title: Martin Scorsese and Robert De Niro

text: De Niro and Scorsese collaborated again in 1990 on "Goodfellas", which also starred Ray Liotta and Joe Pesci. The film follows Henry Hill (Liotta) as he and his friends work their way up through the mob. "Goodfellas" was incredibly successful and won five BAFTAs. It was beaten in most categories at the Oscars by "Dances with Wolves", but achieved universal acclaim with critics and is considered one of the greatest films of all time.


title: Martin Scorsese and Robert De Niro

text: 1991's "Cape Fear" sees De Niro star as a convicted rapist, released from prison after serving a 14-year sentence, who stalks the family of the defense lawyer who represented him but deliberately suppressed evidence that would have acquitted him. It is a remake of the 1962 film of the same name. The film received generally favorable reviews and was nominated for two Oscars and two BAFTAs. Steven Spielberg was an executive producer.


title: Martin Scorsese and Robert De Niro

text: 1995 saw De Niro and Scorsese reunite with Pesci after 1990's "Goodfellas" for "Casino". The film revolved around greed, deception, money, power, and murder that occur between two mobster best friends and a trophy wife over a gambling empire. The film received critical acclaim, with Michael Wilmington of the "Chicago Tribune" saying "You can't praise highly enough the contributions of the ensemble – De Niro and Pesci especially – but it's Scorsese's triumph." Sharon Stone received an Oscar nomination for her role.


title: Martin Scorsese and Robert De Niro

text: Scorsese and De Niro collaborated for the first time in two decades for "The Audition", a 2015 short film that served as a promotional piece for casinos Studio City in Macau, China and City of Dreams in Manila, Philippines. The short united Scorsese's two muses, De Niro and Leonardo DiCaprio, for the first time on film under his direction.


title: Martin Scorsese and Robert De Niro

text: An epic crime film directed by Martin Scorsese and written by Steven Zaillian, based on the book "I Heard You Paint Houses" by Charles Brandt. The film stars Robert De Niro as Frank Sheeran, a labor union leader and alleged hitman for the Bufalino crime family, Al Pacino as Jimmy Hoffa, and Joe Pesci as Russell Bufalino. The film marks the first time Pacino has been directed by Scorsese.


title: Martin Scorsese and Robert De Niro

text: In October 2018, it was announced that DiCaprio and Scorsese were re-teaming for a film adaptation of David Grann's "Killers of the Flower Moon", about the Osage Indian murders. In summer 2019, it was confirmed that Robert De Niro will star alongside DiCaprio. Shooting was postponed from its original start date due to the COVID-19 pandemic, but ultimately began in April 2021.


title: Martin Scorsese and Robert De Niro

text: De Niro and Scorsese both lend their voices as supporting characters in the 2004 animated film "Shark Tale". De Niro voices Don Lino, a shark and leader of an Italian-style mob. Scorsese voices Sykes, a pufferfish and loan shark, who once worked with Don Lino. As do all the other significant characters in the film, Don Lino and Sykes are animated to somewhat resemble or caricaturize their voice actors.


title: Martin Scorsese and Robert De Niro

text: De Niro and Scorsese also co-star (albeit Scorsese has a relatively minor supporting role) in Irwin Winkler’s 1991 film "Guilty by Suspicion". Winkler had previously worked as a producer on such Scorsese-De Niro collaborations as "New York, New York", "Raging Bull" and "Goodfellas".


title: Colony

text: In modern parlance, a colony is a territory subject to a form of foreign rule. Though dominated by the foreign colonizers, colonies remain separate from the administration of the original country of the colonizers, the "metropolitan state" (or "mother country"). This administrative colonial separation makes colonies neither incorporated territories nor client states. Some colonies have been organized either as dependent territories that are not sufficiently self-governed, or as self-governed colonies controlled by colonial settlers.


title: Colony

text: The term colony originates from the ancient Roman "colonia", a type of Roman settlement. Derived from "colon-us" (farmer, cultivator, planter, or settler), it carries with it the sense of 'farm' and 'landed estate'.


title: Colony

text: Furthermore the term was used to refer to the older Greek "apoikia" (), which were overseas settlements by ancient Greek city-states. The city that founded such a settlement became known as its "metropolis" ("mother-city").


title: Colony

text: Since early-modern times, historians, administrators, and political scientists have generally used the term "colony" to refer mainly to the many different overseas territories of particularly European states between the 15th and 20th centuries CE, with colonialism and decolonization as corresponding phenomena. While colonies often developed from trading outposts or territorial claims, such areas do not need to be a product of colonization, nor become colonially organized territories.


title: Colony

text: Some historians use the term "informal colony" to refer to a country under the "de facto" control of another state, although this term is often contentious.


title: Colony

text: The word "colony" comes from the Latin word , used as concept for Roman military bases and eventually cities. This in turn derives from the word , which was a Roman tenant farmer.


title: Colony

text: The terminology is taken from architectural analogy, where a column pillar is beneath the (often stylized) head capital, which is also a biological analog of the body as subservient beneath the controlling head (with 'capital' coming from the Latin word , meaning 'head'). So colonies are not independently self-controlled, but rather are controlled by a separate entity that serves the capital function.


title: Colony

text: Roman colonies first appeared when the Romans conquered neighbouring Italic peoples. These were small farming settlements that appeared when the Romans had subdued an enemy in war. Though a colony could take many forms, such as a trade outpost or a military base in enemy territory, such has not been inherently colonies. Its original definition as a settlement created by people migrating from a central region to an outlying one became the modern definition.


title: Colony

text: Settlements that began as Roman colonia include cities from Cologne (which retains this history in its name), Belgrade to York. A tell-tale sign of a settlement within the Roman sphere of influence once being a Roman colony is a city centre with a grid pattern.


title: Colony

text: The Special Committee on Decolonization maintains the United Nations list of non-self-governing territories, which identifies areas the United Nations (though not without controversy) believes are colonies. Given that dependent territories have varying degrees of autonomy and political power in the affairs of the controlling state, there is disagreement over the classification of "colony".


title: American fatalities and injuries of the 2012 Benghazi attack

text: Four Americans died in the 2012 Benghazi attack: Ambassador Chris Stevens, Information Officer Sean Smith, and two CIA operatives, Glen Doherty and Tyrone Woods, both former Navy SEALs. Stevens is the first U.S. ambassador killed in an attack since Adolph Dubs was killed in 1979. Senior intelligence officials later acknowledged that Woods and Doherty were contracted by the Central Intelligence Agency, not the State Department as previously identified, and were part of Global Response Staff (GRS), a team that provides security to CIA case officers and countersurveillance and surveillance protection.


text: Initial reports indicated that ten Libyan guards died; this was later retracted and it was reported that seven Libyans were injured. An early report indicated that three Americans were injured in the attack and treated at an American Military Hospital in Germany.


text: Since then, reports differ regarding the number of Americans wounded in the attacks. The ARB report released December 20, 2012, stated that two Americans were wounded. In March 2013 it was reported that the State Department said there were four injured Americans. In August 2013, CNN reported that seven Americans were wounded, some seriously.


text: Glen Anthony "Bub" Doherty (July 10, 1970 – September 12, 2012) of Encinitas, California, was a native of Winchester, Massachusetts, and a 1988 graduate of Winchester High School.


text: Doherty was the second of three children born to Bernard and Barbara Doherty. He trained as a pilot at Embry–Riddle Aeronautical University before moving to Snowbird, Utah for several winters and then joining the United States Navy in 1995. Doherty served as a Navy SEAL sniper and Corpsman, responded to the bombing of USS "Cole" and had tours of duty in Iraq and Afghanistan. He left the Navy in 2005 as a petty officer first class and joined the CIA. After leaving the Navy, he worked for a private security company in Afghanistan, Iraq, Israel, Kenya and Libya. He was centrally involved in the rescue of PFC Jessica Lynch from Iraqi forces in 2003 and the rescue of Captain Richard Phillips from Somali pirates in 2009. In the month prior to the attack, Doherty as a contractor with the State Department, told ABC News in an interview that he personally went into the field in Libya to track down MANPADS, shoulder-fired surface-to-air missiles, and destroy them.


text: A Roman Catholic, Doherty was a member of the advisory board of the Military Religious Freedom Foundation, an organization that opposes proselytizing by religious groups in the United States military. He also co-wrote the book "The 21st Century Sniper".


text: Doherty's funeral Mass was held at Saint Eulalia's parish in his native Winchester on September 19, 2012. His celebration of life was held in Encinitas, California, during the weekend of October 12–14, 2012.


text: Tyrone Snowden "Rone" Woods Sr. (January 15, 1971 – September 12, 2012), of Imperial Beach, California, was born in Portland, Oregon. Woods graduated from Oregon City High School in 1989, south of Portland, Oregon, and served 21 years of honorable service in the U.S. Navy before joining the State Department Diplomatic Security Service as a U.S. embassy security operative, ostensibly working under a service contract. Since 2010, Woods had protected American diplomats in posts from Central America to the Middle East. In November 2012, senior U.S. intelligence officials said that Woods and Doherty were actually CIA contractors, not State Department security officers as had been previously reported, and that the two men, together with other CIA security officers, played a pivotal role in defending the besieged US Special Mission in Benghazi.


text: As a Navy SEAL in 2005–06, Woods was awarded the Bronze Star Medal with Combat "V" for valor in Iraq. He led 12 direct action raids and 10 reconnaissance missions leading to the capture of 34 enemy insurgents in the volatile Al Anbar province. He served multiple tours in Iraq and Afghanistan, the Middle East and Central America. He retired as a senior chief petty officer in 2010.


text: Woods also served with distinction at the Naval Medical Center San Diego as a registered nurse and certified paramedic. Having settled in Imperial Beach, California, for a year of his retirement he owned The Salty Frog bar there; he is survived by his second wife, Dr. Dorothy Narvaez-Woods, their one child, and two sons from a previous marriage. Woods was buried at Fort Rosecrans National Cemetery.


title: Tiger Balm

text: Tiger Balm () is an analgesic heat rub manufactured and distributed by Singaporean company Haw Par Healthcare. It is used for external pain relief.


title: Tiger Balm

text: A precursor to Tiger Balm called Ban Kin Yu () was developed in the 1870s in Rangoon, Burma, during the British colonial era by the practising Chinese herbalist Aw Chu Kin, son of Aw Leng Fan, a Chinese Hakka herbalist in Zhongchuan, Fujian Province, China. His father had sent him to Rangoon in the 1860s to help in his uncle's herbal shop. Eventually, Aw Chu Kin himself set up a family business named Eng Aun Tong ("Hall of Everlasting Peace"). On his deathbed in 1908, he asked his sons Aw Boon Haw and Aw Boon Par to perfect the product. In 1918, the product was renamed "Tiger Balm" in order to gain broader appeal. By 1918, the Aw family had become one of the wealthiest families in Rangoon. By the 1920s, the brothers had turned Eng Aun Tong into a very successful business empire that produced and marketed pharmaceutical products, including the Tiger Balm medicinal ointment. Tiger Balm sold well in Burma, and was exported to China, Japan, and Southeast Asia.


title: Tiger Balm

text: The brothers moved to Singapore in the 1920s due to problems with the colonial British government. They set up a branch first at Amoy Street then moved to Cecil Street and finally to 89 Neil Road between 1924 and 1926, at the junction of Neil and Craig Road. The Aw family founded the Tiger Balm Gardens in Hong Kong in 1935, Singapore in 1937 and Fujian Province in 1946 to promote the product. Boon Haw also established newspapers in China and Singapore; his daughter said that he spent so much money on advertising that "he thought it would be cheaper to just open a few newspapers".


title: Tiger Balm

text: In 2013, a lawsuit filed by Haw Par against the Indian company Rangoon Chemical Works, asserting that the latter's "Flying Tiger" balm with similar branding infringed on the Tiger Balm trademark, reached the Supreme Court of India. As a result, Rangoon Chemical Works made changes in the branding of its product.


title: Tiger Balm

text: In 2018, there were 10 products being sold under the Tiger Balm brand, in over 100 countries. Tiger Balm generated in revenues in 2015. Haw Par's revenues from Tiger Balm sales in India were in 2018. The product sold in India is manufactured in Hyderabad by Makson and marketed by Alkem Laboratories. Between 1993 and 2011, it had been manufactured and marketed by Elder Pharmaceuticals.


title: Tiger Balm

text: The remainder is a petroleum jelly and paraffin base. The packaging label states that the active ingredients are menthol and camphor.


title: Tiger Balm

text: The original Tiger Balm Red and Tiger Balm White have 25% of camphor. A new product named Tiger Balm White HR uses eucalyptus oil instead of cajuput oil.


title: Fin whale

text: The fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus), also known as finback whale or common rorqual and formerly known as herring whale or razorback whale, is a cetacean belonging to the parvorder of baleen whales. It is the second-longest species of cetacean on Earth after the blue whale. The largest reportedly grow to long with a maximum confirmed length of , a maximum recorded weight of nearly , and a maximum estimated weight of around . American naturalist Roy Chapman Andrews called the fin whale "the greyhound of the sea ... for its beautiful, slender body is built like a racing yacht and the animal can surpass the speed of the fastest ocean steamship."


title: Fin whale

text: The fin whale's body is long and slender, coloured brownish-grey with a paler underside. At least two recognized subspecies exist, in the North Atlantic and the Southern Hemisphere. It is found in all the major oceans, from polar to tropical waters. It is absent only from waters close to the pack ice at the poles and relatively small areas of water away from the open ocean. The highest population density occurs in temperate and cool waters. Its food consists of small schooling fish, squid, and crustaceans including copepods and krill.


title: Fin whale

text: Like all other large whales, the fin whale was heavily hunted during the 20th century. As a result, it is an endangered species. Over 725,000 fin whales were reportedly taken from the Southern Hemisphere between 1905 and 1976; as of 1997 only 38,000 survived. Recovery of the overall population size of southern subspecies is predicted to be at less than 50% of its pre-whaling state by 2100 due to heavier impacts of whaling and slower recovery rates.


title: Fin whale

text: The International Whaling Commission (IWC) issued a moratorium on commercial hunting of this whale, although Iceland and Japan have resumed hunting. The species is also hunted by Greenlanders under the IWC's Aboriginal Subsistence Whaling provisions. Global population estimates range from less than 100,000 to roughly 119,000.


title: Fin whale

text: The fin whale was first described by Friderich Martens in 1675 and by Paul Dudley in 1725. The former description was used as the primary basis of the species "Balaena physalus" by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. In 1804, Bernard Germain de Lacépède reclassified the species as "Balaenoptera rorqual", based on a specimen that had stranded on Île Sainte-Marguerite (Cannes, France) in 1798. In 1830, Louis Companyo described a specimen that had stranded near Saint-Cyprien, southern France, in 1828 as "Balaena musculus". Most later authors followed him in using the specific name "musculus", until Frederick W. True (1898) showed that it referred to the blue whale. In 1846, British taxonomist John Edward Gray described a specimen from the Falkland Islands as "Balaenoptera australis". In 1865, German naturalist Hermann Burmeister described a roughly specimen found near Buenos Aires about 30 years earlier as "Balaenoptera patachonicus". In 1903, Romanian scientist Emil Racoviță placed all these designations into "Balaenoptera physalus". The word "physalus" comes from the Greek word "physa", meaning "blows", referring to the prominent blow of the species.


title: Fin whale

text: Fin whales are rorquals, members of the family Balaenopteridae, which also includes the humpback whale, the blue whale, Bryde's whale, the sei whale, and the minke whales. The family diverged from the other baleen whales in the suborder Mysticeti as long ago as the middle Miocene.


title: Fin whale

text: Recent DNA evidence indicates the fin whale may be more closely related to the humpback whale ("Megaptera novaeangliae") and in at least one study the gray whale ("Eschrichtius robustus"), two whales in different genera, than it is to members of its own genus, such as the minke whales.


title: Fin whale

text: As of 2022, four subspecies are named, each with distinct physical features and vocalizations. The northern fin whale, "B. p. physalus" (Linnaeus 1758) inhabits the North Atlantic and the southern fin whale, "B. p. quoyi" (Fischer 1829) occupies the Southern Hemisphere. Most experts consider the fin whales of the North Pacific to be a third subspecies—this was supported by a 2013 study, which found that the Northern Hemisphere "B. p. physalus" was not composed of a single subspecies. A 2019 genetic study concluded that the North Pacific fin whales should be considered a subspecies, suggesting the name "B. p. velifera" (Scammon 1869). The three groups mix at most rarely.


title: Fin whale

text: Clarke (2004) proposed a "pygmy" subspecies ("B. p. patachonica", Burmeister, 1865) that is purportedly darker in colour and has black baleen. He based this on a single physically mature female caught in the Antarctic in 1947–48, the smaller average size (a few feet) of sexually and physically mature fin whales caught by the Japanese around 50°S, and smaller, darker sexually immature fin whales caught in the Antarctic which he believed were a "migratory phase" of his proposed subspecies. The subspecies has not been genetically established, and is not recognized by the Society for Marine Mammalogy.


title: Fin whale

text: The genetic distance between blue and fin whales has been compared to that between a gorilla and human (3.5 million years on the evolutionary tree.) Nevertheless, hybrid individuals between blue and fin whales with characteristics of both are known to occur with relative frequency in both the North Atlantic and North Pacific.


title: Fin whale

text: The DNA profile of a sampling of whale meat in the Japanese market found evidence of blue/fin hybrids.


title: Fin whale

text: In the Northern Hemisphere, the average size of adult males and females is about , respectively, averaging 38.5 and 50.5 tonnes (42.5 and 55.5 tons), while in the Southern Hemisphere, it is , weighing 52.5 and 63 tonnes (58 and 69.5 tons).


title: Fin whale

text: In the North Atlantic, the longest reported were a 24.4 m (80 ft) male caught off Shetland in 1905 and a female caught off Scotland sometime between 1908 and 1914, while the longest reliably measured were three 20.7 m (68 ft) males caught off Iceland in 1973–74 and a 22.5 m (74 ft) female also caught off Iceland in 1975. Mediterranean population are generally smaller, reaching just above 20 m (65.5 ft) at maximum, or possibly up to .


title: Fin whale

text: In the North Pacific, the longest reported were three 22.9 m (75 ft) males, two caught off California between 1919 and 1926 and the other caught off Alaska in 1925, and a 24.7 m (81 ft) female also caught off California, while the longest reliably measured were a 21 m (69 ft) male caught off British Columbia in 1959 and a 22.9 m (75 ft) female caught off central California between 1959 and 1970.


title: Fin whale

text: In the Southern Hemisphere, the longest reported were a 25 m (82 ft) male and a 27.3 m (89.6 ft) female, while the longest measured by Mackintosh and Wheeler (1929) were a 22.65 m (74.3 ft) male and a 24.53 m (80.5 ft) female. Major F. A. Spencer, while whaling inspector of the factory ship "Southern Princess" (1936–38), confirmed the length of a female caught in the Antarctic, south of the Indian Ocean; scientist David Edward Gaskin also measured a 25.9 m female as whaling inspector of the British factory ship "Southern Venturer" in the Southern Ocean in the 1961–62 season. Terence Wise, who worked as a winch operator aboard the British factory ship "Balaena", claimed that "the biggest fin [he] ever saw" was a specimen caught near Bouvet Island in January 1958. The largest fin whale ever weighed (piecemeal) was a pregnant female caught by Japanese whalers in the Antarctic in 1948 which weighed , not including 6% for loss of fluids during the flensing process. An individual at the maximum confirmed size of 25.9 m is estimated to weigh around 95 tonnes (104.5 tons), varying from about 76 tonnes (84 tons) to 114 tonnes (125.5 tons) depending on fat condition which varies by about 50% during the year.


title: Fin whale

text: The fin whale is brownish to dark or light gray dorsally and white ventrally. The left side of the head is dark gray, while the right side exhibits a complex pattern of contrasting light and dark markings. On the right lower jaw is a white or light gray "right mandible patch", which sometimes extends out as a light "blaze" laterally and dorsally unto the upper jaw and back to just behind the blowholes. Two narrow dark stripes originate from the eye and ear, the former widening into a large dark area on the shoulder—these are separated by a light area called the "interstripe wash". These markings are more prominent on individuals in the North Atlantic than in the North Pacific, where they can appear indistinct. The left side exhibits similar but much fainter markings. Dark, oval-shaped areas of pigment called "flipper shadows" extend below and posterior to the pectoral fins. This type of asymmetry is seen in Omura's whale and occasionally in minke whales. It was thought to have evolved because the whale swims on its right side when surface lunging and it sometimes circles to the right while at the surface above a prey patch. However, the whales just as often circle to the left. No accepted hypothesis explains the asymmetry.


title: Fin whale

text: It has paired blowholes and a broad, flat, V-shaped rostrum. A light V-shaped marking, the chevron, begins behind the blowholes and extends back and then forward again.


title: Fin whale

text: The whale has a series of 56–100 pleats or grooves along the bottom of the body that run from the tip of the chin to the navel that allow the throat area to expand greatly during feeding. It has a curved, prominent dorsal fin that ranges in height from (usually ) and averages about , lying about three quarters of the way along the back. Its flippers are small and tapered and its tail is wide, pointed at the tip, and notched in the centre.


title: Fin whale

text: When the whale surfaces, the dorsal fin is visible soon after the spout. The spout is vertical and narrow and can reach heights of or more.


title: Fin whale

text: The oral cavity of the fin whale has a very stretchy or extensible nerve system which aids them in feeding.


title: Fin whale

text: Mating occurs in temperate, low-latitude seas during the winter, followed by an 11- to 12-month gestation period. A newborn weans from its mother at 6 or 7 months of age when it is in length, and the accompanies the mother to the summer feeding ground. Females reproduce every 2 or 3 years, with as many as six fetuses being reported, but single births are far more common. Females reach sexual maturity between 6 and 12 years of age at lengths of in the Northern Hemisphere and in the Southern Hemisphere. Calves remain with their mothers for about one year.


title: Fin whale

text: Full physical maturity is attained between 25 and 30 years. Fin whales have a maximum life span of at least 94 years of age, although specimens have been found aged at an estimated 135–140 years.


title: Fin whale

text: The fin whale is one of the fastest cetaceans and can sustain speeds between and and bursts up to have been recorded, earning the fin whale the nickname "the greyhound of the sea".


title: Fin whale

text: Fin whales are more gregarious than other rorquals, and often live in groups of 6–10, although feeding groups may reach up to 100 animals.


title: Fin whale

text: Like other whales, males make long, loud, low-frequency sounds. The vocalizations of blue and fin whales are the lowest-frequency sounds made by any animal. Most sounds are frequency-modulated (FM) down-swept infrasonic pulses from 16 to 40 hertz frequency (the range of sounds that most humans can hear falls between 20 hertz and 20 kilohertz). Each sound lasts one to two seconds, and various sound combinations occur in patterned sequences lasting 7 to 15 minutes each. The whale then repeats the sequences in bouts lasting up to many days. The vocal sequences have source levels of up to 184–186 decibels relative to 1 micropascal at a reference distance of one metre and can be detected hundreds of miles from their source.


title: Fin whale

text: When fin whale sounds were first recorded by US biologists, they did not realize that these unusually loud, long, pure and regular sounds were being made by whales. They first investigated the possibilities that the sounds were due to equipment malfunction, geophysical phenomena, or even part of a Soviet Union scheme for detecting enemy submarines. Eventually, biologists demonstrated that the sounds were the vocalizations of fin whales.


title: Fin whale

text: Direct association of these vocalizations with the reproductive season for the species and that only males make the sounds point to these vocalizations as possible reproductive displays. Over the past 100 years, the dramatic increase in ocean noise from shipping and naval activity may have slowed the recovery of the fin whale population, by impeding communications between males and receptive females.


title: Fin whale

text: Fin whale songs can penetrate over 2,500 m (8,200 ft) below the sea floor and seismologists can use those song waves to assist in underwater surveys.


title: Fin whale

text: When feeding, they blow five to seven times in quick succession, but while traveling or resting will blow once every minute or two. On their terminal (last) dive they arch their back high out of the water, but rarely raise their flukes out of the water. They then dive to depths of up to when feeding or a few hundred feet when resting or traveling. The average feeding dive off California and Baja lasts 6 minutes, with a maximum of 17 minutes; when traveling or resting they usually dive for only a few minutes at a time.


title: Fin whale

text: Like many large rorquals, the fin whale is a cosmopolitan species. It is found in all the world's major oceans and in waters ranging from the polar to the tropical. It is absent only from waters close to the ice pack at both the north and south extremities and relatively small areas of water away from the large oceans, such as the Red Sea, although they can reach into the Baltic Sea, a marginal sea of such conditions. The highest population density occurs in temperate and cool waters. It is less densely populated in the warmest, equatorial regions.


title: Fin whale

text: The North Atlantic fin whale has an extensive distribution, occurring from the Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea, northward to Baffin Bay and Spitsbergen. In general, fin whales are more common north of approximately 30°N latitude, but considerable confusion arises about their occurrence south of 30°N latitude because of the difficulty in distinguishing fin whales from Bryde's whales. Extensive ship surveys have led researchers to conclude that the summer feeding range of fin whales in the western North Atlantic is mainly between 41°20'N and 51°00'N, from shore seaward to the contour.


title: Fin whale

text: Summer distribution of fin whales in the North Pacific is the immediate offshore waters from central Baja California to Japan and as far north as the Chukchi Sea bordering the Arctic Ocean. They occur in high densities in the northern Gulf of Alaska and southeastern Bering Sea between May and October, with some movement through the Aleutian passes into and out of the Bering Sea. Several whales tagged between November and January off southern California were killed in the summer off central California, Oregon, British Columbia, and in the Gulf of Alaska. Fin whales have been observed feeding 250 miles south of Hawaii in mid-May, and several winter sightings have been made there. Some researchers have suggested that the whales migrate into Hawaiian waters primarily in the autumn and winter.


title: Fin whale

text: Although fin whales are certainly migratory, moving seasonally in and out of high-latitude feeding areas, the overall migration pattern is not well understood. Acoustic readings from passive-listening hydrophone arrays indicate a southward migration of the North Atlantic fin whale occurs in the autumn from the Labrador-Newfoundland region, south past Bermuda, and into the West Indies. One or more populations of fin whales are thought to remain year-round in high latitudes, moving offshore, but not southward in late autumn. A study based on resightings of identified fin whales in Massachusetts Bay indicates that calves often learn migratory routes from their mothers and return to their mother's feeding area in subsequent years.


title: Fin whale

text: In the Pacific, migration patterns are poorly characterized. Although some fin whales are apparently present year-round in the Gulf of California, there is a significant increase in their numbers in the winter and spring. Southern fin whales migrate seasonally from relatively high-latitude Antarctic feeding grounds in the summer to low-latitude breeding and calving areas in the winter. The location of winter breeding areas is still unknown, since these whales tend to migrate in the open ocean.


title: Fin whale

text: North Atlantic fin whales are defined by the International Whaling Commission to exist in one of seven discrete population zones: Nova Scotia-New England, Newfoundland-Labrador, western Greenland, eastern Greenland-Iceland, North Norway, West Norway-Faroe Islands, and Ireland-Spain-United Kingdom-Portugal. Results of mark-and-recapture surveys have indicated that some movement occurs across the boundaries of these zones, suggesting that they are not entirely discrete and that some immigration and emigration does occur. Sigurjónsson estimated in 1995 that total pre-exploitation population size in the entire North Atlantic ranged between 50,000 and 100,000 animals, but his research is criticized for lack of supporting data and an explanation of his reasoning. In 1977, D.E. Sergeant suggested a "primeval" aggregate total of 30,000 to 50,000 throughout the North Atlantic. Of that number, 8,000 to 9,000 would have resided in the Newfoundland and Nova Scotia areas, with whales summering in U.S. waters south of Nova Scotia presumably omitted. J. M. Breiwick estimated that the "exploitable" (above the legal size limit of 50 feet) component of the Nova Scotia population was 1,500 to 1,600 animals in 1964, reduced to only about 325 in 1973. Two aerial surveys in Canadian waters since the early 1970s gave numbers of 79 to 926 whales on the eastern Newfoundland-Labrador shelf in August 1980, and a few hundred in the northern and central Gulf of Saint Lawrence in August 1995 – 1996. Summer estimates in the waters off western Greenland range between 500 and 2,000, and in 1974, Jonsgard considered the fin whales off Western Norway and the Faroe Islands to "have been considerably depleted in postwar years, probably by overexploitation". The population around Iceland appears to have fared much better, and in 1981, appeared to have undergone only a minor decline since the early 1960s. Surveys during the summers of 1987 and 1989 estimated of 10,000 to 11,000 between eastern Greenland and Norway. This shows a substantial recovery when compared to a survey in 1976 showing an estimate of 6,900, which was considered to be a "slight" decline since 1948. A Spanish NASS survey in 1989 of the France-Portugal-Spain sub-area estimated a summer population range at 17,355.


title: Fin whale

text: Satellite tracking revealed that those found in Pelagos Sanctuary migrate southward to off Tunisia, Malta, Pantelleria, and Sicily, and also possibly winter off coastal southern Italy, Sardinia, within the Strait of Messina, Aeolian Islands, and off Catalonia, Cabrera Archipelago, Libya, Kerkennah Islands, Tuscan Archipelago, Ischia and adjacent gulfs (e.g. Naples and Pozzuoli), winter feeding ground of Lampedusa, and whales may recolonize out of the Ligurian Sea to other areas such as in Ionian and in Adriatic Sea. Biology of the species along southern and southeastern parts of the basin such as off Libya, Algeria, and northern Egypt, is unclear due to lacks of scientific approaches although whales have been confirmed off the furthermost of the basin such as along in shore waters of Levantine Sea including Israel, Lebanon, and Cyprus. Documented records within Turkish waters have been in very small numbers; one sighting off Antalya in 1994 and five documented strandings as of 2016. and a recent sighting on 9 February 2021 by fishermen off the coast of Adana has been documented with images.


title: Fin whale

text: It has been shown that populations of Fin whales within the mediterranean have preferred feeding locations that partially overlap with high concentrations of plastic pollution and microplastic debris. High concentrations of microplastics most likely overlap with Fin whales preferred feeding grounds because both microplastic and the whale's food sources are in close proximity to high trophic upwelling areas.


title: Fin whale

text: The total historical North Pacific population was estimated at 42,000 to 45,000 before the start of whaling. Of this, the population in the eastern portion of the North Pacific was estimated to be 25,000 to 27,000. By 1975, the estimate had declined to between 8,000 and 16,000. Surveys conducted in 1991, 1993, 1996, and 2001 produced estimates between 1,600 and 3,200 off California and 280 and 380 off Oregon and Washington. The minimum estimate for the California-Oregon-Washington population, as defined in the "U.S. Pacific Marine Mammal Stock Assessments: 2005", is about 2,500. Surveys in coastal waters of British Columbia in summers 2004 and 2005 produced abundance estimates of approximately 500 animals. Surveys near the Pribilof Islands in the Bering Sea indicated a substantial increase in the local abundance of fin whales between 1975–1978 and 1987–1989. In 1984, the entire population was estimated to be less than 38% of its historic carrying capacity. Fin whales might have started returning to the coastal waters off British Columbia (a sighting occurred in Johnstone Strait in 2011) and Kodiak Island. Size of the local population migrating to Hawaiian Archipelago is unknown. Historically, several other wintering grounds were scattered in the North Pacific in the past, such as off the Northern Mariana Islands, Bonin Islands, and Ryukyu Islands. There was a sighting of 3 animals nearby Borneo and Palawan in 1999.


title: Fin whale

text: For Asian stocks, resident groups may exist in the Yellow Sea and East China Sea, and the Sea of Japan (though these populations are critically endangered and the population off China, Korea, and Japan are either near extinction or in very small numbers). Very small increases in sightings have been confirmed off Shiretoko Peninsula, Abashiri, Kushiro, Tsushima, and Sado Island. off Maiduru


title: Fin whale

text: Studies of historical catches suggest several resident groups once existed in the North Pacific—the Baja California group and the Yellow Sea–East China Sea (including Ryukyu Islands and western Kyusyu) group. Additionally, respective groups in northern Sea of Japan and the group along Pacific coasts of Japan from Hokkaido to Sanriku might have been resident or less migratory, as well. The only modern record among Ryukyu Islands was of a rotten carcass beached on Ishigaki Island in 2005. Regarding Yellow Sea, a juvenile was accidentally killed along Boryeong in 2014.


title: Fin whale

text: There had been congregation areas among Sea of Japan to Yellow Sea such as in East Korea Bay, along eastern coasts of Korean Peninsula, and Ulleungdo.


title: Fin whale

text: Modern sightings around the Commander Islands have been annual but not in great numbers, and whales likely to migrate through the areas rather than summering, and possible mixing of western and eastern populations are expected to occur in this waters.


title: Fin whale

text: Very little information has been revealed about the ecology of current migration from Antarctic waters are unknown, but small increases in sighting rates are confirmed off New Zealand, such as off Kaikoura, and wintering grounds may exist in further north such as in Papua New Guinea, Fiji, and off East Timor. Confirmations in Rarotonga have been increased recently where interactions with humpback whales occur on occasions. Finbacks are also relatively abundant along the coast of Peru and Chile (in Chile, most notably off Los Lagos region such as Gulf of Corcovado in Chiloé National Park, , port of Mejillones, and Caleta Zorra. Year-round confirmations indicate possible residents off pelagic north eastern to central Chile such as around coastal and Pingüino de Humboldt National Reserve, east of Juan Fernández Islands, and northeast of Easter Island and possible wintering ground exist for eastern south Pacific population.


title: Fin whale

text: Among Northern Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal, such as along Sri Lanka, India, and Malaysia, sightings and older records of fin whales exist.


title: Fin whale

text: Relatively little is known about the historical and current population levels of the southern fin whale. The IWC officially estimates that the Southern Hemisphere pre-whaling population was 400,000 whales and that the population in 1979 (at the cessation of Antarctic large scale whaling) was 85,200. Both the current and historical estimates should be considered as poor estimates because the methodology and data used in the study are known to be flawed. Other estimates cite current size to be between 15,000 (1983) and 38,000 (1997). As of 2006, there is no scientifically accepted estimate of current population or trends in abundance.


title: Fin whale

text: The only known predator of the fin whale is the killer whale, with at least 20 eyewitness and second-hand accounts of attack or harassment. They usually flee and offer little resistance to attack. Only a few confirmed fatalities have occurred. In October 2005, 16 killer whales attacked and killed a fin whale in the Canal de Ballenas, Gulf of California, after chasing it for about an hour. They fed on its sinking carcass for about 15 minutes before leaving the area. In June 2012, a pod of killer whales was seen in La Paz Bay, in the Gulf of California, chasing a fin whale for over an hour before finally killing it and feeding on its carcass. The whale bore numerous tooth rakes over its back and dorsal fin; several killer whales flanked it on either side, with one individual visible under water biting at its right lower jaw. In July 1908, a whaler reportedly saw two killer whales attack and kill a fin whale off western Greenland. In January 1984, seven were seen from the air circling, holding the flippers, and ramming a fin whale in the Gulf of California, but the observation ended at nightfall.


title: Fin whale

text: The fin whale is a filter-feeder, feeding on small schooling fish, squid and crustaceans including copepods and krill. In the North Pacific, they feed on krill in the genera "Euphausia", "Thysanoessa", and "Nyctiphanes", large copepods in the genus "Neocalanus", small schooling fish (e.g. the genera "Engraulis", "Mallotus", "Clupea", and "Theragra"), and squid. Based on stomach content analysis of over 19,500 fin whales caught by the Japanese whaling fleet in the North Pacific from 1952 to 1971, 64.1% contained only krill, 25.5% copepods, 5.0% fish, 3.4% krill and copepods and 1.7% squid. Nemoto (1959) analyzed the stomach contents of about 7500 fin whales caught in the northern North Pacific and Bering Sea from 1952 to 1958, found that they mainly preyed on euphausiids around the Aleutian Islands and in the Gulf of Alaska and schooling fish in the northern Bering Sea and off Kamchatka. In the northern Bering Sea (north of 58°N), their main prey species were capelin ("Mallotus villosus"), Alaska pollock ("Theragra chalcogramma") and Pacific herring ("Clupea pallasii"); they also consumed saffron cod ("Eleginus gracilis"). Arctic krill ("Thysanoessa raschii") was the only species of euphausiid found in the stomachs of fin whales in the northern Bering Sea. Off Kamchatka, they appeared to primarily feed on herring. They also took large quantities of the copepod "Neocalanus cristatus" around the Aleutian Islands and in Olyutor Bay off northeast Kamchatka, areas where the species was abundant. Five species of euphausiid ("Euphausia pacifica", "Thysanoessa spinifera", "T. inermis", "T. raschii", and "T. longipes") were the predominant prey around the Aleutian Islands and in the Gulf of Alaska. Prey varied by region in the Kuril Islands area, with euphausiids ("T. longipes", "T. inermis", and "T. raschii") and copepods ("Neocalanus plumchrus" and "N. cristatus") being the main prey in the northern area and Japanese flying squid ("Todarodes pacificus pacificus") and small schooling fish (e.g. Pacific saury, "Cololabis saira"; and Japanese anchovy, "Engraulis japonicus") dominating the diet in the southern area.


title: Fin whale

text: Of the fin whale stomachs sampled off British Columbia between 1963 and 1967, euphausiids dominated the diet for four of the five years (82.3 to 100% of the diet), while copepods only formed a major portion of the diet in 1965 (35.7%). Miscellaneous fish, squid, and octopus played only a very minor part of the diet in two of the five years (3.6 to 4.8%). Fin whales caught off California between 1959 and 1970 fed on the pelagic euphausiid "Euphausia pacifica" (86% of sampled individuals), the more neritic euphausiid "Thysanoessa spinifera" (9%), and the northern anchovy ("Engraulis mordax") (7%); only trace amounts (<0.5% each) were found of Pacific saury ("C. saira") and juvenile rockfish ("Sebastes jordani"). In the Gulf of California, they have been observed feeding on swarms of the euphausiid "Nyctiphanes simplex".


title: Fin whale

text: In the North Atlantic, they prey on euphausiids in the genera "Meganyctiphanes", "Thysanoessa" and "Nyctiphanes" and small schooling fish (e.g. the genera "Clupea", "Mallotus", and "Ammodytes"). Of the 1,609 fin whale stomachs examined at the Hvalfjörður whaling station in southwestern Iceland from 1967 to 1989 (caught between June and September), 96% contained only krill, 2.5% krill and fish, 0.8% some fish remains, 0.7% capelin ("M. villosus"), and 0.1% sandeel (family Ammodytidae); a small proportion of (mainly juvenile) blue whiting ("Micromesistius poutassou") were also found. Of the krill sampled between 1979 and 1989, the vast majority (over 99%) was northern krill ("Meganyctiphanes norvegica"); only one stomach contained "Thysanoessa longicaudata". Off West Greenland, 75% of the fin whales caught between July and October had consumed krill (family Euphausiidae), 17% capelin ("Mallotus") and 8% sand lance ("Ammodytes sp."). Off eastern Newfoundland, they chiefly feed on capelin, but also take small quantities of euphausiids (mostly "T. raschii" and "T. inermis"). In the Ligurian-Corsican-Provençal Basin in the Mediterranean Sea they make dives as deep as to feed on the euphausiid "Meganyctiphanes norvegica", while off the island of Lampedusa, between Tunisia and Sicily, they have been observed in mid-winter feeding on surface swarms of the small euphausiid "Nyctiphanes couchi".


title: Fin whale

text: In the Southern Hemisphere, they feed almost exclusively on euphausiids (mainly the genera "Euphausia" and "Thysanoessa"), as well as taking small amounts of amphipods (e.g. "Themisto gaudichaudii") and various species of fish. Of the more than 16,000 fin whales caught by the Japanese whaling fleet in the Southern Hemisphere between 1961 and 1965 that contained food in their stomachs, 99.4% fed on euphausiids, 0.5% on fish, and 0.1% on amphipods. In the Southern Ocean they mainly consume "E. superba".


title: Fin whale

text: The animal feeds by opening its jaws while swimming at some in one study, which causes it to engulf up to of water in one gulp. It then closes its jaws and pushes the water back out of its mouth through its baleen, which allows the water to leave while trapping the prey. An adult has between 262 and 473 baleen plates on each side of the mouth. Each plate is made of keratin that frays out into fine hairs on the ends inside the mouth near the tongue. Each plate can measure up to in length and in width.


title: Fin whale

text: The whale routinely dives to depths of more than where it executes an average of four "lunges", to accumulate krill. Each gulp provides the whale with approximately of food. One whale can consume up to of food a day, leading scientists to conclude that the whale spends about three hours a day feeding to meet its energy requirements, roughly the same as humans. If prey "patches" are not sufficiently dense, or are located too deep in the water, the whale has to spend a larger portion of its day searching for food. One hunting technique is to circle schools of fish at high speed, frightening the fish into a tight ball, then turning on its side before engulfing the massed prey.


title: Fin whale

text: Fin whales suffer from a number of pathological conditions. The parasitic copepod "Pennella balaenopterae"—usually found on the flank of fin whales—burrows into their blubber to feed on their blood, while the pseudo-stalked barnacle "Xenobalanus globicipitis" is generally found more often on the dorsal fin, pectoral fins, and flukes.


title: Fin whale

text: Other barnacles found on fin whales include the acorn barnacle "Coronula reginae" and the stalked barnacle "Conchoderma auritum", which attaches to "Coronula" or the baleen. The harpacticid copepod "Balaenophilus unisetus" (heavy infestations of which have been found in fin whales caught off northwestern Spain) and the ciliate "Haematophagus" also infest the baleen, the former feeding on the baleen itself and the latter on red blood cells.


title: Fin whale

text: The remora "Remora australis" and occasionally the amphipod "Cyamus balaenopterae" can also be found on fin whales, both feeding on the skin. Infestations of the giant nematode "Crassicauda boopis" can cause inflammation of the renal arteries and potential kidney failure, while the smaller "C. crassicauda" infects the lower urinary tract. Out of 87 whales taken and necropsied from the North Atlantic, infection from "Crassicauda" "boopis" was found to be very prevalent and invasive, indicating high probability that it was responsible for causing death in these whales. "C. boopis" was found in 94% of the whales examined. The worms were usually enveloped by "exuberant tissue reactions which in some whales obstructed multiple renal veins". The parasite was most likely by environmental contamination, involving shedding of larvae in urine. Major inflammatory lesions in the mesenteric arteries suggested that the worm larvae were ingested and migrated to the kidney.


title: Fin whale

text: These observations suggest that infection from "C. boopis" can be "lethal by inducing congestive renal failure". Injury to the vascular system is also a result of moderate infections. Therefore, the implication can be made that the feeding migration of fin whales every year in circumpolar waters can be associated with pathologic risk.


title: Fin whale

text: An emaciated female fin whale, which stranded along the Belgian coast in 1997, was found to be infected with lesions of "Morbillivirus". In January 2011, a emaciated adult male fin whale stranded dead on the Tyrrhenian coastline of Italy was found to be infected with "Morbillivirus" and the protozoa "Toxoplasma gondii", as well as carrying heavy loads of organochlorine pollutants.


title: Fin whale

text: In the 19th century, the fin whale was occasionally hunted by open-boat whalers, but it was relatively safe, because it could easily outrun ships of the time and often sank when killed, making the pursuit a waste of time for whalers. However, the later introduction of steam-powered boats and harpoons that exploded on impact made it possible to kill and secure them along with blue and sei whales on an industrial scale. As other whale species became overhunted, the whaling industry turned to the still-abundant fin whale as a substitute. It was primarily hunted for its blubber, oil, and baleen. Around 704,000 fin whales were caught in Antarctic whaling operations alone between 1904 and 1975.


title: Fin whale

text: The introduction of factory ships with stern slipways in 1925 substantially increased the number of whales taken per year. In 1937–38 alone, over 29,000 fin whales were taken. From 1953–54 to 1961–62, the catch averaged over 30,000 per year. By 1962–63, sei whale catches began to increase as fin whales became scarce. By 1975–76, fewer than 1,000 fin whales were being caught each year. In the North Pacific, over 74,000 fin whales were caught between 1910 and 1975. Between 1910 and 1989, over 55,000 were caught in the North Atlantic. Coastal groups in northeast Asian waters, along with many other baleen species, were likely driven into serious perils or functional extinctions by industrial catches by Japan covering wide ranges of China and Korean EEZ within very short period in 20th century. Migrations of the species into Japanese EEZ and in East China Sea were likely to be exterminated relatively earlier, as the last catch records on Amami Ōshima was between the 1910s and 1930s. After the cease of exploiting Asian stocks, Japan kept mass commercial and illegal hunts until 1975. Several thousand individuals were hunted from various stations mainly along coasts of Hokkaido, Sanriku, and the Gotō Islands.


title: Fin whale

text: The IWC prohibited hunting in the Southern Hemisphere in 1976. The Soviet Union engaged in the illegal killing of protected whale species in the North Pacific and Southern Hemisphere, over-reporting fin whale catches to cover up illegal takes of other species. In the North Pacific, they reported taking over 10,000 fin whales between 1961 and 1979, while the true catch was less than 9,000. In the Southern Hemisphere, they reported taking nearly 53,000 between 1948 and 1973, when the true total was a little over 41,000. The fin whale was given full protection from commercial whaling by the IWC in the North Pacific in 1976, and in the North Atlantic in 1987, with small exceptions for aboriginal catches and catches for research purposes. All populations worldwide remain listed as endangered species by the US National Marine Fisheries Service and the International Conservation Union Red List. The fin whale is on Appendix 1 of CITES.


title: Fin whale

text: The IWC has set a quota of 19 fin whales per year for Greenland. Meat and other products from whales killed in these hunts are widely marketed within Greenland, but export is illegal. Iceland and Norway are not bound by the IWC's moratorium on commercial whaling because both countries filed objections to it.


title: Fin whale

text: In October 2006, Iceland's fisheries ministry authorized the hunting of 9 fin whales through August 2007. In 2009 and 2010, Iceland caught 125 and 148 fin whales, respectively. An Icelandic company, Hvalur, caught over a hundred fin whales in 2014, and exported a record quantity of 2071 tonnes in a single shipment in 2014. Since 2006, Hvalur has caught more than 500 fin whales and exported more than 5000 tonnes of whale meat to Japan.


title: Fin whale

text: In the Southern Hemisphere, Japan permits annual takes of 10 fin whales under its Antarctic Special Permit whaling program for the 2005–2006 and 2006–2007 seasons. The proposal for 2007–2008 and the subsequent 12 seasons allows taking 50 per year. While 10 fin whales were caught in the 2005–06 season and three in the 2006–07 season, none were caught in the 2007–2008 season. A single fin whale was caught in both the 2008–09 and 2009–10 seasons, two were taken in the 2010–11 season, and one was taken in the 2011–12 season.


title: Fin whale

text: Fin whales have been targets of illegal captures using harpoons for dolphin hunts or intentionally drive whales into nets.


title: Fin whale

text: Collisions with ships are a major cause of mortality. In some areas, they cause a substantial portion of large whale strandings. Most serious injuries are caused by large, fast-moving ships over or near continental shelves.


title: Fin whale

text: A 60-foot-long fin whale was found stuck on the bow of a container ship in New York harbour on 12 April 2014.


title: Fin whale

text: Two dead fin whales, one 65 feet and one 25 feet, were discovered stuck to the Australian destroyer HMAS "Sydney" in May 2021 when the ship arrived in Naval Base San Diego.


title: Fin whale

text: Ship collisions frequently occur in Tsushima Strait and result in damaging all of whales, passengers, and vessels, hence the Japanese Coast Guard has started visual recordings of large cetaceans in Tsushima Strait to inform operating vessels in the areas.


title: Fin whale

text: Several fin whale skeletons are exhibited in North America. The Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County in Los Angeles, California has an exhibit entitled the "Fin Whale Passage", which displays a fin whale skeleton collected by former museum osteologist Eugene Fischer and field collector Howard Hill in 1926 from the Trinidad whaling station (1920–1926) in Humboldt County, northern California. A steel armature supports the skeleton, which is accompanied by sculpted flukes. Science North, a science museum in Greater Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, has a fin whale skeleton collected from Anticosti Island hanging from the fourth floor of its main building. A skeleton hangs in the atrium (renovated in 2019–2020) of the science-mathematics building at Knox College (Illinois) in Galesburg, Illinois. Perhaps the largest fin whale skeleton exhibited is at The Grand Rapids Public Museum in Grand Rapids, Michigan, where a skeleton in the Galleria section hangs from the ceiling. Several fin whale skeletons are also exhibited in Europe. The Natural History Museum of Slovenia in Ljubljana, Slovenia, houses a female fin whale skeleton—the specimen had been found floating in the Gulf of Piran in the spring of 2003. The Hungarian Natural History Museum in Budapest, Hungary, displays a fin whale skeleton hanging near its main entrance which had been caught in the Atlantic Ocean in 1896 and purchased from Vienna in 1900. The Cambridge University Museum of Zoology, in Cambridge, United Kingdom, exhibits a nearly male fin whale skeleton, which had stranded at Pevensey, East Sussex, in November 1865.


title: Fin whale

text: The Otago Museum, in Dunedin, New Zealand, displays a fin whale skeleton, which had stranded on the beach at Nelson at the entrance of the Waimea River in 1882.


title: Fin whale

text: A 20m fin whale skeleton is exhibited at Van Thuy Tu Temple in Phan Thiết, Vietnam, where some local fishermen worship whales as near-divine beings who offer protection from storms.


title: Fin whale

text: Fin whales are regularly encountered on whale-watching excursions worldwide. In the Southern California Bight, fin whales are encountered year-round, with the best sightings between November and March. They can even be seen from land (for example, from Point Vicente, Palos Verdes, where they can be seen lunge feeding at the surface only a half mile to a few miles offshore). They are regularly sighted in the summer and fall in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the Gulf of Maine, the Bay of Fundy, the Bay of Biscay, Strait of Gibraltar, and the Mediterranean. In southern Ireland, they are seen inshore from June to February, with peak sightings in November and December.


title: Fin whale

text: The fin whale is listed on both Appendix I and Appendix II of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS).


title: Fin whale

text: In addition, the fin whale is covered by the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS) and the Memorandum of Understanding for the Conservation of Cetaceans and Their Habitats in the Pacific Islands Region (Pacific Cetaceans MOU).


title: John F. Kelly

text: John Francis Kelly (born May 11, 1950) is an American former political advisor and retired U.S. Marine Corps general who served as White House chief of staff for President Donald Trump from July 31, 2017, to January 2, 2019. He had previously served as Secretary of Homeland Security in the Trump administration and was commander of United States Southern Command. He is now a board member at Caliburn International.


title: John F. Kelly

text: Kelly enlisted in the Marine Corps during the Vietnam War and was commissioned as an officer near the end of college. He rose through the ranks, eventually serving in his last military post from 2012 to 2016 as a four-star general leading United States Southern Command, the unified combatant command responsible for American military operations in Central America, South America, and the Caribbean.


title: John F. Kelly

text: Prior to joining the Trump administration in January 2017, Kelly had been on the board of advisors of DC Capital Partners, an investment firm that now owns Caliburn.


title: John F. Kelly

text: Kelly was selected as the first Secretary of Homeland Security in the Trump administration. Kelly earned a reputation for being an aggressive enforcer of immigration law. After six months, he was selected to replace Reince Priebus as White House Chief of Staff in an attempt to bring more stability to the White House. He was the first career military officer to serve in the position since Alexander Haig during the Nixon and Ford Administrations.


title: John F. Kelly

text: Kelly was born on May 11, 1950, in Boston, Massachusetts, the son of Josephine "Honey" (Pedalino) and John F. Kelly. His family was Catholic, his father of Irish ancestry and his mother of Italian descent. His father was a postal worker in Brighton. He grew up in the Brighton neighborhood of Boston. Before he reached the age of 16, he hitchhiked to Washington state and rode the trains back, including a freight-hop from Seattle to Chicago. He then served for one year in the United States Merchant Marine, where he says "my first time overseas was taking 10,000 tons of beer to Vietnam".


title: John F. Kelly

text: In 1970, when his mother told him that his draft number was coming up, he enlisted in the U.S. Marine Corps. He served in an infantry company with the 2nd Marine Division at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, and was discharged to the inactive reserve as a sergeant in 1972 so that he could attend college. He returned to active duty with the Marines in 1975, completed Officer Candidates School, and was commissioned as a second lieutenant on December 27, 1975. In 1976, he graduated from the University of Massachusetts Boston and in 1984, he received a Master of Arts degree in National Security Affairs from the Georgetown School of Foreign Service. In 1995, Kelly graduated from the National Defense University in Washington, DC with a Master of Science in Strategic Studies.


title: John F. Kelly

text: Kelly returned to the Second Marine Division where he served as a rifle platoon and weapons platoon commander, company executive officer, assistant operations officer, and rifle company commander. Sea duty in Mayport, Florida, followed, at which time he served aboard aircraft carriers and . In 1980, then-Captain Kelly attended the U.S. Army's Infantry Officer Advanced Course at Fort Benning, Georgia. After graduation, he was assigned to Headquarters Marine Corps in Washington, D.C., serving there from 1981 through 1984, as an assignment monitor. Kelly returned to the Second Marine Division in 1984, to command a rifle company and weapons company. Promoted to major in 1987, he then served as a battalion operations officer.


title: John F. Kelly

text: In 1987, Kelly transferred to the Basic School in Quantico, Virginia, serving first as the head of the Offensive Tactics Section, Tactics Group, and later assuming the duties of the Director of the Infantry Officer Course. After three years of instructing young officers, he attended the Marine Corps Command and Staff College, and the School for Advanced Warfare, both located at Quantico.


title: John F. Kelly

text: Completing duty under instruction and selected for lieutenant colonel, he was assigned as commanding officer, 1st Light Armored Reconnaissance Battalion (1st LAR), 1st Marine Division, Camp Pendleton, California. During his tenure, 1st LAR was called in to provide augmentation support for police in the city of Long Beach, California during the Los Angeles riots of 1992. Holding this command position for two years, Kelly returned to the East Coast in 1994, to attend the National War College in Washington, D.C. He graduated in 1995 and was selected to serve as the Commandant's Liaison Officer to the U.S. House of Representatives, Capitol Hill, where he was promoted to colonel.


title: John F. Kelly

text: In 1999, Kelly transferred to joint duty and served as the special assistant to the Supreme Allied Commander, Europe, in Mons, Belgium. He returned to the United States in 2001 and was assigned to a third tour of duty at Camp Lejeune, now as the assistant chief of staff G-3 with the Second Marine Division. In 2002, Kelly again served with the 1st Marine Division, this time as the assistant division commander. Much of Kelly's two-year assignment was spent deployed in Iraq. In March 2003, while in Iraq, Kelly was promoted to brigadier general, which was the first known promotion of a Marine Corps colonel in an active combat zone since that of another First Marine Division assistant division commander, Chesty Puller, in January 1951.


title: John F. Kelly

text: In April 2003, Kelly took command of the newly formed Task Force Tripoli and drove it north from Baghdad into Samarra and Tikrit. Kelly has stated that during the initial assault on Baghdad he was asked by a reporter for "The Los Angeles Times" if, considering the size of the Iraqi Army and the vast supplies of tanks, artillery and chemical weapons available to Saddam's forces, he would ever consider defeat. Kelly's response, as recounted by him at a 2007 San Diego Military Advisory Council networking breakfast, was, "hell these are Marines. Men like them held Guadalcanal and took Iwo Jima, Baghdad ain't shit." [sic]


title: John F. Kelly

text: His next assignment was as legislative assistant to the Commandant of the Marine Corps, Michael Hagee. In January 2007, Kelly was nominated for major general, and confirmed by the U.S. Senate on September 11, 2007.


title: John F. Kelly

text: Kelly's next assignment, in July 2007, was as commanding general, I Marine Expeditionary Force (Forward). On February 9, 2008 Kelly assumed command of the Multi-National Force–West in Iraq, replacing Major General Walter E. Gaskin. After a year in Iraq, Kelly returned to the United States in February 2009.


title: John F. Kelly

text: Kelly was nominated for lieutenant general on March 9, 2011, and confirmed by the U.S. Senate on March 16, 2011.


title: John F. Kelly

text: Kelly was the senior military assistant to the Secretary of Defense and personally greeted Secretary Leon Panetta at the entrance to the Pentagon on July 1, 2011, Panetta's first day as secretary. Kelly was nominated for General on January 31, 2012, and confirmed by the U.S. Senate on July 26, 2012. He succeeded General Douglas M. Fraser as commander of U.S. Southern Command on November 19, 2012.


title: John F. Kelly

text: If you think this war against our way of life is over because some of the self-appointed opinion-makers and chattering class grow 'war weary,' because they want to be out of Iraq or Afghanistan, you are mistaken. This enemy is dedicated to our destruction. He will fight us for generations, and the conflict will move through various phases as it has since 9/11.


title: John F. Kelly

text: On December 7, 2016, then President-elect Donald Trump nominated Kelly to head the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), a cabinet-level position. People familiar with the transition said that Trump's team was drawn to Kelly because of his southwest border expertise. On January 20, 2017, Kelly was confirmed as Secretary of Homeland Security by the United States Senate with a vote of 88–11. On that evening, he was sworn in by Vice President Mike Pence.


title: John F. Kelly

text: In an April 2017 speech at George Washington University, Kelly said, "If lawmakers do not like the laws they've passed and we are charged to enforce, then they should have the courage and skill to change the laws. Otherwise they should shut up and support the men and women on the front lines."


title: John F. Kelly

text: Kelly indicated days into the administration his interest in having the U.S.–Mexico border wall completed within two years. On April 21, 2017, Kelly said the U.S.–Mexico border wall would begin construction "by the end of the summer." Two days later, Kelly said he believed "a border wall is essential" as there were "tremendous threats" such as drugs and individuals coming into the US. On May 2, Kelly stated his surprise in office holders "rejoicing in the fact that the wall will be slower to be built and, consequently, the southwest border under less control than it could be."


title: John F. Kelly

text: In May 2017, Kelly said of terrorism, "It's everywhere. It's constant. It's nonstop. The good news for us in America is we have amazing people protecting us every day. But it can happen here almost anytime." He said that the threat from terrorism was so severe that some people would "never leave the house" if they knew the truth. In July, Kelly allegedly blocked Milwaukee County Sheriff David Clarke from taking a position in the DHS, though it was never confirmed.


title: John F. Kelly

text: Of his tenure as Secretary of Homeland Security, "USA Today" wrote, "Kelly oversaw some of the most controversial policies of Trump's agenda, including a travel ban targeting several majority-Muslim countries, a reduction in refugee admissions and stepped-up deportations of undocumented immigrants." According to the "New Yorker", Kelly left the DHS with a


title: John F. Kelly

text: reputation as one of the most aggressive enforcers of immigration law in recent American history. His record belies the short length of his tenure. In six months, Kelly eliminated guidelines that governed federal immigration agents' work; vastly expanded the categories of immigrants being targeted for deportation; threatened to abandon the Obama-era program that grants legal status to undocumented immigrants who were brought to the U.S. as children; and has even broached the idea of splitting up mothers and children at the border to "deter" people from coming to the U.S.


title: John F. Kelly

text: The DHS under Kelly "became one of the few branches of the federal government that has been both willing and able to execute Trump's policy priorities." Unlike other agency heads, Kelly did not clash with Trump.


title: John F. Kelly

text: Trump appointed Kelly to the post of White House Chief of Staff on July 28, 2017, replacing Reince Priebus. Priebus's ousting and Kelly's appointment followed an internal power struggle within the White House. Kelly took office on July 31, 2017. That same day, with Trump's approval, Kelly removed Anthony Scaramucci from his role as communications director, just ten days after Scaramucci was appointed to that role. Reportedly, Kelly had requested permission to remove Scaramucci after "Scaramucci had boasted about reporting directly to the president, not the chief of staff." On August 18, 2017, Kelly removed Steve Bannon from his role as White House Chief Strategist, on behalf of President Trump.


title: John F. Kelly

text: Early into his tenure, media outlets such as "The New York Times", "The Washington Post" and FiveThirtyEight speculated that Kelly would bring moderation and discipline to the White House. In August 2017, early into Kelly's tenure, "The Washington Post" wrote that Kelly had "left no discernible imprint on the White House's philosophy" and that it was unclear if he would bring calm and rigor to the White House. In a lengthy article on Kelly's tenure, the "New York Times" in October 2017 wrote that "for all of the talk of Mr. Kelly as a moderating force and the so-called grown-up in the room, it turns out that he harbors strong feelings on patriotism, national security and immigration that mirror the hard-line views of his outspoken boss." By February 2018, Kelly had emerged as a hardliner on several issues (immigration, in particular) and been embroiled in a number of controversies, and there were reports of pressure on Kelly to resign.


title: John F. Kelly

text: When Trump arrived in Singapore in June 2018 for the North Korea–United States summit, the "New York Times" reported that Kelly had told a recent group of visiting senators the White House was "a miserable place to work." The reported comment renewed months-long speculation that Kelly would resign from his job of White House Chief of Staff.


title: John F. Kelly

text: According to several news outlets in early 2018, Kelly's influence in the White House had been diminished and Trump made several key decisions without his presence. On December 7, 2018, CNN and others reported that Kelly and Trump were no longer on speaking terms and that Kelly was expected to resign in the coming days. On December 8, Trump announced that Kelly would be leaving at the end of the year. On December 14, 2018, the White House announced that Mick Mulvaney would replace John Kelly as the White House Chief of Staff.


title: John F. Kelly

text: On the day after the 2021 United States Capitol attack, Kelly said he supported Trump's removal from office by use of the 25th Amendment, adding, "What happened on Capitol Hill yesterday is a direct result of his poisoning the minds of people with the lies and the frauds."


title: John F. Kelly

text: In January 2017, "The Intercept" reported that Kelly failed to disclose his position as vice-chair on the Spectrum Group, a defense contractor lobbying firm, on his ethics form, while taking a position at the Department of Homeland Security. Kelly's membership on the board of DC Capital Partners and its for-profit detention facilities at the Southern Border and Florida, operated by its subsidiary Caliburn International had called into question his neutrality as they have been described as private for-profit concentration camps. Caliburn CEO James Van Dusen said, "With four decades of military and humanitarian leadership, in-depth understanding of international affairs and knowledge of current economic drivers around the world, General Kelly is a strong strategic addition to our team." Candidates in the 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries objected, including Cory Booker, who said Kelly's actions in joining the board were "disgusting," and Elizabeth Warren, who called his role, "corruption at its absolute worst." In July 2019, the House Oversight Committee announced it was probing Kelly's conflict of interest in the camps while he was the White House Chief of Staff.


title: John F. Kelly

text: In October 2017, Congresswoman Frederica Wilson (D-FL) criticized Trump for his phone call to the widow of a slain U.S. soldier, saying his remarks had been insensitive. Wilson had been in the widow's car when Trump had called her. A few days later, Kelly held a press briefing where he defended Trump's phone call, which he had overheard, saying Trump "expressed his condolences in the best way that he could." Kelly harshly criticized Wilson, calling her "the empty barrel that makes the most noise" and stating that in a 2015 speech Wilson had "stood up" to inappropriately claim credit for securing federal funding for an FBI building in her district. Video of her 2015 speech showed his description to be inaccurate. Later that month, while in an interview with conservative commentator Laura Ingraham, Kelly said he stood by his comments on Wilson and would "never" apologize for his comments. Kelly said he would "talk about before her comments and at the reception afterwards" as a "package deal", but refused to elaborate further.


title: John F. Kelly

text: In the same October 2017 interview with Laura Ingraham, Kelly said that "the lack of ability to compromise led to the Civil War." He also described Robert E. Lee as an "honorable man" who "gave up ... his country to fight for his state," and claimed, "men and women of good faith on both sides made their stand where their conscience had to make their stand." Several historians of the Civil War described Kelly's remarks as ignorant, and as a misuse of history reminiscent of Lost Cause mythology. They also broadly reject Kelly's remark that a failure to compromise led to the Civil War, noting that the war was predominantly fought over slavery and that a number of compromises on slavery were made in the lead-up to the war. The White House defended Kelly's remarks, citing non-fiction writer and historian Shelby Foote.


title: John F. Kelly

text: On February 6, 2018, Kelly made recorded remarks concerning a discrepancy between how many had enrolled in DACA (Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals) and how many were to be offered a path to citizenship, by saying "The difference between 690 [thousand] and 1.8 million were the people that some would say were too afraid to sign up; others would say are too lazy to get off their asses, but they didn't sign up".


title: John F. Kelly

text: In February 2018, "The New York Times" reported that Kelly had been in a physical confrontation with former Trump campaign manager Corey Lewandowski. According to anonymous sources, Kelly had a heated argument with Lewandoski in which he accused him of profiting off Trump's presidency. This led to Kelly grabbing Lewandowski by the collar and pushing him up against the wall just outside the Oval Office. The sources said Lewandowski did not respond physically to Kelly, and when Secret Service agents arrived, Lewandowski and Kelly went their separate ways.


title: John F. Kelly

text: On February 7, 2018, White House staff secretary Rob Porter resigned in the wake of reports that his two ex-wives accused him of domestic abuse, allegations that Porter said are false and "a coordinated smear campaign". One ex-wife had a protective order from 2010 against Porter, and the other had photographic evidence of the alleged abuse. The protective order had prevented Porter from obtaining a full security clearance, though the order's associated ex-wife said Porter's "integrity and ability to do his job is impeccable". According to an unnamed senior administration official, Kelly was aware of the protective order and the domestic abuse allegations, and had promoted Porter within the White House. Approached by media about the allegations, Kelly initially praised Porter, saying he was a "man of true integrity and honor, and I can't say enough good things about him. He is a friend, a confidante and a trusted professional. I am proud to serve alongside him." Per an unnamed White House official, Porter resigned over the objections of Kelly, who had worked closely with Porter since becoming White House Chief of Staff.


title: John F. Kelly

text: In a February 8 email to White House staff, Kelly wrote, "While we are all processing the shocking and troubling allegations made against a former White House staffer, I want you to know that we all take matters of domestic violence very seriously. Domestic violence is abhorrent and has no place in our society". On February 9, 2018, "The Washington Post" reported that Kelly had instructed senior staff and aides to tell reporters that Kelly took immediate action to fire Porter upon hearing that domestic abuse allegations were credible; the "Post" noted this "version of events contradicts both the public record and accounts from numerous other White House officials in recent days as the Porter drama unfolded." Kelly told reporters on March 2, 2018 that he sought Porter's resignation immediately after learning of the accusations on February 6 and regretted his handling of Porter's departure.


title: John F. Kelly

text: In August 2018, a tape was released of Kelly firing White House staffer Omarosa Manigault in the Situation Room, and allegedly threatening her legally as well as reputationally, saying to her: "I'd like to see this be a friendly departure. There are pretty significant legal issues that we hope don't develop into something that, that'll make it ugly for you." When questioned whether the President knew of the firing, Kelly replied: "The [White House] staff, and everybody on the staff, works for me and not the president." Kelly's use of the Situation Room to isolate and fire Manigault also led to controversy about potential misuse of the high-security facility by Kelly, as well as the fact he was unknowingly recorded within it.


title: John F. Kelly

text: According to a 2021 book by "Wall Street Journal" reporter Michael C. Bender in his book "Frankly, We Did Win This Election': The Inside Story of How Trump Lost", that during a 2018 trip to France to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the end of World War I, then President Donald Trump told Kelly, "Well, Hitler did a lot of good things", specifically pointing to the recovery of Germany’s economy in the 1930s. The story was first reported on July 6, 2021. The next day, Trump's spokesperson denied that the former president praised Hitler, calling the claim "totally false", as reported by the "Washington Examiner".


title: John F. Kelly

text: Kelly married Karen Hernest in 1976. They raised three children together: Robert, John Jr., and Kathleen.


title: John F. Kelly

text: On November 9, 2010, Kelly's 29-year-old son, First Lieutenant Robert Michael Kelly, was killed in action when he stepped on a landmine while leading a platoon of Marines on a patrol in Sangin, Afghanistan.


title: John F. Kelly

text: The younger Kelly was a former enlisted Marine and was on his third combat tour, his first combat tour as a U.S. Marine Corps infantry officer. At the time of his death, Robert Kelly was with Lima Company, 3rd Battalion, 5th Marines. Robert Kelly's death made John Kelly the highest-ranking American military officer to lose a child in Iraq or Afghanistan. Kelly's other son is a Marine Corps Lieutenant Colonel.


title: Angers SCO

text: Angers Sporting Club de l'Ouest, commonly referred to as Angers SCO or simply Angers (), is a French professional football club based in Angers in Pays de la Loire in western France. The club was founded in 1919 and plays in Ligue 1, the first division of Football in France, having achieved promotion to the league in 2015 after 21 years. It plays its home matches at the Stade Raymond Kopa. The club has played 23 seasons in the Ligue 1.


title: Angers SCO

text: During the team's history, it has bounced between the top two tiers on multiple occasions. However, it did spend time in the third tier on several occasions; the 2006–07 season was its last season in the third tier.


title: Angers SCO

text: The first season that Angers debuted in the French second division was in 1945. During this season, Angers SCO was placed in the North group; at that time, the second division was split into two groups, the North and South. Angers finished third, being seven points short of Stade Français, which was promoted to the first division.


title: Angers SCO

text: In the 2014–15 Ligue 2 season, the team achieved promotion after a long time being in the lower division.


title: Angers SCO

text: During the 2015–16 Ligue 1 season, SCO placed ninth in the final standings. In its opening league match against Montpellier HSC, Angers won the match 2–0.


title: Angers SCO

text: On May 28, 2017, Angers played in the 2017 Coupe de France final against Paris Saint-Germain. Angers lost the match 1–0 courtesy of 91st minute own goal. At the end of the 2017–18 Ligue 1 season, Angers finished 14th on the table and Cameroon striker Karl Toko Ekambi finished with an impressive 17 goals in the competition.


title: Angers SCO

text: On 8 June 2020, Angers broke their own transfer fee record by signing Paul Bernardoni from Bordeaux, in a deal worth 8 million euros.


title: Angers SCO

text: On 30 April 2021 Angers, along with Paris FC, were handed a transfer ban by FIFA for violation of regulations regarding relay transfers in August 2020. The ban was effective for the summer 2021 transfer window.


title: Angers SCO

text: Below are the notable former players who have represented Angers in league and international competition since the club's foundation in 1919. To appear in the section below, a player must have either played in at least 80 official matches for the club or represented his country's national team either while playing for Angers or after departing the club.


title: Angers SCO

text: The Paris-based energy company was announced as an Official Partner of the club in May 2021 on a three-year deal. Since the start of the 2021-22 season, Open Energie serves as the back-of-shirt sponsor for Angers’ matchday shirts, right below the kit number.


title: Angers SCO

text: Atoll is a shopping mall located in Beaucouzé, near the commune of Angers. It also serves as an Official Partner to Angers SCO. Since November 2020, Atoll houses an official club store on a permanent basis.


title: Angers SCO

text: The Rungis-headquartered French retailers’ cooperative is a long-time sponsor of the club. Currently, it serves as one of their Official Partners, with its logo appearing on the front of Angers’ matchday shorts.


title: Angers SCO

text: In May 2021, a "U" convenience store was opened in the "Les Hauts de Saint-Aubin" district of Angers.


title: Angers SCO

text: The Turin-headquartered Italian sportswear brand has been the technical partner of the club since 2013, supplying them with matchday kits, training and non-playing staff’s uniforms and off-pitch lifestyle ranges.


title: Fluid mechanics

text: Fluid mechanics is the branch of physics concerned with the mechanics of fluids (liquids, gases, and plasmas) and the forces on them.


title: Fluid mechanics

text: It has applications in a wide range of disciplines, including mechanical, aerospace, civil, chemical and biomedical engineering, geophysics, oceanography, meteorology, astrophysics, and biology.


title: Fluid mechanics

text: It can be divided into fluid statics, the study of fluids at rest; and fluid dynamics, the study of the effect of forces on fluid motion.


title: Fluid mechanics

text: It is a branch of continuum mechanics, a subject which models matter without using the information that it is made out of atoms; that is, it models matter from a "macroscopic" viewpoint rather than from "microscopic". Fluid mechanics, especially fluid dynamics, is an active field of research, typically mathematically complex. Many problems are partly or wholly unsolved and are best addressed by numerical methods, typically using computers. A modern discipline, called computational fluid dynamics (CFD), is devoted to this approach. Particle image velocimetry, an experimental method for visualizing and analyzing fluid flow, also takes advantage of the highly visual nature of fluid flow.


title: Fluid mechanics

text: The study of fluid mechanics goes back at least to the days of ancient Greece, when Archimedes investigated fluid statics and buoyancy and formulated his famous law known now as the Archimedes' principle, which was published in his work "On Floating Bodies"—generally considered to be the first major work on fluid mechanics. Rapid advancement in fluid mechanics began with Leonardo da Vinci (observations and experiments), Evangelista Torricelli (invented the barometer), Isaac Newton (investigated viscosity) and Blaise Pascal (researched hydrostatics, formulated Pascal's law), and was continued by Daniel Bernoulli with the introduction of mathematical fluid dynamics in "Hydrodynamica" (1739).


title: Fluid mechanics

text: Inviscid flow was further analyzed by various mathematicians (Jean le Rond d'Alembert, Joseph Louis Lagrange, Pierre-Simon Laplace, Siméon Denis Poisson) and viscous flow was explored by a multitude of engineers including Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille and Gotthilf Hagen. Further mathematical justification was provided by Claude-Louis Navier and George Gabriel Stokes in the Navier–Stokes equations, and boundary layers were investigated (Ludwig Prandtl, Theodore von Kármán), while various scientists such as Osborne Reynolds, Andrey Kolmogorov, and Geoffrey Ingram Taylor advanced the understanding of fluid viscosity and turbulence.


title: Fluid mechanics

text: Fluid statics or hydrostatics is the branch of fluid mechanics that studies fluids at rest. It embraces the study of the conditions under which fluids are at rest in stable equilibrium; and is contrasted with fluid dynamics, the study of fluids in motion. Hydrostatics offers physical explanations for many phenomena of everyday life, such as why atmospheric pressure changes with altitude, why wood and oil float on water, and why the surface of water is always level whatever the shape of its container. Hydrostatics is fundamental to hydraulics, the engineering of equipment for storing, transporting and using fluids. It is also relevant to some aspects of geophysics and astrophysics (for example, in understanding plate tectonics and anomalies in the Earth's gravitational field), to meteorology, to medicine (in the context of blood pressure), and many other fields.


title: Fluid mechanics

text: "Fluid dynamics" is a subdiscipline of fluid mechanics that deals with "fluid flow"—the science of liquids and gases in motion. Fluid dynamics offers a systematic structure—which underlies these practical disciplines—that embraces empirical and semi-empirical laws derived from flow measurement and used to solve practical problems. The solution to a fluid dynamics problem typically involves calculating various properties of the fluid, such as velocity, pressure, density, and temperature, as functions of space and time. It has several subdisciplines itself, including "aerodynamics" (the study of air and other gases in motion) and "hydrodynamics" (the study of liquids in motion). Fluid dynamics has a wide range of applications, including calculating forces and movements on aircraft, determining the mass flow rate of petroleum through pipelines, predicting evolving weather patterns, understanding nebulae in interstellar space and modeling explosions. Some fluid-dynamical principles are used in traffic engineering and crowd dynamics.


title: Fluid mechanics

text: In a mechanical view, a fluid is a substance that does not support shear stress; that is why a fluid at rest has the shape of its containing vessel. A fluid at rest has no shear stress.


title: Fluid mechanics

text: The assumptions inherent to a fluid mechanical treatment of a physical system can be expressed in terms of mathematical equations. Fundamentally, every fluid mechanical system is assumed to obey:


title: Fluid mechanics

text: For example, the assumption that mass is conserved means that for any fixed control volume (for example, a spherical volume)—enclosed by a control surface—the rate of change of the mass contained in that volume is equal to the rate at which mass is passing through the surface from "outside" to "inside", minus the rate at which mass is passing from "inside" to "outside". This can be expressed as an equation in integral form over the control volume.


title: Fluid mechanics

text: The is an idealization of continuum mechanics under which fluids can be treated as continuous, even though, on a microscopic scale, they are composed of molecules. Under the continuum assumption, macroscopic (observed/measurable) properties such as density, pressure, temperature, and bulk velocity are taken to be well-defined at "infinitesimal" volume elements—small in comparison to the characteristic length scale of the system, but large in comparison to molecular length scale. Fluid properties can vary continuously from one volume element to another and are average values of the molecular properties. The continuum hypothesis can lead to inaccurate results in applications like supersonic speed flows, or molecular flows on nano scale. Those problems for which the continuum hypothesis fails can be solved using statistical mechanics. To determine whether or not the continuum hypothesis applies, the Knudsen number, defined as the ratio of the molecular mean free path to the characteristic length scale, is evaluated. Problems with Knudsen numbers below 0.1 can be evaluated using the continuum hypothesis, but molecular approach (statistical mechanics) can be applied to find the fluid motion for larger Knudsen numbers.


title: Fluid mechanics

text: The Navier–Stokes equations (named after Claude-Louis Navier and George Gabriel Stokes) are differential equations that describe the force balance at a given point within a fluid. For an incompressible fluid with vector velocity field formula_1, the Navier–Stokes equations are


title: Fluid mechanics

text: These differential equations are the analogues for deformable materials to Newton's equations of motion for particles – the Navier–Stokes equations describe changes in momentum (force) in response to pressure formula_3 and viscosity, parameterized by the kinematic viscosity formula_4 here. Occasionally, body forces, such as the gravitational force or Lorentz force are added to the equations.


title: Fluid mechanics

text: Solutions of the Navier–Stokes equations for a given physical problem must be sought with the help of calculus. In practical terms, only the simplest cases can be solved exactly in this way. These cases generally involve non-turbulent, steady flow in which the Reynolds number is small. For more complex cases, especially those involving turbulence, such as global weather systems, aerodynamics, hydrodynamics and many more, solutions of the Navier–Stokes equations can currently only be found with the help of computers. This branch of science is called computational fluid dynamics.


title: Fluid mechanics

text: An inviscid fluid has no viscosity, formula_5. In practice, an inviscid flow is an idealization, one that facilitates mathematical treatment. In fact, purely inviscid flows are only known to be realized in the case of superfluidity. Otherwise, fluids are generally viscous, a property that is often most important within a boundary layer near a solid surface, where the flow must match onto the no-slip condition at the solid. In some cases, the mathematics of a fluid mechanical system can be treated by assuming that the fluid outside of boundary layers is inviscid, and then matching its solution onto that for a thin laminar boundary layer.


title: Fluid mechanics

text: For fluid flow over a porous boundary, the fluid velocity can be discontinuous between the free fluid and the fluid in the porous media (this is related to the Beavers and Joseph condition). Further, it is useful at low subsonic speeds to assume that gas is incompressible—that is, the density of the gas does not change even though the speed and static pressure change.


title: Fluid mechanics

text: A Newtonian fluid (named after Isaac Newton) is defined to be a fluid whose shear stress is linearly proportional to the velocity gradient in the direction perpendicular to the plane of shear. This definition means regardless of the forces acting on a fluid, it "continues to flow". For example, water is a Newtonian fluid, because it continues to display fluid properties no matter how much it is stirred or mixed. A slightly less rigorous definition is that the drag of a small object being moved slowly through the fluid is proportional to the force applied to the object. (Compare friction). Important fluids, like water as well as most gasses, behave—to good approximation—as a Newtonian fluid under normal conditions on Earth.


title: Fluid mechanics

text: By contrast, stirring a non-Newtonian fluid can leave a "hole" behind. This will gradually fill up over time—this behavior is seen in materials such as pudding, oobleck, or sand (although sand isn't strictly a fluid). Alternatively, stirring a non-Newtonian fluid can cause the viscosity to decrease, so the fluid appears "thinner" (this is seen in non-drip paints). There are many types of non-Newtonian fluids, as they are defined to be something that fails to obey a particular property—for example, most fluids with long molecular chains can react in a non-Newtonian manner.


title: Fluid mechanics

text: The constant of proportionality between the viscous stress tensor and the velocity gradient is known as the viscosity. A simple equation to describe incompressible Newtonian fluid behavior is


title: Fluid mechanics

text: For a Newtonian fluid, the viscosity, by definition, depends only on temperature, not on the forces acting upon it. If the fluid is incompressible the equation governing the viscous stress (in Cartesian coordinates) is


title: Fluid mechanics

text: where formula_19 is the second viscosity coefficient (or bulk viscosity). If a fluid does not obey this relation, it is termed a non-Newtonian fluid, of which there are several types. Non-Newtonian fluids can be either plastic, Bingham plastic, pseudoplastic, dilatant, thixotropic, rheopectic, viscoelastic.


title: Fluid mechanics

text: In some applications, another rough broad division among fluids is made: ideal and non-ideal fluids. An ideal fluid is non-viscous and offers no resistance whatsoever to a shearing force. An ideal fluid really does not exist, but in some calculations, the assumption is justifiable. One example of this is the flow far from solid surfaces. In many cases, the viscous effects are concentrated near the solid boundaries (such as in boundary layers) while in regions of the flow field far away from the boundaries the viscous effects can be neglected and the fluid there is treated as it were inviscid (ideal flow). When the viscosity is neglected, the term containing the viscous stress tensor formula_20 in the Navier–Stokes equation vanishes. The equation reduced in this form is called the Euler equation.


title: Eudicots

text: The eudicots, Eudicotidae, or eudicotyledons are a clade of flowering plants mainly characterized by having two seed leaves upon germination. The term derives from Dicotyledons.


title: Eudicots

text: Traditionally they were called tricolpates or non-magnoliid dicots by previous authors. The botanical terms were introduced in 1991 by evolutionary botanist James A. Doyle and paleobotanist Carol L. Hotton to emphasize the later evolutionary divergence of tricolpate dicots from earlier, less specialized, dicots.


title: Eudicots

text: Numerous familiar plants are eudicots, including many common food plants, trees, and ornamentals. Some common and familiar eudicots include sunflower, dandelion, forget-me-not, cabbage, apple, buttercup, maple, and macadamia. Most leafy trees of midlatitudes also belong to eudicots, with notable exceptions being magnolias and tulip trees which belong to magnoliids, and "Ginkgo biloba", which is not an angiosperm.


title: Eudicots

text: The close relationships among flowering plants with tricolpate pollen grains was initially seen in morphological studies of shared derived characters. These plants have a distinct trait in their pollen grains of exhibiting three colpi or grooves paralleling the polar axis.


title: Eudicots

text: Later molecular evidence confirmed the genetic basis for the evolutionary relationships among flowering plants with tricolpate pollen grains and dicotyledonous traits. The term means "true dicotyledons", as it contains the majority of plants that have been considered dicots and have characteristics of the dicots. One of the genetic traits which defines the eudicots is the duplication of in their most recent common ancestor. The term "eudicots" has subsequently been widely adopted in botany to refer to one of the two largest clades of angiosperms (constituting over 70% of the angiosperm species), monocots being the other. The remaining angiosperms include magnoliids and what are sometimes referred to as basal angiosperms or paleodicots, but these terms have not been widely or consistently adopted, as they do not refer to a monophyletic group.