' Unit of Ealing Council, where they were seen by Julie Winter, a homeless persons' officer. Together, Kouao and Winter completed a housing application form. Kouao explained that Victoria was wearing a wig because she had short hair, an explanation accepted by Winter. Although Winter was shown Victoria’s passport (with a photograph of Anna), she paid no attention to them, believing that Kouao's application was ineligible on the grounds of habitual residence. Winter confirmed her decision with her duty senior and told Kouao that she was not eligible for housing. She telephoned the referral across to Pamela Fortune, a social worker in Ealing's Acton referral and assessment team. She did not produce a written or electronic documentation of the referral, however, something which would have helped in double-checking the accounts that Kouao gave.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: Between 26 April and early July 1999, Kouao visited Ealing social services 18 times for housing and financial purposes. Victoria was with her on at least ten occasions. The staff there noted Victoria’s unkempt appearance, with one staff member, Deborah Gaunt, thinking that she looked like a child from an ActionAid advertisement. However, they did not take any action, and may have assumed that Victoria’s appearance was a purposeful attempt to "persuade the authorities to hand out money". On 8 June 1999, Kouao got a job at Northwick Park Hospital. During her first month, no effort was made by Kouao or Ealing social services to enroll Victoria in educational or daycare activities.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: On 8 June 1999, Kouao took Victoria to a local GP surgery. The practice nurse there did not carry out a physical examination, as Victoria was not reported to have any current health problems. By the middle of June 1999, Victoria was spending the majority of her days at the Brent home of Priscilla Cameron, an unregistered childminder, whom Kouao met at her job in the hospital. There is no evidence that Victoria was treated badly during her time with Cameron. On several occasions, Cameron observed small cuts on Victoria’s fingers. When questioned by Cameron, Kouao said that they were caused by razor blades that Victoria had played with. Kouao and Victoria met Ackah on the street on or around 14 June 1999. In what may have been early signs of deliberate physical harm, Ackah noted a scar on Victoria’s cheek, which Kouao said was caused by a fall on an escalator. On 17 June 1999, in response to what she had seen three days earlier, Ackah visited Kouao and Victoria’s home, and thought that the accommodation was unsuitable.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: On 18 June 1999, Ackah anonymously telephoned Brent social services, expressing concern over Victoria’s situation. Samantha Hunt, the customer-service officer who received the call at the One Stop Shop at Brent House, faxed the referral to the children's social work department on that same day. Nobody picked up the referral on that Friday afternoon, and what happened to it was—according to Lord Laming, who headed the subsequent inquiry—the subject of "some of the most bizarre and contradictory evidence" the inquiry heard. A few days later, possibly on 21 June 1999, Ackah phoned Brent social services again to make sure her concerns were being addressed. Ackah said that she was told by the person on the other end of the telephone that "probably they [social services] had done something about it". This call, however, did not trigger a new, separate referral.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: The first referral was not seen until three weeks later on 6 July 1999, when Robert Smith, the group administrative officer, logged the details of the referral onto the computer, with details of Victoria’s injuries. Laming said the delay constituted "a significant missed opportunity" to protect Victoria. Edward Armstrong, the team manager of the intake duty team, said that he completed a duty manager's action sheet not for the 18 June referral, which he said never arrived in his office, but for the 21 June referral, which was a less serious case than the first; Laming called this version of events "wholly unbelievable". Laming said that Armstrong's evidence was out of line with that of the other Brent witnesses, that the quality of it "[left] much to be desired", and that Armstrong's insistence that he dealt with the 21 June referral was an attempt to cover up his team's "inept handling" of a genuine child protection case.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: On 14 June 1999, Kouao and Victoria met Carl Manning (born 31 October 1972) on a bus which he was driving. This was the start of Kouao and Manning's relationship, which ended at the time of their arrest eight months later. She was his first girlfriend. The relationship developed quickly, and on 6 July 1999, Kouao and Victoria moved into Manning's one-bedroom flat at Somerset Gardens in Tottenham, in the London Borough of Haringey. There is evidence that Victoria’s abuse increased soon after moving into Manning's flat.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: On 7 July 1999, Brent social services sent a letter to Nicoll Road, where Kouao and Victoria were staying, informing them of a home visit. On 14 July 1999, two social workers, Lori Hobbs and Monica Bridgeman, visited the address but found no answer: Kouao and Victoria had already moved out on 6 July 1999. Hobbs and Bridgeman made no further inquiries at the property, inquiries that might have led to a trail on Victoria’s whereabouts. Prior to the visit, they had not done any background checks, and had only the "haziest idea" of what they were investigating. The Laming report suggests that no reports or follow-up notes were made and that the only information additional to the referral were the notes "Not at this address. Have moved."


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: On 13 July 1999, Kouao took Victoria to the childminder, Cameron, asking her to take Victoria permanently, because Manning did not want her. Cameron refused to accept Kouao’s request, but agreed to take her for the night. Cameron, her son Patrick, and her daughter Avril, observed that Victoria had numerous injuries—including a burn on her face and a loose piece of skin hanging from her right eyelid—which Kouao said was self-inflicted. Manning's account in the subsequent inquiry differed, and he said that he hit Victoria because of her incontinence, beginning with slaps, but progressing to using his fist by the end of July. It was highly likely that at least some of the injuries were the result of deliberate physical harm.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: The next day, on 14 July 1999, Cameron's daughter Avril took Victoria to see Marie Cader, a French teacher at her son's school. Cader advised that Victoria be taken to a hospital. At 11:00 am the same day, Avril took Victoria to the Accident and Emergency department of Central Middlesex Hospital. At 11:50 am, Victoria was seen by Dr Rhys Beynon, a senior house officer in the department. Beynon took Victoria’s history from Avril, and thought that there was a strong possibility that the injuries were non-accidental. He referred the case to Dr Ekundayo Ajayi-Obe, the on-call paediatric registrar. Beynon conducted only a cursory examination of Victoria, as he believed she was going to be examined by the paediatric team. The Laming report said that "he exhibited sound judgement in his care of Victoria by referring her immediately to a paediatric registrar." Victoria arrived at Barnaby Bear ward where she was examined by Ajayi-Obe, who noted various injuries. When asked about the injuries, Victoria said they were self-inflicted, a claim the paediatrician did not think was credible. Having examined Victoria, the paediatrician was "strongly suspicious" that the injuries were non-accidental, and she decided to admit Victoria onto the ward.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: The doctors alerted Brent police and social services, and she was placed under police protection, with a 72-hour protection order preventing her from leaving hospital. Kouao told the doctors that she had scabies, and that the injuries were self-inflicted. Many doctors and nurses suspected that the injuries were non-accidental. However, Ruby Schwartz, the consultant paediatrician and named child protection doctor at the hospital, diagnosed scabies and decided that it was scratching that caused the injuries. She made the diagnosis without speaking to Victoria alone. Schwartz later admitted that she made a mistake. Another doctor, one of Schwartz's juniors, misleadingly wrote to social services, saying that there was "no child protection issue". When Michelle Hine, a child protection officer at Brent council, received a report notifying her of Victoria’s injuries, she planned to open an investigation into the case. However, the next day, she heard of Schwartz's diagnosis and downgraded Victoria’s level of care, trusting Schwartz's judgement. She later expressed regret over her actions. Schwartz said in the inquiry that she expected social services to follow up the case. Neil Garnham QC, counsel to the inquiry following Victoria’s death, later said to her, "there is a terrible danger here—is there not, doctor—of social services on the one hand and you on the other each expecting the other to do the investigation, with the result that nobody does". The police officer allocated to Victoria’s case for the Brent Child Protection team, Rachel Dewar, decided to lift the police protection, allowing Victoria to return home, when told by a social worker that she had scabies. Under the Children Act 1989, Dewar was obliged to see Victoria, and tell her she was under police protection, but she did not do this. She also failed to see Kouao or Manning. At the time of the decision, Dewar was attending a seminar on child protection. Garnham later said, "we will need to ask why it was thought more important for her to attend a seminar to learn how to deal with child protection cases than deal with the real child protection case for which she was responsible at the time". Kouao took Climbié home on 15 July 1999.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: Some time in July, probably just before Victoria was admitted to the Central Middlesex Hospital, Kouao befriended a couple, Julien and Chantal Kimbidima. Victoria and Kouao visited their home several times over the following months. According to Chantal, Kouao would shout at Victoria all the time, and never showed her affection.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: On 24 July 1999, Victoria was taken by Kouao to the accident-and-emergency department at North Middlesex Hospital with severe scalding to her head and other injuries. Doctors would give a vivid description of Kouao telling off Victoria, Victoria immediately jumping out of bed and standing to attention; so frightened that she wet herself. The hospital found no evidence of scabies. Consultant Mary Rossiter felt that Victoria was being abused, but still wrote 'able to discharge' on her notes. According to Maureen Ann Meates, another doctor at the hospital, when Rossiter had written that note, she had noted that Victoria was exhibiting signs of neglect, emotional abuse, and physical abuse. Later, in the inquiry, Rossiter said that by writing 'able to discharge', she did not mean she wanted Victoria to go home, merely that she was physically fit to leave. Garnham said, "quite how the subtlety of that distinction was to be ascertained from the notes is far from obvious". Rossiter admitted to the inquiry that she had expected police and social services to follow up on the case. For a brief period while Victoria was in hospital, Enfield social services took up the case before passing it to Haringey.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: A social worker from Haringey Council and a police officer, Lisa Arthurworrey and Karen Jones, respectively, were assigned to her case, and were scheduled to make a home visit on 4 August 1999; however, the visit was cancelled once they heard about the scabies. Jones later said, "it might not be logical, but I did not know anything about scabies." She said that she telephoned North Middlesex Hospital for information about the disease, but Garnham had evidence that the staff there dealt with no such inquiry. Jones was told by a doctor that Victoria’s injuries were consistent with belt buckle marks, although she claimed in the inquiry there was no evidence of child abuse.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: On 5 August 1999, a Haringey social worker, Barry Almeida, took Victoria to an NSPCC centre in Tottenham, where she was assigned to Sylvia Henry. There was some confusion as to why the centre was being referred to for the case. Henry later contacted Almeida and was told, according to Henry, that Victoria had moved out of the borough, thereby closing the case. Almeida said he could not remember whether this conversation did take place. On the same day, Kouao met Arthurworrey and Jones at the Haringey social services department, and claimed that Victoria had poured boiling water over herself to stop the itching caused by the scabies, and that she had used utensils to cause the other injuries. The social worker and police officer believed her, deciding that the injuries were most likely accidental, and allowed Victoria to return home the following day, which she did.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: On 7 August 1999, Kouao visited Ealing social services; they said it was a housing issue and that the case was closed. Ealing social services would later be described as 'chaotic'. As a follow-up measure, a staff member at the hospital contacted a health visitor, but the health visitor said in the inquiry that she did not receive any contact. On 13 August 1999, Rossiter wrote to Petra Kitchman of Brent council, asking her to follow up on the Victoria Climbie case. Kitchman said in the inquiry that she contacted Arthurworrey, but Arthurworrey denied this. Later, on 2 September 1999, Rossiter sent a second letter. Kitchman said she spoke to Arthurworrey about this, but Arthurworrey denied this again. Arthurworrey made a visit to Victoria’s home on 16 August 1999, and another one when Manning began forcing Victoria to sleep in the bathtub. Arthurworrey said in the inquiry that she was under the impression that Victoria seemed happy, but Garnham criticised Arthurworrey for not detecting any of the abuse, although Manning had described this visit as a "put up job". Arthurworrey and Victoria had met on four occasions, where they were together for a total of less than 30 minutes, barely speaking to each other.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: From then on, Kouao kept Victoria away from hospitals, turning instead to churches. Kouao said to the pastors that she was the mother, and that demons were inside Victoria. The pastor at the Mission Ensemble Pour Christ, Pascal Orome, offered prayers for Victoria to cast out the devil, and thought that her injuries were due to demonic possession. On another occasion, Kouao took Victoria to a church run by the Universal Church of the Kingdom of God, where the pastor, Alvaro Lima, suspected she was being abused, although he took no action. He said in the inquiry that Victoria told him that Satan had told her to burn herself. The pastor did not believe her, but he still believed that a person could be possessed.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: From October 1999 to January 2000, Manning forced Victoria to sleep in a bin liner in the bathtub in her own excrement. During a later police interview, Manning said this was because of her frequent bedwetting. At Haringey social services on 1 November 1999, Kouao told social workers that Manning sexually assaulted Victoria, but withdrew the accusation the following day. In one of Arthurworrey's visits, during a conversation about housing, Arthurworrey said that the council accommodated only children who were believed to be at serious risk. Laming said in his report, "it may be no coincidence that within three days of this conversation, Kouao contacted Ms. Arthurworrey to make allegations which, if true, would have placed Victoria squarely within that category". Jones sent a letter to Kouao, which was ignored, and no further action was taken. Manning later denied the allegation. Alan Hodges, the police sergeant overseeing the investigation, claimed in the inquiry that the social workers were obstructing the police in dealing with child protection cases. Between December 1999 and January 2000, Arthurworrey made three visits to the flat, but she received no answer. She speculated to her supervisor, Carole Baptiste, that they had returned to France. Despite no evidence, her supervisor wrote on Victoria’s file that they had left the area. On 18 February 2000, they wrote to Kouao, saying that if they did not receive any contact from them, they would close the case. A week later, on 25 February 2000, they closed the case—on the same day that Victoria died.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: On 24 February 2000, Victoria Climbié was taken, unconscious and suffering from hypothermia, multiple organ failure, and malnutrition, to the local Universal Church of the Kingdom of God. With the advice of the pastor, a mini-cab was called to send Victoria to the hospital. The mini-cab driver was horrified at Victoria’s condition, and took her to the nearby Tottenham Ambulance Station instead. Victoria was rushed straight to the accident-and-emergency department at North Middlesex Hospital; she was then transferred to the intensive-care unit at St Mary's Hospital. The ambulance crew who drove her to St Mary's described how although Kouao had kept saying, "my baby, my baby", her concern seemed "not quite enough", and that Manning seemed "almost as if he was not there". Climbié died on 25 February 2000 at 3:15 pm. The pathologist who examined her body noted 128 separate injuries and scars on her body, and described it as the worst case of child abuse she had ever seen; Victoria had been bound, burned, scalded, starved, and beaten.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: During her life in Britain, Victoria was known to four local authorities (four social services departments and three housing departments), two child protection police teams, two hospitals, an NSPCC centre, and a few local churches. She was buried in Grand-Bassam near her home town.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: Kouao was arrested on the day that Victoria died, and Manning the following day. Kouao told police, "It is terrible, I have just lost my child". On 20 November 2000, at the Old Bailey, the trial into her death opened, where Kouao and Manning were charged with child cruelty and murder. Kouao denied all charges, and Manning pleaded guilty to charges of cruelty and manslaughter. The judge described the people in Victoria’s case as "blindingly incompetent". In his diary, Manning described Victoria as Satan, and said that no matter how hard he hit her, she did not cry or show signs that she was hurt. On 12 January 2001, both were found guilty and sentenced to life imprisonment. The judge said to them, "What [Victoria] endured was truly unimaginable. She died at both your hands, a lonely, drawn-out death". Kouao was transferred to HM Prison Durham, and Manning went to HM Prison Wakefield.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: On 20 April 2000, the health secretary, Alan Milburn, and the home secretary, Jack Straw, appointed William Laming, Lord Laming, former chief inspector of the Social Services Inspectorate (SSI), to conduct a statutory inquiry into Climbié's death. Laming was given the choice of staging a public inquiry or a private inquiry; he chose a public inquiry. It was the first inquiry to be set up by two secretaries of state. The inquiry was actually three separate inquiries, together called the Victoria Climbié Inquiry, as it had a statutory base of three pieces of legislation: section 81 of the Children Act 1989, section 84 of the National Health Service Act 1977, and section 49 of the Police Act 1996. It drew together the involvement of social services, the National Health Service, and the police, and became the first tripartite inquiry into child protection. The Counsel to the Inquiry was Neil Garnham QC, and the counsel for Victoria's parents was Joanna Dodson QC. The inquiry, based in Hannibal House, Elephant and Castle, London, cost £3.8 million, making it the most expensive child protection investigation in British history. The website victoria-climbie-inquiry.org.uk was created, where all the evidence and documents were made available freely.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: The inquiry was launched on 31 May 2001, and was split into two phases. Phase one investigated the involvement of people and agencies in Climbié's death, in the form of hearings. Two hundred and seventy witnesses were involved. Phase one hearings began on 26 September 2001 and finished on 31 July 2002; it was originally supposed to end on 4 February 2002 but late documents caused delays. Phase two of the inquiry, taking place between 15 March 2002 and 26 April 2002, took the form of five seminars, which looked at the child protection system in general. It was chaired by Garnham and brought together experts in all aspects of child protection.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: Laming's appointment was controversial as he had been director of Hertfordshire County Council's social services department in 1990, a department which was strongly criticised for its handling of a child abuse case, and which had the Local Government Ombudsman making a finding of 'maladministration with injustice' against them in 1995. The father of the child in the case said of Laming's appointment, "I don't see how he has the qualifications or experience to be able to lead an investigation into another borough which has been failing to protect a child in exactly the same manner that his own authority failed to protect a child in 1990". Liberal Democrat spokesman Paul Burstow said, "the findings of the ombudsman in the Hertfordshire case must give rise to questions about Lord Laming's appointment to head this inquiry"; and Conservative Party spokesman Liam Fox said, "I think the government maybe should have thought twice about this and maybe, even yet, they will think again." The Department for Health, however, said that they were "fully confident that he is the right person to conduct the inquiry."


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: Several documents were submitted late or under suspicious circumstances to the inquiry. A report by the Social Services Inspectorate (SSI) was submitted late because the SSI presumed the document was not relevant to the inquiry. The report was produced in April 2001 but was not handed over to the inquiry until 2002. An earlier report by the Joint Review about Haringey social services, which was heavily relied upon during the inquiry, said that service users were "generally well served"; the SSI report said that the former report presented "an overly positive picture of Haringey's social services, particularly children's services". Further documents were received late, when Haringey council handed in 71 case documents five months after the hearings began. Laming said, "it shows a blatant and flagrant disregard to the work of this inquiry". The people involved were threatened with disciplinary action. This was not the first time that Haringey council did not produce documents on time, which led Laming to say to its chief executive, "it is a long sad and sorry saga of missed dates and missed timetables". Garnham warned that Haringey senior managers, who had access to the documents, would enjoy an unfair advantage in the inquiry, but Laming said he was "determined that Haringey is not given any advantage". The inquiry found contradictory information in the NSPCC's files. One file said that Climbié's case was "accepted for ongoing service", whilst another computer record, made after Climbié's death, said that "no further action" was to be taken, suggesting the possibility that records may have been changed. Documents given to the inquiry may also have been altered: the NSPCC provided photocopies of original documents, which had alterations in them, saying that the originals were lost; however, the originals were later produced with pressure from the inquiry. The NSPCC held an internal investigation but found no evidence of deception.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: The inquiry heard that many of the councils were understaffed, underfunded, and poorly managed. The chief executive of Brent council said its social services department was "seriously defective". The inquiry was told that many cases at Brent social services were closed inappropriately before inspection by the social services inspectorate, that children were being placed unaccompanied in bed-and-breakfast accommodation, and that children in need were turned away. The inquiry heard how Edward Armstrong had previously been ordered not to work with children over his handling of a case in 1993. Haringey and Brent councils diverted £18.7 million and over £26 million, respectively, in the two years 1997/98 and 1998/99, from its social services department into services such as education, for other purposes; both underspent their budgets for children's services, totalling £28m, by more than £10m in 1998–99, causing a deterioration of child protection services. The inquiry heard how Haringey council failed to assign social workers to 109 children in May 1999, a short period before they took on Climbié's case. Again in January 2002, Haringey council failed to assign social workers to about 50 children. Haringey council wrote a letter to Laming claiming that social workers who gave evidence were being questioned more harshly than other witnesses. Laming condemned the letter, saying "I will not tolerate any covert attempt to influence the way in which the inquiry is conducted." Mary Richardson, the director of social services at Haringey from 1 April 1998 until 31 March 2000, had been responsible for a restructuring of the department which, according to the union UNISON, had "virtually paralysed" the child protection service. She received contact from twelve senior practitioners and team managers criticising the proposals as "potentially dangerous and detrimental to the people to whom we offer a service". Richardson provided no substantive response to the memorandum. She did, however, say in the inquiry that the blame lay on "part of all of the line management responsibility". Gurbux Singh, the former chief executive of Haringey council (before becoming the chairman of the Commission for Racial Equality), said that there was nothing he could have done to prevent Climbié's death. Garnham contrasted this with Rossiter's willingness to accept responsibility, saying, "that willingness to acknowledge error is at least at the root, is it not, of progress?"


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: Kouao herself was called to the inquiry, becoming the first convicted murderer to appear in person in a public inquiry. She initially refused to answer questions, and when she did, protested her innocence, first in French, then, raising her voice in anger, in English. Giving evidence by video link from prison, Manning apologised for his actions and said that it was not the fault of the various agencies that Climbié died. Broadcasters applied for access to this video, but Laming refused the application. Climbié's parents gave evidence and were present at most of the hearings, becoming distressed when hearing of Climbié's plight and seeing pictures of her injuries. They blamed Haringey council and its chief executive for Climbié's death.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: Arthurworrey, a junior worker with only nineteen months of child protection experience when she took on Climbié's case, was found to have made mistakes in the case. She accused her employer of "making her a scapegoat", and criticised her superiors and department for not guiding her properly. The inquiry heard that Arthurworrey was overworked, taking on more cases than guidelines allow. Carole Baptiste, Arthurworrey's first supervisor, initially refused to attend the hearings, but subsequently gave vague responses to the inquiry, and said that she had been suffering from mental illness at the time. Baptiste's own child was taken into care a few months before Climbié's death. Arthurworrey said that, in their meetings, Baptiste spent most of the time discussing "her experiences as a black woman and her relationship with God", rather than child protection cases, and that she was frequently absent. Baptiste admitted she had not read Climbié's file properly. She was removed in November 1999 when she was found to be professionally unfit for her job, and replaced by Angella Mairs, who became Arthurworrey's new supervisor. Mairs was accused by Arthurworrey of not maintaining childcare standards and of removing an important document—which recommended that Climbié's case be closed—from Climbié's file on 28 February 2000, the day the news of the death was known; but she denied this. Mairs said that she had not read Climbié's file.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: The inquiry heard that the number of child protection police officers in the Metropolitan Police Service was reduced to increase the number of murder investigation officers because of the Stephen Lawrence case in 1993. A detective inspector supervising six child protection teams in London at the time of Climbié's death wrote a report criticising their competence. His former boss, however, claimed he had been lying when he said he only held "purely administrative" responsibility for the teams. The detective inspector was taken to hospital when a woman poured ink over his head while testifying. The new chief executive of Haringey council, David Warwick, Baptiste, the Metropolitan Police, and the NSPCC apologised for their failings in the case.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: In his opening speech on 26 September 2001, Garnham said that race may have played a part in the case, due to the fact that a black child was murdered by her black carers, and the social worker and police officer most closely involved in the case were black. He said that the fear of being accused of racism may have led to the inaction. In the hearings, Arthurworrey, who is African-Caribbean, admitted that her assumptions about African–Caribbean families influenced her judgement, and that she had assumed Climbié's timidity in the presence of Kouao and Manning stemmed not from fear, but from the African–Caribbean culture of respect towards one's parents. Ratna Dutt, director of the Race Equality Unit (now the Race Equality Foundation), a charity that provides race-awareness training to social workers, later said, "the implicit message is that it's acceptable for ethnic minorities to receive poor services under the guise of superficial cultural sensitivity. This is absolutely shameful, as it allows people to argue that good practice is compromised by anti-racism"; and, contrasting the outcomes of the white and black staff members involved, "for a large number of black frontline staff if the finger of blame is pointed at them they don't end up in jobs in other local authorities. That's how institutional racism operates". Jacqui Smith, Home Secretary from 2007, said: "I have not seen widespread evidence that social workers are not taking action", and, "there are no cultures that condone child abuse. We are absolutely clear that social workers and social work departments have a responsibility to consider whether children are subjected to harm, and if they think they are, to take action". One chapter of the report following the inquiry looked at this issue.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: When both phases of the inquiry were completed, Lord Laming began writing the final report. The Laming report, published on 28 January 2003, found that the agencies involved in her care had failed to protect her, and that on at least twelve occasions, workers involved in her case could have prevented her death, particularly condemning the senior managers involved. On the day of the launch of the report, Climbié's mother sang her daughter's favourite song as a tribute.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: The 400-page report made 108 recommendations in child protection reform. Regional and local committees for children and families are to be set up, with members from all groups involved in child protection. Previously each local authority managed their own child protection register, a list of children believed to be at risk, and no national register existed; this, combined with local authorities' tendency to suppress information about child abuse cases, led to the implementation of the child database. Two organisations to improve the care of children, the General Social Care Council and the Social Care Institute for Excellence, had already been set up by the time the report was published.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: Following Victoria Climbié's death, the agencies in the case, as well as the child services system in general, were widely criticised. Milburn said, "this was not a failing on the part of one service, it was a failing on the part of every service". Fox said Climbié's case amounted to "a shocking tale of individual professional failure and systemic incompetence". Burstow said, "there is a terrible sense of déjà vu in the Laming Report. The same weaknesses have led to the same mistakes, with the same missed opportunities to save a tortured child's life". Labour Party Member of Parliament Karen Buck said, "the Bayswater families unit told me that there must be hundreds of other Climbié cases waiting to happen", and "the Victoria Climbié inquiry highlighted how easy it is for vulnerable families to fall through the net, especially if they do not have English as a first language and are highly mobile". The 1999 Department of Health document, Working Together to Safeguard Children (now superseded), set out child protection guidance to doctors, nurses, and midwives. The Royal College of Nursing, however, said that there was evidence that many nurses did not receive proper training in these areas. Denise Platt, chief inspector of the social services inspectorate (SSI), said doctors, police officers and teachers often thought their only responsibility was to help social services, forgetting that they had a distinct role to play. Mike Leadbetter, president of the Association of Directors of Social Services, said that many health professionals were "not engaged in child protection". After the inquiry, there was a feeling that senior managers had managed to escape responsibility and that only junior staff members were punished. Burstow said, "the majority of children who die from abuse or neglect in this country know the perpetrator; it is within the family and by 'friends' that most abuse occurs. As a society we are still in denial about that hard truth".


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: The Laming report was criticised by Caroline Abrahams and Deborah Lightfoot of NCH as too narrow, focusing too much on the particular case of Victoria Climbié and not on general child protection. According to Harry Ferguson, a professor of social work at the University of the West of England, "Laming's report focuses too heavily on the implementation of new structures and fails to understand the keen intuition that child protection work demands". He criticised the approach to child protection of focusing too much on the worst cases and trying too much to prevent them, rather than having an approach that also celebrates success; and said that focusing too much on any individual case and basing reforms on that was "deeply problematic". Laming responded to criticism by the Association of Directors of Social Services that his recommendations would require much more funding by saying that these arguments lacked "intellectual rigour", and he dismissed claims that his reforms would be too bureaucratic. "The Guardian" said that the report does not address the issues of frontline staff. Deryk Mead of NCH said, "I do believe that inquiry reports have made a positive difference to the child protection system, and I have every confidence that Lord Laming's report will do so too".


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: "The Guardian" discussed the media attention surrounding the case, noticing how sensational events received widespread coverage, yet important but less exciting events received less. It states that only it and "The Independent" of the national newspapers gave significant coverage to the evidence in the hearings. A possible explanation is given as, "much of the evidence has been concerned with social services, which many other papers view as a politically correct waste of money for the undeserving".


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: In August 2002, Baptiste was fined £500 after being found guilty of deliberately failing to attend the inquiry. Climbié's parents, speaking through a family friend, said, "we, the family, expected her to be dealt with more severely". This was the first time a person had been prosecuted for not attending a public inquiry. In September 2002, Arthurworrey and Mairs were sacked following disciplinary procedures. The education secretary, Charles Clarke, also added them to the Protection of Children Act 1999 List, banning them from working with children. In October 2004, Arthurworrey appealed against her dismissal, saying that she was duped by Kouao and Manning, misled by medical reports, badly advised by her managers, and that she was a scapegoat for other people's failures, but the appeal was rejected. In 2005, she appealed the ban preventing her from working with children and won the case. In 2004, Mairs appealed her ban preventing her from working with children and won; this decision was challenged in the High Court but she prevailed. In 2004, six police officers involved in the case faced misconduct charges. All six kept their jobs, and some received reprimands and cautions. In 2004, the General Medical Council dropped misconduct charges against Dr Schwartz.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: Haringey council held a debate in the council chambers to discuss the Laming report. The parents of Victoria Climbié were invited to speak at the council by Councillor Ron Aitken, but the Council leader George Meehan denied them permission. Only pressure from the opposition and local press got the decision reversed. As George Meehan only reversed his decision just before the meeting, a driver was rushed to Acton to escort Francis and Berthe Climbié and Mor Dioum, their interpreter, to the council. At the meeting, the Climbiés attacked the council, through their interpreter, for its handling of the case, especially in its dealing with the Laming Inquiry. (Mor Dioum later went on to be the Director of the Victoria Climbié Foundation.)


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: The government placed Haringey social services department under special measures, requiring close supervision by the social services inspectorate. Allegations emerged that in 2004 and 2005, senior managers at Haringey council ignored child abuse cases and "became hostile" against a social worker who sought to expose the abuse.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: Climbié's parents created the Victoria Climbié Foundation UK, a charity that seeks to improve child protection policies, and the Victoria Climbié Charitable Trust, an organisation to build a school in the Ivory Coast. They are also involved in championing many child protection reforms. A playwright, Lance Nielsen, wrote a play based on the events, staged at the Hackney Empire throughout 2002.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: After Climbié's death, commentators discussed the history of child protection and the various abuse and death cases, noting that there have been 70 public inquiries into child abuse since 1945, and comparing Climbié's case with that of many others, especially that of Maria Colwell in 1973. They pointed to the many children abused and killed by their guardians over the years and how the agencies involved in their care let them down. They noted similarly that their deaths also led to inquiries and reform policies—reforms that have not saved the many children killed following them. They pointed out that, "an average of 78 children are killed by parents or minders every year; a figure unaltered in the 30 years since Maria Colwell's death provoked the first criticism of 'communications failure'". They expressed cynicism towards the possibility that these reforms would be different. Dr Chris Hanvey, director of operations at Barnardo's, for example, said, "Victoria's tragic case is the latest in a sad roll-call of child deaths, each leading to fresh inquiries and a new but recurring set of recommendations". Ian Willmore, former deputy leader of Haringey council, said, "the 'script' for this kind of inquiry is now almost traditional. The Minister goes on TV to insist that: 'this must never happen again'. Responsibility is pinned on a few expendable front-line staff, all conveniently sacked in advance. Criticisms are made about poor communication, with earnest recommendations about better co-ordination and possible restructuring. Council officers—all new appointments—go on TV to say that everything has changed since the case began. Everyone looks very earnest. Voices crack with compassion. Nothing essential changes."


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: In the United Kingdom, the Audit Commission regulate social services; John Seddon pointed out in "The Times" that "Haringey Council was rated 4-star at the time of Victoria Climbié and Baby P's deaths".


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: Climbié's death was largely responsible for various changes in child protection in England, including the formation of Every Child Matters programme, an initiative designed to improve the lives of children; the introduction of the Children Act 2004, an Act of Parliament that provides the legislative base for many of the reforms; the creation of ContactPoint, a database designed to hold information on all children in England and Wales (now no longer in operation); and the creation of the post of children's commissioner, who heads the Office of the Children's Commissioner, a national agency serving children and families.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: Professionals using the dynamic-maturational model of attachment and adaptation (DMM) consider the Climbié case a good example of how an attachment strategy can be misinterpreted by well meaning professionals. Climbié is assumed to be using self-protective attachment strategies identified as compulsive compliance (A4), compulsive performance (A4-), and/or compulsive self-reliance (A6).


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: Some hallmarks of these attachment patterns include putting other's needs (such as the primary caregivers) ahead of one's own needs even if to one's ultimate detriment, the use of false positive affect, and denial of pain. The child's display of affect is geared towards their carer's expectations, dismissing and hiding her own felt need for comfort or protection. False positive affect involves the use of positive affect, or behaviors, when negative affect would be more expected. Overbright smiles while experiencing pain and danger is one form of false positive affect.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: Examples of behaviors consistent with these attachment behaviors, and the impacts on the various professionals, are described above. They also include statements such as "Victoria had the most beautiful smile that lit up the room", "...twirling up and down the ward. She was a very friendly and happy child," and Manning's statement "You could beat her and she wouldn't cry... she could take the beatings and the pain like anything." During her 13-day stay at North Middlesex Hospital, the hospital's doctor responsible for child protection found Victoria to be a "little ray of sunshine."


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: DMM developer Patricia Crittenden commented that while the Laming report pointed out that tell-tale signs had been missed, the signs were present and noticed but their meaning was not understood. Misinterpreted attachment behavior signs can cause professionals to be more easily and unwittingly recruited into a disturbed parent's "story" of the child.


title: Murder of Victoria Climbié

text: The DMM is a modern update to attachment theory, was not widely known to professionals at the time of Climbié's death, and was just starting to gain circulation in 2000. The A4, A4- and A6 attachment patterns were developed through the study of attachment assessments in the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s.


title: Seventeen discography

text: South Korean boy group Seventeen has released four studio albums, three reissues, one compilation album, 12 extended plays, and 21 singles Since Debut Seventeen has sold a total of 15m copies with all of their albums becoming the 2nd act in South Korea to have multiple albums sold million of copies


title: Nuclear physics

text: Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies atomic nuclei and their constituents and interactions, in addition to the study of other forms of nuclear matter.


title: Nuclear physics

text: Nuclear physics should not be confused with atomic physics, which studies the atom as a whole, including its electrons.


title: Nuclear physics

text: Discoveries in nuclear physics have led to applications in many fields. This includes nuclear power, nuclear weapons, nuclear medicine and magnetic resonance imaging, industrial and agricultural isotopes, ion implantation in materials engineering, and radiocarbon dating in geology and archaeology. Such applications are studied in the field of nuclear engineering.


title: Nuclear physics

text: Particle physics evolved out of nuclear physics and the two fields are typically taught in close association. Nuclear astrophysics, the application of nuclear physics to astrophysics, is crucial in explaining the inner workings of stars and the origin of the chemical elements.


title: Nuclear physics

text: The history of nuclear physics as a discipline distinct from atomic physics, starts with the discovery of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel in 1896, made while investigating phosphorescence in uranium salts. The discovery of the electron by J. J. Thomson a year later was an indication that the atom had internal structure. At the beginning of the 20th century the accepted model of the atom was J. J. Thomson's "plum pudding" model in which the atom was a positively charged ball with smaller negatively charged electrons embedded inside it.


title: Nuclear physics

text: In the years that followed, radioactivity was extensively investigated, notably by Marie Curie, Pierre Curie, Ernest Rutherford and others. By the turn of the century, physicists had also discovered three types of radiation emanating from atoms, which they named alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. Experiments by Otto Hahn in 1911 and by James Chadwick in 1914 discovered that the beta decay spectrum was continuous rather than discrete. That is, electrons were ejected from the atom with a continuous range of energies, rather than the discrete amounts of energy that were observed in gamma and alpha decays. This was a problem for nuclear physics at the time, because it seemed to indicate that energy was not conserved in these decays.


title: Nuclear physics

text: The 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded jointly to Becquerel, for his discovery and to Marie and Pierre Curie for their subsequent research into radioactivity. Rutherford was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1908 for his "investigations into the disintegration of the elements and the chemistry of radioactive substances".


title: Nuclear physics

text: In 1905, Albert Einstein formulated the idea of mass–energy equivalence. While the work on radioactivity by Becquerel and Marie Curie predates this, an explanation of the source of the energy of radioactivity would have to wait for the discovery that the nucleus itself was composed of smaller constituents, the nucleons.


title: Nuclear physics

text: In 1906, Ernest Rutherford published "Retardation of the α Particle from Radium in passing through matter." Hans Geiger expanded on this work in a communication to the Royal Society with experiments he and Rutherford had done, passing alpha particles through air, aluminum foil and gold leaf. More work was published in 1909 by Geiger and Ernest Marsden, and further greatly expanded work was published in 1910 by Geiger. In 1911–1912 Rutherford went before the Royal Society to explain the experiments and propound the new theory of the atomic nucleus as we now understand it.


title: Nuclear physics

text: Published in 1909, with the eventual classical analysis by Rutherford published May 1911, the key preemptive experiment was performed during 1909, at the University of Manchester. Ernest Rutherford's assistant, Professor Johannes "Hans" Geiger, and an undergraduate, Marsden, performed an experiment in which Geiger and Marsden under Rutherford's supervision fired alpha particles (helium 4 nuclei) at a thin film of gold foil. The plum pudding model had predicted that the alpha particles should come out of the foil with their trajectories being at most slightly bent. But Rutherford instructed his team to look for something that shocked him to observe: a few particles were scattered through large angles, even completely backwards in some cases. He likened it to firing a bullet at tissue paper and having it bounce off. The discovery, with Rutherford's analysis of the data in 1911, led to the Rutherford model of the atom, in which the atom had a very small, very dense nucleus containing most of its mass, and consisting of heavy positively charged particles with embedded electrons in order to balance out the charge (since the neutron was unknown). As an example, in this model (which is not the modern one) nitrogen-14 consisted of a nucleus with 14 protons and 7 electrons (21 total particles) and the nucleus was surrounded by 7 more orbiting electrons.


title: Nuclear physics

text: Around 1920, Arthur Eddington anticipated the discovery and mechanism of nuclear fusion processes in stars, in his paper "The Internal Constitution of the Stars". At that time, the source of stellar energy was a complete mystery; Eddington correctly speculated that the source was fusion of hydrogen into helium, liberating enormous energy according to Einstein's equation "E = mc". This was a particularly remarkable development since at that time fusion and thermonuclear energy, and even that stars are largely composed of hydrogen (see metallicity), had not yet been discovered.


title: Nuclear physics

text: The Rutherford model worked quite well until studies of nuclear spin were carried out by Franco Rasetti at the California Institute of Technology in 1929. By 1925 it was known that protons and electrons each had a spin of . In the Rutherford model of nitrogen-14, 20 of the total 21 nuclear particles should have paired up to cancel each other's spin, and the final odd particle should have left the nucleus with a net spin of . Rasetti discovered, however, that nitrogen-14 had a spin of 1.


title: Nuclear physics

text: In 1932 Chadwick realized that radiation that had been observed by Walther Bothe, Herbert Becker, Irène and Frédéric Joliot-Curie was actually due to a neutral particle of about the same mass as the proton, that he called the neutron (following a suggestion from Rutherford about the need for such a particle). In the same year Dmitri Ivanenko suggested that there were no electrons in the nucleus — only protons and neutrons — and that neutrons were spin particles, which explained the mass not due to protons. The neutron spin immediately solved the problem of the spin of nitrogen-14, as the one unpaired proton and one unpaired neutron in this model each contributed a spin of in the same direction, giving a final total spin of 1.


title: Nuclear physics

text: With the discovery of the neutron, scientists could at last calculate what fraction of binding energy each nucleus had, by comparing the nuclear mass with that of the protons and neutrons which composed it. Differences between nuclear masses were calculated in this way. When nuclear reactions were measured, these were found to agree with Einstein's calculation of the equivalence of mass and energy to within 1% as of 1934.


title: Nuclear physics

text: Alexandru Proca was the first to develop and report the massive vector boson field equations and a theory of the mesonic field of nuclear forces. Proca's equations were known to Wolfgang Pauli who mentioned the equations in his Nobel address, and they were also known to Yukawa, Wentzel, Taketani, Sakata, Kemmer, Heitler, and Fröhlich who appreciated the content of Proca's equations for developing a theory of the atomic nuclei in Nuclear Physics.


title: Nuclear physics

text: In 1935 Hideki Yukawa proposed the first significant theory of the strong force to explain how the nucleus holds together. In the Yukawa interaction a virtual particle, later called a meson, mediated a force between all nucleons, including protons and neutrons. This force explained why nuclei did not disintegrate under the influence of proton repulsion, and it also gave an explanation of why the attractive strong force had a more limited range than the electromagnetic repulsion between protons. Later, the discovery of the pi meson showed it to have the properties of Yukawa's particle.


title: Nuclear physics

text: With Yukawa's papers, the modern model of the atom was complete. The center of the atom contains a tight ball of neutrons and protons, which is held together by the strong nuclear force, unless it is too large. Unstable nuclei may undergo alpha decay, in which they emit an energetic helium nucleus, or beta decay, in which they eject an electron (or positron). After one of these decays the resultant nucleus may be left in an excited state, and in this case it decays to its ground state by emitting high-energy photons (gamma decay).


title: Nuclear physics

text: The study of the strong and weak nuclear forces (the latter explained by Enrico Fermi via Fermi's interaction in 1934) led physicists to collide nuclei and electrons at ever higher energies. This research became the science of particle physics, the crown jewel of which is the standard model of particle physics, which describes the strong, weak, and electromagnetic forces.


title: Nuclear physics

text: A heavy nucleus can contain hundreds of nucleons. This means that with some approximation it can be treated as a classical system, rather than a quantum-mechanical one. In the resulting liquid-drop model, the nucleus has an energy that arises partly from surface tension and partly from electrical repulsion of the protons. The liquid-drop model is able to reproduce many features of nuclei, including the general trend of binding energy with respect to mass number, as well as the phenomenon of nuclear fission.


title: Nuclear physics

text: Superimposed on this classical picture, however, are quantum-mechanical effects, which can be described using the nuclear shell model, developed in large part by Maria Goeppert Mayer and J. Hans D. Jensen. Nuclei with certain "magic" numbers of neutrons and protons are particularly stable, because their shells are filled.


title: Nuclear physics

text: Other more complicated models for the nucleus have also been proposed, such as the interacting boson model, in which pairs of neutrons and protons interact as bosons.


title: Nuclear physics

text: Ab initio methods try to solve the nuclear many-body problem from the ground up, starting from the nucleons and their interactions.


title: Nuclear physics

text: Much of current research in nuclear physics relates to the study of nuclei under extreme conditions such as high spin and excitation energy. Nuclei may also have extreme shapes (similar to that of Rugby balls or even pears) or extreme neutron-to-proton ratios. Experimenters can create such nuclei using artificially induced fusion or nucleon transfer reactions, employing ion beams from an accelerator. Beams with even higher energies can be used to create nuclei at very high temperatures, and there are signs that these experiments have produced a phase transition from normal nuclear matter to a new state, the quark–gluon plasma, in which the quarks mingle with one another, rather than being segregated in triplets as they are in neutrons and protons.


title: Nuclear physics

text: Eighty elements have at least one stable isotope which is never observed to decay, amounting to a total of about 251 stable nuclides. However, thousands of isotopes have been characterized as unstable. These "radioisotopes" decay over time scales ranging from fractions of a second to trillions of years. Plotted on a chart as a function of atomic and neutron numbers, the binding energy of the nuclides forms what is known as the valley of stability. Stable nuclides lie along the bottom of this energy valley, while increasingly unstable nuclides lie up the valley walls, that is, have weaker binding energy.


title: Nuclear physics

text: The most stable nuclei fall within certain ranges or balances of composition of neutrons and protons: too few or too many neutrons (in relation to the number of protons) will cause it to decay. For example, in beta decay, a nitrogen-16 atom (7 protons, 9 neutrons) is converted to an oxygen-16 atom (8 protons, 8 neutrons) within a few seconds of being created. In this decay a neutron in the nitrogen nucleus is converted by the weak interaction into a proton, an electron and an antineutrino. The element is transmuted to another element, with a different number of protons.


title: Nuclear physics

text: In alpha decay, which typically occurs in the heaviest nuclei, the radioactive element decays by emitting a helium nucleus (2 protons and 2 neutrons), giving another element, plus helium-4. In many cases this process continues through several steps of this kind, including other types of decays (usually beta decay) until a stable element is formed.


title: Nuclear physics

text: In gamma decay, a nucleus decays from an excited state into a lower energy state, by emitting a gamma ray. The element is not changed to another element in the process (no nuclear transmutation is involved).


title: Nuclear physics

text: Other more exotic decays are possible (see the first main article). For example, in internal conversion decay, the energy from an excited nucleus may eject one of the inner orbital electrons from the atom, in a process which produces high speed electrons but is not beta decay and (unlike beta decay) does not transmute one element to another.


title: Nuclear physics

text: In nuclear fusion, two low-mass nuclei come into very close contact with each other so that the strong force fuses them. It requires a large amount of energy for the strong or nuclear forces to overcome the electrical repulsion between the nuclei in order to fuse them; therefore nuclear fusion can only take place at very high temperatures or high pressures. When nuclei fuse, a very large amount of energy is released and the combined nucleus assumes a lower energy level. The binding energy per nucleon increases with mass number up to nickel-62. Stars like the Sun are powered by the fusion of four protons into a helium nucleus, two positrons, and two neutrinos. The uncontrolled fusion of hydrogen into helium is known as thermonuclear runaway. A frontier in current research at various institutions, for example the Joint European Torus (JET) and ITER, is the development of an economically viable method of using energy from a controlled fusion reaction. Nuclear fusion is the origin of the energy (including in the form of light and other electromagnetic radiation) produced by the core of all stars including our own Sun.


title: Nuclear physics

text: Nuclear fission is the reverse process to fusion. For nuclei heavier than nickel-62 the binding energy per nucleon decreases with the mass number. It is therefore possible for energy to be released if a heavy nucleus breaks apart into two lighter ones.


title: Nuclear physics

text: The process of alpha decay is in essence a special type of spontaneous nuclear fission. It is a highly asymmetrical fission because the four particles which make up the alpha particle are especially tightly bound to each other, making production of this nucleus in fission particularly likely.


title: Nuclear physics

text: From several of the heaviest nuclei whose fission produces free neutrons, and which also easily absorb neutrons to initiate fission, a self-igniting type of neutron-initiated fission can be obtained, in a chain reaction. Chain reactions were known in chemistry before physics, and in fact many familiar processes like fires and chemical explosions are chemical chain reactions. The fission or "nuclear" chain-reaction, using fission-produced neutrons, is the source of energy for nuclear power plants and fission-type nuclear bombs, such as those detonated in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, at the end of World War II. Heavy nuclei such as uranium and thorium may also undergo spontaneous fission, but they are much more likely to undergo decay by alpha decay.


title: Nuclear physics

text: For a neutron-initiated chain reaction to occur, there must be a critical mass of the relevant isotope present in a certain space under certain conditions. The conditions for the smallest critical mass require the conservation of the emitted neutrons and also their slowing or moderation so that there is a greater cross-section or probability of them initiating another fission. In two regions of Oklo, Gabon, Africa, natural nuclear fission reactors were active over 1.5 billion years ago. Measurements of natural neutrino emission have demonstrated that around half of the heat emanating from the Earth's core results from radioactive decay. However, it is not known if any of this results from fission chain reactions.


title: Nuclear physics

text: According to the theory, as the Universe cooled after the Big Bang it eventually became possible for common subatomic particles as we know them (neutrons, protons and electrons) to exist. The most common particles created in the Big Bang which are still easily observable to us today were protons and electrons (in equal numbers). The protons would eventually form hydrogen atoms. Almost all the neutrons created in the Big Bang were absorbed into helium-4 in the first three minutes after the Big Bang, and this helium accounts for most of the helium in the universe today (see Big Bang nucleosynthesis).


title: Nuclear physics

text: Some relatively small quantities of elements beyond helium (lithium, beryllium, and perhaps some boron) were created in the Big Bang, as the protons and neutrons collided with each other, but all of the "heavier elements" (carbon, element number 6, and elements of greater atomic number) that we see today, were created inside stars during a series of fusion stages, such as the proton–proton chain, the CNO cycle and the triple-alpha process. Progressively heavier elements are created during the evolution of a star.


title: Nuclear physics

text: Energy is only released in fusion processes involving smaller atoms than iron because the binding energy per nucleon peaks around iron (56 nucleons). Since the creation of heavier nuclei by fusion requires energy, nature resorts to the process of neutron capture. Neutrons (due to their lack of charge) are readily absorbed by a nucleus. The heavy elements are created by either a "slow" neutron capture process (the so-called "s"-process) or the "rapid", or "r"-process. The "s" process occurs in thermally pulsing stars (called AGB, or asymptotic giant branch stars) and takes hundreds to thousands of years to reach the heaviest elements of lead and bismuth. The "r"-process is thought to occur in supernova explosions, which provide the necessary conditions of high temperature, high neutron flux and ejected matter. These stellar conditions make the successive neutron captures very fast, involving very neutron-rich species which then beta-decay to heavier elements, especially at the so-called waiting points that correspond to more stable nuclides with closed neutron shells (magic numbers).


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is an analytical method that combines the features of gas-chromatography and mass spectrometry to identify different substances within a test sample. Applications of GC-MS include drug detection, fire investigation, environmental analysis, explosives investigation, and identification of unknown samples, including that of material samples obtained from planet Mars during probe missions as early as the 1970s. GC-MS can also be used in airport security to detect substances in luggage or on human beings. Additionally, it can identify trace elements in materials that were previously thought to have disintegrated beyond identification. Like liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry, it allows analysis and detection even of tiny amounts of a substance.


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: GC-MS has been regarded as a "gold standard" for forensic substance identification because it is used to perform a 100% specific test, which positively identifies the presence of a particular substance. A nonspecific test merely indicates that any of several in a category of substances is present. Although a nonspecific test could statistically suggest the identity of the substance, this could lead to false positive identification. However, the high temperatures (300°C) used in the GC-MS injection port (and oven) can result in thermal degradation of injected molecules, thus resulting in the measurement of degradation products instead of the actual molecule(s) of interest.


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: The first on-line coupling of gas chromatography to a mass spectrometer was reported in the late 1950s. An interest in coupling the methods had been suggested as early as December 1954.


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: The development of affordable and miniaturized computers has helped in the simplification of the use of this instrument, as well as allowed great improvements in the amount of time it takes to analyze a sample. In 1964, Electronic Associates, Inc. (EAI), a leading U.S. supplier of analog computers, began development of a computer controlled quadrupole mass spectrometer under the direction of Robert E. Finnigan. By 1966 Finnigan and collaborator Mike Uthe's EAI division had sold over 500 quadrupole residual gas-analyzer instruments. In 1967, Finnigan left EAI to form the Finnigan Instrument Corporation along with Roger Sant, T. Z. Chou, Michael Story, Lloyd Friedman, and William Fies. In early 1968, they delivered the first prototype quadrupole GC/MS instruments to Stanford and Purdue University. When Finnigan Instrument Corporation was acquired by Thermo Instrument Systems (later Thermo Fisher Scientific) in 1990, it was considered "the world's leading manufacturer of mass spectrometers".


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: The GC-MS is composed of two major building blocks: the gas chromatograph and the mass spectrometer. The gas chromatograph utilizes a capillary column whose properties regarding molecule separation depend on the column's dimensions (length, diameter, film thickness) as well as the phase properties (e.g. 5% phenyl polysiloxane). The difference in the chemical properties between different molecules in a mixture and their relative affinity for the stationary phase of the column will promote separation of the molecules as the sample travels the length of the column. The molecules are retained by the column and then elute (come off) from the column at different times (called the retention time), and this allows the mass spectrometer downstream to capture, ionize, accelerate, deflect, and detect the ionized molecules separately. The mass spectrometer does this by breaking each molecule into ionized fragments and detecting these fragments using their mass-to-charge ratio.


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: These two components, used together, allow a much finer degree of substance identification than either unit used separately. It is not possible to make an accurate identification of a particular molecule by gas chromatography or mass spectrometry alone. The mass spectrometry process normally requires a very pure sample while gas chromatography using a traditional detector (e.g. Flame ionization detector) cannot differentiate between multiple molecules that happen to take the same amount of time to travel through the column ("i.e." have the same retention time), which results in two or more molecules that co-elute. Sometimes two different molecules can also have a similar pattern of ionized fragments in a mass spectrometer (mass spectrum). Combining the two processes reduces the possibility of error, as it is extremely unlikely that two different molecules will behave in the same way in both a gas chromatograph and a mass spectrometer. Therefore, when an identifying mass spectrum appears at a characteristic retention time in a GC-MS analysis, it typically increases certainty that the analyte of interest is in the sample.


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: For the analysis of volatile compounds, a purge and trap (P&T) concentrator system may be used to introduce samples. The target analytes are extracted by mixing the sample with water and purge with inert gas (e.g. Nitrogen gas) into an airtight chamber, this is known as purging or sparging. The volatile compounds move into the headspace above the water and are drawn along a pressure gradient (caused by the introduction of the purge gas) out of the chamber. The volatile compounds are drawn along a heated line onto a 'trap'. The trap is a column of adsorbent material at ambient temperature that holds the compounds by returning them to the liquid phase. The trap is then heated and the sample compounds are introduced to the GC-MS column via a volatiles interface, which is a split inlet system. P&T GC-MS is particularly suited to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and BTEX compounds (aromatic compounds associated with petroleum).


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: A faster alternative is the "purge-closed loop" system. In this system the inert gas is bubbled through the water until the concentrations of organic compounds in the vapor phase are at equilibrium with concentrations in the aqueous phase. The gas phase is then analysed directly.


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: The most common type of mass spectrometer (MS) associated with a gas chromatograph (GC) is the quadrupole mass spectrometer, sometimes referred to by the Hewlett-Packard (now Agilent) trade name "Mass Selective Detector" (MSD). Another relatively common detector is the ion trap mass spectrometer. Additionally one may find a magnetic sector mass spectrometer, however these particular instruments are expensive and bulky and not typically found in high-throughput service laboratories. Other detectors may be encountered such as time of flight (TOF), tandem quadrupoles (MS-MS) (see below), or in the case of an ion trap MS where n indicates the number mass spectrometry stages.


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: When a second phase of mass fragmentation is added, for example using a second quadrupole in a quadrupole instrument, it is called tandem MS (MS/MS). MS/MS can sometimes be used to quantitate low levels of target compounds in the presence of a high sample matrix background.


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: The first quadrupole (Q1) is connected with a collision cell (Q2) and another quadrupole (Q3). Both quadrupoles can be used in scanning or static mode, depending on the type of MS/MS analysis being performed. Types of analysis include product ion scan, precursor ion scan, selected reaction monitoring (SRM) (sometimes referred to as multiple reaction monitoring (MRM)) and neutral loss scan. For example: When Q1 is in static mode (looking at one mass only as in SIM), and Q3 is in scanning mode, one obtains a so-called product ion spectrum (also called "daughter spectrum"). From this spectrum, one can select a prominent product ion which can be the product ion for the chosen precursor ion. The pair is called a "transition" and forms the basis for SRM. SRM is highly specific and virtually eliminates matrix background.


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: After the molecules travel the length of the column, pass through the transfer line and enter into the mass spectrometer they are ionized by various methods with typically only one method being used at any given time. Once the sample is fragmented it will then be detected, usually by an electron multiplier, which essentially turns the ionized mass fragment into an electrical signal that is then detected.


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: By far the most common and perhaps standard form of ionization is electron ionization (EI). The molecules enter into the MS (the source is a quadrupole or the ion trap itself in an ion trap MS) where they are bombarded with free electrons emitted from a filament, not unlike the filament one would find in a standard light bulb. The electrons bombard the molecules, causing the molecule to fragment in a characteristic and reproducible way. This "hard ionization" technique results in the creation of more fragments of low mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) and few, if any, molecules approaching the molecular mass unit. Hard ionization is considered by mass spectrometrists as the employ of molecular electron bombardment, whereas "soft ionization" is charge by molecular collision with an introduced gas. The molecular fragmentation pattern is dependent upon the electron energy applied to the system, typically 70 eV (electronvolts). The use of 70 eV facilitates comparison of generated spectra with library spectra using manufacturer-supplied software or software developed by the National Institute of Standards (NIST-USA). Spectral library searches employ matching algorithms such as Probability Based Matching and dot-product matching that are used with methods of analysis written by many method standardization agencies. Sources of libraries include NIST, Wiley, the AAFS, and instrument manufacturers.


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: The "hard ionization" process of electron ionization can be softened by the cooling of the molecules before their ionization, resulting in mass spectra that are richer in information. In this method named cold electron ionization (cold-EI) the molecules exit the GC column, mixed with added helium make up gas and expand into vacuum through a specially designed supersonic nozzle, forming a supersonic molecular beam (SMB). Collisions with the make up gas at the expanding supersonic jet reduce the internal vibrational (and rotational) energy of the analyte molecules, hence reducing the degree of fragmentation caused by the electrons during the ionization process. Cold-EI mass spectra are characterized by an abundant molecular ion while the usual fragmentation pattern is retained, thus making cold-EI mass spectra compatible with library search identification techniques. The enhanced molecular ions increase the identification probabilities of both known and unknown compounds, amplify isomer mass spectral effects and enable the use of isotope abundance analysis for the elucidation of elemental formulas.


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: In chemical ionization (CI) a reagent gas, typically methane or ammonia is introduced into the mass spectrometer. Depending on the technique (positive CI or negative CI) chosen, this reagent gas will interact with the electrons and analyte and cause a 'soft' ionization of the molecule of interest. A softer ionization fragments the molecule to a lower degree than the hard ionization of EI. One of the main benefits of using chemical ionization is that a mass fragment closely corresponding to the molecular weight of the analyte of interest is produced.


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: In positive chemical ionization (PCI) the reagent gas interacts with the target molecule, most often with a proton exchange. This produces the species in relatively high amounts.


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: In negative chemical ionization (NCI) the reagent gas decreases the impact of the free electrons on the target analyte. This decreased energy typically leaves the fragment in great supply.


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: A mass spectrometer is typically utilized in one of two ways: full scan or selective ion monitoring (SIM). The typical GC-MS instrument is capable of performing both functions either individually or concomitantly, depending on the setup of the particular instrument.


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: The primary goal of instrument analysis is to quantify an amount of substance. This is done by comparing the relative concentrations among the atomic masses in the generated spectrum. Two kinds of analysis are possible, comparative and original. Comparative analysis essentially compares the given spectrum to a spectrum library to see if its characteristics are present for some sample in the library. This is best performed by a computer because there are a myriad of visual distortions that can take place due to variations in scale. Computers can also simultaneously correlate more data (such as the retention times identified by GC), to more accurately relate certain data. Deep learning was shown to lead to promising results in the identification of VOCs from raw GC-MS data


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: Another method of analysis measures the peaks in relation to one another. In this method, the tallest peak is assigned 100% of the value, and the other peaks being assigned proportionate values. All values above 3% are assigned. The total mass of the unknown compound is normally indicated by the parent peak. The value of this parent peak can be used to fit with a chemical formula containing the various elements which are believed to be in the compound. The isotope pattern in the spectrum, which is unique for elements that have many natural isotopes, can also be used to identify the various elements present. Once a chemical formula has been matched to the spectrum, the molecular structure and bonding can be identified, and must be consistent with the characteristics recorded by GC-MS. Typically, this identification is done automatically by programs which come with the instrument, given a list of the elements which could be present in the sample.


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: A “full spectrum” analysis considers all the “peaks” within a spectrum. Conversely, selective ion monitoring (SIM) only monitors selected ions associated with a specific substance. This is done on the assumption that at a given retention time, a set of ions is characteristic of a certain compound. This is a fast and efficient analysis, especially if the analyst has previous information about a sample or is only looking for a few specific substances. When the amount of information collected about the ions in a given gas chromatographic peak decreases, the sensitivity of the analysis increases. So, SIM analysis allows for a smaller quantity of a compound to be detected and measured, but the degree of certainty about the identity of that compound is reduced.


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: When collecting data in the full scan mode, a target range of mass fragments is determined and put into the instrument's method. An example of a typical broad range of mass fragments to monitor would be "m/z" 50 to "m/z" 400. The determination of what range to use is largely dictated by what one anticipates being in the sample while being cognizant of the solvent and other possible interferences. A MS should not be set to look for mass fragments too low or else one may detect air (found as "m/z" 28 due to nitrogen), carbon dioxide ("m/z" 44) or other possible interference. Additionally if one is to use a large scan range then sensitivity of the instrument is decreased due to performing fewer scans per second since each scan will have to detect a wide range of mass fragments.


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: Full scan is useful in determining unknown compounds in a sample. It provides more information than SIM when it comes to confirming or resolving compounds in a sample. During instrument method development it may be common to first analyze test solutions in full scan mode to determine the retention time and the mass fragment fingerprint before moving to a SIM instrument method.


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: In selective ion monitoring (SIM) certain ion fragments are entered into the instrument method and only those mass fragments are detected by the mass spectrometer. The advantages of SIM are that the detection limit is lower since the instrument is only looking at a small number of fragments (e.g. three fragments) during each scan. More scans can take place each second. Since only a few mass fragments of interest are being monitored, matrix interferences are typically lower. To additionally confirm the likelihood of a potentially positive result, it is relatively important to be sure that the ion ratios of the various mass fragments are comparable to a known reference standard.


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: GC-MS is becoming the tool of choice for tracking organic pollutants in the environment. The cost of GC-MS equipment has decreased significantly, and the reliability has increased at the same time, which has contributed to its increased adoption in environmental studies.


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: GC-MS can analyze the particles from a human body in order to help link a criminal to a crime. The analysis of fire debris using GC-MS is well established, and there is even an established American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standard for fire debris analysis. GCMS/MS is especially useful here as samples often contain very complex matrices and results, used in court, need to be highly accurate.


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: GC-MS is increasingly used for detection of illegal narcotics, and may eventually supplant drug-sniffing dogs. A simple and selective GC-MS method for detecting marijuana usage was recently developed by the Robert Koch-Institute in Germany. It involves identifying an acid metabolite of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the active ingredient in marijuana, in urine samples by employing derivatization in the sample preparation. GC-MS is also commonly used in forensic toxicology to find drugs and/or poisons in biological specimens of suspects, victims, or the deceased. In drug screening, GC-MS methods frequently utilize liquid-liquid extraction as a part of sample preparation, in which target compounds are extracted from blood plasma.


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: GC-MS is the main tool used in sports anti-doping laboratories to test athletes' urine samples for prohibited performance-enhancing drugs, for example anabolic steroids.


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: A post–September 11 development, explosive detection systems have become a part of all US airports. These systems run on a host of technologies, many of them based on GC-MS. There are only three manufacturers certified by the FAA to provide these systems, one of which is Thermo Detection (formerly Thermedics), which produces the EGIS, a GC-MS-based line of explosives detectors. The other two manufacturers are Barringer Technologies, now owned by Smith 's Detection Systems, and Ion Track Instruments, part of General Electric Infrastructure Security Systems.


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: As part of the post-September 11 drive towards increased capability in homeland security and public health preparedness, traditional GC-MS units with transmission quadrupole mass spectrometers, as well as those with cylindrical ion trap (CIT-MS) and toroidal ion trap (T-ITMS) mass spectrometers have been modified for field portability and near real-time detection of chemical warfare agents (CWA) such as sarin, soman, and VX. These complex and large GC-MS systems have been modified and configured with resistively heated low thermal mass (LTM) gas chromatographs that reduce analysis time to less than ten percent of the time required in traditional laboratory systems. Additionally, the systems are smaller, and more mobile, including units that are mounted in mobile analytical laboratories (MAL), such as those used by the United States Marine Corps Chemical and Biological Incident Response Force MAL and other similar laboratories, and systems that are hand-carried by two-person teams or individuals, much ado to the smaller mass detectors. Depending on the system, the analytes can be introduced via liquid injection, desorbed from sorbent tubes through a thermal desorption process, or with solid-phase micro extraction (SPME).


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: GC-MS is used for the analysis of unknown organic compound mixtures. One critical use of this technology is the use of GC-MS to determine the composition of bio-oils processed from raw biomass. GC-MS is also utilized in the identification of continuous phase component in a smart material, Magnetorheological (MR) fluid.


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: Foods and beverages contain numerous aromatic compounds, some naturally present in the raw materials and some forming during processing. GC-MS is extensively used for the analysis of these compounds which include esters, fatty acids, alcohols, aldehydes, terpenes etc. It is also used to detect and measure contaminants from spoilage or adulteration which may be harmful and which is often controlled by governmental agencies, for example pesticides.


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: Several GC-MS have left earth. Two were brought to Mars by the Viking program. Venera 11 and 12 and Pioneer Venus analysed the atmosphere of Venus with GC-MS. The Huygens probe of the Cassini–Huygens mission landed one GC-MS on Saturn's largest moon, Titan. The MSL Curiosity rover's Sample analysis at Mars (SAM) instrument contains both a gas chromatograph and quadrupol mass spectrometer that can be used in tandem as a GC-MS. The material in the comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko was analysed by the Rosetta mission with a chiral GC-MS in 2014.


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: Dozens of congenital metabolic diseases also known as inborn errors of metabolism (IEM) are now detectable by newborn screening tests, especially the testing using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. GC-MS can determine compounds in urine even in minor concentration. These compounds are normally not present but appear in individuals suffering with metabolic disorders. This is increasingly becoming a common way to diagnose IEM for earlier diagnosis and institution of treatment eventually leading to a better outcome. It is now possible to test a newborn for over 100 genetic metabolic disorders by a urine test at birth based on GC-MS.


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

text: In combination with isotopic labeling of metabolic compounds, the GC-MS is used for determining metabolic activity. Most applications are based on the use of C as the labeling and the measurement of C-C ratios with an isotope ratio mass spectrometer (IRMS); an MS with a detector designed to measure a few select ions and return values as ratios.


title: AMX International AMX

text: The AMX International AMX is a ground-attack aircraft jointly developed by Brazil and Italy. The AMX is designated A-11 Ghibli by the Italian Air Force and A-1 by the Brazilian Air Force. The Italian name, "Ghibli", is taken from the hot dry wind of the Libyan desert.


title: AMX International AMX

text: During the early 1970s, Italian manufacturer Aermacchi conducted a design study on a prospective light ground attack aircraft, which was given the designation of "MB-340". During early 1977, the Italian Air Force issued a requirement for 187 new-build strike fighters, which were to replace its existing Aeritalia G.91 in the close air support. During 1980, the Brazilian government announced that they intended to participate in the program in order to provide a replacement for the Aermacchi MB-326. As a result of a memorandum between Italy and Brazil for the type's joint development in 1981, AMX International, an Italian-Brazilian joint venture, was formed to develop, manufacture, and market the aircraft.


title: AMX International AMX

text: During early 1977, the Italian Air Force issued a requirement for 187 new-build strike fighters, which were to replace its existing Aeritalia G.91 in the close air support and reconnaissance missions, as well as the Lockheed RF-104G Starfighter also being used in the reconnaissance role. Rather than competing for the contract, Aeritalia (now Alenia Aeronautica) and Aermacchi agreed to produce a joint proposal for the requirement, as both firms had been considering the development of a similar class of aircraft for some years. During the early 1970s, Aermacchi had been conducted work on a design study for such a light ground attack aircraft under the designation of "MB-340". In April 1978, development work on the joint venture formally commenced.


title: AMX International AMX

text: During 1980, the Brazilian government announced that they intended to participate in the program in order to provide a replacement for the Aermacchi MB-326. In July 1981, the Italian and Brazilian governments agreed on joint requirements for the aircraft, and Embraer was invited to join the industrial partnership. An agreement was also struck to divide AMX manufacturing between the partners; for each production aircraft, Aeritalia manufactured 46.5 per cent of the components (central fuselage, stabilisers and rudders), Aermacchi produced 22.8 per cent (front fuselage and tail cone), and Embraer performed 29.7 per cent of the work (wing, air intakes, pylons and drop tanks). There was no duplication of work, each component of the aircraft was built at one source only. The planned requirements were 187 aircraft for Italy and 100 for Brazil.


title: AMX International AMX

text: In the early stages of development, various different powerplants and engine configurations were studied to power the type; both twin-engine and single-engine approaches were considered. The use of US-sourced engines had been promptly discounted to avoid any potential restrictions on export sales of the overall aircraft. Amongst the engines examined were the Turbo-Union RB199 (as used by the larger Panavia Tornado), the Rolls-Royce Turbomeca Adour, Rolls-Royce Viper, and the Rolls-Royce Spey engine. In 1978, the Spey 807 model, which featured several additional improvements, was selected to power the new aircraft.


title: AMX International AMX

text: Key features that were reportedly emphasised in the design process of the new aircraft were accessibility and survivability; the AMX had to be able to sustain a single failure to any onboard system without any performance degradation. To achieve this, key systems are duplicated and vital systems are protected; the use of cockpit armor was considered but ultimately discounted due to the expense involved. The detailed definition phase of the project was completed in March 1980.


title: AMX International AMX

text: A total of seven flight-capable prototypes were produced for the test program, three by Aeritalia, two by Aermacchi, and two by Embraer, as well as two static airframes. The first prototype, assembled in Italy, made its maiden flight on 15 May 1984. This first aircraft was lost on its fifth flight in an accident, resulting in the death of its pilot. Aside from this early loss, testing progressed smoothly and without further incident. The first Brazilian-assembled prototype made its first flight on 16 October 1985. On 11 May 1988, the first production aircraft performed its first flight. Deliveries of production aircraft to Italy began in 1988, the first examples were delivered to the Brazilian Air Force during the following year. On 14 March 1990, the prototype two-seat AMX made its first flight.


title: AMX International AMX

text: The AMX is a conventional shoulder-winged monoplane. It is composed primarily of aluminium and manufactured using traditional construction methods, however elements such as the tail fin and elevators use carbon fibre composite materials. For its size, a large proportion of the AMX's internal space is allocated to avionics and onboard computer systems, both the navigation and attack systems are computerized. For accessibility and ease of maintenance, all avionics are installed directly in bays beneath the cockpit in a manner in which they can be worked upon at ground level without the use of support platforms.


title: AMX International AMX

text: Drawing on experience from the Panavia Tornado, the AMX is equipped with a hybrid flight control system; a fly-by-wire control system is employed to operate flight control surfaces such as the spoilers, rudder and variable incidence tailplane, while the ailerons and elevators are actuated via a dual-redundant hydraulic system. Manual reversion is provided for the ailerons, elevator and rudder to allow the aircraft to be flown even in the event of complete hydraulic failure; either control system can act independent of one another. The wing is fitted with both leading edge slats and trailing edge flaps and overwing spoilers ahead of the flaps. The spoilers can function as airbrakes and to negate lift; improving take-off and landing performance as well as manoeuvrability during flight.


title: AMX International AMX

text: A single Rolls-Royce Spey turbofan engine serves as the AMX's powerplant. During the aircraft's development, the Spey was heavier and less modern than some of the available alternatives, but it was considered to be reliable, relatively cheap and was free of export restrictions that would be imposed by using American engines. The Spey engine also enabled for the use of a simplified round-lipped inlet design. The rear fuselage is detachable in order to gain access to the engine. Separate consortia in both Brazil and Italy manufactured the Spey for the AMX. Unusual for a strike aircraft of the era, no attempt was made to develop the aircraft to fly at supersonic speeds.


title: AMX International AMX

text: Brazilian and Italian aircraft differ considerably in their avionics, Italian aircraft being equipped with various NATO systems which were considered redundant in the South American theatre. AMXs in Brazilian service are often fitted with one of three pallet-mounted sensor packages, which contain various vertical, oblique, and forward-facing cameras, for performing the aircraft's secondary aerial reconnaissance role. A simple ranging radar is equipped for targeting purposes, however the specific radar also differs between both operators. The flight system employs a GE Avionics flight control computer. Extensive electronic countermeasure (ECM) are fitted to protect the aircraft, include passive receiver antenna on the tailfin and an active jammer pod that is typically mounted on one of the aircraft's hardpoints.