title: Jose Maria Sison

text: From August 2002, he was classified as a "person supporting terrorism" by the United States. The European Union's second highest court ruled in September 2009 to delist him as a "person supporting terrorism" and reversed a decision by member governments to freeze his assets. Sison would later live in the Netherlands, applying for asylum as a political refugee in 1988, a contested request which was eventually approved in 1995.


title: Jose Maria Sison

text: The CPP, along with its affiliates New People's Army and the National Democratic Front, are also considered terrorist organizations by the Philippines' Anti-Terrorism Council.


title: Jose Maria Sison

text: Sison was born on February 8, 1939, in Cabugao, Ilocos Sur to a prominent landowning family with ancestry from Spanish-Mexican-Malay mestizos and from Fujian, China and with connections to other prominent clans such as the Crisólogos, Geraldinos, Vergaras, Azcuetas, Sollers, Serranos and Singsons. His great-grandfather Don Leandro Serrano was the biggest landlord in northern Luzon at the end of the 19th century. His grandfather Don Gorgonio Soller Sison was the last "gobernadorcillo" of Cabugao under Spanish colonial rule, the municipal president under the Philippine revolutionary government and first mayor under US colonial rule. His great-uncle Don Marcelino Crisólogo was the first governor of Ilocos Sur. His uncle Teófilo Sison was a governor of Pangasinan and the first Defense Secretary in the Commonwealth government. He was convicted in 1946 of having collaborated with the Japanese occupation forces but was amnestied in 1947. During his childhood in Ilocos, he learned about the Huk rebellion in Central Luzon from Ilocano farm workers and from his mother who belonged to a landlord family in Mexico, Pampanga. In his early high school years in Manila, he talked to his barber about Hukbalahap activities. Unlike his elder siblings, he attended a public school before entering Ateneo de Manila University and later studying at Colegio de San Juan de Letran.


title: Jose Maria Sison

text: Sison graduated from the University of the Philippines in 1959 with the degree of Bachelor of Arts in English literature with honors and then studied Indonesian in Indonesia before returning to the Philippines and becoming a university professor of literature and eventually Rizal Studies and Political Science. He joined the Lavaite Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas in December 1962 and became a member of its executive committee in early 1963. He was the Vice Chairman of the Lapiang Manggagawa (which eventually became the Socialist Party) and the general secretary of the Movement for the Advancement of Nationalism. In 1964, he co-founded the "Kabataang Makabayan", or Patriotic Youth, with Nilo S. Tayag. This organization organized youth against the Vietnam War, Ferdinand Marcos, imperialism, bureaucrat capitalism and feudalism. The organization also spearheaded the study of Maoism as part of 'the struggle'.


title: Jose Maria Sison

text: On December 26, 1968, he formed and led the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP), an organization founded on Marxism–Leninism–Mao Zedong Thought, stemming from his experience as a youth leader and labor and land reform activist. This was known as the First Great Rectification Movement where Sison and other radical youth criticized the existing party leadership for its errors and failures since 1942. The old Communist Party had been run under a series of Moscow-leaning general secretaries from the Lava family. The reestablished CPP set its general political line as two-stage revolution comprising national-democratic as the first stage then proceeding to the socialist revolution. During this period, Sison went by the nom de guerre of Amado Guerrero, meaning "beloved warrior", under which he published the book manifesto Philippine Society and Revolution.


title: Jose Maria Sison

text: After this, the old Communist Party sought to eliminate and marginalize Sison. However, the reorganized CPP had a larger base and renewed political line that attracted thousands to join its ranks.


title: Jose Maria Sison

text: On March 29, 1969, the CPP, along with an HMB (Huk) faction led by Bernabe Buscayno, organized the New People's Army (NPA), the guerrilla-military wing of the party, whose guerrilla fronts, numbering more than 110, are nationwide and cover substantial portions of 75 of the 81 Philippine provinces. The NPA seeks to wage a peasant-worker revolutionary war in the countryside against landlords and foreign companies by operating in rural communities and mountains as strategy for protection.


title: Jose Maria Sison

text: Sison was arrested in November 1977 in La Union during the Marcos presidency and was imprisoned for almost 9 years, most of which was spent in solitary confinement. Sison wrote prolifically while incarcerated, including his "Basic Principles of Marxism-Leninism: a Primer", which his wife Julie de Lima smuggled out of prison in 1982.


title: Jose Maria Sison

text: Sison was released from military detention on March 5, 1986, after the overthrow of Marcos. His experience is described in "Prison & Beyond", a book of poetry released in 1986, which won the Southeast Asia WRITE award for the Philippines. Two biographies have been written about him: one by the German writer Dr. Rainer Werning: "The Philippine Revolution: From the Leader's View Point" (1989), and one by the Filipina novelist Ninotchka Rosca, "At Home in the World" (2004). Two major biopics of Sison as founder of Kabataang Makabayan (titled "Tibak") and the Communist Party of the Philippines (titled "The Guerrilla Is a Poet") have been produced by major film makers in the Philippines.


title: Jose Maria Sison

text: The CPP has stated for over 20 years that Sison is no longer involved in operational decisions and served from Europe in an advisory role as chief political consultant of the National Democratic Front in peace negotiations with the Manila government. In 1986, after he was freed from prison, Sison embarked on a world tour. In October, he accepted the Southeast Asia WRITE Award for a book of his poems from the Crown Prince of Thailand in October 1986 in Bangkok. While visiting the Netherlands in September 1988, he was informed that his passport had been revoked and that charges had been filed against him under the Anti-Subversion Law of the Philippines. Those charges were later dropped, as were subsequent charges filed by authorities in the Philippines.


title: Jose Maria Sison

text: The International Crime Investigation Team of the Dutch National Criminal Investigation Department arrested Jose Maria Sison in Utrecht on August 28, 2007. Sison was arrested for his alleged involvement from the Netherlands in three assassinations that took place in the Philippines: the murder of Romulo Kintanar in 2003, and the murders of Arturo Tabara and Stephen Ong in 2006. On the day of his arrest, Sison's apartment and eight apartments of his co-workers were searched by the Dutch National Criminal Investigation Department.


title: Jose Maria Sison

text: Some 100 left-wing activists held a demonstration for the release of Sison, marching towards the Dutch embassy in Manila on August 30, 2007. The demonstration was swiftly ended by police.


title: Jose Maria Sison

text: There were no plans to hold the trial in the Philippines since there was no extradition request and the crimes Sison was accused of were committed in the Netherlands. Dutch lawyer Victor Koppe said that Sison would enter a plea of not guilty during his indictment. He could have received the maximum penalty of life imprisonment.


title: Jose Maria Sison

text: On September 1, 2007, National Democratic Front peace panel chair Luis Jalandoni confirmed that the Dutch government was "maltreating" Sison because the court detained him in solitary confinement for several weeks without access to media, newspapers, television, radio or visitors; it also denied him the right to bring prescription medicines to his cell. The place where Sison was held was the same one used by the late former Yugoslav president Slobodan Milosevic who was held for war crimes and corruption. Meanwhile, protests were held in Indonesia, Hong Kong, Australia, the United States and Canada. The Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP) feared that Sison may be ""extra-judicially"" transferred to the United States. CPP spokesman Gregorio Rosal said that the U.S. may detain and subject Sison to extraordinary rendition in Guantanamo Bay or some secret facility. U.S. ambassador Kristie Ann Kenney formally announced that the U.S. will extend support to the Dutch government to prosecute Sison.


title: Jose Maria Sison

text: In New York City, former United States Attorney General and left-wing human rights lawyer Ramsey Clark called for Sison's release and pledged assistance by joining the latter's legal defense team headed by Belgian lawyer Jan Fermon. Clark doubted Dutch authorities' validity and competency, since the murder charges originated in the Philippines and had already been dismissed by the country's Supreme Court.


title: Jose Maria Sison

text: Committee DEFEND, an International group stated that the Dutch government tortured Sison at the National Penitentiary in Scheveningen (used by the Nazis in World War II to torture Dutch resistance fighters). His wife, Julie De Lima failed to see him to give medicines and warm clothes on August 30, 2007. Meanwhile, Sison's counsel, Romeo Capulong, questioned the Dutch government's jurisdiction over the issue and person alleging that the Supreme Court of the Philippines already dismissed the subject cases on July 2.


title: Jose Maria Sison

text: On September 7, 2007, the Dutch court heard defense arguments for Sison, and stated that it would issue the resolution next week on whether to extend the detention. Supporters outside The Hague District Court chanted slogans while the wife, Julie De Lima stated that they complained to the International Committee of the Red Cross. Luis Jalandoni, chairman of the National Democratic Front, accused the government of Prime Minister Jan Peter Balkenende of being ""a workhorse"" for Philippines President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo and for the U.S. government.


title: Jose Maria Sison

text: The National Lawyers Guild (NLG), a progressive bar association in New York then headed by Marjorie Cohn, denounced the arrest of Sison, saying "it exposes the hand of the Arroyo administration in yet another assault on the rights of the people to dissent and organize". Sison will remain in jail until Thursday, but was provided TV, radio and medication.


title: Jose Maria Sison

text: On September 12, 2007, lawyers Edre Olalia and Rachel Pastores stated that Sison's lawyers will appeal the reported Dutch court's newly promulgated ruling extending Sison's detention for 90 days. The Dutch court did not extend the detention for 90 days but released him on September 13, 2007, after being in solitary confinement for 17 days.


title: Jose Maria Sison

text: Dutch public prosecutor's office's Wim de Bruin stated that Sison was released from jail at 10:45 a.m. on September 13, 2007. The court ruled that there was insufficient evidence to detain him on murder charges, specifically, if Sison ""had a conscious and close cooperation with those in the Philippines who carried out the deed"".


title: Jose Maria Sison

text: On September 27, 2007, Sison appeared before The Hague Court of Appeal panel of 3 judges on the public prosecutor's appeal against the district court's September 13 judgment of release.


title: Jose Maria Sison

text: On September 28, 2007, the Dutch Ambassador to the Philippines, Robert Brinks, announced that 3 Dutch judicial officials and Dutch prosecution lawyer Wim De Bruin will visit the Philippines ""later this year"" to review the evidence against Jose Maria Sison. The next day Leung Kwok Hung, a Hong Kong politician and member of the April Fifth Action vowed to support Sison. Leung was in Europe at the Inter-Parliamentary Union assembly in Geneva, Switzerland. He sits in the Hong Kong legislature as a member of the Finance and House Committees, and of the Legislative Panels on Constitutional Affairs, Housing, Manpower, Transport, and on Welfare Services.


title: Jose Maria Sison

text: On October 3, 2007, the Dutch court dismissed the prosecution's appeal against the release Sison, confirming his freedom while the Dutch police continue to investigate: "the prosecution file lacks enough concrete clues that Sison can be directly linked to the assassinations which is needed to prosecute him as a perpetrator". However, the decision does not bar prosecution for murder. But the Dutch Public Prosecutor's Office (per spokesman Wim de Bruin) stated that it did not drop the charges against Sison yet, who remains a suspect. De Bruin said: "No, you have to separate the criminal investigation by the police from the investigation by the examining judge in The Hague. So the judge decided to finish the investigation but the police investigation will be continued and that means that Mr. Sison is still a suspect."


title: Jose Maria Sison

text: The Dutch court, on May 20, 2008, heard Sison's appeal against the Dutch Public Prosecutors Office's request to extend its investigation until December, since the investigators arrived in the Philippines in February and interviewed witnesses. At the trial, however, the new evidence showed that there were indeed attempts to kill him, in 1999 and 2000, while Kintanar's wife, Joy, directly accused Edwin Garcia in the murder of her husband. The Dutch court scheduled the promulgation on the verdict on June 10, 2008.


title: Jose Maria Sison

text: The Dutch District Court of The Hague on June 5, 2008, decided in camera "that the Public Prosecution Service may continue the prosecution of Jose Maria Sison for involvement in, among other matters, a number of murders committed in the Philippines in 2003 and 2004; that while the prosecution's case file still held insufficient evidence, the investigation was ongoing and should be given time to unfold". In February 2010, the Dutch Public Prosecution Service finally terminated its investigation of Sison and dropped the criminal charges against him.


title: Jose Maria Sison

text: Sison met his wife, Julie de Lima, when both were students at UP Diliman. Attending the same study groups, they grew closer and married first in a civil wedding in September 1959 and then in a Catholic church wedding in January 1960. The couple has four children.


title: Jose Maria Sison

text: His wife belongs to the prominent De Lima family of Iriga City, Camarines Sur and is the aunt of Senator Leila de Lima, who served as Chair of the Commission on Human Rights during the Presidency of Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, Secretary of the Philippine Department of Justice under the administration of President Benigno S. Aquino III., and Senator during the administration of President Rodrigo Duterte.


title: Jose Maria Sison

text: Sison returned to teach at the University of the Philippines soon after his release from prison in 1986. He then went on a global lecture tour, starting in September 1986. He applied for political asylum in the Netherlands in 1988 after his Philippine passport was cancelled by the Philippine government. He had been earlier released from prison by the government of Corazon Aquino for the sake of "national reconciliation" and for his role in opposing Marcos. The release of Sison was vehemently protested by the military. It is reported that upon his release, Sison and his followers actively sought to discredit the Aquino government in the European media by speaking out on Aquino's human rights violations, including the Mendiola massacre, in which members of the military were accused of firing on unarmed peasants in Manila, killing 17 people.


title: Jose Maria Sison

text: He was the chairperson of the International League of Peoples' Struggle, and the Chief Political Consultant of the National Democratic Front of the Philippines. Since 1987, Sison had based himself in the Netherlands for his European lecture tour. Since 1992, he has stayed in the Netherlands as a recognized political refugee.


title: Jose Maria Sison

text: In 2017, President Rodrigo Duterte, claimed that Sison has colon cancer. Sison, while admitting he has been hospitalized at the Utrecht University Medical Center in March of that year connection to his rheumatoid arthritis and Sweet syndrome symptoms, said that he has no serious illness including cancer. In early 2022, reports emerged that Sison had died; Sison himself refuted his supposed death. Later that year, on December 16, the Communist Party of the Philippines, alongside its news organ "Ang Bayan", announced the death of Sison after having been confined in a hospital in Utrecht, Netherlands, for two weeks. NDFP executive Luis Jalandoni, disclosed that Sison died due to heart failure, after almost three weeks of hospital treatment, although didnt provide more details about Sison's death.


title: Jose Maria Sison

text: Former Senator Jovito Salonga accused Sison of orchestrating the 1971 Plaza Miranda bombing during the Liberal Party convention to force Marcos to suspend the writ of habeas corpus and sign Proclamation No. 1081, initiating the advent of Martial Law in the Philippines. This accusation comes from former CPP members such as Victor Corpuz and others. The Philippine National Police (PNP) filed a criminal case against Sison for the Plaza Miranda bombing, but the charges were dismissed for lack of evidence, with the dismissal order citing the complainant's filing criminal charges based on speculation.


title: Jose Maria Sison

text: On July 4, 2008, Manila's RTC Executive Judge Reynaldo Ros assumed jurisdiction over the 1,551-page cases of multiple murder lawsuits against Sison, Bayan Muna Representative Satur Ocampo, and National Democratic Front member Luis Jalandoni after the Supreme Court's Third Division ordered a change of venue from the Hilongos, Leyte RTC Branch 18 for safety reasons. The accused were charged of executing 30 farmers in 1985, in purging military assets within the New People's Army in Southern Leyte. 15 corpses were found in a mass grave in Inopacan, Leyte, in 2006. During the time when these alleged killings supposedly took place, Sison and Ocampo had long been under maximum detention of the Marcos regime. Sison, Ocampo, and other political detainees were only freed in 1986 after the first EDSA uprising of the same year.


title: Jose Maria Sison

text: The European Union's second highest court ruled to delist Sison and the Stichting Al-Aqsa group from the EU terror list since the 27-nation bloc failed to respect their rights when blacklisted. The Luxembourg-based Court of Justice further reversed a decision by member governments to freeze the assets of Sison and the Netherlands-based Al-Aqsa Foundation, since the EU governments failed to inform them why the assets were frozen. Dekker said that EU lawyers in Brussels can lodge any appeal. The EU was also ordered to shoulder all the litigation expenses during the five-year appeal of Sison against the Dutch government and the EU. The final judgment of the European Court of Justice to remove Sison from the EU terrorist blacklist on September 30, 2009, became final and binding on December 10, 2009, inasmuch as the EU did not make appeal. The court's decisions and other documents pertaining to cases involving Sison in the Philippines are compiled under the section of Legal Cases in www.josemariasison.org and can be further verified in the archives of the pertinent courts.


title: Magnetic susceptibility

text: In electromagnetism, the magnetic susceptibility (Latin: , "receptive"; denoted ) is a measure of how much a material will become magnetized in an applied magnetic field. It is the ratio of magnetization (magnetic moment per unit volume) to the applied magnetizing field intensity . This allows a simple classification, into two categories, of most materials' responses to an applied magnetic field: an alignment with the magnetic field, , called paramagnetism, or an alignment against the field, , called diamagnetism.


title: Magnetic susceptibility

text: Magnetic susceptibility indicates whether a material is attracted into or repelled out of a magnetic field. Paramagnetic materials align with the applied field and are attracted to regions of greater magnetic field. Diamagnetic materials are anti-aligned and are pushed away, toward regions of lower magnetic fields. On top of the applied field, the magnetization of the material adds its own magnetic field, causing the field lines to concentrate in paramagnetism, or be excluded in diamagnetism. Quantitative measures of the magnetic susceptibility also provide insights into the structure of materials, providing insight into bonding and energy levels. Furthermore, it is widely used in geology for paleomagnetic studies and structural geology.


title: Magnetic susceptibility

text: The magnetizability of materials comes from the atomic-level magnetic properties of the particles of which they are made. Usually, this is dominated by the magnetic moments of electrons. Electrons are present in all materials, but without any external magnetic field, the magnetic moments of the electrons are usually either paired up or random so that the overall magnetism is zero (the exception to this usual case is ferromagnetism). The fundamental reasons why the magnetic moments of the electrons line up or do not are very complex and cannot be explained by classical physics. However, a useful simplification is to measure the magnetic susceptibility of a material and apply the macroscopic form of Maxwell's equations. This allows classical physics to make useful predictions while avoiding the underlying quantum mechanical details.


title: Magnetic susceptibility

text: Magnetic susceptibility is a dimensionless proportionality constant that indicates the degree of magnetization of a material in response to an applied magnetic field. A related term is magnetizability, the proportion between magnetic moment and magnetic flux density. A closely related parameter is the permeability, which expresses the total magnetization of material and volume.


title: Magnetic susceptibility

text: The "volume magnetic susceptibility", represented by the symbol (often simply , sometimes  – magnetic, to distinguish from the electric susceptibility), is defined in the International System of Units – in other systems there may be additional constants – by the following relationship:


title: Magnetic susceptibility

text: where is the vacuum permeability (see table of physical constants), and is the relative permeability of the material. Thus the "volume magnetic susceptibility" and the magnetic permeability are related by the following formula:


title: Magnetic susceptibility

text: Sometimes an auxiliary quantity called "intensity of magnetization" (also referred to as "magnetic polarisation" ) and with unit teslas, is defined as


title: Magnetic susceptibility

text: This allows an alternative description of all magnetization phenomena in terms of the quantities and , as opposed to the commonly used and .


title: Magnetic susceptibility

text: There are two other measures of susceptibility, the "molar magnetic susceptibility" () with unit m/mol, and the "mass magnetic susceptibility" () with unit m/kg that are defined below, where is the density with unit kg/m and is molar mass with unit kg/mol:


title: Magnetic susceptibility

text: The definitions above are according to the International System of Quantities (ISQ) upon which the SI is based. However, many tables of magnetic susceptibility give the values of the corresponding quantities of the CGS system (more specifically CGS-EMU, short for electromagnetic units, or Gaussian-CGS; both are the same in this context). The quantities characterizing the permeability of free space for each system have different defining equations:


title: Magnetic susceptibility

text: The respective CGS susceptibilities are multiplied by 4 to give the corresponding ISQ quantities (often referred to as SI quantities) with the same units:


title: Magnetic susceptibility

text: For example, the CGS volume magnetic susceptibility of water at 20 °C is , which is using the SI convention, both quantities being dimensionless. Whereas for most electromagnetic quantities, which system of quantities it belongs to can be disambiguated by incompatibility of their units, this is not true for the susceptibility quantities.


title: Magnetic susceptibility

text: In physics it is common to see CGS mass susceptibility with unit cm/g or emu/g⋅Oe, and the CGS molar susceptibility with unit cm/mol or emu/mol⋅Oe.


title: Magnetic susceptibility

text: If is positive, a material can be paramagnetic. In this case, the magnetic field in the material is strengthened by the induced magnetization. Alternatively, if is negative, the material is diamagnetic. In this case, the magnetic field in the material is weakened by the induced magnetization. Generally, nonmagnetic materials are said to be para- or diamagnetic because they do not possess permanent magnetization without external magnetic field. Ferromagnetic, ferrimagnetic, or antiferromagnetic materials possess permanent magnetization even without external magnetic field and do not have a well defined zero-field susceptibility.


title: Magnetic susceptibility

text: Volume magnetic susceptibility is measured by the force change felt upon a substance when a magnetic field gradient is applied. Early measurements are made using the Gouy balance where a sample is hung between the poles of an electromagnet. The change in weight when the electromagnet is turned on is proportional to the susceptibility. Today, high-end measurement systems use a superconductive magnet. An alternative is to measure the force change on a strong compact magnet upon insertion of the sample. This system, widely used today, is called the Evans balance. For liquid samples, the susceptibility can be measured from the dependence of the NMR frequency of the sample on its shape or orientation.


title: Magnetic susceptibility

text: Another method using NMR techniques measures the magnetic field distortion around a sample immersed in water inside an MR scanner. This method is highly accurate for diamagnetic materials with susceptibilities similar to water.


title: Magnetic susceptibility

text: The magnetic susceptibility of most crystals is not a scalar quantity. Magnetic response is dependent upon the orientation of the sample and can occur in directions other than that of the applied field . In these cases, volume susceptibility is defined as a tensor


title: Magnetic susceptibility

text: where and refer to the directions (e.g., of the and Cartesian coordinates) of the applied field and magnetization, respectively. The tensor is thus degree 2 (second order), dimension (3,3) describing the component of magnetization in the th direction from the external field applied in the th direction.


title: Magnetic susceptibility

text: In ferromagnetic crystals, the relationship between and is not linear. To accommodate this, a more general definition of "differential susceptibility" is used


title: Magnetic susceptibility

text: where is a tensor derived from partial derivatives of components of with respect to components of . When the coercivity of the material parallel to an applied field is the smaller of the two, the differential susceptibility is a function of the applied field and self interactions, such as the magnetic anisotropy. When the material is not saturated, the effect will be nonlinear and dependent upon the domain wall configuration of the material.


title: Magnetic susceptibility

text: Several experimental techniques allow for the measurement of the electronic properties of a material. An important effect in metals under strong magnetic fields, is the oscillation of the differential susceptibility as function of . This behaviour is known as the De Haas–Van Alphen effect and relates the period of the susceptibility with the Fermi surface of the material.


title: Magnetic susceptibility

text: An analogue non-linear relation between magnetization and magnetic field happens for antiferromagnetic materials.


title: Magnetic susceptibility

text: When the magnetic susceptibility is measured in response to an AC magnetic field (i.e. a magnetic field that varies sinusoidally), this is called "AC susceptibility". AC susceptibility (and the closely related "AC permeability") are complex number quantities, and various phenomena, such as resonance, can be seen in AC susceptibility that cannot occur in constant-field (DC) susceptibility. In particular, when an AC field is applied perpendicular to the detection direction (called the "transverse susceptibility" regardless of the frequency), the effect has a peak at the ferromagnetic resonance frequency of the material with a given static applied field. Currently, this effect is called the "microwave permeability" or "network ferromagnetic resonance" in the literature. These results are sensitive to the domain wall configuration of the material and eddy currents.


title: Magnetic susceptibility

text: In terms of ferromagnetic resonance, the effect of an AC-field applied along the direction of the magnetization is called "parallel pumping".


title: Magnetic susceptibility

text: The CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics has one of the few published magnetic susceptibility tables. The data are listed as CGS quantities. The molar susceptibility of several elements and compounds are listed in the CRC.


title: Magnetic susceptibility

text: Magnetism is a useful parameter to describe and analyze rocks. Additionally, the anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) within a sample determines parameters as directions of paleocurrents, maturity of paleosol, flow direction of magma injection, tectonic strain, etc. It is a non-destructive tool, which quantifies the average alignment and orientation of magnetic particles within a sample.


title: First Fitna

text: The First Fitna () was the first civil war in the Islamic community. It led to the overthrow of the Rashidun Caliphate and the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate. The civil war involved three main battles between the fourth Rashidun caliph, Ali, and the rebel groups.


title: First Fitna

text: The roots of the first civil war can be traced back to the assassination of the second caliph, Umar. Before he died from his wounds, Umar formed a six-member council which elected Uthman as the next caliph. During the final years of Uthman's caliphate, he was accused of nepotism and killed by rebels in 656. After Uthman's assassination, Ali was elected the fourth caliph. Aisha, Talha, and Zubayr revolted against Ali to depose him. The two parties fought the Battle of the Camel in December 656, from which Ali emerged victorious. Afterward, Mu'awiya, the incumbent governor of Syria, declared war on Ali ostensibly to avenge Uthman's death. The two parties fought the Battle of Siffin in July 657, which ended in a stalemate and arbitration. This arbitration was resented by the Kharijites, who declared Ali, Mu'awiya, and their followers infidels. Following Kharijite violence against civilians, Ali's forces crushed them in the Battle of Nahrawan. Soon after, Mu'awiya also seized control of Egypt with the aid of Amr ibn al-As.


title: First Fitna

text: In 661, Ali was assassinated by the Kharijite Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam. After Ali's death, his heir Hasan was elected caliph and soon after attacked by Mu'awiya. The embattled Hasan concluded a peace treaty, acknowledging the rule of Mu'awiya, who subsequently founded the Umayyad Caliphate and ruled as its first caliph.


title: First Fitna

text: Following Muhammad's death in 632, Abu Bakr became the leader of the Muslim community. After reasserting Muslim control over the dissident tribes of Arabia, he sent armies to fight against the empires of Byzantium and Sasanian Persia, initiating a wave of conquests which were continued by his successor Umar (). These battles brought about the near-total collapse of the Sasanians, and restricted the Byzantine Empire to Anatolia, North Africa, and its holdings in Europe. The conquests brought Muslims bounteous revenue and lands. In Iraq, the lands of the Persian crown and aristocracy were now in Muslim hands. These became state-administered communal property. The revenue was distributed among the conquering troops, who settled in Iraq. Umar also left provincial administration to regional governors, who ruled with considerable autonomy. Provincial surplus was spent on the Muslim settlers of the conquered territories rather than forwarded to the capital, Medina.


title: First Fitna

text: Uthman succeeded Umar upon the latter's assassination by a slave in 644. The new caliph's policies elicited discontent among the Muslim elite as well as accusations of nepotism. He began centralizing power by relying on his Umayyad relatives, who had long opposed Muhammad before converting to Islam in 630. His favor toward relatives was to the exclusion of other members of the Quraysh, who had enjoyed significant authority during the reign of his two predecessors. He appointed his kinsmen to all of the provincial governorships. Although Uthman continued Muslim expansion in Persia and Egypt, these conquests came to a halt by the later half of his reign. The influx of spoils slowed, magnifying economic issues that had previously been tempered by incoming revenue. This was coupled with Arab nomads' antipathy toward central authority, which had hitherto been superseded by the continued war effort. The continued migration of tribes from Arabia to the conquered territories also resulted in reduced payments from the revenue of the lands, which led to resentment among the earlier settlers. Early settlers also saw their status threatened by land grants in the conquered territories to prominent Qurayshites like Talha ibn Ubayd Allah and Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, as well as land acquisitions by late-arriving tribal chiefs, such as Ashath ibn Qays. These chiefs were given this territory in exchange for their lands in Arabia. Furthermore, Uthman took control of the crown lands of Iraq as state assets, and demanded that the provincial surplus be forwarded to the caliph. This interference in provincial affairs brought about widespread opposition to his rule, especially from Iraq and Egypt, where the majority of the conquering armies had settled.


title: First Fitna

text: Encouraged by the Medinese elite including prominent figures like Talha, Zubayr, Amr ibn al-As (a former governor of Egypt who Uthman deposed), and Muhammad's widow Aisha, the provincial opposition subsequently broadened into open rebellion. Dissidents from Egypt and Iraq marched on Medina, killing the caliph in June 656. Ali, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, was subsequently recognized caliph.


title: First Fitna

text: Aisha, Talha, and Zubayr opposed Ali's succession and gathered in Mecca, where they demanded vengeance for Uthman's death and the election of a new caliph, presumably either Talha or Zubayr, through consultation. The rebels raised an army and captured Basra from Ali's governor, inflicting heavy casualties on his men, with the intention of strengthening their position. Ali sent his son Hasan to mobilize troops in Kufa. After Ali arrived in Kufa himself, the combined army marched to Basra.


title: First Fitna

text: The two armies met outside of Basra. After three days of failed negotiations, the battle began in the afternoon of 8 December 656 and lasted until the evening. Zubayr left the field without fighting. Likely for the dishonorable act of leaving his fellow Muslims behind in a civil war he caused, Zubayr was pursued and killed by the troops of al-Ahnaf bin Qays, a chief of the Banu Sa'd who had remained on the sidelines of the battle. Talha was killed by the Umayyad Marwan ibn al-Hakam.


title: First Fitna

text: With the deaths of Talha and Zubayr, the fate of the battle was sealed in favor of Ali. However, the fight continued until Ali's troops succeeded in killing Aisha's camel, which her forces had rallied around. From this camel, the battle received its name. After admonishing Aisha, Ali sent her back to Medina, escorted by her brother. Ali also announced a public pardon and set the prisoners free. This pardon was also extended to high-profile rebels, including Marwan, who soon joined with his Umayyad kinsman Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, the governor of Syria, as a senior advisor.


title: First Fitna

text: Shortly after assuming power, Ali moved to dismiss most of Uthman's governors whom he considered corrupt, including Mu'awiya, Uthman's cousin. Mu'awiya refused to step down and instead, through a representative, informed Ali that he would recognize the caliphate of Ali in return for the governorship of Syria and Egypt for life. Ali rejected this proposal. Earlier, he had also refused to temporarily confirm as governor Mu'awiya, whom Ali viewed as a contemptible man.


title: First Fitna

text: Mu'awiya now declared war on Ali on behalf of the Syrians, with the objectives of vengeance for Uthman's death, deposing Ali, and establishing a Syrian council to appoint the next caliph, presumably Mu'awiya. In a letter to him, Ali wrote that Mu'awiya was welcome to bring his case for Uthman to Ali's court of justice. Ali then challenged Mu'awiya to offer any evidence that would incriminate him in the murder of Uthman. He also challenged Mu'awiya to name any Syrian who would qualify for a council. Following Mu'awiya's declaration of war, Ali called a council of Islamic ruling elite which urged him to fight Mu'awiya.


title: First Fitna

text: The two armies met at Siffin, west of the Euphrates, early in the summer of 657 CE. There, the two sides negotiated for weeks. Notably, Mu'awiya repeated his proposition to recognize Ali in return for Syria and Egypt, which was rejected again. In turn, Ali challenged Mu'awiya to a one-on-one duel to settle the matters and avoid the bloodshed. This offer was declined by Mu'awiya. The negotiations failed on 18 July 657 and the two side readied for the battle. The main battle began on Wednesday, 26 July, and lasted for three or four days. By its last day, the balance had gradually moved in Ali's favor. Before noon, however, some of the Syrians raised copies of the Quran on their lances, shouting the same line, "Let the book of God be the judge between us." The fighting stopped.


title: First Fitna

text: Mu'awiya carried out the above strategy of appealing to the Quran when he was informed that his army could not win the battle. Faced with an appeal to their holy book, Ali's forces stopped fighting, despite Ali's warnings that raising the Quran was for deception. Compelled by the strong peace sentiments in his army and threats of mutiny, Ali accepted the arbitration proposal.


title: First Fitna

text: The majority in Ali's army now pressed for the reportedly neutral Abu Musa al-Ashari as their representative, despite Ali's objections about Abu Musa's political naivety. In the final agreement on 2 August, 657 CE, Abu Musa represented Ali's army while Mu'awiya's top general, Amr ibn al-As, represented the other side. The two representatives committed to adhere to the Quran and Sunnah, and to save the community from war and division.


title: First Fitna

text: The two arbitrators met together, first at Dumat al-Jandal and then at Udhruh, and the proceedings likely lasted until mid April 658 CE. At Dumat al-Jandal, the arbitrators reached the verdict that Uthman had been killed wrongfully and that Mu'awiya had the right to seek revenge. This was a political verdict according to Madelung, rather than a judicial one, and a blunder of the naive Abu Musa. This verdict strengthened the Syrians' support for Mu'awiya and weakened the position of Ali.


title: First Fitna

text: The second meeting at Udhruh likely broke up in disarray when, at its conclusion, Amr violated his earlier agreement with Abu Musa. The Kufan delegation reacted furiously to Abu Musa's concessions. He was disgraced and fled to Mecca, whereas Amr was received triumphantly by Mu'awiya on his return to Syria. After the conclusion of the arbitration, Syrians pledged their allegiance to Mu'awiya in 659 CE as the next caliph. Ali denounced the conduct of the two arbitrators as contrary to the Quran and began to organize a new expedition to Syria.


title: First Fitna

text: Following the Battle of Siffin, a group separated from Ali when he agreed to settle the dispute with Mu'awiya through arbitration, a move considered by the group as against the Quran. Most of them had earlier forced Ali to accept the arbitration, but now exclaimed that the right to judgment belonged to God alone. While Ali largely succeeded in regaining their support, the remaining opponents of arbitration gathered in Nahrawan, on the east bank of the Tigris. In view of their exodus, this group is known as the Kharijites, from the Arabic for "to go out" or "to rise in revolt".


title: First Fitna

text: The Kharijites denounced Ali as caliph, declared him, his followers, and the Syrians as infidels, and instead elected Abd Allah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi as their caliph. They declared the blood of such infidels to be licit. The Kharijites later started the practice of interrogating civilians about their views on Uthman and Ali, and executing those who did not share their views. In a notable incident, the Kharijites disemboweled a farmer's pregnant wife, cut out and killed her unborn infant, before beheading the farmer. Kharijites have been viewed as the forerunners of Islamic extremists.


title: First Fitna

text: Ali received the news of the Kharijites' violence and moved to Nahrawan with his army. There, he asked the Kharjites to surrender the murderers and return to their families. The Kharijites, however, responded defiantly that they were all responsible for the murders as they all considered it licit to kill both Ali's followers and the Syrians. After multiple failed attempts for deescalation, Ali announced an amnesty (that did not apply to murderers) and barred his army from commencing hostilities. The remaining Kharijites, estimated at 2800, attacked and were vanquished by the vastly superior army of Ali. The injured, estimated at 400, were pardoned by Ali. In January 661, when praying at the Mosque of Kufa, Ali was assassinated by the Kharijite Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam.


title: First Fitna

text: After the assassination of Ali in January 661, his eldest son, Hasan, was elected caliph in Kufa. Mu'awiya shortly marched on Kufa with a large army, while Hasan's military response suffered defections in large numbers, in part facilitated by military commanders and tribal chiefs who had been swayed to Mu'awiya's side by promises and offers of money. After a failed assassination attempt on his life, a wounded Hasan, who by now only ruled the area around Kufa, agreed to a peace treaty with Mu'awiya in 661. Under this treaty, Hasan ceded the caliphate to Mu'awiya in exchange for a general amnesty for the people and the return of the caliphate to Hasan after Mu'awiya's death. However, Hasan died in 669 at the age of forty six. It is believed that he was poisoned at the instigation of Mu'awiya. Mu'awiyah was crowned as caliph at a ceremony in Jerusalem in 661.


title: Boost converter

text: A boost converter (step-up converter) is a DC-to-DC power converter that steps up voltage (while stepping down current) from its input (supply) to its output (load). It is a class of switched-mode power supply (SMPS) containing at least two semiconductors (a diode and a transistor) and at least one energy storage element: a capacitor, inductor, or the two in combination. To reduce voltage ripple, filters made of capacitors (sometimes in combination with inductors) are normally added to such a converter's output (load-side filter) and input (supply-side filter).


title: Boost converter

text: Power for the boost converter can come from any suitable DC source, such as batteries, solar panels, rectifiers, and DC generators. A process that changes one DC voltage to a different DC voltage is called DC to DC conversion. A boost converter is a DC to DC converter with an output voltage greater than the source voltage. A boost converter is sometimes called a step-up converter since it "steps up" the source voltage. Since power (formula_1) must be conserved, the output current is lower than the source current.


title: Boost converter

text: For high efficiency, the switched-mode power supply (SMPS) switch must turn on and off quickly and have low losses. The advent of a commercial semiconductor switch in the 1950s represented a major milestone that made SMPSs such as the boost converter possible. The major DC to DC converters were developed in the early 1960s when semiconductor switches had become available. The aerospace industry’s need for small, lightweight, and efficient power converters led to the converter’s rapid development.


title: Boost converter

text: Switched systems such as SMPS are a challenge to design since their models depend on whether a switch is opened or closed. R. D. Middlebrook from Caltech in 1977 published the models for DC to DC converters used today. Middlebrook averaged the circuit configurations for each switch state in a technique called state-space averaging. This simplification reduced two systems into one. The new model led to insightful design equations which helped the growth of SMPS.


title: Boost converter

text: Battery power systems often stack cells in series to achieve higher voltage. However, sufficient stacking of cells is not possible in many high voltage applications due to lack of space. Boost converters can increase the voltage and reduce the number of cells. Two battery-powered applications that use boost converters are used in hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) and lighting systems.


title: Boost converter

text: The NHW20 model Toyota Prius HEV uses a 500 V motor. Without a boost converter, the Prius would need nearly 417 cells to power the motor. However, a Prius actually uses only 168 cells and boosts the battery voltage from 202 V to 500 V. Boost converters also power devices at smaller scale applications, such as portable lighting systems. A white LED typically requires 3.3 V to emit light, and a boost converter can step up the voltage from a single 1.5 V alkaline cell to power the lamp.


title: Boost converter

text: An unregulated boost converter is used as the voltage increase mechanism in the circuit known as the 'Joule thief', based on blocking oscillator concepts. This circuit topology is used with low power battery applications, and is aimed at the ability of a boost converter to 'steal' the remaining energy in a battery. This energy would otherwise be wasted since the low voltage of a nearly depleted battery makes it unusable for a normal load. This energy would otherwise remain untapped because many applications do not allow enough current to flow through a load when voltage decreases. This voltage decrease occurs as batteries become depleted, and is a characteristic of the ubiquitous alkaline battery. Since the equation for power is formula_2, and "R" tends to be stable, power available to the load goes down significantly as voltage decreases.


title: Boost converter

text: The special kind of boost-converters called voltage-lift type boost converters are used in solar photovoltaic (PV) systems. These power converters add up the passive components (diode, inductor and capacitor) of a traditional boost-converter to improve the power quality and increase the performance of complete PV system.


title: Boost converter

text: The key principle that drives the boost converter is the tendency of an inductor to resist changes in current by either increasing or decreasing the energy stored in the inductor magnetic field. In a boost converter, the output voltage is always higher than the input voltage. A schematic of a boost power stage is shown in Figure 1.


title: Boost converter

text: If the switch is cycled fast enough, the inductor will not discharge fully in between charging stages, and the load will always see a voltage greater than that of the input source alone when the switch is opened. Also while the switch is opened, the capacitor in parallel with the load is charged to this combined voltage. When the switch is then closed and the right hand side is shorted out from the left hand side, the capacitor is therefore able to provide the voltage and energy to the load. During this time, the blocking diode prevents the capacitor from discharging through the switch. The switch must of course be opened again fast enough to prevent the capacitor from discharging too much.


title: Boost converter

text: When a boost converter operates in continuous mode, the current through the inductor (formula_3) never falls to zero. Figure 3 shows the typical waveforms of inductor current and voltage in a converter operating in this mode.


title: Boost converter

text: In the steady state, the DC (average) voltage across the inductor must be zero so that after each cycle the inductor returns the same state, because voltage across the inductor is proportional to rate of change of current through it (explained in more detail below). Note in Figure 1 that the left hand side of "L" is at formula_4 and the right hand side of "L" sees the formula_5 voltage waveform from Figure 3. The average value of formula_5 is formula_7 where D is the duty cycle of the waveform driving the switch. From this we get the ideal transfer function:


title: Boost converter

text: We get the same result from a more detailed analysis as follows: The output voltage can be calculated as follows, in the case of an ideal converter (i.e. using components with an ideal behaviour) operating in steady conditions:


title: Boost converter

text: During the on-state, the switch "S" is closed, which makes the input voltage (formula_4) appear across the inductor, which causes a change in current (formula_3) flowing through the inductor during a time period ("t") by the formula:


title: Boost converter

text: "D" is the duty cycle. It represents the fraction of the commutation period "T" during which the switch is on. Therefore, "D" ranges between 0 ("S" is never on) and 1 ("S" is always on).


title: Boost converter

text: During the Off-state, the switch S is open, so the inductor current flows through the load. If we consider zero voltage drop in the diode, and a capacitor large enough for its voltage to remain constant, the evolution of "I" is:


title: Boost converter

text: As we consider that the converter operates in steady state conditions, the amount of energy stored in each of its components has to be the same at the beginning and at the end of a commutation cycle. In particular, the energy stored in the inductor is given by:


title: Boost converter

text: So, the inductor current has to be the same at the start and end of the commutation cycle. This means the overall change in the current (the sum of the changes) is zero:


title: Boost converter

text: The above equation shows that the output voltage is always higher than the input voltage (as the duty cycle goes from 0 to 1), and that it increases with "D," theoretically to infinity as "D" approaches 1. This is why this converter is sometimes referred to as a step-"up" converter.


title: Boost converter

text: If the ripple amplitude of the current is too high, the inductor may be completely discharged before the end of a whole commutation cycle. This commonly occurs under light loads. In this case, the current through the inductor falls to zero during part of the period (see waveforms in figure 4). Although the difference is slight, it has a strong effect on the output voltage equation.


title: Boost converter

text: As the inductor current at the beginning of the cycle is zero, its maximum value formula_23 (at formula_24) is


title: Boost converter

text: The load current "I" is equal to the average diode current ("I"). As can be seen on figure 4, the diode current is equal to the inductor current during the off-state. The average value of "I" can be sorted out geometrically from figure 4. Therefore, the output current can be written as:


title: Boost converter

text: Compared to the expression of the output voltage gain for continuous mode, this expression is much more complicated. Furthermore, in discontinuous operation, the output voltage gain not only depends on the duty cycle ("D"), but also on the inductor value ("L"), the input voltage ("V"), the commutation period ("T") and the output current ("I").


title: Boost converter

text: Substituting formula_32 into the equation ("R" is the load), the output voltage gain can be rewritten as:


title: Magna International

text: Magna International Inc. is a Canadian parts manufacturer for automakers. It is one of the largest companies in Canada and was recognized on the 2020 "Forbes" Global 2000. The company is the largest automobile parts manufacturer in North America by sales of original equipment parts, it has ranked consistently in the Fortune Global 500 list for 20 years in a row since 2001. It produces automotive systems, assemblies, modules, and components, which are supplied to General Motors, Ford Motor Company and FCA, as well as BMW, Mercedes, Volkswagen, Toyota, Tesla, and Tata Motors, among others.


title: Magna International

text: The company is headquartered in Aurora, Ontario, and its chief executive officer is Swamy Kotagiri. It has 158,000 employees in 342 manufacturing operations and 91 product development, engineering and sales centres in 27 countries. Magna is governed under a corporate constitution which calls for distribution of profits to employees and shareholders. The terms of this contract are a "fair enterprise system" according to company founder Frank Stronach.


title: Magna International

text: In 1957, Frank Stronach founded Multimatic Investments Ltd in a tool-and-die rented garage out of Toronto. Its first automotive industry contract for metal sun visor brackets was with General Motors in 1959.


title: Magna International

text: By the late 1960s, the company was operating in eight plants. Stronach took Multimatic Investments public in 1969 through a merger with Magna Electronics Corporation, an aerospace, defence and industrial components company, and became known as Magna International in 1973.


title: Magna International

text: The company developed an employee equity participation and profit-sharing program in 1974. By 1981, Magna had sold its aerospace and defence operations to focus on the automotive industry. It began decentralizing major systems into independent, publicly-traded companies during the 1990s, while expanding into Asia.


title: Magna International

text: Magna began designing automotive rearview cameras for Hummers in 2005 on its production line in Michigan, which were not a federal requirement at the time. It was one of the first to develop rearview cameras for automakers, and had a 350,000 unit contract by 2007. The company has produced more than 46 million components and opened a $66.5 million plant to produce cameras and driver-assistance components.


title: Magna International

text: In February 2015, Samsung SDI agreed to purchase the battery pack business from Magna Steyr, an Austrian operating unit of Magna International, for $120 million. Magna International partnered with Argus Cyber Security after joining in a 2015 Series B funding round to access the company's security technology. The company sold its interiors business, which includes door and instrument panels, overhead systems and cargo management parts, to Grupo Antolin in August 2015. The sale to Grupo Antolin included 36 plants and 12,000 employees in Europe, North America and Asia, about 10 percent of the Magna's global workforce at the time. The operations generated sales of $2.4 billion in 2014.


title: Magna International

text: In March 2018, Magna announced they will work together with the ride-share company Lyft to supply high-tech kits that turn vehicles into self-driving cars. The company invested $200 million into the project and both parties will jointly own the intellectual property developed. It was also noted that Magna will be Lyft's exclusive supplier of self-driving kits. Magna announced a partnership with BAIC Group in June 2018 to develop "next-generation" smart electric vehicles for Chinese consumers. In October 2020, it was announced that Walker would retire as CEO at the end of 2020, with Swamy Kotagiri replacing him January 2021. As of January 4, 2021 Swamy Kotagiri is now the CEO of Magna International.


title: Magna International

text: In February 2021, the office of the governor of the state of Michigan announced that Magna plans to open a facility in the city of St. Clair to build battery enclosures for the 2022 GMC Hummer electric pickup. The battery enclosures will be produced at General Motors' facility in Detroit and Hamtramck. The new facility is expected to cost $70 million and to create over 300 jobs for the state.


title: Magna International

text: Magna International is headquartered in Aurora, Ontario, and has 342 manufacturing operations and 91 product development, engineering and sales centres in 27 countries. Its United States operations are headed out of Troy, Michigan with its European head office in Vienna, Austria. Donald J. Walker was its chief executive officer and was working with Magna since 1987 until 2021.


title: Magna International

text: Magna is governed under a corporate constitution, and requires consensus from management, shareholders and employees to make any changes. The company shares 10 percent of pretax profits with its employees. As of 2019, the company has 158,000 employees.


title: Magna International

text: In 2002, Magna International announced that it had reached an agreement with DaimlerChrysler to acquire its Austrian-based Eurostar Automobilwerk operation.


title: Magna International

text: Magna acquired 80% of New Venture Gear, once a joint venture between General Motors and Chrysler, in September 2004, and combined it into Magna Powertrain. It assumed full ownership in 2007, closing the operation in August 2012.


title: Magna International

text: Magna purchased CTS Fahrzeug-Dachsysteme, a supplier of convertible roofs, from Porsche in November 2005.


title: Magna International

text: In July 2015, Magna bought the German company Getrag, which was one of the largest suppliers of automotive transmissions worldwide for $1.9 billion. The acquisition worked to increase growth potential in the Chinese market.


title: Magna International

text: In 2018, the company acquired Haptronik GmbH, a German motion control software developer, OLSA S.p.A., an Italian automotive lighting manufacturer, and Viza Geca SL, a Spanish automotive seating company. It partnered with Innoviz Technologies to produce solid-state lidar for autonomous vehicles for BMW Group.


title: Magna International

text: In December 2022, it was announced Magna has acquired the Stockholm-headquartered Veoneer Active Safety business from SSW Partners for $1.52 billion USD.


title: Magna International

text: During its history, Magna International has worked with automakers to advance vehicle safety and technology such as smart mobility seating systems including stow-into-floor minivan seats, exterior systems including reaction injection moulding (RIM) bumpers, advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS), blind-spot detection and lane departure warning systems. The company is the largest automobile parts supplier in North America and the third largest worldwide.


title: Magna International

text: It uses mobility technology to develop customized computing for fully automated driving systems. In 2018, it introduced an Icon radar system to help automakers reach Level 5 autonomy as well as automatic emergency braking systems. Magna has partnered with BMW on electrification to produce electric cars on a contract basis. The company is also known for using new materials for "lightweighting" vehicles. Goldman Sachs has reported that automated features developed by suppliers such as Magna will produce a 42 percent compound annual growth rate in global revenue over the next decade.


title: Lists of deities

text: This is an index of lists of deities of the different religions, cultures and mythologies of the world.


title: Dina Sanichar

text: Dina Sanichar (1860 or 1861–1895) was a feral boy. Sanichar was discovered by a group of hunters among wolves in a cave in Bulandshahr, Uttar Pradesh, India in February 1867, at the age of around six. Sanichar was taken to Sikandra Mission Orphanage where he was given the name "Sanichar" because he arrived on a Saturday. When he arrived at the orphanage, he reportedly walked on all fours and ate raw meat. While he could not speak, he would make sounds similar to a wolf. He went on to live among other humans for over twenty years but never learned to speak and remained seriously impaired his entire life. Sanichar was a heavy smoker. He died of tuberculosis in 1895.


title: Japanese battleship Mikasa

text: After 1922, "Mikasa" was decommissioned in accordance with the Washington Naval Treaty and preserved as a museum ship at Yokosuka. She was badly neglected during the post-World War II Occupation of Japan and required extensive refurbishing in the late 1950s. She has been partially restored, and is now a museum ship located at Mikasa Park in Yokosuka. "Mikasa" is the last remaining example of a pre-dreadnought battleship anywhere in the world and also the last example of a British-built battleship.


title: Japanese battleship Mikasa

text: The combat experience of the lightly armoured "Matsushima"-class cruisers during the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895 convinced the Imperial Japanese Navy of weaknesses in the Jeune Ecole naval philosophy, and Japan embarked on a program to modernize and expand its fleet in preparation for further confrontations. In particular, Japan promulgated a ten-year naval build-up programme, with the construction of six battleships and six armoured cruisers at its core. These ships were paid for from the £30,000,000 indemnity paid by China after losing the First Sino-Japanese War.


title: Japanese battleship Mikasa

text: As with the earlier and s, Japan lacked the technology and capability to construct its own battleships, and turned again to the United Kingdom for the four remaining battleships of the programme. "Mikasa", the last of these ships, was ordered from the Vickers shipyard in Barrow-in-Furness in 1898 at the cost of £880,000 (8.8 million yen at that time). Although she closely resembled several of the other ships ordered in this program, she was the only ship in her class.


title: Japanese battleship Mikasa

text: The design of "Mikasa" was a modified version of the s of the Royal Navy with two additional guns. "Mikasa" had an overall length of , a beam of , and a normal draught of . She displaced at normal load. The crew numbered about 830 officers and enlisted men.


title: Japanese battleship Mikasa

text: The ship was powered by two vertical triple-expansion steam engines, each driving one propeller, using steam generated by 25 Belleville boilers. The engines were rated at , using forced draught, and designed to reach a top speed of although "Mikasa" proved to be faster during her sea trials in December 1901, reaching from . She carried a maximum of of coal which allowed her to steam for at a speed of .


title: Japanese battleship Mikasa

text: "Mikasa"s main battery consisted of the same four Elswick Ordnance Company 40-calibre twelve-inch guns used in all of the preceding Japanese battleships. They were mounted in twin-gun barbettes fore and aft of the superstructure which were additionally protected with armoured hoods, thus resembling true gun turrets. The hydraulically powered mountings could be loaded at all angles of traverse while the guns were loaded at a fixed angle of +13.5°. They fired projectiles at a muzzle velocity of .


title: Japanese battleship Mikasa

text: The ship's secondary armament consisted of fourteen 40-calibre quick-firing guns mounted in casemates. Ten of these guns were positioned on the main deck and the other four guns were placed above them at the corners of the superstructure. They fired shells at a muzzle velocity of . Protection against torpedo boat attacks was provided by twenty QF 12-pounder 12 cwt guns. The 12-pounders fired , projectiles at a muzzle velocity of . Lighter guns consisted of eight three-pounder Hotchkiss guns and eight 47-millimetre 2.5-pounder Hotchkiss guns. The three-pounder gun fired projectiles at a muzzle velocity of while the 2.5-pounder fired shells at a muzzle velocity of . The ship was also equipped with four submerged 18-inch torpedo tubes, two on each broadside.


title: Japanese battleship Mikasa

text: The waterline armour belt of "Mikasa" consisted of Krupp cemented armour that had a maximum thickness of over the middle of the ship. It was only thick at the ends of the ship and was surmounted by a six-inch strake of armour that ran between the barbettes. The barbettes were thick, but reduced to six inches at the level of the lower deck. The armour of the barbette hoods had a thickness of . The casemates protecting the secondary armament were thick and the deck armour was in thickness. The forward conning tower was protected by 14 inches of armour, but the aft conning tower only had four inches of armour.


title: Japanese battleship Mikasa

text: "Mikasa", like all the other Japanese battleships of the time, was fitted with four Barr & Stroud FA3 coincidence rangefinders that had an effective range of . In addition the ships were also fitted with 24-power magnification telescopic gunsights.


title: Japanese battleship Mikasa

text: "Mikasa", named after Mount Mikasa, was laid down by Vickers at their Barrow-in-Furness shipyard on 24 January 1899. Baroness (later Countess) Hayashi, the wife of the then resident minister to Great Britain (later Ambassador), served as Mikasa's sponsor, launching the hull on a rainy, but otherwise perfect ceremony on 8 November 1900. She would be completed on 1 March 1902, and after a visit to Devonport, she left Plymouth on 13 March, bound for Yokohama, under the command of Captain Hayasaki.


title: Japanese battleship Mikasa

text: At the start of the Russo-Japanese War, "Mikasa", commanded by Captain Hikojirō Ijichi, was assigned to the 1st Division of the 1st Fleet. She participated in the Battle of Port Arthur on 9 February 1904 when Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō led the 1st Fleet in an attack on the Russian ships of the Pacific Squadron anchored just outside Port Arthur. Tōgō had expected his surprise night attack on the Russians by his destroyers to be much more successful than it actually was and expected to find them badly disorganized and weakened, but the Russians had recovered from their surprise and were ready for his attack. The Japanese ships were spotted by the cruiser which was patrolling offshore and alerted the Russian defences. Tōgō chose to attack the Russian coastal defences with his main armament and engage the Russian ships with his secondary guns. Splitting his fire proved to be a bad idea as the Japanese and six-inch guns inflicted very little significant damage on the Russian ships who concentrated all their fire on the Japanese ships with some effect. Although a large number of ships on both sides were hit, Russian casualties numbered only 17 while the Japanese suffered 60 killed and wounded before Tōgō disengaged. "Mikasa" was hit by two ten-inch shells during the engagement that wounded seven crewmen.


title: Japanese battleship Mikasa

text: The ship participated in the action of 13 April when Tōgō successfully lured out a portion of the Pacific Squadron, including Vice Admiral Stepan Makarov's flagship, the battleship . When Makarov spotted the five battleships of the 1st Division, he turned back for Port Arthur and "Petropavlovsk" struck a minefield laid by the Japanese the previous night. The Russian battleship sank in less than two minutes after one of her magazines exploded, and Makarov was one of the 677 killed. Emboldened by his success, Tōgō resumed long-range bombardment missions, which prompted the Russians to lay more minefields which sank two Japanese battleships the following month.


title: Japanese battleship Mikasa

text: During the Battle of the Yellow Sea on 10 August, "Mikasa" was at the head of the column of Japanese battleships and was one of the primary targets of the Russian ships. She was hit twenty times, two of which knocked out her aft 12-inch gun turret, and suffered 125 casualties among her crew. In turn, she concentrated most of her fire upon the battleships and although both ships were only lightly damaged by the Japanese shells which generally failed to penetrate any armour and detonated on impact.


title: Japanese battleship Mikasa

text: At the Battle of Tsushima on 27 May 1905, "Mikasa" again led the 1st Fleet into combat, this time against the Second and Third Pacific Squadrons detached from the Baltic Fleet. The ship opened fire at the battleship , the Russian flagship, at 14:10, and was joined by the battleship and the armoured cruiser shortly afterwards. Within an hour the Japanese ships had started a serious fire aboard the Russian ship, badly wounded the fleet commander, Vice Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky, knocked out her rear twelve-inch gun turret, and jammed "Knyaz Suvorov"s steering so that she fell out of formation. During this time, "Mikasa" was the focus of the Russian fire as the leading ship in the Japanese column and was hit by 6 twelve-inch and 19 six-inch shells. They did very little damage and Tōgō was able to cross the T of the Russian squadrons. "Knyaz Suvorov"s steering was later repaired, but she blundered between the Japanese and Russian fleets several times later in the battle and "Mikasa" fired three torpedoes at her to no avail. Later in the battle, the ship appears to have fired mostly on the battleship although fired the shots that caused the Russian ship's magazines to explode and sink her. At 18:04, a twelve-inch shell detonated prematurely in the barrel of the right gun of the forward turret, disabling the gun and knocking out the left gun until 18:40. Another twelve-inch shell had exploded in that same barrel almost two hours earlier, but had not damaged the gun. One six-inch gun jammed after firing 19 rounds, but the only other damage to any of the ship's guns was one six-inch gun that was disabled by a Russian shell of the same size that entered through the gun port. She fired 124 twelve-inch shells during the battle, more than any other ship except "Asahi"s 142. In total, "Mikasa" was hit more than 40 times during the battle, including 10 twelve-inch and 22 six-inch shells, but none of them seriously damaged her. While "Mikasa" suffered 113 personnel casualties, the entire Japanese force combined only lost 117 men killed and 583 wounded to all causes during the battle.


title: Japanese battleship Mikasa

text: Six days after the Treaty of Portsmouth that ended the war was signed, "Mikasa" sank at her moorings after a fire and magazine explosion at Sasebo on the night of 11/12 September 1905 that killed 251 crewmen. She was refloated on 7 August 1906, reconstructed and repaired at Sasebo Naval Arsenal. The navy took the opportunity to upgrade her existing armament with more powerful 45-calibre twelve-inch and six-inch guns during the two years it took to repair the ship. "Mikasa" was restored to active service on 24 August 1908. In 1912, Mikasa came extremely close to suffering another main magazine detonation, when a suicidal sailor attempted to blow her up at anchor near Kobe. During World War I, she served on coast-defence duties, based at Maizuru, during 1914–15 and was then assigned to the Second and Fifth Squadrons, in that order, for the rest of the war. The ship supported the Japanese intervention in Siberia during the Russian Civil War during 1921 and was reclassified on 1 September 1921 as a first-class coast-defence ship. On 17 September, "Mikasa" ran aground near Askold Island off Vladivostok, but was not seriously damaged.


title: Japanese battleship Mikasa

text: The ship was decommissioned on 23 September 1923 following the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 and scheduled for destruction. However, at the request of the Japanese government, each of the signatory countries to the treaty agreed that "Mikasa" could be preserved as a memorial ship with her hull encased in concrete. On 12 November 1926, "Mikasa" was opened for display in Yokosuka in the presence of Crown Prince Hirohito and Tōgō. Following the surrender of Japan in 1945, the ship deteriorated under control of the occupation forces. In 1955, American businessman John Rubin, formerly of Barrow, England, wrote a letter to the "Japan Times" about the state of the ship, which was the catalyst for a new restoration campaign. With the support of the Japanese public, and also Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, the restored battleship reopened in 1961. On 5 August 2009, "Mikasa" was repainted by sailors from . "Mikasa" is the only surviving example of a pre-dreadnought battleship in the world.


title: Japanese battleship Mikasa

text: "Mikasa" is remembered in Barrow-in-Furness, the town of its construction, by Mikasa Street on Walney Island.


title: Toyota NZ engine

text: The Toyota NZ engine family is a straight-4 piston engine series. The 1NZ series uses aluminum engine blocks and DOHC cylinder heads. It also uses sequential fuel injection, and has 4 valves per cylinder with VVT-i.


title: Toyota NZ engine

text: The engines are produced by Toyota's Kamigo Plant in Toyota, Aichi, Japan (1NZ for Prius, NZ for Vitz and ist, and for Sienta); by Siam Toyota Manufacturing in Chonburi, Thailand (NZ for NBC cars such as the 1NZ-FE for the Yaris and Vios); and by Indus Motor Company in Karachi, Pakistan (2NZ for Corolla).


title: Toyota NZ engine

text: The 1NZ-FXE is a hybrid version. Bore and stroke is . It features forged steel connecting rods and an aluminum intake manifold. The engine has a high physical compression ratio of 13.0:1, but the closing of the inlet valve is delayed, for an effective compression ratio of 9.5:1. The net result is that the engine has a greater effective expansion than compression—making it a simulated Atkinson cycle, rather than a conventional Otto cycle.


title: Toyota NZ engine

text: The reduction in cylinder charge means reduced torque and power output, but efficiency is increased. This combination makes the 1NZ-FXE suitable for use with the Hybrid Synergy Drive, where peak torque and power demands can be met by the electric motor and battery. Output is at 5000 rpm with of torque at 4000 rpm.


title: Toyota NZ engine

text: Production was discontinued in 2009, with the arrival of the 3rd generation Prius, which replaced the 1NZ-FXE with the 2ZR-FXE.


title: Toyota NZ engine

text: In 2012, upon the arrival of the Prius c (North America), the Aqua (Japan), and the Yaris Hybrid (Europe), an improved version was introduced. Without any belt-driven accessories, and a physical compression ratio of 13.4:1, the new version delivers an output of at 4800 rpm with of torque at 3600–4400 rpm.


title: Toyota NZ engine

text: The 1NZ-FXE Hybrid Synergy Drive in the Toyota Prius has won several International Engine of the Year awards:


title: Toyota NZ engine

text: The 1NZ-FXP is a hybrid version. Bore and stroke is . It features forged steel connecting rods and an aluminum intake manifold. The engine has a high physical compression ratio of 13.0:1, but the closing of the inlet valve is delayed, for an effective compression ratio of 9.5:1. The net result is that the engine has a greater effective expansion than compression—making it a simulated Atkinson cycle, rather than a conventional Otto cycle.


title: Toyota NZ engine

text: The reduction in cylinder charge means reduced torque and power output, but efficiency is increased. This combination makes the 1NZ-FXP suitable for use with the Hybrid Synergy Drive, where peak torque and power demands can be met by the electric motor, battery and LPG-hybrid system. Output is at 5000 rpm with of torque at 4000 rpm.


title: Toyota NZ engine

text: The 1NZ-FE is a conventional Otto-cycle variant of the 1NZ-FXE with VVT-i on the intake camshaft. The engine block is found in many Toyota models assembled in Japan and Asian countries. It retains the same bore and stroke, but the compression ratio is lowered to 10.5:1. Output is at 6000 rpm with of torque at 4200 rpm. The redline is 6400 rpm.


title: Toyota NZ engine

text: The 1NZ-FE Turbo is a with an air-to-air intercooler turbocharged conventional Otto-cycle variant of the 1NZ-FE with VVT-i. The engine block is found in many Toyota models assembled in Asian countries. It retains the same bore and stroke. Output is at 6000 rpm with of torque at 4200-4800 rpm. The redline is 6400 rpm.


title: Toyota NZ engine

text: The 2NZ-FE is a version. Bore and stroke is , with a compression ratio of 10.5:1. Output is at 6000 rpm with of torque at 4400 rpm. In 2000, it won the International Engine of the Year award in the 1-litre to 1.4-litre category.


title: Clinton Romesha

text: Clinton LaVor Romesha (//; born August 17, 1981) is a retired United States Army soldier who received the Medal of Honor for his actions during the Battle of Kamdesh in 2009 during the War in Afghanistan.


title: Clinton Romesha

text: Born into a family with a strong military background, Romesha joined the United States Army in 1999, and was posted at various times in Germany, South Korea and Colorado. Serving as an M1 Abrams tank crewman and a Cavalry Scout, Romesha had seen four deployments, including to Kosovo, Iraq twice, and Afghanistan. On October 3, 2009, he was assigned to the 3rd Squadron, 61st Cavalry Regiment, 4th Brigade Combat Team, 4th Infantry Division, deployed to Combat Outpost Keating in eastern Afghanistan. When a force of 300 Taliban insurgents attacked the base, Romesha was credited with rallying his comrades and leading the counterattack, directing close air support and providing suppressive fire to help the wounded to an aid station. Despite being wounded, Romesha continued to fight through the 12-hour battle.


title: Clinton Romesha

text: Romesha left the army in 2011 to spend more time with his family. He later took a job in the oil industry in North Dakota. On February 11, 2013, he received the Medal of Honor from President Barack Obama.


title: Clinton Romesha

text: Romesha was born on August 17, 1981 in Lake City, Modoc County, California, to a family with a strong military background. His maternal grandfather, Aury Smith, is a World War II veteran who fought in the Battle of Normandy. Romesha grew up in Lake City, where he developed an avid love of ice hockey.


title: Clinton Romesha

text: His father is a Vietnam War veteran who later became a church leader in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Romesha is the fourth of five siblings, including two brothers who also joined the military. He is a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and attended seminary for four years during high school but ultimately decided not to become a missionary for the church as his family had hoped he would. In 1999, Romesha graduated from Surprise Valley High School in Cedarville, California.


title: Clinton Romesha

text: Romesha enlisted in the United States Army in September 1999 and underwent Basic Combat Training and later Advanced Individual Training at Fort Knox, Kentucky. Trained to be an armor crewman for the M1 Abrams tank, Romesha was first assigned as a tank gunner in Company B, 1st Battalion, 63d Armor Regiment, 2d Brigade, 1st Infantry Division, and posted at Rose Barracks, Germany. During this posting he deployed to Kosovo as part of the Kosovo Force. His next assignment was as a gunner/assistant tank commander with Company A, 2nd Battalion, 72d Armor Regiment, 2nd Infantry Division at Camp Casey, South Korea. After a former mentor was killed in Iraq, Romesha volunteered for a tour supporting Operation Iraqi Freedom when parts of his unit received redeployment orders.


title: Clinton Romesha

text: Next, Romesha was assigned as section leader with Troop B, 3d Squadron, 61st Cavalry Regiment, 4th Brigade Combat Team, 4th Infantry Division at Fort Carson, Colorado. There, he completed the Long Range Reconnaissance Course, the Advanced Leader Course, and Air Assault Training. Trained as a Cavalry Scout, Romesha saw his second deployment to Iraq in this unit.


title: Clinton Romesha

text: In May 2009, Romesha's unit deployed to Afghanistan for Operation Enduring Freedom. His unit was assigned to Combat Outpost Keating in the Kamdesh District, Nuristan Province in Eastern Afghanistan. It replaced the outgoing Blackfoot Troop, 6th Squadron 4th Cavalry Regiment, 3rd Brigade, 1st Infantry Division (Task Force Duke) at the remote outpost in the mountains of a semiautonomous area of the country. Keating was located in a valley surrounded by steep mountains, and over the course of the deployment, it came under attack regularly. United States commanders opted to close the outpost by October 2009, considering it indefensible.


title: Clinton Romesha

text: During deployment, Romesha was given the nickname "Ro" by his comrades. He was noted for his sense of humor and calm temperament in the difficult deployment.


title: Clinton Romesha

text: On October 3, 2009, according to a report published by United States Army historian Richard S. Lowry, Taliban fighters launched a coordinated attack on the outpost from three sides at about 06:00, capturing its ammunition depot. Some 300 fighters participated in the attack armed with a recoilless rifle, rocket-propelled grenades, mortars, machine guns, and small arms, heavily outnumbering the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) presence of about 85 United States Army, Afghan National Army and Latvian Army soldiers, of which the 35 Afghan soldiers later abandoned their positions. It would later be known as the Battle of Kamdesh.


title: Clinton Romesha

text: During the first three hours of the fight, the United States troops remained under intense mortar and small arms fire, before the Taliban fighters breached the compound and set fire to it. Romesha moved under heavy fire to reconnoiter the area and seek reinforcements from a nearby barracks, helping the ISAF troops to regroup and fight despite being targeted by a Taliban sniper. Romesha led the firefight to reclaim the depot, organizing a five-man team to counterattack while still under fire. He then neutralized one of the Taliban fighters' machine gun teams. While engaging a second, he took cover behind a generator which was struck by a rocket propelled grenade, and Romesha was wounded in the neck, shoulder and arms by shrapnel. Despite being wounded, Romesha directed air support that killed an estimated 30 Taliban and then took out several more Taliban positions himself. He provided suppressing fire to allow three other wounded American soldiers to reach an aid station and then recovered several American casualties while still under fire. Romesha's efforts allowed the troops to regroup and fight off a force superior in numbers. The fight lasted 12 hours, and eight American soldiers were killed, making the engagement one of the costliest for ISAF during the war. Nine soldiers were decorated with Silver Star Medals for the fight. Several days later, ISAF withdrew from the post.


title: Clinton Romesha

text: Romesha received the award from President Barack Obama in an award ceremony at the White House on 11 February 2013. He is the fourth living Medal of Honor recipient for the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq (following Salvatore Giunta, Leroy Petry, and Dakota Meyer), and the eleventh overall for these campaigns.


title: Clinton Romesha

text: Romesha was only able to contact his wife Tammy four days after the battle, and later noted she was greatly upset when hearing the full story of his actions at Kamdesh. In an interview later with Soldiers Live, Romesha said he felt he "was being selfish and not being fair" having volunteered for so many deployments away from his wife and children. Following the Afghanistan deployment, Romesha went through the Army Career and Alumni Program in preparation to separate from the army. On April 4, 2011, Romesha left the military in order to spend more time with his family.


title: Clinton Romesha

text: Following military service, Romesha moved to North Dakota, where his sister lived, to look for a job in the oil industry. He settled in Minot and purchased a 100-year-old, flood-damaged home that he is restoring himself. He took a job at KS Industries, an oil field construction firm. Initially crewing a hydro excavation truck, he went through a driver's training program and later began managing the crews of six other trucks. He currently works as a field safety specialist for KS Industries. His exploits during the firefight were later written about by journalist Jake Tapper in his book, "The Outpost."


title: Clinton Romesha

text: In a press conference on January 16, 2013, shortly after being notified he would receive the medal, Romesha played down his actions in the conflict, noting many other veterans who had received more serious injuries in the battle. Romesha noted that he did not suffer post-traumatic stress disorder or other lasting psychological injuries from deployment, but that others he knew during the deployment did.


title: Clinton Romesha

text: On February 11, 2013, Romesha received the Medal of Honor at a ceremony held at the White House. After receiving the award, when speaking to the press wearing his Stetson, Romesha stated he felt "conflicted" about receiving the medal due to the loss of those who died while serving with him.


title: Clinton Romesha

text: In the days following the award, Romesha was recognized in a number of other events. He was inducted into The Pentagon's "Hall of Heroes" on February 12, and traveled to New York City on February 17 to visit with the cast of "" on Broadway, hosted by the USO. He was recognized by Governor of North Dakota Jack Dalrymple in an event at the North Dakota State Capitol on February 21, 2013. On March 2, Romesha spoke at the military ball of the ROTC program at University of North Dakota. Since then Romesha keeps the Medal of Honor on him. It has some tarnish and wrinkles on it from being carried everywhere, shown to and handled by many.


title: Clinton Romesha

text: In 2016, Romesha's book "Red Platoon" was published recounting the Battle of Kamdesh. That same year the rights to a movie based on the book were optioned by Sony Pictures; by December 2017 a script had been written and a director was assigned to the film. Romesha, along with a dozen other veterans, starred in the veteran based zombie film Range 15, portraying fictional versions of themselves.


title: Clinton Romesha

text: In December 2017, Romesha and retired Captain Florent Groberg, another Medal of Honor recipient, donated their original Medals of Honor to the 4th Infantry Division, saying "This medal is too big for us." Romesha was not in attendance at the turnover ceremony.


title: Clinton Romesha

text: In 2018, Romesha endorsed Republican Kevin Cramer in the 2018 United States Senate election in North Dakota.


title: Clinton Romesha

text: Romesha married his wife Tamara on February 13, 2000. They met in junior high school and began dating several years later.


title: Clinton Romesha

text: Due to his military service, the couple spent about 10 years apart from each other. The couple have three children: Dessi, Gwen, and Colin. Friends describe Romesha as having a sense of humor and being "intense, short and wiry." , the Romeshas live in Minot, North Dakota.


title: Clinton Romesha

text: During his military career, Romesha received a number of decorations. He is authorized to wear three service stripes, six Overseas Service Bars, as well as the former wartime service Combat Service Identification Badge for the 2nd Infantry Division and the 4th Infantry Division and the Distinctive Unit Insignia of the 61st Cavalry Regiment. Romesha's military decorations include the following awards:


title: Clinton Romesha

text: In 2018, he was portrayed by Paul Wesley in the Netflix anthology documentary miniseries "Medal of Honor".


title: Clinton Romesha

text: The film "The Outpost", released on July 3, 2020, was based on the book "The Outpost: An Untold Story of American Valor" by Jake Tapper. It follows a series of events on the US military outpost Combat Outpost Keating in the Nurestan Province of Afghanistan leading to the Battle of Kamdesh on October 3, 2009. Romesha was portrayed by Scott Eastwood and Ty Carter was portrayed by Caleb Landry Jones.


title: Mike Cannon-Brookes

text: Michael Cannon-Brookes (born 17 November 1979) is an Australian billionaire, co-founder, and co-CEO of the software company Atlassian. Cannon-Brookes often carries the epithet of "accidental billionaire" after he and his business partner Scott Farquhar founded Atlassian with the aim of earning the then-typical graduate starting salary of 48,000 at the big corporations without having to work for someone else.


title: Mike Cannon-Brookes

text: Cannon-Brookes was born in November 1979, the son of a global banking executive, also named Mike, and his wife, Helen. He attended Cranbrook School, Sydney, and graduated from the University of New South Wales with a degree in information systems on a UNSW Co-op Scholarship.


title: Mike Cannon-Brookes

text: With Scott Farquhar, Cannon-Brookes is the co-founder and co-CEO of Atlassian, a collaboration software company. The pair started the company in 2002, shortly after graduating from university, funding it with credit cards.


title: Mike Cannon-Brookes

text: He is also an adjunct professor at the University of New South Wales' School of Computer Science and Engineering. Cannon-Brookes and Farquhar were recognised as the Australian IT Professional of the Year award in 2004, and Australian 2006 Entrepreneur of the Year. Cannon-Brookes was also honoured by the World Economic Forum as a Young Global Leader in 2009 and is a member of The Forum of Young Global Leaders.


title: Mike Cannon-Brookes

text: In September 2020, it was revealed that Cannon-Brookes was listed on a Chinese Government "Overseas Key Individuals Database" of prominent international individuals of interest for China illustrating his prominence in the Australian technological and industry landscape. Cannon-Brookes has been a prolific commentator on public policy in Australia, collaborating with the Australian Government on a number of occasions, as well as publicly offering his assistance to solve energy and technology policy challenges.


title: Mike Cannon-Brookes

text: In December 2020, Cannon-Brookes bought a minority stake in NBA team Utah Jazz, along with Qualtrics cofounder Ryan Smith.


title: Mike Cannon-Brookes

text: In March 2022 it was reported that he and Andrew Forrest had invested in the SunCable project, to build a solar and battery farm in size at Powell Creek and a power-cable to link it to Singapore (via Indonesia) leaving Australia at Murrumujuk beach.


title: Mike Cannon-Brookes

text: In May 2022 it was reported he was trying to buy Australian power supplier AGL with a view to converting them to green power generation ahead of their published schedule.


title: Mike Cannon-Brookes

text: Cannon-Brookes is married to Annie Todd and they have four children. Cannon-Brookes and Todd lived in Sydney's eastern suburbs in . In 2018 they bought "Fairwater", Australia's most expensive house for approximately 100 million, next door to Scott Farquhar's 71 million Point Piper harbourside mansion, "Elaine". Cannon-Brookes also acquired the 1923-built heritage residence "Verona", designed by architect Leslie Wilkinson and located in Double Bay, for 17 million. The house previously belonged to New Zealand philanthropist Pat Goodman. Prior to that, in 2016 Cannon-Brookes bought the 7.05 million "SeaDragon" house, built in 1936, also designed by Wilkinson and updated by architect Luigi Rosselli. His Centennial Park home sold for 16.5 million. In 2019 he purchased a house near "Fairwater" for 12 million.


title: Mike Cannon-Brookes

text: In July 2022, Annie Cannon-Brookes made a deal to buy Dunk Island off Mission Beach, Queensland. Reportedly, the transaction was between A$20–25m, with the intent to create a nature reserve and to revitalise the resort.


title: Mike Cannon-Brookes

text: Alongside his business partner, Farquhar, Cannon-Brookes debuted on the 2007 "BRW" Young Rich list of the richest Australians aged under 40; and on the "BRW Rich 200" in 2013. In 2016, his net worth was estimated by "Forbes" on the list of Australia's 50 Richest people as 1.69 billion; by "BRW Rich 200" as 2.00 billion; and by the "Sunday Times" Rich List as 906 million. , the "Australian Financial Review" estimated his net worth was 27.25 billion. Meanwhile, in the same month, "Forbes" estimated his net worth was 13.7 billion.


title: Armenian genocide denial

text: Armenian genocide denial is the claim that the Ottoman Empire and its ruling party, the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), did not commit genocide against its Armenian citizens during World War I—a crime documented in a large body of evidence and affirmed by the vast majority of scholars. The perpetrators denied the genocide as they carried it out, claiming Armenians were resettled for military reasons, not exterminated. In the genocide's aftermath, incriminating documents were systematically destroyed, and denial has been the policy of every government of the Republic of Turkey, .


title: Armenian genocide denial

text: Borrowing the arguments used by the CUP to justify its actions, denial rests on the assumption that the "relocation" of Armenians was a legitimate state action in response to a real or perceived Armenian uprising that threatened the existence of the empire during wartime. Deniers assert the CUP intended to resettle Armenians rather than kill them. They claim the death toll is exaggerated or attribute the deaths to other factors, such as a purported civil war, disease, bad weather, rogue local officials, or bands of Kurds and outlaws. Historian Ronald Grigor Suny summarizes the main argument as "There was no genocide, and the Armenians were to blame for it." Denial is usually accompanied by "rhetoric of Armenian treachery, aggression, criminality, and territorial ambition."


title: Armenian genocide denial

text: One of the most important reasons for this denial is that the genocide enabled the establishment of a Turkish nation-state. Recognition would contradict Turkey's founding myths. Since the 1920s, Turkey has worked to prevent official recognition or even mention of the genocide in other countries; these efforts have included millions of dollars spent on lobbying, the creation of research institutes, and intimidation and threats. Denial also affects Turkey's domestic policies and is taught in Turkish schools; some Turkish citizens who acknowledge the genocide have faced prosecution for "insulting Turkishness." The century-long effort by the Turkish state to deny the genocide sets it apart from other cases of genocide in history. Azerbaijan also denies the genocide and campaigns against its recognition internationally. Most Turkish citizens and political parties in Turkey support the state's denial policy. The denial of the genocide contributes to the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict as well as ongoing violence against Kurds in Turkey. A 2014 poll of 1500 people conducted by EDAM, a Turkish think-tank, found that 9% of Turkish citizens recognize the genocide.


title: Armenian genocide denial

text: The presence of Armenians in Anatolia is documented since the sixth century BCE, almost two millennia before Turkish presence in the area. The Ottoman Empire effectively treated Armenians and other non-Muslims as second-class citizens under Islamic rule, even after the nineteenth-century Tanzimat reforms intended to equalize their status. By the 1890s, Armenians faced forced conversions to Islam and increasing land seizures, which led a handful to join revolutionary parties such as the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF, also known as Dashnaktsutyun). In the mid-1890s, state-sponsored Hamidian massacres killed at least 100,000 Armenians, and in 1909, the authorities failed to prevent the Adana massacre, which resulted in the death of some 17,000 Armenians. The Ottoman authorities denied any responsibility for these massacres, accusing Western powers of meddling and Armenians of provocation, while presenting Muslims as the main victims and failing to punish the perpetrators. These same tropes of denial would be employed later to deny the Armenian genocide.


title: Armenian genocide denial

text: The Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) came to power in two coups in 1908 and in 1913. In the meantime, the Ottoman Empire lost almost all of its European territory in the Balkan Wars; the CUP blamed Christian treachery for this defeat. Hundreds of thousands of Muslim refugees fled to Anatolia as a result of the wars; many were resettled in the Armenian-populated eastern provinces and harbored resentment against Christians. In August 1914, CUP representatives appeared at an ARF conference demanding that in the event of war with the Russian Empire, the ARF incite Russian Armenians to intervene on the Ottoman side. The ARF declined, instead declaring that Armenians should fight for the countries in which they were citizens. In October 1914, the Ottoman Empire entered World War I on the side of the Central Powers.


title: Armenian genocide denial

text: During the Ottoman invasion of Russian and Persian territory in late 1914, Ottoman paramilitaries massacred local Armenians. A few Ottoman Armenian soldiers defected to Russia—seized upon by both the CUP and later deniers as evidence of Armenian treachery—but the Armenian volunteers in the Russian army were mostly Russian Armenians. Massacres turned into genocide following the catastrophic Ottoman defeat by Russia in the Battle of Sarikamish (January 1915), which was blamed on Armenian treachery. Armenian soldiers and officers were removed from their posts pursuant to a 25 February order issued by Minister of War Enver Pasha. In the minds of the Ottoman leaders, isolated incidents of Armenian resistance were taken as evidence of a general insurrection.