title: Negroid

text: The justification for racist Jim Crow laws was provided by pseudo-scientific opinions on "negro" psychology like those expressed by the entry for "Negro" in the Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th edition (1910–1911):


title: Negroid

text: Since the 1920s, Franz Boas and his school of anthropology at Columbia University were criticising the concept of race as politically dangerous and scientifically useless because of its vague definition.


title: Negroid

text: In 1950, UNESCO published their statement "The Race Question". It condemned all forms of racism, naming "the doctrine of "inequality" of men and races" among the causes of World War II and proposing to replace the term "race" with "ethnic groups" because "serious errors... are habitually committed when the term "race" is used in popular parlance."


title: Negroid

text: American anthropologist Carleton S. Coon published his much debated "Origin of Races" in 1962. Coon divided the species "Homo sapiens" into five groups: Besides the "Caucasoid", "Mongoloid", and "Australoid" races, he posited two races among the indigenous populations of sub-Saharan Africa: the "Capoid race" in the south, and the "Congoid race". In 1982, he used "Negroid" and "Congoid" as synonyms.


title: Negroid

text: Coon's thesis was that "Homo erectus" had already been divided into five different races or subspecies. ""Homo Erectus" then evolved into "Homo Sapiens" not once but five times, as each subspecies, living in its own territory, passed a critical threshold from a more brutal to a more "sapient" state." He thought the "Caucasoid" race had passed the threshold to "Homo sapiens" about 200,000 years earlier than the "Negroid" race, thus giving segregationists in the southern US the opportunity to make political use of his thesis in their fight against the civil rights movement. Although Coon publicly assumed a neutral stance regarding segregation, some fellow anthropologists accused him of being racist because of his "clear insensitivity to social issues". In private conversations and correspondence with his cousin Carleton Putnam, a prominent supporter of white supremacy, he went much further, helping Putnam "hone his arguments against integration".


title: Negroid

text: Coon's evolutionary approach was criticized on the basis that such sorting criteria generally do not produce meaningful results, and that evolutionary divergence was extremely improbable over the given time-frames. Monatagu (1963) argued that Coon's theory on the speciation of Congoids and other "Homo sapiens" was unlikely because the transmutation of one species to another was a markedly gradual process.


title: Negroid

text: Since Coon followed the traditional methods of physical anthropology, relying on morphological characteristics, and not on the emerging genetics to classify humans, the debate over "Origin of Races" has been "viewed as the last gasp of an outdated scientific methodology that was soon to be supplanted".


title: Negroid

text: Afrocentrist author Cheikh Anta Diop contrasted "Negroid" with "Cro-Magnoid" in his publications arguing for "Negroid" primacy. Grimaldi Man, Upper Paleolithic fossils found in Italy in 1901, had been classified as Negroid by Boule and Vallois (1921). The identification was obsolete by the 1960s, but was controversially revived by Diop in his work, "The African Origin of Civilizations" in 1974 and republished in 1989.


title: Negroid

text: The Encyclopædia Britannica, Eleventh Edition (1910–1911) lists the following "well-defined characteristics" of the "Negroid" populations of Africa, southern India, Malaysia, and Australasia: "A dark skin, varying from dark brown, reddish-brown, or chocolate to nearly black; dark, tightly curled hair, flat in traverse section, of the woolly or the frizzly type; a greater or less tendency to prognathism; eyes dark brown with yellowish cornea; nose more or less broad and flat; and large teeth". The "Encyclopædia Britannica" sees a tendency towards a "tall stature" and "dolichocephaly" (long-headedness), with the exception of the Negritos who are described as showing "short stature" and "brachycephaly" (short-headedness).


title: Negroid

text: Forensic anthropologists writing around the turn of the millennium described "Negroid" skulls as having a broad and round nasal cavity; no dam or nasal sill; Quonset hut-shaped nasal bones; notable facial projection in the jaw and mouth area (prognathism); a rectangular-shaped palate; a square or rectangular eye orbit shape; a large interorbital distance; a more undulating supraorbital ridge; and large teeth.


title: Negroid

text: Ashley Montagu lists "neotenous structural traits in which... Negroids [generally] differ from Caucasoids... flattish nose, flat root of the nose, narrower ears, narrower joints, frontal skull eminences, later closure of premaxillary sutures, less hairy, longer eyelashes, [and] cruciform pattern of second and third molars." He also suggested that in the extinct Negroid group termed the "Boskopoids", pedomorphic traits proceeded further than in other Negroids. Additionally, Montagu wrote that the Boskopoids had larger brains than modern humans (1,700 cubic centimeters cranial capacity compared to 1,400 cubic centimeters in modern-day humans), and the projection of their mouth was less than in other Negroids. He believed the Boskopoids were the ancestors of the Khoisan.


title: Negroid

text: In the context of prominent successes of African-American athletes like Jesse Owens during the 1936 Summer Olympics, the speed advantage of the "Negroid type of calf, foot and heel bone" was discussed. Black Anthropologist W. Montague Cobb joined the debate in the same year, pointing out that "there is not a single physical characteristic, including skin color, which all the Negro stars have in common which definitely classify them as Negroes." Today, suggestions of biological differences in athletic ability between racial groups are considered unscientific.


title: Negroid

text: The "Oxford Dictionary of English" states: "The term Negroid belongs to a set of terms introduced by 19th-century anthropologists attempting to categorize human races. Such terms are associated with outdated notions of racial types, and so are now potentially offensive and best avoided."


title: Negroid

text: In his 2016 essay "Evolution and Notions of Human Race", Alan R. Templeton discusses various criteria used in biology to define subspecies or races. His examples for traits traditionally considered to be racial include skin colour: "[T]he native peoples with the darkest skins live in tropical Africa and Melanesia." While those two groups would traditionally be classified as "black", in reality Africans are more closely related to Europeans than to Melanesians. Another example is malarial resistance, which is often found in African populations, but also in "many European and Asian populations".


title: Negroid

text: Templeton concludes: "[T]he answer to the question whether races exist in humans is clear and unambiguous: no."


title: Minute and second of arc

text: A minute of arc, arcminute (arcmin), arc minute, or minute arc, denoted by the symbol , is a unit of angular measurement equal to of one degree. Since one degree is of a turn (or complete rotation), one minute of arc is of a turn. The nautical mile (nmi) was originally defined as the arc length of a minute of latitude on a spherical Earth, so the actual Earth circumference is very near . A minute of arc is of a radian.


title: Minute and second of arc

text: A second of arc, arcsecond (arcsec), or arc second, denoted by the symbol , is of an arcminute, of a degree, of a turn, and (about ) of a radian.


title: Minute and second of arc

text: These units originated in Babylonian astronomy as sexagesimal subdivisions of the degree; they are used in fields that involve very small angles, such as astronomy, optometry, ophthalmology, optics, navigation, land surveying, and marksmanship.


title: Minute and second of arc

text: To express even smaller angles, standard SI prefixes can be employed; the milliarcsecond (mas) and microarcsecond (μas), for instance, are commonly used in astronomy. For a three-dimensional area such as on a sphere, "square arcminutes" or "seconds" may be used.


title: Minute and second of arc

text: The prime symbol () designates the arcminute, though a single quote (U+0027) is commonly used where only ASCII characters are permitted. One arcminute is thus written as 1′. It is also abbreviated as arcmin or amin.


title: Minute and second of arc

text: Similarly, double prime (U+2033) designates the arcsecond, though a double quote (U+0022) is commonly used where only ASCII characters are permitted. One arcsecond is thus written as 1″. It is also abbreviated as arcsec or asec.


title: Minute and second of arc

text: In celestial navigation, seconds of arc are rarely used in calculations, the preference usually being for degrees, minutes, and decimals of a minute, for example, written as 42° 25.32′ or 42° 25.322′. This notation has been carried over into marine GPS receivers, which normally display latitude and longitude in the latter format by default.


title: Minute and second of arc

text: One arcsecond is the approximate angle subtended by a U.S. dime coin (18 mm) at a distance of . An arcsecond is also the angle subtended by


title: Minute and second of arc

text: One milliarcsecond is about the size of a half dollar, seen from a distance equal to that between the Washington Monument and the Eiffel Tower.


title: Minute and second of arc

text: One microarcsecond is about the size of a period at the end of a sentence in the Apollo mission manuals left on the Moon as seen from Earth.


title: Minute and second of arc

text: The concepts of degrees, minutes, and seconds—as they relate to the measure of both angles and time—derive from Babylonian astronomy and time-keeping. Influenced by the Sumerians, the ancient Babylonians divided the Sun's perceived motion across the sky over the course of one full day into 360 degrees. Each degree was subdivided into 60 minutes and each minute into 60 seconds. Thus, one Babylonian degree was equal to four minutes in modern terminology, one Babylonian minute to four modern seconds, and one Babylonian second to (approximately 0.067) of a modern second.


title: Minute and second of arc

text: Since antiquity, the arcminute and arcsecond have been used in astronomy: in the ecliptic coordinate system as latitude (β) and longitude (λ); in the horizon system as altitude (Alt) and azimuth (Az); and in the equatorial coordinate system as declination (δ). All are measured in degrees, arcminutes, and arcseconds. The principal exception is right ascension (RA) in equatorial coordinates, which is measured in time units of hours, minutes, and seconds.


title: Minute and second of arc

text: Contrary to what one might assume, minutes and seconds of arc do not directly relate to minutes and seconds of time, in either the rotational frame of the Earth around its own axis (day), or the Earth's rotational frame around the Sun (year). The Earth's rotational rate around its own axis is 15 minutes of arc per minute of time (360 degrees / 24 hours in day); the Earth's rotational rate around the Sun (not entirely constant) is roughly 24 minutes of time per minute of arc (from 24 hours in day), which tracks the annual progression of the Zodiac. Both of these factor in what astronomical objects you can see from surface telescopes (time of year) and when you can best see them (time of day), but neither are in unit correspondence. For simplicity, the explanations given assume a degree/day in the Earth's annual rotation around the Sun, which is off by roughly 1%. The same ratios hold for seconds, due to the consistent factor of 60 on both sides.


title: Minute and second of arc

text: The arcsecond is also often used to describe small astronomical angles such as the angular diameters of planets (e.g. the angular diameter of Venus which varies between 10″ and 60″); the proper motion of stars; the separation of components of binary star systems; and parallax, the small change of position of a star or solar system body as the Earth revolves about the Sun. These small angles may also be written in milliarcseconds (mas), or thousandths of an arcsecond. The unit of distance called the parsec, abbreviated from the parallax angle of one arc second, was developed for such parallax measurements. The distance from the Sun to a celestial object is the reciprocal of the angle, measured in arcseconds, of the object's apparent movement caused by parallax.


title: Minute and second of arc

text: The European Space Agency's astrometric satellite Gaia, launched in 2013, can approximate star positions to 7 microarcseconds (µas).


title: Minute and second of arc

text: Apart from the Sun, the star with the largest angular diameter from Earth is R Doradus, a red giant with a diameter of 0.05″. Because of the effects of atmospheric blurring, ground-based telescopes will smear the image of a star to an angular diameter of about 0.5″; in poor conditions this increases to 1.5″ or even more. The dwarf planet Pluto has proven difficult to resolve because its angular diameter is about 0.1″.


title: Minute and second of arc

text: Space telescopes are not affected by the Earth's atmosphere but are diffraction limited. For example, the Hubble Space Telescope can reach an angular size of stars down to about 0.1″. Techniques exist for improving seeing on the ground. Adaptive optics, for example, can produce images around 0.05″ on a 10 m class telescope.


title: Minute and second of arc

text: Minutes (′) and seconds (″) of arc are also used in cartography and navigation. At sea level one minute of arc along the equator equals exactly one geographical mile along the Earth's equator or approximately . A second of arc, one sixtieth of this amount, is roughly . The exact distance varies along meridian arcs or any other great circle arcs because the figure of the Earth is slightly oblate (bulges a third of a percent at the equator).


title: Minute and second of arc

text: Positions are traditionally given using degrees, minutes, and seconds of arcs for latitude, the arc north or south of the equator, and for longitude, the arc east or west of the Prime Meridian. Any position on or above the Earth's reference ellipsoid can be precisely given with this method. However, when it is inconvenient to use base-60 for minutes and seconds, positions are frequently expressed as decimal fractional degrees to an equal amount of precision. Degrees given to three decimal places ( of a degree) have about the precision of degrees-minutes-seconds ( of a degree) and specify locations within about . For navigational purposes positions are given in degrees and decimal minutes, for instance The Needles lighthouse is at 50º 39.734’N 001º 35.500’W.


title: Minute and second of arc

text: Related to cartography, property boundary surveying using the metes and bounds system and cadastral surveying relies on fractions of a degree to describe property lines' angles in reference to cardinal directions. A boundary "mete" is described with a beginning reference point, the cardinal direction North or South followed by an angle less than 90 degrees and a second cardinal direction, and a linear distance. The boundary runs the specified linear distance from the beginning point, the direction of the distance being determined by rotating the first cardinal direction the specified angle toward the second cardinal direction. For example, "North 65° 39′ 18″ West 85.69 feet" would describe a line running from the starting point 85.69 feet in a direction 65° 39′ 18″ (or 65.655°) away from north toward the west.


title: Minute and second of arc

text: The arcminute is commonly found in the firearms industry and literature, particularly concerning the precision of rifles, though the industry refers to it as minute of angle (MOA). It is especially popular as a unit of measurement with shooters familiar with the imperial measurement system because 1 MOA subtends a circle with a diameter of 1.047 inches (which is often rounded to just 1 inch) at 100 yards ( at or 2.908 cm at 100 m), a traditional distance on American target ranges. The subtension is linear with the distance, for example, at 500 yards, 1 MOA subtends 5.235 inches, and at 1000 yards 1 MOA subtends 10.47 inches.


title: Minute and second of arc

text: Since many modern telescopic sights are adjustable in half (), quarter () or eighth () MOA increments, also known as "clicks", zeroing and adjustments are made by counting 2, 4 and 8 clicks per MOA respectively.


title: Minute and second of arc

text: For example, if the point of impact is 3 inches high and 1.5 inches left of the point of aim at 100 yards (which for instance could be measured by using a spotting scope with a calibrated reticle), the scope needs to be adjusted 3 MOA down, and 1.5 MOA right. Such adjustments are trivial when the scope's adjustment dials have a MOA scale printed on them, and even figuring the right number of clicks is relatively easy on scopes that "click" in fractions of MOA. This makes zeroing and adjustments much easier:


title: Minute and second of arc

text: Another common system of measurement in firearm scopes is the milliradian (mrad). Zeroing an mrad based scope is easy for users familiar with base ten systems. The most common adjustment value in mrad based scopes is  mrad (which approximates MOA).


title: Minute and second of arc

text: One thing to be aware of is that some MOA scopes, including some higher-end models, are calibrated such that an adjustment of 1 MOA on the scope knobs corresponds to exactly 1 inch of impact adjustment on a target at 100 yards, rather than the mathematically correct 1.047 inches. This is commonly known as the Shooter's MOA (SMOA) or Inches Per Hundred Yards (IPHY). While the difference between one true MOA and one SMOA is less than half of an inch even at 1000 yards, this error compounds significantly on longer range shots that may require adjustment upwards of 20–30 MOA to compensate for the bullet drop. If a shot requires an adjustment of 20 MOA or more, the difference between true MOA and SMOA will add up to 1 inch or more. In competitive target shooting, this might mean the difference between a hit and a miss.


title: Minute and second of arc

text: The physical group size equivalent to "m" minutes of arc can be calculated as follows: group size = tan() × distance. In the example previously given, for 1 minute of arc, and substituting 3,600 inches for 100 yards, 3,600 tan() ≈ 1.047 inches. In metric units 1 MOA at 100 metres ≈ 2.908 centimetres.


title: Minute and second of arc

text: Sometimes, a precision-oriented firearm's performance will be measured in MOA. This simply means that under ideal conditions (i.e. no wind, high-grade ammo, clean barrel, and a stable mounting platform such as a vise or a benchrest used to eliminate shooter error), the gun is capable of producing a group of shots whose center points (center-to-center) fit into a circle, the average diameter of circles in several groups can be subtended by that amount of arc. For example, a "1 MOA rifle" should be capable, under ideal conditions, of repeatably shooting 1-inch groups at 100 yards. Most higher-end rifles are warrantied by their manufacturer to shoot under a given MOA threshold (typically 1 MOA or better) with specific ammunition and no error on the shooter's part. For example, Remington's M24 Sniper Weapon System is required to shoot 0.8 MOA or better, or be rejected from sale by quality control.


title: Minute and second of arc

text: Rifle manufacturers and gun magazines often refer to this capability as "sub-MOA", meaning a gun consistently shooting groups under 1 MOA. This means that a single group of 3 to 5 shots at 100 yards, or the average of several groups, will measure less than 1 MOA between the two furthest shots in the group, i.e. all shots fall within 1 MOA. If larger samples are taken (i.e., more shots per group) then group size typically increases, however this will ultimately average out. If a rifle was truly a 1 MOA rifle, it would be just as likely that two consecutive shots land exactly on top of each other as that they land 1 MOA apart. For 5-shot groups, based on 95% confidence, a rifle that normally shoots 1 MOA can be expected to shoot groups between 0.58 MOA and 1.47 MOA, although the majority of these groups will be under 1 MOA. What this means in practice is if a rifle that shoots 1-inch groups on average at 100 yards shoots a group measuring 0.7 inches followed by a group that is 1.3 inches, this is not statistically abnormal.


title: Minute and second of arc

text: The metric system counterpart of the MOA is the milliradian (mrad or 'mil'), being equal to of the target range, laid out on a circle that has the observer as centre and the target range as radius. The number of milliradians on a full such circle therefore always is equal to 2 × × 1000, regardless the target range. Therefore, 1 MOA ≈ 0.2909 mrad. This means that an object which spans 1 mrad on the reticle is at a range that is in metres equal to the object's size in millimetres (e.g. an object of 100 mm subtending 1 mrad is 100 metres away). So there is no conversion factor required, contrary to the MOA system. A reticle with markings (hashes or dots) spaced with a one mrad apart (or a fraction of a mrad) are collectively called a mrad reticle. If the markings are round they are called mil-dots.


title: Minute and second of arc

text: In the table below conversions from mrad to metric values are exact (e.g. 0.1 mrad equals exactly 10 mm at 100 metres), while conversions of minutes of arc to both metric and imperial values are approximate.


title: Minute and second of arc

text: In humans, 20/20 vision is the ability to resolve a spatial pattern separated by a visual angle of one minute of arc.


title: Minute and second of arc

text: The deviation from parallelism between two surfaces, for instance in optical engineering, is usually measured in arcminutes or arcseconds.


title: Minute and second of arc

text: In addition, arcseconds are sometimes used in rocking curve (ω-scan) x ray diffraction measurements of high-quality epitaxial thin films.


title: Minute and second of arc

text: Some measurement devices make use of arcminutes and arcseconds to measure angles when the object being measured is too small for direct visual inspection. For instance, a toolmaker's optical comparator will often include an option to measure in "minutes and seconds".


title: Kelli Williams

text: Kelli Renee Williams (born June 8, 1970) is an American actress and director. She is known for her roles as lawyer, Lindsay Dole on the legal drama "The Practice", psychologist and deception expert Dr. Gillian Foster on "Lie to Me", and Jackie Clarke on "Army Wives".


title: Kelli Williams

text: Kelli Williams was born in Los Angeles, California. She is the daughter of actress Shannon Wilcox and plastic surgeon John Williams. Her parents divorced when she was 13. She has one brother and two half-brothers.


title: Kelli Williams

text: Williams earned her Screen Actors Guild card before her first birthday by appearing in a diapers commercial, and appeared in several other commercials as a child. She attended elementary school at Lycée Français, and graduated from Beverly Hills High School in 1988. While attending school, she was active in the performing arts department. After starring opposite Steve Burton (who would go on to gain fame on "General Hospital") in the school's production of "Romeo and Juliet," she was signed by an agent.


title: Kelli Williams

text: Williams began her career on television in 1989, with a role in an episode of the CBS series "Beauty and the Beast" and as the first victim of the Hillside Stranglers in NBC's made-for-TV film "The Case of the Hillside Stranglers".


title: Kelli Williams

text: Her first feature film appearances were in "Zapped Again!" (1990) and "There Goes My Baby" (1994) opposite "ER's" Noah Wyle. She also appeared in "The Young Riders" in 1991. Also in 1994, she played Jennifer Stolpa in the TV movie "." She guest starred on the Fox teen drama "Party of Five" in its first season in 1994 as Annie Alcott. She guest-starred in the 1992 "Law & Order" episode "Sisters Of Mercy" as a meth addict who accuses a nun of sexually abusing her.


title: Kelli Williams

text: Beginning with episode 11, "Moon Cross" (aired on February 5, 1995), of the science-fiction series "Earth 2", Williams appeared in a multiple episode story arc in the role of Mary, a human orphan raised on another planet by the indigenous alien species known as the Terrians.


title: Kelli Williams

text: In 1997, she took her most prominent role as Lindsay Dole Donnell on the ABC legal drama "The Practice". She appeared in the series "The Lyon's Den" and "Hack", as well as two episodes of "Scrubs". Williams appeared as Dr. Natalie Durant on the NBC television show "Medical Investigation" which began in the fall of 2004 and ran for 20 episodes before being canceled. Also in 2004, she starred in the TV movie "A Boyfriend for Christmas."


title: Kelli Williams

text: In 2000, Williams starred in the TV movie "Flowers for Algernon", based on the novel/short story by Daniel Keyes.


title: Kelli Williams

text: In May 2007, she portrayed Holly Lauren/Kathleen Shaw in the "" sixth-season finale episode, "Renewal," as a friendly neighbor of Detective Mike Logan (Chris Noth); her character died toward the end of the episode. In August 2008, Williams was cast in a lead role as psychologist Dr. Gillian Foster in the Fox series "Lie to Me", opposite Tim Roth as Dr. Cal Lightman, which ran for three seasons and ended in 2011.


title: Kelli Williams

text: In April 2011, she was cast in a guest role as Shelley Chamberlain, a grieving mother on a killing spree in the CBS series "Criminal Minds". In October 2011, she was cast in a guest role as a kidnapped child's mother called Elizabeth Flint in the CBS series "The Mentalist". In 2012, she landed the recurring role of Jackie Clarke in the Lifetime series "Army Wives" and was quickly promoted to a series regular.


title: Kelli Williams

text: On August 12, 2015, "Ties That Bind", the first original series from the Up Network, debuted with Williams playing police detective Allison McLean. The series balances McLean's work and family.


title: Kelli Williams

text: In 2020, she joined the cast of the new Paramount network series, "Coyote", starring Michael Chiklis.


title: Kelli Williams

text: Williams was married to author Ajay Sahgal from 1996 to 2017. She converted to Hinduism after marrying her husband. The couple has three children. She told "Marie Claire" that she got breast implants when she was 19 and had them removed when she was 22. Williams speaks French and Spanish, and has volunteered with the Young Storytellers Program.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: Jens Gerhard Lehmann (; born 10 November 1969) is a German former professional footballer who played as a goalkeeper. He was a member of Arsenal's "Invincibles", playing every match of their unbeaten title-winning season. He holds the UEFA Champions League record for the most consecutive clean sheets, not conceding a single goal in eight consecutive full matches while he played for Arsenal. He also has the highest number of continuous minutes without conceding goals. In total, this lasted 853 minutes.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: Lehmann was voted UEFA Club Goalkeeper of the Year for the 1996–97 and 2005–06 seasons, and was selected for three World Cup squads.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: Lehmann started his career in the 1988–89 season with Schalke 04, playing for them for nearly a decade. His first years were rocky, notably a game against Bayer Leverkusen in 1993 in which he conceded three goals and was substituted after 45 minutes, causing him to flee the stadium alone by tram rather than taking the team bus, but Lehmann gradually established himself as a strong keeper lauded for his ability to intercept crosses.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: He scored his first league goal on 12 March 1995 in a 6–2 victory over 1860 Munich in the 84th minute, scoring Schalke's sixth goal from the penalty spot. His second goal was a last-minute equaliser scored against bitter rivals, Borussia Dortmund, in the Revierderby on 19 December 1997.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: Lehmann became Schalke's team hero in their 1997 UEFA Cup Final victory over Inter Milan, after playing a strong season and saving an Iván Zamorano penalty in a penalty shootout.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: Lehmann left Schalke for A.C. Milan in 1998, but his performances were below par. In one game Gabriel Batistuta scored a hat-trick against him, including a goal from a free kick in the box which Lehmann had conceded by handling a back pass. In another game he was substituted after giving away a penalty. After just five matches, Lehmann was dropped. Believing he wouldn't get another chance at Milan, he left during the winter.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: In early 1999, Lehmann returned to Germany to play for Borussia Dortmund replacing long-time goalkeeper Stefan Klos. Lehmann had a difficult start there after several poor performances. Rumors arose that Lehmann might leave, with supporters viewing him critically.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: But the tide eventually turned and Lehmann's form improved, becoming a reliable figure in the team. He played a significant part in the club's return to the upper echelons of German and European football. Borussia Dortmund began the 2001–02 season strongly and eventually won the Bundesliga in 2001–02. That same year, Borussia Dortmund reached the UEFA-Cup final, though the team lost to Dutch club Feyenoord Rotterdam.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: Around this time, Lehmann developed a reputation for his poor disciplinary record. In a match against SC Freiburg, Lehmann kicked opposing attacker Soumaila Coulibaly after they collided in the penalty area. Lehmann was suspended afterwards. He currently holds the record for most red cards for any Borussia Dortmund player, and the record for most red cards for a goalkeeper in the German Bundesliga.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: Lehmann's form slipped in the 2002–03 season, along with Borussia Dortmund's. His time at Dortmund was winding down, and after the season concluded, he left Dortmund. He was replaced by Roman Weidenfeller and Guillaume Warmuz, who had just left Arsenal.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: Lehmann joined Arsenal on 25 July 2003 replacing the recently departed David Seaman. Arsenal's 2003–04 season was historic. The Gunners finished the 2003–04 FA Premier League season unbeaten, becoming the first English club to accomplish the feat in the modern era and only the second to ever have an unbeaten season in English football's top tier, the only other team to accomplish this feat being Preston North End in the 1888–89 season. Lehmann played every match in Arsenal's unbeaten season, though his swashbuckling playing style did lead to occasional mistakes. For example, in the title-winning match at local rivals Tottenham Hotspur, Lehmann pushed Tottenham striker Robbie Keane as the pair waited for a Tottenham corner. He also committed an error that led to the equalising goal in Arsenal's Champions League defeat at home to Chelsea the same season. Despite these mistakes, Lehmann's addition to the Arsenal team had a major effect on Arsenal's ability to finish unbeaten. And Arsenal continued unbeaten until 24 October 2004. At the end of his first season at Arsenal, he had already played 54 times earning himself a Premier League winners medal.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: By the middle of the 2004–05 season, Lehmann's inconsistent form lead to Spaniard Manuel Almunia starting in several matches instead. However, Almunia made a series of mistakes during several games, thus allowing Lehmann to regain his position. At the end of that season, as speculation again began to mount that he would be replaced over the summer, Lehmann cemented his position in the Arsenal goal with a man-of-the-match performance against Manchester United in the 2005 FA Cup final. He made several important saves and demonstrated great positional sense to keep the score 0–0 after extra time, and then crucially saved Paul Scholes' shot in the penalty shootout, which Arsenal won 5–4.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: Lehmann had an outstanding 2005–06 season with Arsenal, making his 100th Premier League appearance for the club in their game against West Bromwich Albion on 15 April 2006. He was a key factor in his side's first-ever accession to the Champions League final; during their run Arsenal broke the record for the most consecutive clean sheets in the Champions League with ten, breaking the record of seven that Milan had set just one year before. That run formed the bulk of an 853-minute spell without conceding a goal, overtaking the CL record for an individual goalkeeper set by Edwin van der Sar.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: Bayern Munich's Hasan Salihamidžić had been the last to net against Lehmann, in the 64th minute of a last 16 first leg match on 22 February 2005; Lehmann kept a clean sheet in the second leg, and then a further seven during Arsenal's run in 2005–06 (Almunia played in the other five matches in the group stages). The final clean sheet was earned in the semi-finals against Villarreal, after Lehmann saved an 89th minute Juan Román Riquelme penalty. Lehmann maintained his shutout run despite an ignominious end to his 2006 UEFA Champions League Final against FC Barcelona; with the score still at 0–0 he was sent off in the 18th minute for a professional foul after bringing down Samuel Eto'o, making him the first player and only goalkeeper to ever be sent off in a Champions League/European Cup final, but it did not stop him from being named the Champions League Goalkeeper of the Year for the 2005–06 season after going 853 minutes without conceding a goal.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: His remarkable run was finally ended on 13 September 2006 by Hamburger SV's Boubacar Sanogo, who scored a consolation goal in the 89th minute of Arsenal's first group stage match of the 2006–07 Champions League season.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: Lehmann's contract at Arsenal was due to expire in summer 2007 and during the 2006–07 season there was much speculation he would leave the club on a Bosman transfer. However, it was reported on 26 April 2007 that he had signed a year's extension on his contract, tying him to the club until 2008.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: In the first league game of the 2007–08 season, Lehmann made a serious error after just 52 seconds, allowing David Healy to score for Fulham. However, Lehmann's blushes were spared late in the game as Arsenal won 2–1. In his second league match against Blackburn Rovers he fumbled a David Dunn shot to allow Blackburn to equalise, in a game that finished 1–1. On 24 August, the BBC reported that he returned to Germany to treat an Achilles tendon injury which he picked up during international duty against England, meaning Manuel Almunia took his place for Arsenal's third match.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: Lehmann subsequently had to wait nearly four months to make another competitive appearance for Arsenal, which came in their final Champions League group match against Steaua Bucharest. Nearly one month later, he played only his fifth competitive game of the season for Arsenal, against Burnley in the third round of the FA Cup; meanwhile third-choice goalkeeper Łukasz Fabiański was selected for the League Cup games. Lehmann expressed frustration at being number two to Manuel Almunia fearing it could cost him the number one jersey in the German national team for the European Championship 2008. However, Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger described Lehmann's attitude as "super-professional".


title: Jens Lehmann

text: On 26 January 2008, Lehmann appeared in Arsenal's second FA Cup game of the season, keeping his second successive clean sheet as Arsenal beat Newcastle United 3–0. Manager Arsène Wenger later promised Lehmann that, if he stayed at Arsenal, he would play every game in the FA Cup. On 29 January, Lehmann suggested that he will stick with Arsenal until his contract expires at the end of the season. Lehmann gave his reasons as his relationship with the fans, players, family situations and his chance to still be able to win things at the club; believing he "wouldn't have had this chance somewhere else." On 2 February, following an injury to Almunia, Lehmann returned in goal for Arsenal in the Premiership for an away fixture against Manchester City, more than five months after his last league appearance; Arsenal won the match 3–1. Due to Almunia catching flu straight after the injury, Lehmann kept his place in goal for the following three matches in February, including the first leg of the UEFA Champions League round of 16 against Milan, but also the 4–0 loss to arch rivals Manchester United in the FA Cup.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: After another injury to Almunia in early April 2008, Lehmann was back in goal for the away game against Manchester United on 13 April 2008. Arsenal lost that game 2–1, virtually ending their Premier League title hopes for the season, their third consecutive season without a major trophy. There was speculation that would be his last game for Arsenal, but on 19 April, Lehmann played in the home game against Reading, which Arsenal won 2–0. The following week, Łukasz Fabiański was given his Premier League debut against Derby County and Almunia returned to the bench for the game. However, Lehmann made another appearance and was brought on for Fabiański in the last 20 minutes of the game against Everton on 4 May, Arsenal's final home game of the season. He was given a standing ovation after the match as he bowed and clapped to the fans. Later that day, Wenger confirmed that it was Lehmann's farewell appearance.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: In early June 2008, it was announced that Lehmann had signed a one-year contract for VfB Stuttgart. He joined the team's pre-season training on 24 July 2008, and made his debut for the club on 30 July 2008 in a friendly match against former team Arsenal. His competitive debut for the club came on 10 August 2008 in the first round of the DFB-Pokal, a 5–0 away victory over FC Hansa Lüneburg, and his Bundesliga debut one week later in Stuttgart's 3–1 away victory at Borussia Mönchengladbach.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: On 3 April 2009, Lehmann extended his contract at VfB Stuttgart until the summer of 2010 and announced in August 2009 that he would retire on 30 June 2010.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: On 14 March 2011, German tabloid "Bild" reported that Lehmann was in talks to come out of retirement, due to an injury crisis at Arsenal leaving them with only one fit senior keeper, Manuel Almunia. Lehmann was also scheduled to spend six weeks working on his coaching badges at his old club. Due to the injury of Arsenal goalkeepers Wojciech Szczęsny, Łukasz Fabiański and Vito Mannone, on 17 March 2011 Lehmann signed for Arsenal on a rolling contract until the end of the season. Lehmann was named as a substitute in Arsenal's match against West Bromwich Albion on 19 March 2011. Despite newspaper reports that he might replace Almunia, due to the Spaniard's poor performances, Lehmann made his first appearance in Arsenal's reserves on 29 March 2011 against Wigan, when Arsenal lost 2–1.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: On 10 April 2011, Lehmann started for the first team in an away game against Blackpool. He was forced to start the game when Almunia was injured in the warm up. Winning 3–1, it was his 200th appearance for Arsenal. Lehmann became the oldest player to play for Arsenal in the Premier League but not the oldest to play for the Gunners in all competitions, a record held by Jock Rutherford. Lehmann's contract with Arsenal expired at the end of the season, and then he decided to retire once again.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: On 8 September 2018, a match was organised between Arsenal legends and Real Madrid legends in which Lehmann appeared after David Seaman picked up injury during training. He eventually made two saves in the second half and then saved a shot from Alfonso in the subsequent penalty shoot out. Arsenal legends won 5–3 on penalties, with Lehmann scoring the last penalty for Arsenal.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: Lehmann made his debut for the German national team against Oman in February 1998 and earned 61 caps for his country, 32 of which were friendlies.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: He had a well-publicised rivalry with former Bayern Munich goalkeeper Oliver Kahn, whose presence long prevented Lehmann from becoming the number one goalkeeper of the national team. Lehmann was in the squad which finished as runners-up in the 2002 World Cup, but he didn't play any matches in the competition, as Kahn was still Germany's first choice goalkeeper.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: On 7 April 2006, however, German national coach Jürgen Klinsmann announced that Lehmann would be Germany's first-choice goalkeeper for the upcoming World Cup. Lehmann conceded two goals in Germany's opening match of the World Cup, both scored by Costa Rica's Paulo Wanchope although Germany won the match 4–2. Lehmann played strongly in the next three games, conceding no goals and allowing Germany to sweep their group undefeated and beat Sweden convincingly in the Round of 16.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: The highlight of Lehmann's international career came in the quarterfinal match (30 June 2006, Olympiastadion, Berlin) against Argentina. The game remained tied 1–1 after 90 minutes and extra time. The game came down to penalty kicks and Lehmann carried his team through, picking the right direction for all spot kicks, making saves from Argentinians Roberto Ayala and Esteban Cambiasso and almost saving a third. Meanwhile, the Germans made all four of the necessary spot kicks to win the penalty shoot-out 4–2. Lehmann's prowess in the shootout was aided by notes given to him before the kicks – an idea from Germany's chief scout, Swiss-born . Germany's goalkeeping manager, Andreas Köpke, gave Lehmann a sheet of paper with the penalty tendencies of seven of the Argentinians, with Lehmann keeping the paper in his right sock. Only two of the seven players on the note (Ayala and Maxi Rodríguez) ended up taking penalties, but Köpke had predicted both correctly and Lehmann saved Ayala's kick. Before the last shot from Cambiasso, Lehmann looked at the paper for a long time even though Cambiasso's name was not even on it. Lehmann then saved the penalty, ending the game. The story about the paper features in the film "Deutschland. Ein Sommermärchen". Lehmann was considered a hero by the German public after these saves, and he received praise even from long-time rival and backup keeper Oliver Kahn.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: Germany's opponent in the semifinals was Italy. The Italians had the better chances to score but Lehmann made several spectacular saves, including one in extra time where he dived out of goal to intercept an Italian player who had broken loose from the defence, punching the ball clear with his fist and temporarily knocking out the Italian in the process. He allowed two goals within a minute of each other with only a few seconds remaining in extra time, which put Italy into the World Cup final. The retiring Oliver Kahn was given the honour of starting in the third place play-off match, an offer made by Lehmann himself. Kahn was made captain for that game due to the injury to Michael Ballack. Germany defeated Portugal 3–1 for the third place (bronze) medals.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: In August 2006, Lehmann revealed that during the World Cup he was suffering with a foot injury that he claims was a result of wearing different boots. The German Football Association ordered their players to wear only those manufactured by principal sponsor Adidas as opposed to Lehmann's sponsor Nike. This has now been overturned thanks to Lehmann and several other players protesting about the decision and the players are now free to wear boots made by other companies. The same month, Lehmann suggested that he may retire from league and international football after playing for Germany in Euro 2008. However, he subsequently stated in January 2007 that he had not made any decision on retirement.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: Lehmann set a national team record of not conceding a goal for 681 minutes in a friendly against Switzerland on 26 March 2008. In Euro 2008, he was one of only two players born in the 1960s, with the other being Austria's Ivica Vastić. Lehmann started every match as Germany reached the final. They lost 1–0 to Spain; a lack of communication between Lehmann and Philipp Lahm allowed Spain's Fernando Torres to net the only goal in the match.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: On 8 August 2008, Lehmann announced his retirement from international football. He made his decision following a two-hour talk with the German national team's coach Joachim Löw and goalkeeping coach Andreas Köpke, stating that he was not able to give them any guarantee that he will continue to play football following the end of his one-year contract with VfB Stuttgart in June 2009. He has since retired and subsequently worked towards his full FIFA coaching license at Arsenal.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: Considered to be one of the best goalkeepers in the world in his prime, as well as one of the best goalkeepers in the history of the Premier League, and one of Arsenal's and Germany's greatest goalkeepers, Lehmann was a talented and experienced keeper, who was renowned for his agility, reflexes, strength, and acrobatic shot-stopping abilities; however, he was also known for his efficient rather than spectacular playing style. A well–rounded goalkeeper, he was also highly regarded in the media for his distribution with either foot, as well as his handling, physical presence, positioning, reading of the game, and his ability to come off his line and collect or punch crosses, which allowed him to command his area effectively. He was also known for his eccentric personality, and for being extremely outspoken. Moreover, he possessed a strong mentality, tactical sense, and leadership qualities, and was also known for his ability to handle pressure and communicate with his back–line. One of the best goalkeepers of his generation, his playing style served as an inspiration for Manuel Neuer. However, despite his ability, he was also known to be inconsistent at times, and his longevity was not particularly impressive.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: Ahead of the 2017–18 season, it was confirmed that Lehmann would return to Arsenal once again as assistant coach. On 19 June 2018, Arsenal confirmed that Lehmann had left the club as part of new head coach Unai Emery's coaching staff changes.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: On 29 January 2019, he was appointed assistant coach of FC Augsburg alongside Manuel Baum, as the team were only 15th in the Bundesliga.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: In May 2020, "Tennor Holding BV" named Lehmann, among others, as its representative on the supervisory board of Hertha BSC. One year later, he was sacked after sending pundit and former footballer Dennis Aogo a WhatsApp message calling him a "quota black guy", in relation to Aogo's work as an expert at Sky. Lehmann had previously apologized via a Twitter post.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: Lehmann and his elder brother grew up in Essen. After graduating from secondary school with A-levels ("Abitur") in 1988, he studied economics at the University of Münster between 1992 and 1998 while continuing his football career.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: In 1999, he married Conny, a middle school teacher. Lehmann later adopted Lasse, Conny’s son from her previous marriage to footballer Knut Reinhardt. The pair also have two children Mats (born 2000) and Lieselotta (born 2006).


title: Jens Lehmann

text: He is board member of the youth football foundation Stiftung Jugendfußball, founded 2000 upon the initiative of Jürgen Klinsmann. Lehmann also acts as ambassador of the foundation Power-Child Campus South Africa that supports children affected by HIV and well as foundations of Bert Trautmann, Christoph Metzelder and former Arsenal goalkeeper Bob Wilson.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: He participated in the Soccer Aid football match on 6 June 2010 for the Rest of the World team in aid of UNICEF.


title: Jens Lehmann

text: Lehmann made his film acting debut with the German/South African production "Themba". He plays Big John Jacobs, a football coach and talent scout, who discovers Themba, a young and ambitious youth, who is faced with poverty, AIDS and violence, but eventually makes his way on to the South African national team. The movie is based on a novel by Lutz van Dijk and premiered at the Berlinale 2010.


title: Titin

text: Titin (contraction for Titan protein) (also called connectin) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the "TTN" gene. Titin is a giant protein, greater than 1 µm in length, that functions as a molecular spring that is responsible for the passive elasticity of muscle. It comprises 244 individually folded protein domains connected by unstructured peptide sequences. These domains unfold when the protein is stretched and refold when the tension is removed.


title: Titin

text: Titin is important in the contraction of striated muscle tissues. It connects the Z line to the M line in the sarcomere. The protein contributes to force transmission at the Z line and resting tension in the I band region. It limits the range of motion of the sarcomere in tension, thus contributing to the passive stiffness of muscle. Variations in the sequence of titin between different types of striated muscle (cardiac or skeletal) have been correlated with differences in the mechanical properties of these muscles.


title: Titin

text: Titin is the third most abundant protein in muscle (after myosin and actin), and an adult human contains approximately 0.5 kg of titin. With its length of ~27,000 to ~35,000 amino acids (depending on the splice isoform), titin is the largest known protein. Furthermore, the gene for titin contains the largest number of exons (363) discovered in any single gene, as well as the longest single exon (17,106 bp).


title: Titin

text: Reiji Natori in 1954 was the first to propose an elastic structure in muscle fiber to account for the return to the resting state when muscles are stretched and then released. In 1977, Koscak Maruyama and coworkers isolated an elastic protein from muscle fiber that they called connectin. Two years later, Kuan Wang and coworkers identified a doublet band on electrophoresis gel corresponding to a high molecular weight, elastic protein that they named titin.


title: Titin

text: Siegfried Labeit in 1990 isolated a partial cDNA clone of titin. In 1995, Labeit and Bernhard Kolmerer determined the cDNA sequence of human cardiac titin. Labeit and colleagues in 2001 determined the complete sequence of the human titin gene.


title: Titin

text: The human gene encoding for titin is located on the long arm of chromosome 2 and contains 363 exons, which together code for 38,138 amino acid residues (4200 kDa). Within the gene are found a large number of PEVK (proline-glutamate-valine-lysine -abundant structural motifs) exons 84 to 99 nucleotides in length, which code for conserved 28- to 33-residue motifs that may represent structural units of the titin PEVK spring. The number of PEVK motifs in the titin gene appears to have increased during evolution, apparently modifying the genomic region responsible for titin's spring properties.


title: Titin

text: A number of titin isoforms are produced in different striated muscle tissues as a result of alternative splicing. All but one of these isoforms are in the range of ~27,000 to ~36,000 amino acid residues in length. The exception is the small cardiac novex-3 isoform, which is only 5,604 amino acid residues in length. The following table lists the known titin isoforms:


title: Titin

text: Titin is the largest known protein; its human variant consists of 34,350 amino acids, with the molecular weight of the mature "canonical" isoform of the protein being approximately 3,816,030.05 Da. Its mouse homologue is even larger, comprising 35,213 amino acids with a molecular weight of 3,906,487.6 Da. It has a theoretical isoelectric point of 6.02. The protein's empirical chemical formula is CHNOS. It has a theoretical instability index (II) of 42.38, classifying the protein as unstable. The protein's in vivo half-life, the time it takes for half of the amount of protein in a cell to break down after its synthesis in the cell, is predicted to be approximately 30 hours (in mammalian reticulocytes).


title: Titin

text: The titin protein is located between the myosin thick filament and the Z disk. Titin consists primarily of a linear array of two types of modules, also referred to as protein domains (244 copies in total): type I fibronectin type III domain (132 copies) and type II immunoglobulin domain (112 copies). However, the exact number of these domains is different in different species. This linear array is further organized into two regions:


title: Titin

text: The C-terminal region also contains a serine kinase domain that is primarily known for adapting the muscle to mechanical strain. It is “stretch-sensitive” and helps repair overstretching of the sarcomere. The N-terminal (the Z-disc end) contains a "Z repeat" that recognizes Actinin alpha 2.


title: Titin

text: The elasticity of the PEVK region has both entropic and enthalpic contributions and is characterized by a polymer persistence length and a stretch modulus. At low to moderate extensions PEVK elasticity can be modeled with a standard worm-like chain (WLC) model of entropic elasticity. At high extensions PEVK stretching can be modeled with a modified WLC model that incorporates enthalpic elasticity. The difference between low-and high- stretch elasticity is due to electrostatic stiffening and hydrophobic effects.


title: Titin

text: The titin domains have evolved from a common ancestor through many gene duplication events. Domain duplication was facilitated by the fact that most domains are encoded by single exons. Other giant sarcomeric proteins made out of Fn3/Ig repeats include obscurin and myomesin. Throughout evolution, titin mechanical strength appears to decrease through the loss of disulfide bonds as the organism becomes heavier.


title: Titin

text: Titin A-band has homologs in invertebrates, such as twitchin (unc-22) and projectin, which also contain Ig and FNIII repeats and a protein kinase domain. The gene duplication events took place independently but were from the same ancestral Ig and FNIII domains. It is said that the protein titin was the first to diverge out of the family. "Drosophila" projectin, officially known as bent ("bt"), is associated with lethality by failing to escape the egg in some mutations as well as dominant changes in wing angles.


title: Titin

text: "Drosophila" Titin, also known as Kettin or sallimus ("sls"), is kinase-free. It has roles in the elasticity of both muscle and chromosomes. It is homologous to vertebrate titin I-band and contains Ig PEVK domains, the many repeats being a hot target for splicing. There also exists a titin homologue, "ttn-1", in "C. elegans". It has a kinase domain, some Ig/Fn3 repeats, and PEVT repeats that are similarly elastic.


title: Titin

text: Titin is a large abundant protein of striated muscle. Titin's primary functions are to stabilize the thick filament, center it between the thin filaments, prevent overstretching of the sarcomere, and to recoil the sarcomere like a spring after it is stretched. An N-terminal Z-disc region and a C-terminal M-line region bind to the Z-line and M-line of the sarcomere, respectively, so that a single titin molecule spans half the length of a sarcomere. Titin also contains binding sites for muscle-associated proteins so it serves as an adhesion template for the assembly of contractile machinery in muscle cells. It has also been identified as a structural protein for chromosomes. Considerable variability exists in the I-band, the M-line and the Z-disc regions of titin. Variability in the I-band region contributes to the differences in elasticity of different titin isoforms and, therefore, to the differences in elasticity of different muscle types. Of the many titin variants identified, five are described with complete transcript information available.


title: Titin

text: Mutations anywhere within the unusually long sequence of this gene can cause premature stop codons or other defects. Titin mutations are associated with hereditary myopathy with early respiratory failure, early-onset myopathy with fatal cardiomyopathy, core myopathy with heart disease, centronuclear myopathy, limb-girdle muscular dystrophy type 2J, familial dilated cardiomyopathy 9, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and tibial muscular dystrophy. Further research also suggests that no genetically linked form of any dystrophy or myopathy can be safely excluded from being caused by a mutation on the TTN gene. Truncating mutations in dilated cardiomyopathy patients are most commonly found in the A region; although truncations in the upstream I region might be expected to prevent translation of the A region entirely, alternative splicing creates some transcripts that do not encounter the premature stop codon, ameliorating its effect. mRNA splicing factors such as RBM20 and SLM2 (KHDRBS3) were shown to mediated alternative mRNA splicing of titin mRNA contributing to the development of heart failure due to cardiomyopathies.


title: Titin

text: As the largest known protein, titin also has the longest IUPAC name of a protein. The full chemical name of the human canonical form of titin, which starts "methionyl..." and ends "...isoleucine", contains 189,819 letters and is sometimes stated to be the longest word in the English language, or of any language. However, lexicographers regard generic names of chemical compounds as "verbal formulae" rather than English words.


title: Miguel Ángel Silvestre

text: Miguel Ángel Silvestre Rambla was born in Castellón de la Plana on 6 April 1982. He planned on becoming a professional tennis player before suffering an injury in a Hungarian tournament. He later decided to study physiotherapy until his aunt introduced him to the world of theatre.


title: Miguel Ángel Silvestre

text: He studied drama, physical theatre, modern dance and acrobatics before winning the "Mister 2002" pageant.


title: Miguel Ángel Silvestre

text: He stars in the Pedro Almodóvar film "I'm So Excited" and in the Spanish horror thriller "Verbo". He also starred in the Spanish series "Velvet" as Alberto Marquez.


title: Miguel Ángel Silvestre

text: In 2015, the high-profile English-language Netflix drama "Sense8" was released, in which Miguel plays one of the lead characters, a closeted action movie star named Lito Rodríguez, who lives in Mexico City with his boyfriend, Hernando (played by Alfonso Herrera).


title: Miguel Ángel Silvestre

text: In 2017, he joined the cast of Netflix series "Narcos" playing recurring character and real life member of the Cali Cartel, Franklin Jurado.


title: Miguel Ángel Silvestre

text: In 2020, it was announced that he had joined the cast of "Money Heist" Season 5 in an undisclosed role.


title: DC Shoes

text: DC Shoes is an American company that specializes in footwear for action sports, including skateboarding and snowboarding. The company also manufactures apparel, bags, accessories, hats, tshirts, and posters.


title: DC Shoes

text: The company was founded in June 1994 by Danny Way and Ken Block. It was originally based in Carlsbad, California, but is now based in Huntington Beach, California, United States. DC originally stood for "Droors Clothing", but since the sale of Droors Clothing, DC no longer has ties to Droors and is simply DC Shoes, Inc.


title: DC Shoes

text: On March 8, 2004, DC Shoes was acquired by Quiksilver in an $87 million transaction. In 2010, DC Shoes moved from Vista, California, to Quiksilver's headquarters in Huntington Beach.


title: DC Shoes

text: A video entitled "Skateboarding Is Forever" was released online in 2010 and featured parts from the amateur DC skateboard team at the time: Marquise Henry, Matt Miller, Wes Kremer, Evan Smith, and Greg Myers. Apart from Myers and Henry, all of the skateboarders from the video remained sponsored by the company back in 2013, and have since attained professional status.


title: DC Shoes

text: In 2011, the brand underwent a rejuvenation process that included the design of a new flag logo. As part of this process, new skateboard team announcements were progressively made and a series of advertisements, under the direction of new team member Steve Berra, were released online. The other new team announcements were Mikey Taylor, Mike Mo Capaldi, Nyjah Huston, Chris Cole, and Davis Torgerson. Felipe Gustavo was introduced at a later stage.


title: DC Shoes

text: A further progression of the brand relaunch was the "Rediscovery" campaign that commenced in December 2011, following the addition of Capaldi and Huston to the skateboard team. The campaign is entitled "Rediscover DC" and the launch signified the first time that the entire DC team had been brought together in nearly a decade.


title: DC Shoes

text: The first individual installment of the campaign was entitled "Rediscover Technology" and featured Chris Cole's signature shoe. The subsequent instalments are as follows:


title: DC Shoes

text: Following the brand relaunch, Taylor was the first new team member to release a signature model, as well as a corresponding full video part, both of which were launched in July 2012. As of August 2012, the DC company had entered the women's market and the "Women's Fall 12 Collection" consisted of footwear, apparel, soft goods and accessories.


title: DC Shoes

text: In the first half of 2013, the promotion of new team members continued as Capaldi ("Mike Mo S"), Kremer ("Wes Kremer Pro"), and Huston released signature shoe models. On the final night of May 2013, a launch event was held at the Roosevelt Hotel in Los Angeles, California, U.S. for the first signature model skate shoe of Huston's career, with Pete Rock in the role of DJ. The model is named the "Nyjah Huston Signature Shoe" and the promotional advertisement features Huston executing a trick at set of stairs at Hollywood High School in Los Angeles, U.S.


title: DC Shoes

text: Cyril Jackson, accompanied by the "Baker Council S" shoe model, was introduced as a new amateur team member in mid-August 2013.


title: DC Shoes

text: Miller's first professional shoe model with the brand was announced on October 6, 2014. Titled the "Matt Miller S," the shoe was released after Miller had been sponsored by DC Shoes for six years. The company's skate team embarked on the "Defy Convention Asia" tour at the start of November 2014.


title: DC Shoes

text: Tristan Funkhouser and Bobby De Keyzer were added to the global skateboarding team amateur squad on December 19, 2014, through the release of a YouTube welcome video that is just under 10 minutes in duration. The company described both additions as "unique" in the promotional blurb for the "Defunkt" video.


title: DC Shoes

text: In 2019, DC Shoes and skate magazine Skate Jawn collaborated on a Skate Jawn themed Lynx model skate shoe.


title: DC Shoes

text: Similar to other larger brands, such as Nike, Inc. and Adidas, DC sponsors regional teams in addition to its global team. Initially, national teams, such as the DC Shoes China team, DC Shoes Spain team, DC Shoes Norway, and DC Shoes Australia were formed, but in 2013 the various skate teams seem to have been merged and united under regional titles. However, as of July 2013, DC Shoes Canada has not been officially disbanded and the team consists of Morgan Smith, Josh Clark, Sascha Daley, Micky Papa, Paul Trep, Will Marshall, Mitch Barrette, Bobby Dekyzer, and Chad Dickson. Additionally, as of September 2013, a UK "National" team exists, and consists of Conhuir Lynn, Dave Snaddon, Sean Smith, Dylan Hughes, and Nicky Howells.


title: DC Shoes

text: As of September 2013, the DC Shoes Europe team consists of Madars Apse, Josef Skott Jatta, Thaynan Costa, Michael Sommer, Javier Paredes, Bruno Aballay, Antony Lopez, Ruben Garcia, and Manuel Margreiter. In late 2012, an Asia Pacific (DC APAC) team superseded the Australian team and will presumably incorporate skateboarders from the Chinese team, such as Taiwan pro Adee Lu, as well as other parts of the Asia-Pacific region. Tommy Fynn was introduced as the first member of DC's APAC skate team, followed by fellow Australian Jake Hayes, whose welcome video part was published on the Internet in April 2013.


title: DC Shoes

text: On June 15, 2016 DC Shoes introduced their new global surf team marking the return of the DC Shoes Surfing platform since 2003.


title: Ralph Hasenhüttl

text: Ralph Hasenhüttl (; born 9 August 1967) is an Austrian professional football manager and former player who was most recently the manager of Premier League club Southampton. During his playing career, he played as a centre forward.


title: Ralph Hasenhüttl

text: Born in Graz, Hasenhüttl began his career with hometown club GAK, making his first team debut in the 1985–86 season. He transferred to Austria Wien in 1989, with whom he won three successive Bundesliga titles and two Austrian Cups. He moved to Austria Salzburg in 1994, where he won another Bundesliga title as well as an Austrian Super Cup. In 1996, Hasenhüttl moved abroad, with spells at Mechelen and Lierse in Belgium. In season 1998–99, he signed for 1. FC Köln, for a fee equivalent to €200,000. In his two years in Cologne, however, he only scored three goals and in 2000 moved to SpVgg Greuther Fürth.


title: Ralph Hasenhüttl

text: Between 2004 and 2005, Hasenhüttl was a youth-team coach at SpVgg Unterhaching. Following the sacking of Harry Deutinger in March 2007, he became caretaker manager until the appointment of Werner Lorant, under whom he worked as assistant coach. On 4 October 2007, Hasenhüttl became the new head coach. His first match was a 2–2 draw against SSV Reutlingen 05. Unterhaching finished in sixth place that season.


title: Ralph Hasenhüttl

text: In the 2008–09 season, in the newly formed 3. Liga, the team's performances earned them fourth place in the table, missing out on a play-off place by one point. Unterhaching were eliminated in the first round of the German Cup. In the 2009–10 season, they failed to build upon their success, achieving 31 points in 24 games, resulting in Hasenhüttl's sacking on 22 February 2010. His final match was a 1–1 draw against Borussia Dortmund II on 21 February 2010. He finished with a record of 40 wins, 20 draws, and 28 losses.


title: Ralph Hasenhüttl

text: In January 2011, Hasenhüttl succeeded Rainer Scharinger as the coach of third division VfR Aalen, then in 16th place, one point above the relegation zone. His first match was a 1–1 draw against VfB Stuttgart II. Aalen's survival in the 3. Liga earned him a year's contract extension. In the 2011–12 season, he completely rebuilt the team, bringing in eight new players and releasing 14, with the aim of a mid-table finish. After a slow start to the season, the team found itself in sixth place at the winter break, only a point behind the play-off position. The team's run continued into the second half of the season, which included an eight-game winning streak, earning Hasenhüttl a further two-year contract extension in November 2011. At the end of the season, Aalen finished in second place, earning automatic promotion to the 2. Bundesliga.


title: Ralph Hasenhüttl

text: During pre-season training in the summer of 2012, Hasenhüttl contracted a Hantavirus infection, but returned to work three weeks into the 2012–13 season. Hasenhüttl had switched from a 4–4–2 to a 4–5–1 formation, to facilitate a fast, counter-attacking game, with success. By the winter break, Aalen were in fifth place. The team finished the season in ninth place, the highest of the newly promoted teams. After two-and-a-half successful years at Aalen, Hasenhüttl resigned in June 2013, when Aalen lost its main sponsor and sporting director Markus Schupp imposed an austerity programme for the following season, with several departing players not being replaced. He finished with a record of 36 wins, 28 draws, and 29 losses.


title: Ralph Hasenhüttl

text: In October 2013, Hasenhüttl was appointed as coach of Ingolstadt 04, replacing Marco Kurz. In his first season, he took them from bottom of the 2. Bundesliga to tenth place. In the 2014–15 season, Hasenhüttl took Ingolstadt to the Bundesliga for the first time, finishing the season as 2. Bundesliga champions. In the 2015–16 season, he was successful in securing Ingolstadt's Bundesliga survival, finishing in 11th place, but chose not to extend his contract.


title: Ralph Hasenhüttl

text: In May 2016, he was confirmed as the new manager of newly promoted RB Leipzig. He took over on 1 July 2016. His first match was against Dynamo Dresden in the German Cup. Leipzig lost 5–4 in a shootout. In his and the club's debut season in the Bundesliga Hasenhüttl guided Leipzig to a second-place finish. The following season, the club finished sixth, with Hasenhüttl asking for his contract to be terminated as he was not comfortable acting as an interim for incoming boss Julian Nagelsmann. In May 2018, he left RB Leipzig.


title: Ralph Hasenhüttl

text: On 5 December 2018, Hasenhüttl was appointed as the new manager of Southampton, succeeding Mark Hughes making him the first Austrian to manage in the Premier League. At the time of his appointment, Southampton occupied the last relegation place, one point from safety. His first game in charge was a 0–1 defeat at Cardiff City, three days after his appointment. His first win as Southampton's manager came on 16 December in a 3–2 win at home to Arsenal, ending the Gunners' four-month 22-match unbeaten run. On 27 April 2019, Southampton secured Premier League status after a 3–3 draw against Bournemouth at St Mary's. They finished the season in 16th place.


title: Ralph Hasenhüttl

text: Hasenhüttl's side suffered a 9–0 home loss to Leicester City on 25 October 2019 and the joint-worst loss in Premier League history and worst on home soil; he apologised for the result and was given the club's backing to remain in his job.


title: Ralph Hasenhüttl

text: In June 2020, he signed a new contract to extend his stay at the club until 2024. Despite being in the relegation zone in early November, Southampton ended the season on a seven-game unbeaten streak to finish in 11th place, their best finish in three seasons. Their final tally of 52 points was the team's highest total since 2015–16, and Hasenhüttl was named Manager of the Month for July 2020.


title: Ralph Hasenhüttl

text: Southampton began the 2020–21 season strongly, briefly topping the Premier League table at the beginning of November. Despite the positive start, Hasenhüttl's side suffered a second 9–0 defeat away to Manchester United on 2 February 2021. They continued to struggle throughout the rest of the season, eventually finishing 15th.


title: Ralph Hasenhüttl

text: On 7 November 2022, Southampton parted company with Hasenhüttl. At the time, Southampton were in the Premier League relegation zone with 12 points after 14 games.


title: Ralph Hasenhüttl

text: Like Jürgen Klopp, Hasenhüttl is a notable proponent of "Gegenpressing", a tactic in which the team, after losing possession of the ball, immediately attempts to win back possession, rather than falling back to regroup. This has seen him nicknamed "The Alpine Klopp".


title: Ralph Hasenhüttl

text: In his first season at Southampton, he initially used a 3-5-2, switching to his preferred 4-2-2-2 mid-way into his second season, as he had previously implemented at RB Leipzig. However, in the 2021–22 season he began sometimes using 3-5-2 and 3-4-3 formations in order to gain more tactical flexibility against different opponents.


title: Ralph Hasenhüttl

text: He outlined what he wants to see from his team as "Pressing. Hunting. Be hungry. When you have the ball, find a quick decision, quick transition to the front. It's about being emotional, being full of passion. Also, keep the tempo on a high level and don't slow down the game. That's what I think the people want to see."


title: Ralph Hasenhüttl

text: His son Patrick was born in Mechelen in 1997, while Ralph was playing for K.V. Mechelen, and he currently plays as a forward for VfB Oldenburg.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: The cytoskeleton is a complex, dynamic network of interlinking protein filaments present in the cytoplasm of all cells, including those of bacteria and archaea. In eukaryotes, it extends from the cell nucleus to the cell membrane and is composed of similar proteins in the various organisms. It is composed of three main components, microfilaments, intermediate filaments and microtubules, and these are all capable of rapid growth or disassembly dependent on the cell's requirements.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: A multitude of functions can be performed by the cytoskeleton. Its primary function is to give the cell its shape and mechanical resistance to deformation, and through association with extracellular connective tissue and other cells it stabilizes entire tissues. The cytoskeleton can also contract, thereby deforming the cell and the cell's environment and allowing cells to migrate. Moreover, it is involved in many cell signaling pathways and in the uptake of extracellular material (endocytosis), the segregation of chromosomes during cellular division, the cytokinesis stage of cell division, as scaffolding to organize the contents of the cell in space and in intracellular transport (for example, the movement of vesicles and organelles within the cell) and can be a template for the construction of a cell wall. Furthermore, it can form specialized structures, such as flagella, cilia, lamellipodia and podosomes. The structure, function and dynamic behavior of the cytoskeleton can be very different, depending on organism and cell type. Even within one cell, the cytoskeleton can change through association with other proteins and the previous history of the network.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: A large-scale example of an action performed by the cytoskeleton is muscle contraction. This is carried out by groups of highly specialized cells working together. A main component in the cytoskeleton that helps show the true function of this muscle contraction is the microfilament. Microfilaments are composed of the most abundant cellular protein known as actin. During contraction of a muscle, within each muscle cell, myosin molecular motors collectively exert forces on parallel actin filaments. Muscle contraction starts from nerve impulses which then causes increased amounts of calcium to be released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Increases in calcium in the cytosol allows muscle contraction to begin with the help of two proteins, tropomyosin and troponin. Tropomyosin inhibits the interaction between actin and myosin, while troponin senses the increase in calcium and releases the inhibition. This action contracts the muscle cell, and through the synchronous process in many muscle cells, the entire muscle.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: In 1903, Nikolai K. Koltsov proposed that the shape of cells was determined by a network of tubules that he termed the cytoskeleton. The concept of a protein mosaic that dynamically coordinated cytoplasmic biochemistry was proposed by Rudolph Peters in 1929 while the term ("cytosquelette", in French) was first introduced by French embryologist Paul Wintrebert in 1931.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: When the cytoskeleton was first introduced, it was thought to be an uninteresting gel-like substance that helped organelles stay in place. Much research took place to try to understand the purpose of the cytoskeleton and its components.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: Initially, it was thought that the cytoskeleton was exclusive to eukaryotes but in 1992 it was discovered to be present in prokaryotes as well. This discovery came after the realization that bacteria possess proteins that are homologous to tubulin and actin; the main components of the eukaryotic cytoskeleton.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: Eukaryotic cells contain three main kinds of cytoskeletal filaments: microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments. In neurons the intermediate filaments are known as neurofilaments. Each type is formed by the polymerization of a distinct type of protein subunit and has its own characteristic shape and intracellular distribution. Microfilaments are polymers of the protein actin and are 7 nm in diameter. Microtubules are composed of tubulin and are 25 nm in diameter. Intermediate filaments are composed of various proteins, depending on the type of cell in which they are found; they are normally 8-12 nm in diameter. The cytoskeleton provides the cell with structure and shape, and by excluding macromolecules from some of the cytosol, it adds to the level of macromolecular crowding in this compartment. Cytoskeletal elements interact extensively and intimately with cellular membranes.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: Research into neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) indicate that the cytoskeleton is affected in these diseases. Parkinson's disease is marked by the degradation of neurons, resulting in tremors, rigidity, and other non-motor symptoms. Research has shown that microtubule assembly and stability in the cytoskeleton is compromised causing the neurons to degrade over time. In Alzheimer's disease, tau proteins which stabilize microtubules malfunction in the progression of the illness causing pathology of the cytoskeleton. Excess glutamine in the Huntington protein involved with linking vesicles onto the cytoskeleton is also proposed to be a factor in the development of Huntington's Disease. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis results in a loss of movement caused by the degradation of motor neurons, and also involves defects of the cytoskeleton.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: Stuart Hameroff and Roger Penrose suggest a role of microtubule vibrations in neurons in the origin of consciousness.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: Accessory proteins including motor proteins regulate and link the filaments to other cell compounds and each other and are essential for controlled assembly of cytoskeletal filaments in particular locations.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: A number of small-molecule cytoskeletal drugs have been discovered that interact with actin and microtubules. These compounds have proven useful in studying the cytoskeleton, and several have clinical applications.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: Microfilaments, also known as actin filaments, are composed of linear polymers of G-actin proteins, and generate force when the growing (plus) end of the filament pushes against a barrier, such as the cell membrane. They also act as tracks for the movement of myosin molecules that affix to the microfilament and "walk" along them. In general, the major component or protein of microfilaments are actin. The G-actin monomer combines to form a polymer which continues to form the microfilament (actin filament). These subunits then assemble into two chains that intertwine into what are called F-actin chains. Myosin motoring along F-actin filaments generates contractile forces in so-called actomyosin fibers, both in muscle as well as most non-muscle cell types. Actin structures are controlled by the Rho family of small GTP-binding proteins such as Rho itself for contractile acto-myosin filaments ("stress fibers"), Rac for lamellipodia and Cdc42 for filopodia.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: Intermediate filaments are a part of the cytoskeleton of many eukaryotic cells. These filaments, averaging 10 nanometers in diameter, are more stable (strongly bound) than microfilaments, and heterogeneous constituents of the cytoskeleton. Like actin filaments, they function in the maintenance of cell-shape by bearing tension (microtubules, by contrast, resist compression but can also bear tension during mitosis and during the positioning of the centrosome). Intermediate filaments organize the internal tridimensional structure of the cell, anchoring organelles and serving as structural components of the nuclear lamina. They also participate in some cell-cell and cell-matrix junctions. Nuclear lamina exist in all animals and all tissues. Some animals like the fruit fly do not have any cytoplasmic intermediate filaments. In those animals that express cytoplasmic intermediate filaments, these are tissue specific. Keratin intermediate filaments in epithelial cells provide protection for different mechanical stresses the skin may endure. They also provide protection for organs against metabolic, oxidative, and chemical stresses. Strengthening of epithelial cells with these intermediate filaments may prevent onset of apoptosis, or cell death, by reducing the probability of stress.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: Intermediate filaments are most commonly known as the support system or “scaffolding” for the cell and nucleus while also playing a role in some cell functions. In combination with proteins and desmosomes, the intermediate filaments form cell-cell connections and anchor the cell-matrix junctions that are used in messaging between cells as well as vital functions of the cell. These connections allow the cell to communicate through the desmosome of multiple cells to adjust structures of the tissue based on signals from the cells environment. Mutations in the IF proteins have been shown to cause serious medical issues such as premature aging, desmin mutations compromising organs, Alexander Disease, and muscular dystrophy.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: Microtubules are hollow cylinders about 23 nm in diameter (lumen diameter of approximately 15 nm), most commonly comprising 13 protofilaments that, in turn, are polymers of alpha and beta tubulin. They have a very dynamic behavior, binding GTP for polymerization. They are commonly organized by the centrosome.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: In nine triplet sets (star-shaped), they form the centrioles, and in nine doublets oriented about two additional microtubules (wheel-shaped), they form cilia and flagella. The latter formation is commonly referred to as a "9+2" arrangement, wherein each doublet is connected to another by the protein dynein. As both flagella and cilia are structural components of the cell, and are maintained by microtubules, they can be considered part of the cytoskeleton. There are two types of cilia: motile and non-motile cilia. Cilia are short and more numerous than flagella. The motile cilia have a rhythmic waving or beating motion compared to the non-motile cilia which receive sensory information for the cell; processing signals from the other cells or the fluids surrounding it. Additionally, the microtubules control the beating (movement) of the cilia and flagella. Also, the dynein arms attached to the microtubules function as the molecular motors. The motion of the cilia and flagella is created by the microtubules sliding past one another, which requires ATP.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: In addition to the roles described above, Stuart Hameroff and Roger Penrose have proposed that microtubules function in consciousness.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: Septins are a group of the highly conserved GTP binding proteins found in eukaryotes. Different septins form protein complexes with each other. These can assemble to filaments and rings. Therefore, septins can be considered part of the cytoskeleton. The function of septins in cells include serving as a localized attachment site for other proteins, and preventing the diffusion of certain molecules from one cell compartment to another. In yeast cells, they build scaffolding to provide structural support during cell division and compartmentalize parts of the cell. Recent research in human cells suggests that septins build cages around bacterial pathogens, immobilizing the harmful microbes and preventing them from invading other cells.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: Spectrin is a cytoskeletal protein that lines the intracellular side of the plasma membrane in eukaryotic cells. Spectrin forms pentagonal or hexagonal arrangements, forming a scaffolding and playing an important role in maintenance of plasma membrane integrity and cytoskeletal structure.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: In budding yeast (an important model organism), actin forms cortical patches, actin cables, and a cytokinetic ring and the cap. Cortical patches are discrete actin bodies on the membrane and are vital for endocytosis, especially the recycling of glucan synthase which is important for cell wall synthesis. Actin cables are bundles of actin filaments and are involved in the transport of vesicles towards the cap (which contains a number of different proteins to polarize cell growth) and in the positioning of mitochondria. The cytokinetic ring forms and constricts around the site of cell division.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: Prior to the work of Jones et al., 2001, the cell wall was believed to be the deciding factor for many bacterial cell shapes, including rods and spirals. When studied, many misshapen bacteria were found to have mutations linked to development of a cell envelope. The cytoskeleton was once thought to be a feature only of eukaryotic cells, but homologues to all the major proteins of the eukaryotic cytoskeleton have been found in prokaryotes. Harold Erickson notes that before 1992, only eukaryotes were believed to have cytoskeleton components. However, research in the early '90s suggested that bacteria and archaea had homologues of actin and tubulin, and that these were the basis of eukaryotic microtubules and microfilaments. Although the evolutionary relationships are so distant that they are not obvious from protein sequence comparisons alone, the similarity of their three-dimensional structures and similar functions in maintaining cell shape and polarity provides strong evidence that the eukaryotic and prokaryotic cytoskeletons are truly homologous. Three laboratories independently discovered that FtsZ, a protein already known as a key player in bacterial cytokinesis, had the "tubulin signature sequence" present in all α-, β-, and γ-tubulins. However, some structures in the bacterial cytoskeleton may not have been identified as of yet.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: FtsZ was the first protein of the prokaryotic cytoskeleton to be identified. Like tubulin, FtsZ forms filaments in the presence of guanosine triphosphate (GTP), but these filaments do not group into tubules. During cell division, FtsZ is the first protein to move to the division site, and is essential for recruiting other proteins that synthesize the new cell wall between the dividing cells.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: Prokaryotic actin-like proteins, such as MreB, are involved in the maintenance of cell shape. All non-spherical bacteria have genes encoding actin-like proteins, and these proteins form a helical network beneath the cell membrane that guides the proteins involved in cell wall biosynthesis.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: Some plasmids encode a separate system that involves an actin-like protein ParM. Filaments of ParM exhibit dynamic instability, and may partition plasmid DNA into the dividing daughter cells by a mechanism analogous to that used by microtubules during eukaryotic mitosis.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: The bacterium "Caulobacter crescentus" contains a third protein, crescentin, that is related to the intermediate filaments of eukaryotic cells. Crescentin is also involved in maintaining cell shape, such as helical and vibrioid forms of bacteria, but the mechanism by which it does this is currently unclear. Additionally, curvature could be described by the displacement of crescentic filaments, after the disruption of peptidoglycan synthesis.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: The cytoskeleton is a highly anisotropic and dynamic network, constantly remodeling itself in response to the changing cellular microenvironment. The network influences cell mechanics and dynamics by differentially polymerizing and depolymerizing its constituent filaments (primarily actin and myosin, but microtubules and intermediate filaments also play a role). This generates forces, which play an important role in informing the cell of its microenvironment. Specifically, forces such as tension, stiffness, and shear forces have all been shown to influence cell fate, differentiation, migration, and motility. Through a process called “mechanotransduction,” the cell remodels its cytoskeleton to sense and respond to these forces.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: Mechanotransduction relies heavily on focal adhesions, which essentially connect the intracellular cytoskeleton with the extracellular matrix (ECM). Through focal adhesions, the cell is able to integrate extracellular forces into intracellular ones as the proteins present at focal adhesions undergo conformational changes to initiate signaling cascades. Proteins such as focal adhesion kinase (FAK) and Src have been shown to transduce force signals in response to cellular activities such as proliferation and differentiation, and are hypothesized to be key sensors in the mechanotransduction pathway. As a result of mechanotransduction, the cytoskeleton changes its composition and/or orientation to accommodate the force stimulus and ensure the cell responds accordingly.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: The cytoskeleton changes the mechanics of the cell in response to detected forces. For example, increasing tension within the plasma membrane makes it more likely that ion channels will open, which increases ion conductance and makes cellular change ion influx or efflux much more likely. Moreover, the mechanical properties of cells determine how far and where, directionally, a force will propagate throughout the cell and how it will change cell dynamics. A membrane protein that is not closely coupled to the cytoskeleton, for instance, will not produce a significant effect on the cortical actin network if it is subjected to a specifically directed force. However, membrane proteins that are more closely associated with the cytoskeleton will induce a more significant response. In this way, the anisotropy of the cytoskeleton serves to more keenly direct cell responses to intra or extracellular signals.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: The specific pathways and mechanisms by which the cytoskeleton senses and responds to forces are still under investigation. However, the long-range order generated by the cytoskeleton is known to contribute to mechanotransduction. Cells, which are around 10–50 μm in diameter, are several thousand times larger than the molecules found within the cytoplasm that are essential to coordinate cellular activities. Because cells are so large in comparison to essential biomolecules, it is difficult, in the absence of an organizing network, for different parts of the cytoplasm to communicate. Moreover, biomolecules must polymerize to lengths comparable to the length of the cell, but resulting polymers can be highly disorganized and unable to effectively transmit signals from one part of the cytoplasm to another. Thus, it is necessary to have the cytoskeleton to organize the polymers and ensure that they can effectively communicate across the entirety of the cell.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: By definition, the cytoskeleton is composed of proteins that can form longitudinal arrays (fibres) in all organisms. These filament forming proteins have been classified into 4 classes. Tubulin-like, actin-like, Walker A cytoskeletal ATPases (WACA-proteins), and intermediate filaments.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: Tubulin-like proteins are tubulin in eukaryotes and FtsZ, TubZ, RepX in prokaryotes. Actin-like proteins are actin in eukaryotes and MreB, FtsA in prokaryotes. An example of a WACA-proteins, which are mostly found in prokaryotes, is MinD. Examples for intermediate filaments, which have almost exclusively been found in animals (i.e. eukaryotes) are the lamins, keratins, vimentin, neurofilaments, and desmin.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: Although tubulin-like proteins share some amino acid sequence similarity, their equivalence in protein-fold and the similarity in the GTP binding site is more striking. The same holds true for the actin-like proteins and their structure and ATP binding domain.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: Cytoskeletal proteins are usually correlated with cell shape, DNA segregation and cell division in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Which proteins fulfill which task is very different. For example, DNA segregation in all eukaryotes happens through use of tubulin, but in prokaryotes either WACA proteins, actin-like or tubulin-like proteins can be used. Cell division is mediated in eukaryotes by actin, but in prokaryotes usually by tubulin-like (often FtsZ-ring) proteins and sometimes (Thermoproteota) ESCRT-III, which in eukaryotes still has a role in the last step of division.


title: Cytoskeleton

text: Cytoplasmic streaming, also known as cyclosis, is the active movement of a cell’s contents along the components of the cytoskeleton. While mainly seen in plants, all cell types use this process for transportation of waste, nutrients, and organelles to other parts of the cell.  Plant and algae cells are generally larger than many other cells; so cytoplasmic streaming is important in these types of cells. This is because the cell’s extra volume requires cytoplasmic streaming in order to move organelles throughout the entire cell. Organelles move along microfilaments in the cytoskeleton driven by myosin motors binding and pushing along actin filament bundles.


title: Lake Texcoco

text: Lake Texcoco () was a natural lake within the "Anahuac" or Valley of Mexico. Lake Texcoco is best known as where the Aztecs built the city of Tenochtitlan, which was located on an island within the lake. After the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, efforts to control flooding by the Spanish led to most of the lake being drained.


title: Lake Texcoco

text: The entire lake basin is now almost completely occupied by Mexico City, the capital of the present-day nation of Mexico. Drainage of the lake has led to serious ecological and human consequences: the local climate and water availability have changed considerably, contributing to water scarcity in the area; subsequent groundwater extraction leads to land subsidence under much of the city; and native species endemic to the lake region have become severely endangered or extinct due to ecosystem change, such as the axolotl.


title: Lake Texcoco

text: After the cancellation of the Mexico City Texcoco Airport, the government initiated a major restoration project of a significant part of the lake in the form of the Lake Texcoco Ecological Park, 12,000 hectares of public space and ecological restoration.


title: Lake Texcoco

text: Between the Pleistocene epoch and the last glacial period, the lake occupied the entire Mexico Valley. Lake Texcoco reached its maximum extent 11,000 years ago with a size of about and over deep. When the lake's water level fell it created several paleo-lakes that would connect with each other from time to time. At the north in the modern community of San Miguel Tocuilla there is a great paleontological field, with a great amount of pleistocenic fauna. The Lake was primarily fed by snowmelt and rain runoff when the Mexico Valley had a temperate climate. Between 11,000 and 6,000 years ago, the climate naturally warmed and snowfall in central Mexico became less prevalent. This caused the water level of the lake to drop over the next several millennia. Remnants of the ancient shoreline that Lake Texcoco had from the last glacial period can be seen on some slopes of Mount Tlaloc as well as mountains west of Mexico City. The disarticulated remains of seven Columbian mammoths dated between 10,220 ± 75 and 12,615 ± 95 years (BP) were found, suggesting human presence. It is believed that the lake disappeared and re-formed at least 10 times in the last 30,000 years.


title: Lake Texcoco

text: Agriculture around the lake began about 7,000 years ago, with humans following the patterns of periodic inundations of the lake.


title: Lake Texcoco

text: Several villages appeared on the northeast side of the lake between 1700 and 1250 BC. By 1250 BC the identifying signs of the Tlatilco culture, including more complex settlements and a stratified social structure, are seen around the lake. By roughly 800 BC Cuicuilco had eclipsed the Tlatilco cultural centers and was the major power in the Valley of Mexico during the next 200 years when its famous conical pyramid was built. The Xitle volcano destroyed Cuicuilco around AD 30, a destruction that may have given rise to Teotihuacan.


title: Lake Texcoco

text: After the fall of Teotihuacan, AD 600–800, several other city states appeared around the lake, including Xoloc, Azcapotzalco, Tlacopan, Coyohuacan, Culhuacán, Chimalpa and Chimalhuacán – mainly from Toltec and Chichimeca influence. None of these predominated and they coexisted more or less in peace for several centuries. This time was described as a Golden age in Aztec chronicles. By the year 1300, however, the Tepanec from Azcapotzalco were beginning to dominate the area.


title: Lake Texcoco

text: According to a traditional story, the Mexica wandered in the deserts of modern Mexico for 100 years before they came to the thick forests of the place now called the Valley of Mexico.


title: Lake Texcoco

text: Tenochtitlan was founded on an islet in the western part of the lake in the year 1325. Around it, the Aztecs created a large artificial island using a system similar to the creation of chinampas. To overcome the problems of drinking water, the Aztecs built a system of dams to separate the salty waters of the lake from the rain water of the effluents. It also permitted them to control the level of the lake. The city also had an inner system of channels that helped to control the water.


title: Lake Texcoco

text: The Aztec ruler Ahuitzotl attempted to build an aqueduct that would take fresh water from the mainland to the lakes surrounding the Tenochtitlan city. The aqueduct failed, and the city suffered a major flood in 1502.


title: Lake Texcoco

text: During Cortés's siege of Tenochtitlan in 1521, the dams were destroyed, and never rebuilt, so flooding became a big problem for the new Mexico City built over Tenochtitlan.