title: Is–ought problem

text: These two notions being granted, it can be said that statements of "ought" are measured by their "prescriptive" truth, just as statements of "is" are measured by their "descriptive" truth; and the descriptive truth of an "is" judgment is defined by its correspondence to reality (actual or in the mind), while the prescriptive truth of an "ought" judgment is defined according to a more limited scope—its correspondence to right desire (conceivable in the mind and able to be found in the rational appetite, but not in the more "actual" reality of things independent of the mind or rational appetite).


title: Is–ought problem

text: To some, this may immediately suggest the question: "How can we know what is a right desire if it is already admitted that it is not based on the more actual reality of things independent of the mind?" The beginning of the answer is found when we consider that the concepts "good", "bad", "right" and "wrong" are indefinables. Thus, right desire cannot be defined properly, but a way to refer to its meaning "may" be found through a self-evident prescriptive truth.


title: Is–ought problem

text: That self-evident truth which the moral cognitivist claims to exist upon which all other prescriptive truths are ultimately based is: "One ought to desire what is really good for one and nothing else." The terms "real good" and "right desire" cannot be defined apart from each other, and thus their definitions would contain some degree of circularity, but the stated self-evident truth indicates a meaning particular to the ideas sought to be understood, and it is (the moral cognitivist might claim) impossible to think the opposite without a contradiction. Thus combined with other descriptive truths of what is good (goods in particular considered in terms of whether they suit a particular end and the limits to the possession of such particular goods being compatible with the general end of the possession of the total of all real goods throughout a whole life), a valid body of knowledge of right desire is generated.


title: Is–ought problem

text: Several counterexamples have been offered by philosophers claiming to show that there are cases when an "ought" logically follows from an "is." First of all, Hilary Putnam, by tracing back the quarrel to Hume's dictum, claims fact/value entanglement as an objection, since the distinction between them entails a value. A. N. Prior points out, from the statement "He is a sea captain," it logically follows, "He ought to do what a sea captain ought to do." Alasdair MacIntyre points out, from the statement "This watch is grossly inaccurate and irregular in time-keeping and too heavy to carry about comfortably," the evaluative conclusion validly follows, "This is a bad watch." John Searle points out, from the statement "Jones promised to pay Smith five dollars," it logically follows that "Jones ought to pay Smith five dollars." The act of promising by definition places the promiser under obligation.


title: Is–ought problem

text: Philippa Foot adopts a moral realist position, criticizing the idea that when evaluation is superposed on fact there has been a "committal in a new dimension." She introduces, by analogy, the practical implications of using the word "injury." Not just anything counts as an injury. There must be some impairment. If one supposes a man wants the things the injury prevents him from obtaining, has one fallen into the old naturalist fallacy? She states the following:


title: Is–ought problem

text: Foot argues that the virtues, like hands and eyes in the analogy, play so large a part in so many operations that it is implausible to suppose that a committal in a non-naturalist dimension is necessary to demonstrate their goodness.


title: Is–ought problem

text: Hilary Putnam argues that philosophers who accept Hume's "is–ought" distinction reject his reasons in making it, and thus undermine the entire claim.


title: Is–ought problem

text: Various scholars have also indicated that, in the very work where Hume argues for the is–ought problem, Hume himself derives an "ought" from an "is". Such seeming inconsistencies in Hume have led to an ongoing debate over whether Hume actually held to the is–ought problem in the first place, or whether he meant that ought inferences can be made but only with good argumentation.


title: C.H.U.D.

text: C.H.U.D. is a 1984 American science fiction horror film directed by Douglas Cheek, produced by Andrew Bonime, and starring John Heard, Daniel Stern, and Christopher Curry in his film debut. The plot concerns a New York City police officer and a homeless shelter manager who team up to investigate a series of disappearances, and discover that the missing people have been killed by humanoid monsters that live in the sewers.


title: C.H.U.D.

text: The title of the movie is an abbreviation that stands for Cannibalistic Humanoid Underground Dwellers.


title: C.H.U.D.

text: The film was released in North America on August 31, 1984 and grossed $4.7 million. It was followed in 1989 by a sequel titled "".


title: C.H.U.D.

text: The film opens with a woman, Flora Bosch, walking her dog down an empty, darkened city street. As she passes by a manhole, a creature attacks Mrs. Bosch and drags her and the dog into the sewers.


title: C.H.U.D.

text: George Cooper, a once-prominent fashion photographer, has since forgone fame and fortune and is living with his girlfriend Lauren. His current project is photographing New York City's homeless population, specifically those known as "undergrounders", or people who reside in the city's sewers and subway tunnels.


title: C.H.U.D.

text: NYPD Captain Bosch has a personal interest in the recent flood of missing persons being reported to his precinct, as Flora—his wife—is also missing. Bosch interviews A.J. "The Reverend" Shepherd, who runs the local homeless shelter. A.J. believes that the recent events are part of a massive government cover-up and has the evidence to prove it. Bosch's superiors know more than they are letting on and seem to be taking their cues from Wilson, who works for the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC).


title: C.H.U.D.

text: It turns out that monsters are lurking beneath the streets: beings that were once human, but have been mutated by radioactive, chemical toxic waste into hideous, flesh-eating creatures that prey on the homeless who live in the underground. Given the recent drop in the underground transient population, the creatures have resorted to coming to the surface through sewer manholes to feed. Through a series of events, both George and A.J. find themselves trapped in the sewers, a reporter gets involved and eaten, and Lauren has a problem with both a clogged shower drain and a mutant that comes up through the sewer access point that she opened in the basement of her apartment building.


title: C.H.U.D.

text: A.J. and George meet up and discover that the Nuclear Regulatory Commission is directly involved in the slaughter that has been going on. Although the political bureaucracy has forbidden the NRC to transport the toxic wastes through New York because of the large-scale danger to the public, it has secretly been hiding the waste by-products, marked as "Contamination Hazard Urban Disposal", beneath Manhattan in the abandoned subway tunnels. The underground homeless population has been coming into contact with these by-products, turning them into the mutated creatures. To protect this secret, Wilson plans to seal the sewers, open up some gas lines and asphyxiate the C.H.U.D.s and any witnesses of their existence, despite the inherent danger to the city. In the meantime, Lauren is attacked by the mutants in her apartment and narrowly escapes them.


title: C.H.U.D.

text: Later that evening at a diner, two police officers and the waitress are killed and carried off by the mutants, finally drawing the public's attention to the disappearances. George and A.J. recover a camera set left behind by an NRC crew slain by the mutants during a previous clean-up attempt and use it to report their findings to Bosch. Confronted by Bosch, Wilson runs off, and later shoots Bosch while the latter helps A.J. and George escape from a manhole. Wilson then tries to run George and A.J. over with a truck, but A.J. fatally shoots Wilson with Bosch's gun, and the truck explodes as it drives into the manhole.


title: C.H.U.D.

text: "C.H.U.D." was given a limited release theatrically by New World Pictures beginning in August 1984. The film opened at #13 at the box office, grossing $1,762,922 with an average gross of $5,686 in 310 theaters. Its second week saw it dropping to #14 at the box office, with a gross of only $834,465 and a worldwide gross of $2,846,756.


title: C.H.U.D.

text: "C.H.U.D." was released for home video on Betamax and VHS by Media Home Entertainment in 1984. The film was released on DVD by Anchor Bay Entertainment on January 30, 2001. The company released the film again in 2008 as a part of its "Cult Fiction" series. Image Entertainment would release the film in 2011, and in 2012, with the later release being a part of a two-disc multi-feature alongside "Children of the Corn", "Creepshow 2", and "House". A two-disc Special Edition was released on Blu-ray by Arrow Video on November 22, 2016. That version is now out of print. A new one disc Blu-ray was released on November 9, 2021.


title: C.H.U.D.

text: Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reports a 29% approval rating based on 14 reviews; the average rating is 3.89/10. Lawrence Van Gelder from "The New York Times" stated in his review for the film, ""C.H.U.D." makes no pretension toward serious thesis about government or the environment. It is meant to be light commercial entertainment, and in the category of horror films it stands as a praiseworthy effort". Keith Phipps of "The A.V. Club" wrote, "Perfect for bleary-eyed late-night viewing and pretty much unwatchable at any other hour." Patrick Naugle of DVD Verdict called it a fun film that focuses more on entertainment than deeper issues. Joshua Rothkopf of "Time Out New York" included it in "Time Out"s list of best New York-set films, calling it "more funny than scary". Bloody Disgusting rated it 4.5/5 stars and called it "definitely one of b-movies best kept secrets".


title: C.H.U.D.

text: A sequel, "", was released in 1989. Although "C.H.U.D." was negatively received during its initial release, it attracted a cult following over the years, inspired the name of a film website (which changed the acronym's meaning to Cinematic Happenings Under Development) and a political epithet, and references to it have appeared in "The Simpsons", The CW's "The Flash", "Aqua Teen Hunger Force", "Clerks II", "Castle", "Archer", "Futurama", "Pushing Daisies," "Outer Banks", "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.", and "Rick and Morty". Martin Cooper's score was later named number 33 in "Rolling Stone"'s 35 Greatest Horror Soundtracks. The film was also the subject of an April Fool's hoax announcement by The Criterion Collection. In 2007, Rob Zombie was rumored to be considering a remake, and, in 2008, a different remake was rumored to be in production. In 2014, an original, collectible poster for the film was released. C.H.U.D appears in the 2003 video game "Tony Hawk's Underground" under the name T.H.U.D. A VHS copy of "C.H.U.D." appears in the opening shot of Jordan Peele's 2019 horror film Us.


title: C.H.U.D.

text: The found footage horror film "Dwellers" has been publicly referenced by its writer and director Drew Fortier as being heavily influenced by C.H.U.D.


title: C.H.U.D.

text: The anthology "C.H.U.D. LIVES!: A Tribute Anthology", edited by Joe Mynhardt, was released in 2018 and featured an introduction by David Drake, an interview with the late C.H.U.D. movie producer Andrew Bonime, an interview horror author Eric S. Brown did with C.H.U.D. screenwriter Parnell Hall and nineteen stories set in the universe of the movie C.H.U.D. Contributors included Robert E. Waters, Nick Cato, Ryan C. Thomas, David Robbins, Christopher Fulbright, Angeline Hawkes, Greg Mitchell, Alex Laybourne, Michael H. Hanson, Ben Fisher, Tim Waggoner, Jason White, Mort Castle, David Bernstein, Martin Powell, Chad Lutzke, J.G. Faherty, Phillip C. Perron, Ross Baxter, Jonathan Maberry, and Eugene Johnson.


title: Dan O'Bannon

text: Daniel Thomas O'Bannon (September 30, 1946 – December 17, 2009) was an American film screenwriter, director and visual effects supervisor, usually in the science fiction and horror genres.


title: Dan O'Bannon

text: O'Bannon wrote the screenplay for "Alien", adapted from a story he wrote with Ronald Shusett. He also wrote and directed the cult horror comedy "The Return of the Living Dead". He contributed computer animation to "Star Wars" and worked on cult classics such as "Dark Star", "Heavy Metal", and "Total Recall".


title: Dan O'Bannon

text: O'Bannon was born in St. Louis, Missouri, the son of Bertha (née Lowenthal) and Thomas Sidney O'Bannon, a carpenter. During his childhood he was a science fiction and horror enthusiast. He attended the art school of Washington University in St. Louis, where he did stand-up comedy routines, did make-up for campus theater productions, and provided illustrations for Student Life, the student newspaper. While there he roomed with future movie producer Michael Shamberg. O'Bannon moved home briefly after Washington University and attended Florissant Valley Junior College where he wrote and directed a short science fiction satire titled "The Attack of the 50-foot Chicken." O'Bannon also attended MacMurray College in Jacksonville, Illinois. During this period he pursued a psychology degree, but later became interested in becoming a film director. According to O'Bannon, he was reading an issue of "Playboy" when he found an article discussing the best film schools, which led him to the University of Southern California (USC). He received a bachelor's degree in film from USC in 1970. While at USC he lived near the Los Angeles Campus in an old two-story house affectionately called the "Menlo Manor" which he shared with other USC students (Don Jakoby, who collaborated on several screenplays with Dan including "Blue Thunder"; and Jeffrey J. Lee). As a student, O'Bannon spent many late nights in old Hollywood editing his and other student films.


title: Dan O'Bannon

text: It was at USC that he met John Carpenter and collaborated with him on a student film, which they eventually expanded into the feature-length science fiction movie "Dark Star". Part of the movie was filmed at Menlo Manor. Released in 1974, it had a final budget of only US$60,000. O'Bannon served in a number of capacities, including scripting, acting in one of the leading roles ("Sergeant Pinback") and editing, for which he used a 1940s Moviola. In 1975, "Dark Star" won the Golden Scroll award (the Saturn Awards' original name) for Best Special Effects.


title: Dan O'Bannon

text: He was retained to supervise special effects for an Alejandro Jodorowsky production of Frank Herbert's "Dune." That project fell apart in 1976 and the movie was never made, reportedly because the major Hollywood studios were wary of financing the picture with Jodorowsky as director. O'Bannon's role is prominently featured in the 2013 documentary "Jodorowsky's Dune". The collapse of "Dune" left O'Bannon broke, homeless, and dependent on friends for his survival. According to "The Guardian", "George Lucas was impressed enough with his hand-animated, faux computer screen graphics to hire him to do similar work on Star Wars, but otherwise this was an incredibly lean period for him." He eventually abandoned technical film work for scriptwriting. While living with his friend Ronald Shusett, they came up with the story for O'Bannon's career-making film "Alien" (1979), for which he wrote the screenplay and supervised visuals.


title: Dan O'Bannon

text: In 1981, O'Bannon helped create the animated feature "Heavy Metal", writing two of its segments ("Soft Landing" and "B-17"). O'Bannon voiced his displeasure with his next big-budget outing, John Badham's "Blue Thunder" (1983), an action film about a Los Angeles helicopter surveillance team. Originally written with Don Jakoby, "Blue Thunder" also underwent extensive rewriting, losing some of its political content. He and Jakoby also scripted "Lifeforce" (1985), a movie based on Colin Wilson's novel "The Space Vampires" and directed by Tobe Hooper that veers from alien visitation to vampirism and an apocalyptic ending. It was not well received at the time, and was considered a box office flop. O'Bannon would again collaborate with Jakoby and Hooper for the 1986 remake "Invaders from Mars". Purists considered it inferior to the 1950s original and it also performed poorly at the box office. O'Bannon also worked as a consultant for "C.H.U.D.", helping to create the design concept for the title creatures.


title: Dan O'Bannon

text: In 1985, O'Bannon moved into the director's chair with "The Return of the Living Dead", a sequel to George Romero's "Night of the Living Dead." Like "Alien", the film met with success, spawned numerous sequels, and became a cult classic. That year, he was awarded the Inkpot Award.


title: Dan O'Bannon

text: In 1990, O'Bannon and Shusett again teamed up as writers on "Total Recall", an adaptation of the short story "We Can Remember It for You Wholesale" by Philip K. Dick. This was a project the two had been working on since collaborating on "Alien". With a cast featuring Sharon Stone and Arnold Schwarzenegger, "Total Recall" earned well over US$100 million.


title: Dan O'Bannon

text: An earlier screenplay by the duo titled "Hemoglobin" was also produced as the low budget feature "Bleeders" (1997).


title: Dan O'Bannon

text: O'Bannon's second directorial feature, "The Resurrected" (1991), was a low-budget horror effort released direct-to-video. Based on the writings of H. P. Lovecraft, it focused on a family's ancient rituals that awaken the dead. In 1995, O'Bannon received a co-writing credit for the sci-fi film "Screamers" adapted from the Philip K. Dick story "Second Variety", having written the initial version of the screenplay with Michael Campus in the early 1980s.


title: Dan O'Bannon

text: In 2001, O'Bannon was the filmmaker-in-residence at Chapman University's Dodge College of Film and Media Arts.


title: Dan O'Bannon

text: O'Bannon and Shusett were credited as writers on the 2004 science fiction film "Alien vs. Predator," a prequel to "Alien".


title: Dan O'Bannon

text: He and his wife Diane had a son, Adam. O'Bannon died from complications of Crohn's disease in Los Angeles on December 17, 2009. He credited his experiences with Crohn's for inspiring the chest-bursting scene from "Alien".


title: Chevrolet Aveo

text: The Chevrolet Aveo ( ) is a subcompact car (B-segment) marketed by General Motors since 2002. Originally marketed as the Daewoo Kalos, takeover of Daewoo Motors by General Motors (GM) also saw the car being marketed under seven brands (Chevrolet, Daewoo, ZAZ, Holden, Pontiac, Ravon and Suzuki) in 120 countries, with the Aveo nameplate being the most commonly used one. The second-generation Aveo, developed by GM Korea, was introduced in 2011 and was also marketed as the Chevrolet Sonic in several markets such as in the Americas, Japan, Middle East, South Africa and several Southeast Asian markets. Production of the second-generation model ended in October 2020.


title: Chevrolet Aveo

text: Since 2017, GM imported the Chevrolet Sail sedan from China to be marketed in Mexico and other Central American countries as the Aveo. Developed by PATAC and produced by joint venture SAIC-GM, it was positioned below the more advanced Sonic. In 2023, GM imported a new version to Mexico in a hatchback form, this time it is developed and produced by a separate joint venture, SAIC-GM-Wuling.


title: Chevrolet Aveo

text: GM Daewoo introduced the Daewoo Kalos in September 2002, based on a new platform, replacing the Daewoo Lanos (T100). Under development before Daewoo's bankruptcy, the Kalos was the company's first new model introduction following its subsequent takeover by General Motors. Manufacture of the Kalos began in early March 2002, with pre-production prototypes shown at the Geneva Auto Show in April 2002. The nameplate "Kalos" derives from the Greek word καλός ("kalós") for "beautiful" and "good".


title: Chevrolet Aveo

text: Originally designed by Italdesign, the Kalos derives directly from the "Kalos Dream" concept vehicle first presented at the 2000 Paris Motor Show and subsequent developmental concepts at the 2001 Frankfurt Motor Show, 2002 Geneva Auto Show, and 2003 at the Geneva Show. During this three-year development period Daewoo was struggling financially, with the ultimate fate of the company and the concept vehicle remaining uncertain.


title: Chevrolet Aveo

text: The Kalos was sold in three and four available body styles: a 4-door sedan and 5-door hatchback from the beginning of production in 2002, and a 3-door hatchback available in certain European markets beginning in 2005. Two different T200 front-end styling designs were sold. When released in 2002, the T200 headlamps were detached from the horizontal amber turn signal strip, located directly below. This detached style, used primarily in South Korea and North America, was used in conjunction with a semi-elliptical grille. When sales in Europe began in 2003, the headlights were an integrated unit that slanted upwards from the "V-shaped" grille towards the front fenders. In Australia, when the Daewoo Kalos was introduced in 2003, the hatchback featured the integrated lighting arrangement, with the detached style used to differentiate the sedans. In South Korea, where the detached lights were used at first, the integrated design was later utilized as a facelift.


title: Chevrolet Aveo

text: The T200 sedan and five-door hatchback featured a swage line running along the lower body to the rear door, which kinks downward prominently on the five-door. Five-doors also feature a side window in the C/D pillar with a distinctively angled lower edge. Interiors feature a circular motif throughout.


title: Chevrolet Aveo

text: GM introduced the heavily facelifted sedan at the 2005 Auto Shanghai, designed in cooperation with PATAC. Bearing the internal code "T250" and sold in South Korea as the Daewoo Gentra, revisions included exterior styling changes, a new interior instrument panel and minor equipment changes, including increased sound deadening. Incorporation of the radio antenna into the rear glass and extensive wind tunnel testing helped reduce the coefficient of drag from 0.348 to 0.326.


title: Chevrolet Aveo

text: A facelifted hatchback with the sedan's updated dashboard was presented as the Chevrolet Aveo during the 2007 Frankfurt Motor Show, to be marketed globally. The Korean market received its own distinct restyle of the hatchback, the Gentra X, whose bumper without the distinctly "Chevrolet" split grille was also used for the Pontiac, Holden and Suzuki variants.


title: Chevrolet Aveo

text: With launch of the Gentra X in South Korea, GMDAT had replaced engines of T250. 1.2 L (1206 cc) S-TEC II engine was updated with features such as dual overhead camshaft (DOHC) and timing chain (older version has timing belt) system. 1.6 L E-TEC II engine has been replaced with an updated GEN-III Ecotec Family 1 engine with new features such as variable valve timing mechanism.


title: Chevrolet Aveo

text: The facelifted Chevrolet Aveo T250 sedan was launched in Russia and Uzbekistan in 2016 as Ravon Nexia R3. The car is produced at the GM Uzbekistan plant. The Ravon Nexia R3 is available with the 1.5-liter petrol engine (105 hp) paired with the 5-speed manual or the 6-speed automatic.


title: Chevrolet Aveo

text: The second generation Aveo debuted at the 2010 Paris Motor Show, using the Gamma II global subcompact platform. It had been previewed earlier in the year as the Aveo RS concept, shown in concept form with 19-inch wheels and a "M32" six-speed manual transmission mated to a 1.4-liter turbocharged "Ecotec" engine, rated at .


title: Chevrolet Aveo

text: Development of the second-generation Aveo was led by GM Korea, with Opel engineers leading platform development along with significant input from engineers from Australia's Holden and Chevrolet of the United States. The Aveo marked the debut of the Gamma II global subcompact platform. Exterior design was led by Australian designer Ondrej Koromhaz, of Holden who was on assignment to GM Korea from 2005 to 2007. Koromhaz described his goal for the Aveo as being a "four-seat motorcycle" and took design inspiration from motorcycles, notably in the Aveo's exposed headlights and motorcycle-style instrument cluster. For Chevrolet Sonic models built in the United States, the Sonic features suspension tuning by Corvette Racing engineer John Buttermore.


title: Chevrolet Aveo

text: Chevrolet markets the new Aveo under the Chevrolet Sonic nameplate in the Americas, Japan, Middle East, South Africa and several Southeast Asian markets. In Australia and New Zealand, it was sold as the Holden Barina until stocks ran out in early 2019. In Europe, it retained the "Aveo" name, although sales ended there in 2014 as the Chevrolet brand was discontinued in Europe.


title: Chevrolet Aveo

text: The North American-spec Sonic is available as a 4-door sedan or five-door hatchback. It comes with a 1.8-liter inline-four producing and torque, or a 1.4-liter turbo inline-four producing and torque. The 1.8-liter engine uses one of few cast-iron block with timing belt; the 1.4L turbo engine uses a timing chain to drive the camshafts. The 1.8-liter inline-four is mated to a standard five-speed manual or six-speed automatic transmission, while the 1.4-liter turbo has a six-speed manual transmission. The Sonic is, notably, the only car in its class to be assembled in America. For the 2015 model year, the US Sonic added OnStar with 4G LTE and standard built-in Wi-Fi hotspot (includes 3GB/three-month data trial), a 1.4-liter turbo engine that became standard on LTZ models, and a new exterior color, Blue Velvet.


title: Chevrolet Aveo

text: On August 2, 2011, the Sonic had entered production at Orion Assembly, with the first cars arriving at dealerships in October. The Sonic was the only subcompact car sold in North America that was built in the United States.


title: Chevrolet Aveo

text: The Sonic used a water-based "three-wet" paint process that eliminates the need for a primer bake oven; this reduced the paint shop footprint by 10%, and used 50% less energy per vehicle painted. Chevy was the first US automaker to use this process.


title: Chevrolet Aveo

text: The Bolt (based on a different platform) joined the Aveo/Sonic on the Orion assembly line in 2016, at a combined rate of 90,000 per year.


title: Chevrolet Aveo

text: The Barina sold in Australia and New Zealand was sourced from South Korea and only available with the 1.6-liter Family 1 engine, with either a 5-speed manual or conventional 4- or 6-speed automatic.


title: Chevrolet Aveo

text: Chevrolet Sonic had its ASEAN debut at the Bangkok Motor Show in March 2012, as both a 4-door sedan and 5-door hatchback. It was rolled out from GM's facility in Rayong, Thailand on July 3, 2012 as a 4-door sedan. Later, Chevrolet Thailand expected 3 new trim variants; LS, LT and LTZ, in both the 4-door sedan and 5-door hatchback models (the LS would be available only with the 4-door sedan) which would run on the 1.4-liter engine with the option of 5-speed manual or 6-speed automatic transmission. Delivery of the 4-door sedan started in late of July 2012, and the hatchback followed in August 2012. The Thai-built Sonic was exported to other ASEAN countries like Philippines, Indonesia and Malaysia. Production ceased in 2015.


title: Chevrolet Aveo

text: The Japanese model was unveiled at the Summer Sonic 2011 event in QVC Marine Field. Production models went on sale on November 12, 2011. Early models included the 5-door hatchback with a 1.6-litre I-4 Ecotec (115 PS) engine, and a 6-speed automatic transmission with TAPshift. The base model is based on the equivalent of North American LTZ trim level, while the LT model includes alloy wheels and metallic paint. The smaller engines allow some operating expense relief with regards to the annual Japanese road tax obligation.


title: Chevrolet Aveo

text: The Sonic is also assembled at the GM Colmotores plant in Bogotá, Colombia, where it was initially introduced for the domestic market only and later also exported to countries in the Andean region. As of December 2012, production was also underway at the GAZ (Gorky Automobile Plant) plant in Nizhny Novgorod, Russia, but during 2015, the contract was discontinued.


title: Chevrolet Aveo

text: At the 2016 New York International Auto Show, Chevrolet revealed the facelift North American version of the Sonic hatchback and sedan. The facelift brought a restyled front fascia, new LED tail lights and refreshed equipment. The Barina sold in Australia and New Zealand was available only with 6-speed conventional automatic, the 4-speed model being dropped, with the same 5-speed manual in the standard model.


title: Chevrolet Aveo

text: The LTZ trim level was renamed Premier for the 2017 model year. The previous RS trim level became a standard appearance package for all Hatchback models (1LT and Premier), and included unique upholstery (cloth trim for the 1LT, and perforated leatherette trim for the Premier), red interior accents and stitching, unique 'RS' badging, and unique aluminum-alloy wheels (16" for LT and 17" for Premier). The 1LS model was now only available as a Sedan. Also for 2017, all models gained a new standard touchscreen Chevrolet MyLink infotainment system with Bluetooth, as well as Apple CarPlay and Android Auto smartphone integration, as well as a standard rear backup camera integrated into the touchscreen display. 1LT and above models received SiriusXM Satellite Radio and a remote start system as standard equipment (the latter only when equipped with the six-speed automatic transmission).


title: Chevrolet Aveo

text: The Aveo in its most basic Latin American configuration with no airbags and no ABS received 0 stars for adult occupants and 2 stars for toddlers from Latin NCAP in 2015.


title: Chevrolet Aveo

text: The Aveo in its most basic Latin American configuration with 2 airbags and no ESC received 0 stars for adult occupants and 3 stars for toddlers from Latin NCAP in 2017 (one level above 2010-2015).


title: Chevrolet Aveo

text: In marketing the Sonic, GM had the car driven by skateboarder Rob Dyrdek in a full 360-degree rotation (referred to as a kickflip) off a ramp and over an oversized skateboard. In addition, GM produced a commercial for Super Bowl XLVI called "Stunt Anthem", which featured the kickflip, as well as other Sonics skydiving, doing a bungee jump, and scenes from OK Go's music video for the song "Needing/Getting." The song featured in the commercial is "We Are Young" by Fun.


title: Chevrolet Aveo

text: The Sonic was discontinued in Canada after the 2018 model year. In March 2019, the Aveo was discontinued in South Korea. Chevrolet discontinued the Sonic after the 2020 model year in the United States, due to GM's plans to convert the Orion Assembly to EV production and declining sales. There are no plans for a successor. The Sonic ended production on October 20, 2020.


title: Chevrolet Aveo

text: In several Central American countries, the Aveo nameplate is being used for the third-generation Chevrolet Sail sedan, which went on sale in Mexico in November 2017 for the 2019 model year to replace the first-generation Aveo sedan. The Chinese-made Sail was renamed as to avoid being related to the second-generation Sail, which obtained zero star rating in Latin NCAP in 2015 in a variant without airbags. It was marketed alongside the Sonic as a more budget offering until the latter's discontinuation.


title: Chevrolet Aveo

text: The new generation Aveo was introduced in December 2022 for the Mexican market for the 2024 model year. Available as a 5-door hatchback, it is developed and produced by SAIC-GM-Wuling under the model code 310C. Sales will start in the first half of 2023, while pre-production had started in August 2022.


title: Bob Guccione

text: Robert Charles Joseph Edward Sabatini Guccione ( ; December 17, 1930 – October 20, 2010) was an American photographer and publisher. He founded the adult magazine "Penthouse" in 1965. This was aimed at competing with Hugh Hefner's "Playboy", but with more explicit erotic content, a special style of soft-focus photography, and in-depth reporting of government corruption scandals and the art world. By 1982 Guccione was listed in the "Forbes 400" wealth list, and owned one of the biggest mansions in Manhattan. However, he made some extravagant investments that failed, and the growth of free online pornography in the 1990s greatly diminished his market. In 2003, Guccione's publishers filed for bankruptcy and he resigned as chairman.


title: Bob Guccione

text: Guccione was born in Brooklyn, New York, of Sicilian descent and raised Catholic in Bergenfield, New Jersey, the eldest child of Anthony, an accountant, and Nina, a housewife. An altar boy, he considered but rejected entering the priesthood. He attended high school at Blair Academy, a prep school in Blairstown, New Jersey.


title: Bob Guccione

text: In his teens, Guccione married his first wife, Lilyann Becker. The couple had a daughter, Tonina (1949-2020). The marriage failed, and he left his wife and child to go to Europe to be a painter. He eventually met an English woman, Muriel Hudson, moved to London with her, and married her. They had four children.


title: Bob Guccione

text: To support his family, Guccione managed a chain of laundromats until he got work as a cartoonist on an American weekly newspaper, "The London American", while Muriel started a business selling pinup posters. He occasionally created cartoons for Bill Box's humorous greeting card company Box Cards.


title: Bob Guccione

text: "Penthouse" began publication in 1965 in the United Kingdom and in North America in 1969, an attempt to compete with Hugh Hefner's "Playboy". Although "Playboy" had always had a liberal bent and championed the Civil Rights Movement and other social justice causes, Guccione offered editorial content that was more sensational, and the magazine's writing was far more investigative than other men's magazines, with stories about government cover-ups and scandals. Writers such as Craig S. Karpel, James Dale Davidson and Ernest Volkman, as well as the critically acclaimed Seymour Hersh, exposed numerous scandals and corruption at the highest levels of the United States government. On the other hand, "Playboy" retained a certain conservatism and embraced mainstream American consumerism rather than rejecting it. During the late 1960s, feminist groups criticized the magazine for supporting women's liberation only in terms of making them free to engage in sexual relationships with men. While "Playboy" devoted extensive print to covering sports, one of Hugh Hefner's great passions, Guccione had no interest in them and never bothered discussing sporting events or athletes in "Penthouse", instead preferring to cover the art world. The magazine was founded on humble beginnings. Owing to his lack of resources, Guccione personally photographed most of the models for the magazine's early issues. Without professional training, Guccione applied his knowledge of painting to his photography, establishing the diffused, soft focus look that would become one of the trademarks of the magazine's pictorials. Guccione would sometimes take several days to complete a shoot.


title: Bob Guccione

text: As the magazine grew more successful, Guccione openly embraced a life of luxury; his former mansion at 14-16 East 67th Street on Manhattan's Upper East Side was said to be the largest private residence in the borough at . However, in contrast to Hugh Hefner, who threw wild parties at his Playboy Mansions, life at Guccione's mansion was remarkably sedate, even during the height of the sexual revolution in the 1970s. He reportedly once had his bodyguards eject a local radio personality who had been hired as a DJ and jumped into the swimming pool naked.


title: Bob Guccione

text: The magazine's pictorials offered more sexually explicit content than was commonly seen in most openly sold men's magazines of the era; it was the first to show female pubic hair, followed by full-frontal nudity and then the exposed vulva and anus. Up to the end of the 1960s, it was not acceptable to display anything more than a female's buttocks or breasts in mainstream publications and anything more risked obscenity charges. Only low-budget underground magazines displayed female genitals or explicit poses. However, the counterculture movement led to an increasingly liberated sexual attitude after which a series of court rulings struck down most legal restrictions on pornography. "Penthouse" has also, over the years, featured a number of authorized and unauthorized photos of celebrities such as Madonna and Vanessa Lynn Williams. In both cases, the photos were taken earlier in their careers and sold to "Penthouse" only after Madonna and Williams became famous. In Williams's case, this led to her forced resignation as Miss America 1984. The September 1984 issue in which Williams was first featured also included a layout with pornographic actress Traci Lords, who was only 15 when the photo shoot was done and was later revealed to be underage throughout most of her career. In the late 1990s, the magazine began to show more "fetish" content such as urination, bondage and "facials."


title: Bob Guccione

text: In the early 1970s, Guccione invested around US $45 million in construction of Haludovo Palace Hotel, a luxury hotel resort in Malinska, (island Krk near Rijeka) on the Adriatic coast of Yugoslavia. He invested an additional $500,000 in advertisement. Despite Yugoslavia being nominally a communist country, it encouraged foreign investments. The entire project was designed by Yugoslav architect Boris Magaš and realized through Brodokomerc, a local company. Prior to that, the project needed to be authorized through a so-called workers' council, a process which Guccione described as "ridiculously easy". The hotel was officially opened in 1972. Staff included around 50 Penthouse Pets, and the guests included the former Iraqi president Saddam Hussein. However, the hotel went bankrupt the very next year.


title: Bob Guccione

text: In 1976, Guccione used about US $17.5 million of his personal fortune to finance the controversial historical epic erotic film, "Caligula", with Malcolm McDowell in the title role and a supporting cast including Helen Mirren, John Gielgud and Peter O'Toole. The film, released in late 1979, was produced in Italy (made at the Dear Studios in Rome) and was directed by Tinto Brass. Guccione also created the magazines "Omni", "Viva", and "Longevity". Later Guccione started "Penthouse Forum" which was more textual in content. In the early 2000s, "Penthouse" published a short-lived comic book spin-off entitled "Penthouse Comix" featuring sexually explicit stories.


title: Bob Guccione

text: In 1982, Guccione was listed in the Forbes 400 ranking of wealthiest people, with a reported $400 million net worth. An April 2002 "New York Times" article quoted Guccione as saying that Penthouse grossed $3.5 billion to $4 billion over the 30-year life of the company, with a net income of almost $500 million.


title: Bob Guccione

text: Guccione's editorial content was praised and recognized by some in the academic field. In 1975, for example, he was honored by Brandeis University for focusing "his editorial attention on such critical issues of our day as the welfare of the Vietnam veteran and problems of criminality in modern society."


title: Bob Guccione

text: Guccione was also praised by certain professional groups and associations for his dealings with them. In April 1978 he was named "Publisher of the Year" by the Atlantic Coast Independent Distributors Association in gratitude for his "leadership, his fair treatment and his continuing friendship with our members."


title: Bob Guccione

text: In 2013, director Barry Avrich made a film about Guccione's life entitled "". The film premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 9, 2013. It was later broadcast in Canada on The Movie Network and Movie Central and in the United States on Epix in November 2013.


title: Bob Guccione

text: Several wildly unsuccessful investments by Guccione—including the Penthouse Boardwalk Hotel and Casino (which lost $160 million) and a (never-built) nuclear fusion power plant—added to his publishing empire's financial woes. Guccione's efforts to regain sales and notoriety, which included attempts to get Monica Lewinsky to pose for the magazine (which was parodied in a sketch on "Saturday Night Live" in 1998) and offering the Unabomber a free forum for his views, failed to increase readership. With the rise of online access to (often free) pornography in the late 1990s, "Penthouse"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s circulation numbers began to suffer even more.


title: Bob Guccione

text: In 2003, General Media, "Penthouse" publisher, filed for bankruptcy protection. Guccione resigned as chairman of the board and CEO of Penthouse International, Inc. The owner of General Media, FriendFinder Networks Inc. itself filed for bankruptcy protection on September 17, 2013. They emerged from bankruptcy protection in December 2013, which eliminated $300 million in debt. As part of the reorganization, the company's shares were deregistered and will no longer trade on the open market. "Penthouse Magazine" continues to be published.


title: Bob Guccione

text: In 2006, Guccione sued Penthouse Media Group for fraud, breach of contract, and conspiracy, among other charges. Some of the people named in the case included Marc Bell, Jason Galanis, Dr. Fernando Molina, and Daniel C. Stanton.


title: Bob Guccione

text: Guccione gave Anna Wintour her first job as a fashion editor at his magazine "Viva". He was an investor in the films "Chinatown" and "The Day of the Locust".


title: Bob Guccione

text: Guccione's British raised son, Bob Guccione Jr. (born 1955), was given editorship of "Spin", but father and son soon fell out over editorial decisions, and Bob Jr. eventually found independent investors to continue financing the magazine. They remained estranged for a long time, but reportedly reconciled before Guccione Sr.'s death in 2010.


title: Bob Guccione

text: Guccione was married four times: he first married Lilyann Becker in his late teens. He married, secondly, to a British woman, Muriel Hudson, with whom he had four children. They divorced in 1979. His third marriage, in 1988, was to his long-time companion, Kathy Keeton, a native of South Africa. In 1997, Keeton died of complications from surgery to remedy an obstruction in her digestive tract after a long battle with cancer. She was 58. In her last few months, Keeton befriended an ex-model named April Dawn Warren, and gossip maintained that Warren was Keeton's hand-picked successor. After a long engagement, he and Warren wed in 2006 and they remained together until his death. Guccione continued to list Keeton on the "Penthouse" masthead posthumously as president, but later added Warren to the masthead after she had spent ten years as creative director of the magazine. Warren and Guccione were working on a book of reminiscences, "Good to Know", until shortly before his death in 2010, at age 79. He died with Warren at his side.


title: Bob Guccione

text: Guccione brought artisans in from France and Italy to build the largest private residence in Manhattan. As a tribute to Guccione the artisans carved both his and his wife's faces into the marble columns near the entrance of the residence. According to "New York" magazine, "It's one of the biggest private houses in Manhattan, with 30 rooms, and it costs $5 million a year to maintain."


title: Bob Guccione

text: In November 2003 the mansion, on Manhattan's Upper East Side, was foreclosed on by Kennedy Funding of New Jersey, the mortgage holder, along with an affiliate of multibillion-dollar hedge fund Elliott Associates of New Jersey. In January 2004, a group of investors came to Guccione's aid during his eviction. A London-based investor, Jason Galanis, led the investment group which purchased the property for $26.5 million in cash. The house was purchased by NY Real Estate LLC, an entity set up to acquire the mansion. Galanis contributed $2.6 million, and two New York hedge funds, Laurus Funds and Alexandre Asset Management, made a mortgage loan of $24 million to NY Real Estate LLC, which was owned by Penthouse International, the parent and debtor-in-possession of General Media.


title: Bob Guccione

text: As a result of the continuing contentious bankruptcy, which lasted over a year, the promissory notes due to Laurus were considered in technical breach of covenants which resulted in severe financial penalties in excess of $8 million. Penthouse International elected to forgo refinancing the house due to the combination of the penalties and the unfavorable lifetime lease of $1.00/year that was granted to Guccione, which made the property unmarketable. Laurus sued Guccione to take possession of the house from the tenant. It was reportedly sold for $49 million, well below the asking price of $59 million, to Wall Street financier Philip Falcone.


title: Bob Guccione

text: Guccione had to sell his country house in Staatsburg, New York. The estate was purchased by actress Uma Thurman and hotelier Andre Balazs. Guccione's 15-room Baroque stucco mansion on a 75-acre property on the Hudson River was foreclosed and sold for $4 million.


title: Bob Guccione

text: Guccione was a painter whose art premiered at Nassau County Museum of Art as well as the Butler Institute of American Art. His art continues to hang in the Borghi Fine Art Gallery, is featured in the POBA - Where the Arts Live online collection, and is a part of the Filthy Gorgeous Media art collection. Bob Guccione was a world-renowned collector of fine art. Highlights of the Guccione collection included a portrait by Amedeo Modigliani and a Pablo Picasso portrait of the artist's son, Paulo. He owned paintings by Sandro Botticelli, Albrecht Dürer, El Greco, Marc Chagall, Salvador Dalí, Giorgio de Chirico, Edgar Degas, Fernand Léger, Gilbert Stone, Henri Matisse, Jules Pascin, Camille Pissarro, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Georges Henri Rouault, Chaïm Soutine, and Vincent van Gogh.


title: Bob Guccione

text: The Guccione art collection was sold at auction by Sotheby's in November 2002 to pay Guccione's personal debts, originally incurred in the Atlantic City venture. The collection had been appraised by Christie's at $59 million two years prior. However, 9/11 had depressed the art market and the Guccione collection failed to sell for its appraised price. The aggregate sale price was $19 million, which was used to pay lender Swiss Re. Swiss Re sued Guccione in New York State Court for a $4 million shortfall on the loan balance. Much of the remaining personal collection of Bob Guccione's art, photographs, and memorabilia was acquired by entrepreneur Jeremy Frommer in early 2012. The acquisition included over 60 original Guccione Oils, as well as the original illustrations and photographs by artists such as Arthur Cummings, Bill Lee, Suze Randall, Earl Miller, Berth Milton Sr. and more. The highlight of the collection is the quarter of a million photographs that were taken by Bob Guccione, himself, throughout the 60s, 70s and 80s. The items obtained by Frommer were the inspiration for his company Jerrick Ventures LLC's creation of the website, Filthy Gorgeous Media, which debuted in June 2013.


title: Bob Guccione

text: Guccione had a history of leveraging his prized asset. He borrowed $20 million from AIG, the insurance company. Subsequently, they refinanced with Swiss Re Insurance.


title: Bob Guccione

text: By 2004, Guccione, a heavy smoker, had undergone surgery for throat cancer and stated: "My cancer was only a tiny tumor about the size of an almond at the base of my tongue. The cure is probably every bit as bad as the disease. It's affected my ability to swallow ... the mobility of my tongue ... it makes it very difficult for me to talk." Guccione was later diagnosed with terminal lung cancer and died on October 20, 2010, at the age of 79, at Plano Specialty Hospital in Plano, Texas, with his wife April at his side.


title: Football at the 2020 Summer Olympics – Men's tournament

text: The men's football tournament at the 2020 Summer Olympics was held from 22 July to 7 August 2021. Originally, it was to be held from 23 July to 8 August 2020, but the Summer Olympics were postponed to the following year due to the COVID-19 pandemic. However, the official name of the games remains the 2020 Summer Olympics. It was the 27th edition of the men's Olympic football tournament. Together with the women's competition, the 2020 Summer Olympics football tournament was held at six stadiums in six cities in Japan. The final was hosted at the International Stadium in Yokohama. Teams participating in the men's competition were restricted to under-24 players (born on or after 1 January 1997) with a maximum of three overage players allowed. The men's tournament is typically restricted to under-23 players though following the postponement of the Olympics by a year, FIFA decided to maintain the restriction of players born on or after 1 January 1997.


text: In addition to host nation Japan, 15 men's national teams will qualify from six separate continental confederations. The Organising Committee for FIFA Competitions ratified the distribution of spots at their meeting on 14 September 2017.


text: Due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan, most matches were played behind closed doors without any spectators. However, Miyagi Stadium allowed a limited audience to attend matches and Kashima Stadium permitted local schoolchildren as part of the school program but Olympic spectators were still not allowed.


text: The men's tournament was an international tournament with restrictions on age: players had to be born on or after 1 January 1997, with three overage players allowed for each squad in the final tournament. Traditionally the roster rules required each team to submit a squad of 18 players, two of whom must be goalkeepers. Each team also named a list of four alternate players, who could replace any player in the squad in case of injury during the tournament. In late June 2021 the International Olympic Committee and FIFA announced that all 22 players of each team would be available for selection before each match. Prior to each match, the teams chose from their total of 22 players, a roster of 18 players to be available for play in that match. The rule change was made in regards to the challenges presented by the COVID-19 pandemic.


text: In June 2020, FIFA approved the use of the video assistant referee (VAR) system for the tournament. The match officials were announced on 23 April 2021.


text: The draw for the tournament was held on 21 April 2021, 10:00 CEST (), at the FIFA headquarters in Zürich, Switzerland. It was conducted by Sarai Bareman, FIFA chief women's football officer, while Samantha Johnson presented the ceremony. Lindsay Tarpley and Ryan Nelsen acted as the draw assistants.


text: The sixteen teams were drawn into four groups of four teams. The hosts Japan were automatically seeded into Pot 1 and assigned to position A1, while the remaining teams were seeded into their respective pots based on their results in the last five Olympics (more recent tournaments weighted more heavily), with bonus points awarded to confederation champions. No group could contain more than one team from each confederation.


text: The competing countries were divided into four groups of four teams, denoted as groups A, B, C and D. Teams in each group played one another in a round-robin basis with the top two teams of each group advancing to the quarter-finals.


text: In the knockout stage, if a match was level at the end of normal playing time, extra time was played (two periods of 15 minutes each) and followed, if necessary, by a penalty shoot-out to determine the winner.


title: Melody

text: A melody (from Greek μελῳδία, "melōidía", "singing, chanting"), also tune, voice or line, is a linear succession of musical tones that the listener perceives as a single entity. In its most literal sense, a melody is a combination of pitch and rhythm, while more figuratively, the term can include other musical elements such as tonal color. It is the foreground to the background accompaniment. A line or part need not be a foreground melody.


title: Melody

text: Melodies often consist of one or more musical phrases or motifs, and are usually repeated throughout a composition in various forms. Melodies may also be described by their melodic motion or the pitches or the intervals between pitches (predominantly conjunct or disjunct or with further restrictions), pitch range, tension and release, continuity and coherence, cadence, and shape.


title: Melody

text: Given the many and varied elements and styles of melody "many extant explanations [of melody] confine us to specific stylistic models, and they are too exclusive." Paul Narveson claimed in 1984 that more than three-quarters of melodic topics had not been explored thoroughly.


title: Melody

text: The melodies existing in most European music written before the 20th century, and popular music throughout the 20th century, featured "fixed and easily discernible frequency patterns", recurring "events, often periodic, at all structural levels" and "recurrence of durations and patterns of durations".


title: Melody

text: Melodies in the 20th century "utilized a greater variety of pitch resources than ha[d] been the custom in any other historical period of Western music." While the diatonic scale was still used, the chromatic scale became "widely employed." Composers also allotted a structural role to "the qualitative dimensions" that previously had been "almost exclusively reserved for pitch and rhythm". Kliewer states, "The essential elements of any melody are duration, pitch, and quality (timbre), texture, and loudness. Though the same melody may be recognizable when played with a wide variety of timbres and dynamics, the latter may still be an "element of linear ordering."


title: White wine

text: White wine is a wine that is fermented without skin contact. The colour can be straw-yellow, yellow-green, or yellow-gold. It is produced by the alcoholic fermentation of the non-coloured pulp of grapes, which may have a skin of any colour. White wine has existed for at least 4,000 years.


title: White wine

text: The wide variety of white wines comes from the large number of varieties, methods of winemaking, and ratios of residual sugar. White wine is mainly from "white" grapes, which are green or yellow in colour, such as the Chardonnay, Sauvignon blanc and Riesling. Some white wine is also made from grapes with coloured skin, provided that the obtained wort is not stained. Pinot noir, for example, is commonly used to produce champagne.


title: White wine

text: Among the many types of white wine, dry white wine is the most common. More or less aromatic and tangy, it is derived from the complete fermentation of the wort. Sweet wines, on the other hand, are produced by interrupting the fermentation before all the grape sugars are converted into alcohol; this is called "Mutage" or fortification. The methods of enriching wort with sugar are multiple: on-ripening on the vine, "passerillage" (straining), or the use of "noble rot". Sparkling wines, which are mostly white, are wines where the carbon dioxide from the fermentation is kept dissolved in the wine and becomes gas when the bottle is opened.


title: White wine

text: White wines are often used as an "apéritif" before a meal, with dessert, or as a refreshing drink between meals. White wines are often considered more refreshing and lighter in both style and taste than the majority of their red wine counterparts. Due to their acidity, aroma and ability to soften meat and deglaze cooking juices, white wines are often used in cooking.


title: White wine

text: The first trace of wine that has been found dates to 7500 years ago, in present-day Iran but the results of archaeological excavations have not been able to determine from which time wine began to be produced. Epigraphy tells us about the presence of wine in the Middle East: it was produced in the "High Country" (the mountain borders between Anatolia and Armenia) and then imported into Mesopotamia especially from the 3rd millennium BC. The tablets of Hattusa describes wine with the term "wiyana" in the Hittite language, in Sumerian, and "karânu" in Akkadian. It could be red (), light (or maybe white: ), good wine (), honeyed () new (), or sour ().


title: White wine

text: In Ancient Greece wine had already been developed and used since Hippocrates, a physician born around 460 BC who commonly prescribed it to patients. "Vinous white wine" and "bitter white wine" were used among his remedies – a sign of diversity in production at that time.


title: White wine

text: In Roman times the type of viticulture practiced by the Greeks was their model; production included white wine. Rich Roman patricians organized banquets where the cost of the food was a sign of prestige. In the range of expensive products wine played a predominant role. The richest citizens built sumptuous villas in the Bay of Naples where the vine had been cultivated since its introduction by the Greeks. The "aminum" or ancient grape produced a sweet white wine produced as mulled wine resembling modern-day Madeira. The conquering of regions more and more to the north encouraged the Romans to cultivate the vine and to produce lighter and less sweet wines. It also encouraged them to seek new wild varieties adaptable to these distant areas where the Mediterranean varieties showed their limits. For example, vines were planted on the banks of the Rhine to provide the Legions with a healthy drink, as opposed to water which was rarely drinkable. The wine was drunk cool in summer and warm in winter, a practice which still continues in the 21st century.


title: White wine

text: Wine merchants failed to survive the fall of the Western Roman Empire and viticulture declined dramatically. The Germanic tribes preferred to drink beer and did not see the value of the wine trade. The decline of viticulture was intensified when Vikings cut the sea lanes in the Atlantic. In the south the Saracens were making "Ghazw" or raids. These campaigns in southern Europe caused Languedoc, Provence, Southern Italy, and the Douro Valley to become depopulated – the people being taken into slavery or fleeing the threat.


title: White wine

text: Knowledge about the culture of grapevines was conserved by the Catholic Church: wine was necessary for the celebration of Mass and the monks planted vines at high latitudes and increased the monastic acreages. Difficult to transport and store, wine long remained a product for local consumption. The trade was re-established initially after the enrichment of the nobles and prelates because, as with the Romans, the art of the table reflected the reputation of the host.


title: White wine

text: River trade was of great importance in the development of vineyards. The Germanic countries benefited from the navigability of the Rhine and the Danube so they could export their production. Charlemagne contributed to this growth by enacting his "Capitulare de villis" which included a set of rules on the cultivation of the vine in all areas. It was an era of great development of the culture of white wine in Germany and Austria. The Central European vineyards reached 100,000 hectares, which was three and a half times the area in the 1990s. From the 13th century traders distinguished "vinum hunicum" (wine of the Huns), which was drunk by the people, from "vinum francium" (Wine of the Franks) which was the wine for the wealthy aristocracy. There was recognition of varieties of Riesling and Sylvaner from the late Middle Ages.


title: White wine

text: Part of European trade was by sea along the Atlantic coast. The English, then the Dutch and Scandinavians from their demand for wine, created a craze for planting between Bordeaux and La Rochelle. Little dry white wine was produced for export from La Rochelle while Bordeaux exported mainly wines from the hinterland received via the Garonne. When wine production was introduced on the banks of the Charente in the 17th century, Charente white wines were introduced as cognac. At the same time, the dry white wine popular with the Dutch was produced to the north, around the port of Nantes from the current areas of Muscadet AOC and "Gros-plant AOVDQS" in the Loire Valley. Vineyards in the Loire Valley and the South-west had their sales network thanks to the navigability of the Loire and the Garonne.


title: White wine

text: In the Mediterranean Basin the Crusades greatly enriched both rival republics of Venice and Genoa. To supply the troops of the rich Frankish lords these republics provided them with wine from Greece. The port of Monemvasia, which exported a large amount of white wine, gave its name to the variety Malvasia. The Crusaders also discovered Muscat wine. Once back home, the rulers and wealthy aristocrats looked to buy the sweet wines they enjoyed in the East. They came from grapes that dominated the vineyards of Languedoc-Roussillon and Spain. Trade in these wines was facilitated by their high alcohol content which ensured preservation during the long journey to Northern Europe.


title: White wine

text: In 1453 the Ottoman Empire took Constantinople and the situation of the Venetians and Genovese deteriorated. The wine trade between the eastern Mediterranean and northern Europe fell sharply. At the same time, the Spanish had just completed their "Reconquista" and replaced the Mediterranean wine with its own, especially for English and Dutch consumers. The port of Sanlúcar de Barrameda began to export large quantities of white wine which was the ancestor of today's sherry. This wine was called "sack" and caused a sensation in England. Even at the height of animosity between the two countries (as in the episode of the Spanish Armada in 1588) the trade continued – sometimes provided by pirates who stole what they could not buy. Between 40 and 60 thousand barrels each of 500 litres left the Spanish coast annually for England and the Netherlands (this volume of some 300,000 hectolitres represented two-thirds of today's production).


title: White wine

text: From the 16th century the first European vines were planted in America: in Mexico, then Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile. These were in addition to the native vines which grew in Mexico but this pre-Columbian production was not for the production of wine as the grapes were too acidic. It was used to produce "acachul" a drink sweetened with fruit and honey.


title: White wine

text: The Little Ice Age spelt the death knell of northern viticulture. The vine disappeared from northern Germany and Baden, and the maximum altitude for viticulture descended to 220 metres. Hans-Jürgen Otto noted that: "all the vineyards suffered and decreased in area". In England the vine also disappeared. The less early vineyards preferred to select white varieties of grapes because, even if unripe, white grapes allowed wine that was a little sour to still be consumable, while red grapes do not give enough colour and green tannins make the wine bitter. The interruption of the fermentation by a cold winter led to the discovery of the process of secondary fermentation of champagne.


title: White wine

text: The enrichment of some of the population created a craze for rare wines. This phenomenon, which was already responsible for the development of sherry in England, was reproduced in Central Europe. The discovery of the benefits of the noble rot on white grapes took place around 1650 in Hungary for the development of Tokaji wine. Hugh Johnson declared that: "the Tokay of three centuries ago was the best sweet wine in the world, it was inherited from a long-standing winemaking tradition". Developed with a grape whose exceptional maturity is due to a trade secret, this wine is also developed its qualities through a process which long remained a secret in underground cellars of the winery. Prized by the House of Habsburg, Tokay experienced profitable trading. Attempted imitation came to nought and the use of noble rot remained a secret. It was not until 120 years later that a method of very late harvest was experimented with on the steep banks of the Rhine. Its use in Sauternes was attested in 1836 in the Château La Tour Blanche but at that time very late harvest gave a very rich wine that required several years to age in barrels.


title: White wine

text: Other regions were discovering secrets which would make them rich. So it was that Dom Perignon was the legendary creator of champagne. In a northern vineyard he developed a special wine that would give rise to an exceptional passion for wine produced in a climate where it could not be expected for wine to reach maturity nor sufficient colour.


title: White wine

text: The fashion of drinking cheap dry white wine started in Paris in the 18th century. To evade the excise duty, Parisians took the habit of going to drink their wine at the producers premises outside the walls of the city. Cabarets opened their doors by the river, becoming Guinguettes (similar to taverns): so the wine that was drunk there was also called "guinguet". This is a wine from the hills of the Seine or the Marne, sour, but the conditions of transport of the time did not allow it to be used prematurely.


title: White wine

text: Champagne was created in the 18th century but it was in the next century that its global expansion would occur. The crowned heads of Europe quickly made the wine stylish in their courts although its production, necessarily in bottles, made for a very expensive product. Historian Hugh Johnson assigns an important diplomatic role to champagne: Talleyrand would have offered this wine at the negotiating table of the Congress of Vienna, using it to relax his partners in the discussions. The occupation of Champagne by Russian troops in 1815 publicized the sparkling wine to the Russian aristocracy. The "Veuve Clicquot" (Widow Clicquot) booked her wine to her occupants saying "they drink today, tomorrow they will pay..."


title: White wine

text: The progress of the glass industry (especially from the use of coal) helped to democratize the use of the glass bottle. The production of sparkling wine increased dramatically and spread to the American continent. The technique of manufacturing was industrialized and other regions were inspired but the reputation of champagne suffered. The commercial flight of champagne was a product of the Industrial Revolution that allowed it to be within the financial reach of the emerging middle classes.


title: White wine

text: The period of the 19th century before the arrival of phylloxera was a golden age of wine. The Industrial Revolution enriched a bourgeoisie clientele for the best wines and the rural exodus to factories created a large market for mass-produced wines. A prominent example for white wines was the viticulture in Germany. The feeling of freedom infused into the German winemakers under French occupation during the First Empire prevented the aristocracy and the clergy from recovering all the vineyards from which they were dispossessed. The practice of late harvest was widespread and the more or less sweet wines gained balance against their always lively acidity. In 1872 the Geisenheim Grape Breeding Institute was created and it was the source of a great amount of interbreeding giving new varieties – the best known of these is the Müller-Thurgau. During the same period, Switzerland adopted, along the shores of Lake Geneva, vineyards predominantly producing white wine.


title: White wine

text: During the 20th century planting vines in countries where it was unknown was booming. However, it was shaky in places with higher temperatures during fermentation. The use of larger containers creates problems during fermentation: the yeasts produce heat which cannot escape and beyond 35 °C the micro-organisms begin to suffer and fermentation slows then stops. After cooling the wine a new addition of yeast is needed to resume fermentation (not to mention the adverse effects on the wine's aromas and the risk of "lactic bite"). In California the search for temperature control of fermentation matured. Applied to white wine they revolutionized this type of wine. European wines, marked by their processes of crushing the grapes are diametrically opposed to those very fruity wines marked by a refreshing liveliness. During the years 1960–1990, these methods of wine-making moved to Europe and the use of refrigeration equipment is now widely used in almost all regions producing white wine.


title: White wine

text: Many wine-producing countries produce white wine, however the white grape needs less heat than red grapes to ripen: the lack of maturity of tannins is not a problem since they are not extracted in pressing. In addition the taste balance is based on a significant liveliness due to the acidity. The grapes for the production of dry white wine are harvested just before ripening. These production conditions can result in a more northerly or mountainous location for the vineyard producing dry white wines.


title: White wine

text: In Europe, German vineyards are predominantly white (63.1% of production area in 2006), as are the Swiss vineyards (more than 50% of the area in production are white grapes) and the Luxembourg vineyards (93% of the production area in white or grey grapes). In France the northern half produces most of the white wines (Alsace, Jura, Champagne, and the Loire Valley). In Spain, paradoxically, Castile-La Mancha accounts for 50% of the Spanish vineyards, producing mostly white wine on a very large production area in a high temperature zone. The Catalonia region produces a lot of white grapes which are transformed into Sparkling wine called "Cava". The producing area for Cava is 45,000 hectares out of a total producing area of 65,600 hectares.


title: White wine

text: The Americas have developed both white and red wines, some of which are now recognized worldwide. White wines have to conquer hostile territories where red wine dominates, such as the Rocky Mountains or Canada. In Canada, the technique of ice wine can produce exceptional wines in a climate which is apparently unfavourable. Canada is the largest producer of ice wine in the world.


title: White wine

text: The warmer southern areas also produce white wine, but in a lower proportion. In addition, it is more often sweet or fortified wines, natural sweet wines or "vinés" wines, as in the case of vineyards around the Mediterranean (muscat, madeira, marsala etc.).


title: White wine

text: According to Claude and Lydia Bourguignon, red wines are well suited to soil based on limestone while the best white wines are produced on soils over metamorphic rocks (Alsace, Moselle, Anjou) or volcanic rocks (Tokaj in Hungary and Slovakia).


title: White wine

text: In addition, white wines are also produced on land with a limestone sub-soil such as the chalky base of the Champagne wine region or the limestone under siliceous marl of Chassagne-Montrachet form the backdrop to some of the most prestigious wines in the world.


title: White wine

text: Other grape varieties are less well known as they may be marketed under an "Appellation" or mixed with other varieties:


title: White wine

text: The stalk (or "rafle") is the herbaceous branch that bears the grapes. It consists of about 80% water, soluble minerals (nearly 3% with half of potassium) and polyphenols. The polyphenols are mainly tannins and are responsible for the bitter taste and the sensation of astringency. In the production of a white wine, the stalk does not contain any useful part: its moisture can cause dilution and the presence of tannins is not desirable in the wine. This is why it is quickly isolated from the rest of the harvest, either by shaking or by pressing.


title: White wine

text: The grape berry is made of skin, flesh (or pulp), and seeds. The seeds are hard and are 2 to 5% by weight of the berry. The seeds contain 25-45% water, 34-36% carbohydrates, 13-20% fat (the grape seed oil), 4-6% tannins, 4-6.5% protein, 2-4% minerals, and 1% fatty acids. Their contribution in white wine is zero since they are removed in the pressing, in addition, the pressure is insufficient to extract anything from the seed.


title: White wine

text: The skin is 6-12% by weight of the grape. It is coated on the surface with Pruinescence, a waxy coating that gives a matte finish to the colour of the grape and contains the yeast responsible for fermentation. The grape skin also contains volatile compounds in its deeper layers. These are responsible for the aroma of the grape and for the molecules that become the aroma of wine during fermentation: they are the "aroma precursors". In red grapes the film also contains anthocyanins or coloured matter which is from bright to purplish red. To produce white wine from red grapes it is necessary not to macerate the grapes, nor to press too hard on the harvest to avoid the dissolving of the anthocyanins in the grape juice. The skin contains a lot of cellulose, insoluble pectin and proteins, and organic acids: citric, malic, and tartaric acids. The skin of the Sauvignon blanc B grape has a pH of about 4.15. It also contains between 2 and 3% tannins.


title: White wine

text: The flesh of the grape is the most important part – it is between 75 and 85% of the weight of the grape. It consists of large polygonal cells which are very thin-walled. With a low pressure the cells leak their contents: the wort. The flesh of the grape contains mainly water. The organic components are fermentable sugars (between 170-230 grams for a dry wine and between 200 and 300 grams per litre or even more for Fortified wines) and organic acids, especially malic acid and tartaric acid. Acids occur in larger amounts in the centre of the berry while the sugars are in greater proportion at the periphery. This heterogeneity in the distribution of sugars, acids, and inorganic compounds in the berry is used during pressing, especially in Champagne pressing. This process separates them as it happens and uses them to measure the progress of the "vintage", the first and second "tailles", and finally the "rebêches" of insufficient quality to be made into AOC wine.


title: White wine

text: The flesh is the major element of the wine, as it is the part that contains the highest proportion of liquid. The flavours are much less present than in the skin.


title: White wine

text: In the case of white winemaking the wort is simply the grape juice from the pressing of grape berries.


title: White wine

text: Sugars are carbohydrates derived from photosynthesis. The sucrose is made in the leaves and flows into the plant where it is broken down into glucose and fructose and accumulates in the berry where it is a characteristic of the maturation of the grapes. Many different sugars coexist: the most common are glucose and fructose which will be consumed by anaerobic yeast to convert it to alcohol during fermentation. They are in substantially equal amounts. To verify the completion of the fermentation they can be quantified by chemical assay (glucose and fructose are "reducing" sugars that react with an alkaline copper solution called Fehling's solution), an enzymatic method, or by infrared spectroscopy.


title: White wine

text: Other sugars are not fermentable at all. After consumption by the yeast, the ratio of non-fermentable sugars (the ones that are not consumed by yeast: arabinose and xylose) is between 0.5 and 1.7 grams per litre. Sugars exercise a control over the taste – they balance the spiciness of the acidity and the burning of the alcohol.


title: White wine

text: The organic acids are mainly malic and tartaric acids. Tartaric acid is a characteristic of grapes; in its leaves its content ranges from 5 to 7 grams per litre. Malic acid is present in green grapes and its ratio decreases with maturation to give between 2 and 7 grams per litre at harvest. The range is very wide depending on the variety and soil with hot climates giving lower rates as the heat accelerates its degradation. There are many other acids in small quantities: citric acid, ascorbic acid, α-ketoglutaric, fumaric acid, galacturonic acid, coumaric acid, etc. Their variable quantity varies the pH of the wort. The must of white wine is generally more acidic than red grape must simply because the grape maturity is less advanced.


title: White wine

text: Vitamin C (or ascorbic acid) is present in the grape and the must up to 50 milligrams per litre. It is a protection in the wort against the oxidation phenomenon. In the presence of oxygen it produces hydrogen peroxide; by this reaction it deprives the enzymes in the wort of oxygen that is necessary to oxidize the wine. Since 1962 the addition of vitamin C in the wine has been allowed to a maximum of 15 grams per hectolitre at the time of packaging to stabilize the wine. Experiments in the late 2000s tried to determine a method to add it to fresh harvests or in the wort.


title: White wine

text: Vitamin B1 or thiamine is present at a concentration between 0.2 and 0.5 milligrams per litre. This vitamin is necessary for the proper growth of yeasts that ensure alcoholic fermentation. In the must of healthy grapes the natural quantity is sufficient for the yeast. On the other hand, for a degraded harvest (by gray mold), the degradation of this vitamin leads the winemaker to add it to the must to ensure a trouble-free fermentation. In the case of a harvest with a very clear wort and low temperature the yeast works in a limited way and the addition of thiamine can help avoid a difficult end of fermentation. Legislation limits the amount added to 30 milligrams per hectolitre.


title: White wine

text: The wort also contains minerals. Sodium, Potassium, and Magnesium are most common. Potassium and also calcium can form salts with the tartaric acid: Potassium bitartrate and the neutral calcium tartrate at the pH of the wine. For these, when their solubility threshold is reached, they settle and contribute to de-acidify the wort. In the southern regions where acidity is sometimes a little lacking this may be a cause of failure of extra acidity.


title: White wine

text: White winemaking is broadly similar to red winemaking although details differ when making the two types.


title: White wine

text: White wine is made from white or black grapes (but always with white flesh, the grapes with coloured flesh are called "Teinturier" meaning coloured juice). Once harvested, the grapes are pressed and only the juice is extracted which is called wort. The wort is put into tanks for fermentation where sugar is transformed into alcohol by yeast present on the grapes.


title: White wine

text: Grape maturity depends on the requirement of the final product. For a sweet white wine, whether fortified or natural, sugar is the key criterion. For a dry white wine, technological maturity is calculated and the fruit is harvested just before (usually eight days) the maturity of the sugar. At this point the relationship between sugar and acid is optimal. Further, low acidity will cause the future wine to be unbalanced with excess alcohol and lack of liveliness. In addition, the flavour will be less fresh and less vivid.


title: White wine

text: Traditional hand harvesting of whole bunches has been increasingly challenged by the harvesting machine for dry white wines, an economic choice but not always a qualitative one. The fragility of the grape requires either a rapid transfer to the Winery, or protection from oxidation. When the transport time between vine and winery is long, the harvest can be refrigerated and kept away from oxygen using nitrogen or dry ice.


title: White wine

text: However, for some sweet wines, a successful harvest requires manual work and training for pickers to pick only clusters where the berries have reached optimum ripeness or have been affected by noble rot (for the "Sélection de Grains Nobles"). For sparkling wines hand picking is recommended and it is absolutely necessary for white wines from grapes with coloured skin.


title: White wine

text: The first step in processing the grapes at the winery is to separate the components of the wort that are needed from the unwanted parts. The process followed at this stage will largely determine the future quality of the wine. For this, the clusters are generally shaken then trampled. The practice of moderate trampling allows the grains to burst, releasing the juice and pulp (it cannot be used for white wine from black grapes as the premature bursting of the berries would cause a coloured must). The practice of shaking or stalking has the advantage of separating the stems from the cluster of grapes and avoids giving the wine a herbaceous taste at pressing. The skin is not macerated and the transparent yellow colour is retained.


title: White wine

text: The winemaker can soak the skins of white grapes and practice maceration if the quality of the grapes is good. Pre-fermentation Maceration is generally performed at a controlled temperature to delay the onset of fermentation. This technique improves the extraction of varietal aromas and their precursors which are mainly located in the skin. Acidity decreases as does the ratio of Colloids (large pectin type molecules) and aging potential. To be implemented, this process requires a perfect de-stalking, moderate crushing and sulphite to protect the wort from oxidation. The duration (typically 5 to 18 hours at 18 °C) depends on the variety, the temperature of maceration, the maturity of the grape, and the quality of the soil.


title: White wine

text: The trampled and de-stemmed harvest is then pressed. The type of wine press also affects the potential quality of the wine. Since the 1980s, pneumatic presses have improved the work involved by working in airtight conditions and allowing a fine control of the pressure to extract the juice without damaging the grapes. The juice or "moût de goutte" (Must of Drops) is the juice that flows naturally from the berries crushed under their own weight prior to pressing (on the way to the press). Trampling increases its proportion and makes the material profitable by processing a higher tonnage of grapes in the same time. The "moût de presse" (Must of the Press) is the juice flowing from the press from the pressure on the grapes. It concentrates the qualities or the defects of the grape: it is rich in aromas, colloids, or phenolic compounds. However, it can also be marked by olfactory defects, such as the smell of fungus on spoiled grapes or the vegetable smell of a harvest with insufficient maturity. The blending or not of the "moût de goutte" and the "moût de presse" musts and release depends on the health of the grapes, the method of pressing, and the style of wine intended. Manipulation of the grape before pressing increases the amount of lees and complicates pressing. For the development of a quality wine, their use is excluded or very limited.


title: White wine

text: The settling is intended to clarify the wort by removing the lees from it. The lees are colloids in suspension, debris from the skins or pulp, and exogenous debris (soil).


title: White wine

text: Static settling consists of leaving the must to let the debris settle: after pressing, the must is left to stand in a tank away from air. Suspended particles precipitate to the bottom of the tank. This is facilitated by the addition of pectolytic enzymes which are long chain carbons composed of pectic compounds. These pectins give a high viscosity to the juice, cut the suspended particles into shorter chains, and accelerate precipitation. Refrigeration of the wort is needed: if the fermentation starts, the release of bubbles of carbon dioxide would spread suspended particles throughout the wort preventing their deposition. After the wort is clarified it is decanted for fermenting.


title: White wine

text: Dynamic settling is performed with a machine that accelerates the separation of the wort from the lees. The centrifuge removes the largest particles but does not achieve a high level of clarity.


title: White wine

text: Settling by flotation is a technique where the introduction of a gas at the bottom of the tank creates bubbles which cause the particles to rise to the surface where they are removed by a scraper. Filtration with a rotary vacuum filter is relatively slow but effective. It is often used to recover clear wort in the lees exiting the centrifuge.


title: White wine

text: In addition enzyme treatment can improve the settling of the Finings. Bentonite plays a mechanical role of ballast to settle the colloids – it accelerates the sedimentation rate. Gelatin is also used to flocculate the suspended tannins extracted by the press. Often associated with a bitter taste, their removal is generally beneficial for white wine. Polyvinylpolypyrrolidone or "PVPP" allows the fixing of polyphenols and eliminating them. These molecules are responsible for the browning of wine and their removal gives an element of stability in the future drink.


title: White wine

text: In the "stabilisation of lees" (liquid cold stabilization) the winemaker regularly adds lees in suspension for several days so they do not settle immediately. Then he proceeds to a conventional settling as indicated above. This technique allows the enrichment of the wort with precursors of "thiol" (passion fruit, citrus ...) which are naturally very soluble in the wort and are particularly suitable for some varieties such as Sauvignon and Colombard. In the "maceration of lees", the lees from the static settling are gathered in a refrigerated tank and agitated for several days. After filtration and fermentation they give a white wine also rich in thiols.


title: White wine

text: The wort is then placed in a tank to undergo fermentation. These fermentation tanks can be of several types: oak, cement coated with epoxy, stainless or enamelled steel, or epoxy resin. For large volume tanks the control of temperature, which typically is around 18 °C, becomes necessary. The majority of aromatic components (acetates of alcohol and ethyl esters of fatty acids) are synthesized by the yeast during fermentation of light juice below 18 °C. However, clarity and low temperatures are factors which slow fermentation. Recourse to the addition of selected yeasts for these difficult working conditions becomes crucial. In contrast some producers grow their vines organically or biodynamically: the lees are of good quality without synthetic chemicals harmful to yeast so they are kept in the wine. Turbidity of the must ensures a good supply of yeasts and fermentation in small tanks or in barrels then does not require mastery of cold.


title: White wine

text: Fermentation starts spontaneously under the action of the natural yeasts from the grapes. The winemaker can choose to use a commercially available active dry yeast. It can help to express the characteristics of a variety or a method of manufacture. For a dry white wine fermentation continues until the sugar runs out. The wine is then usually decanted to eliminate the lees. When fermentation is done in barrels the temperature often exceeds 20 °C or even 25 °C.


title: White wine

text: After the end of fermentation, the wine may also have malolactic fermentation or FML. This second fermentation carried out by bacteria deacidifies the wine: it transforms the malic acid, which has two carboxyl groups, into lactic acid. This operation, which reduces the biting acidity of the wine, is not always desirable nor practiced. In southern areas the acidity is carefully preserved to give the wine its liveliness for refreshing Aroma of wine. During the fermentation of the grapes varietal aromas are reduced in favour of an increase in roundness and volume in the mouth of the wine during ageing in oak barrels. It gives a better biological stability in champagne wines.


title: White wine

text: For a sweet wine, fermentation is stopped before its end to keep some of the sugar: this is the "Mutage" (fortification). The fermentation can be stopped by adding Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) (sterilisation of wine), by sudden cooling (anaesthesia of yeasts), by sterile filtration (capturing the yeasts in a very fine mesh filter), or a combination of several of these methods. A rule of thumb for determining the point of "mutage", which allows a good balance of acquired alcohol and residual sugar, is to leave as many potential degrees as the degrees acquired over 10% by volume. For sweeter dessert wines fermentation stops spontaneously by excess sugar and alcohol: Alcohol is waste from the yeast and it is poisonous in large doses. In the case of sweet wines an addition of wine alcohol stops the fermentation. FML is not done for sweet wines as the lactic bacteria preferentially degrades sugar which would give a lactic bite (sweet and sour wine). In addition, the balance of acidity and sugar in the wine supports vivacity.


title: White wine

text: A winemaking technique called "reducing" or "technology" has been developed. Very fashionable in Australia and New Zealand, this technique seeks highly aromatic white wines and is very interesting on aromatic varieties such as Sauvignon B, Colombard B, and Riesling B, although less so for varieties such as Chardonnay B. It works by limiting Premature oxidation in the must or the wine at all stages of development. The use of inert gases such as Carbon Dioxide (CO) isolates the grapes from oxygen from the air and cold partially inhibits the action of oxidative enzymes in the must. Tyrosinase, a natural enzyme in the grape, and laccase, an enzyme coming from the "gray mold" are very active in oxidation. Laccase can be eliminated by sorting the grapes. Strong limitation on the amount of polyphenols in the wine by reducing the time between harvest and pressing is another technique that aims to make a very light wine, protected from yellowing.


title: White wine

text: After fermentation all wine requires constant care to be fit for consumption. All of these practices before bottling are known as "élevage" or Maturing.


title: White wine

text: Maturing can be done in a vat. It takes little time to clarify and to prepare the packaging (bottling or Bag-In-Box) but this may be extended by maturing of lees. This type of maturing consists of regularly adding fine lees in suspension in the wine. The dead yeast is used for the fine lees which digests itself (autolysis) giving the wine volume and body to support the fruitiness. This operation is called "Bâtonnage" or stirring and is traditionally done with a stick to agitate the lees at the bottom of the barrel. This technique needs to be well controlled, however, otherwise the wine may take on a "Goût de réduit" (Reduced taste) due to the activity of reductase sulphite from the yeast. This operation can be done in vats, as in Muscadet, barrels as in Burgundy and many chardonnays, or bottles as in champagne.


title: White wine

text: Maturing can also be done in barrels. The wine is put in barrels after fermentation but fermentation itself may also occur in the barrel. The barrel has a dual role: it flavours the wine giving it a scent of toast, butter, and vanilla but it also helps to mature it by providing a very small regular quantity of oxygen through the wooden walls. This oxygen helps to polymerize the components of the wine making it less aggressive and more balanced.


title: White wine

text: The blending consists of mixing different wines in order to obtain the desired final blend. This assembly can be of varietals (in the case of Bordeaux wines or wines from the Languedoc-Roussillon), or blending of a vintage with varieties (in the case of champagne).


title: White wine

text: This blending may be purely quantitative: various vintages can be blended to achieve the desired volume. It can also be qualitative; the taster or a team of tasters (cellar master, winemaker, owner of the estate, etc.) determine the amount of each wine to mix together in the final blend to obtain optimum quality. In winemaking blending is always empirical, it cannot be predicted that the combination of two or more vintages will give the expected product. The only secure values are analytical values (alcoholic strength, acidity, pH, etc.).


title: White wine

text: Clarification consists of removing insoluble particles in suspension in the water-alcohol solution that is the wine and stabilization is to maintain the solubility of the elements dissolved in the wine throughout the retention period in the bottle and consumption at the table.


title: White wine

text: To clarify wine, it is necessary to wait for particle deposition at the bottom of the wine container but this can be accelerated by the use of oenological adhesives. These additives bind to the insoluble particles and fall to the bottom.


title: White wine

text: Tannic acid (or gallotannic) C76-H52-O46 is used for the clarification of white wine, using casein, gelatin, or Isinglass.


title: White wine

text: The majority of wine components are dissolved in the wine: certain components, however, may take an insoluble form during ageing or storage of wine – this is the case with tartaric acid. A salt containing potassium, potassium bitartrate is in the form of crystals at the bottom of the bottle. This is a natural phenomenon but many producers seek to avoid this as dealers and uninformed consumers take these crystals as a fault. It is caused or accelerated by cold storage: low temperature reduces its solubility. The habit of refreshing white wine makes this wine particularly sensitive to this phenomenon.


title: White wine

text: The first is to cool the wine to a negative temperature near freezing for several weeks. The potassium bitartrate crystals precipitate and can be removed by filtration prior to packaging in bottles or bag-in-boxes. This solution is costly in refrigeration energy and can negatively affect the organoleptic qualities of the wine.


title: White wine

text: Another solution is to introduce Metatartaric acid, a tartaric acid polymer, into the wine. Its mode of action is still unknown but it prevents microscopic crystals from growing. However, the effect is not sustainable in the long term (between 6 and 18 months) because it hydrolyzes when warm.


title: White wine

text: A third way is electrodialysis: an electric current between two plates attracts the wine ions and eliminates them. However, this solution not only acts on tartaric acid but also other compounds especially potassium which is responsible for the formation of insoluble bitartrate and also modifies the organoleptic qualities. However, it does allow a definitive stabilization. Reports of high tartaric stability in white wines matured on lees has led to research in this area. A protein from the hydrolyzate of the yeast (mannoproteins) allows salts of tartar to keep their solubility. The addition of this compound industrially permits a good quality stabilization. This solution is the least expensive for energy and refrigeration equipment and does not alter the aromatic perception of wine. Nevertheless, tests conducted by the Cooperative Institute for Wine of Languedoc-Roussillon did not show conclusive effectiveness.


title: White wine

text: Finally the study of the addition of cellulose gum or carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) conducted in recent years led to its approval in 2009 (EC Regulation 606/2009).


title: White wine

text: Some producers who sell their own products directly to the consumer, explain these natural phenomena to the customer who then serve the wine gently in order to prevent the crystals forming in the bottom of the bottle.


title: White wine

text: The presence of unstable proteins that can create a visual problem (protein breakdown) in the wine also requires stabilization. Treatment with bentonite allows the precipitation of unstable proteins which can then be removed by filtration and extraction. The proteins can also react with Metatartaric acid added to wine to prevent tartaric precipitation: the wine then loses its shine and becomes opalescent like whey. Some varieties are naturally high in protein (muscat. ..) but levels also vary depending on the vintage and maturity levels.


title: White wine

text: Finally some white wines can be victims of "Rosissement" (pinking). This phenomenon manifests itself in a light rosé colouration of the wine and takes the appearance of a "stained" wine or one that is contaminated by the presence of anthocyanins from red wine. Yet this is not so: the phenomenon is due to the presence of a normally colourless dissolved polyphenol which turns pink due to oxidation. An infusion of PVPP generally eliminates the substrate of oxidation. Some varieties are particularly sensitive to pinking: Sauvignon B, Viognier, Grenache B...


title: White wine

text: SO, sulphur dioxide or dioxide of sulphur is used in all winemaking operations from harvesting to packaging. It plays a protective role in the wine against the phenomena of oxidation, oxidase enzyme action (enzymes that oxidize the polyphenols in wine), and the control of microbial populations in yeasts and bacteria (antiseptic effect).


title: White wine

text: The maximum allowable doses depend on the sugar content of the wine: the residual sugar is susceptible to attack by microorganisms which would cause a restart of fermentation. In France the dose is limited to 150 mg/litre for Vin de Pays (country wines), 185 mg/L for Sparkling wines, 200 mg/L for Fortified wines, 200 mg/L for dry white wines, 250 mg/L for white wines with residual sugar greater than 5 g/litre (Moelleux wines), and 300 mg/L for liquoreux sweet wines.


title: White wine

text: For sale to individuals or restaurants the wine is filtered if necessary, then conditioned. The filtration consists of passing the wine through a filter element for retaining fine particles suspended in the wine. It may be fine earth (Kieselguhr), cardboard sheets, membranes, or Cross-flow filtration.