title: Barney Frank

text: Frank has been involved in mortgage foreclosure bailout issues. In 2008 Frank supported passage of the American Housing Rescue & Foreclosure Prevention Act, intended to protect thousands of homeowners from foreclosure. This law, , is considered one of the most important and complex issues on which he worked. In an August 2007 op-ed piece in "Financial Times", Frank wrote, "In the debate between those who believe in essentially unregulated markets and others who hold that reasonable regulation diminishes market excesses without inhibiting their basic function, the subprime situation unfortunately provides ammunition for the latter view." Frank was also instrumental in the passage of , the Credit Cardholders' Bill of Rights Act of 2008, a measure that drew praise from editorial boards and consumer advocates. In 2007. Frank co-sponsored legislation to reform the Section 202 refinancing program, which is for affordable housing for the elderly, and Section 811 disabled programs. Frank has been a chief advocate of the National Housing Trust Fund, which was created as part of the Housing and Economic Recovery Act of 2008 and was the first affordable housing program to be enacted by the Congress since 1990.


title: Barney Frank

text: During the subprime mortgage crisis, Frank was characterized as "a key deal-maker, an unlikely bridge between his party's left-wing base and ... free market conservatives" in the Bush administration. Hank Paulson, the U.S. Treasury Secretary for the Bush administration, said he enjoyed Frank's penchant for brokering deals, "he is looking to get things done and make a difference, he focuses on areas of agreement and tries to build on those."


title: Barney Frank

text: "The New York Times" noted that the Federal Housing Administration's crucial role in the nation's housing market, providing low-down-payment mortgages during the crisis of 2007–2010 when no mortgages would otherwise have been available, "helped avert full-scale disaster" by helping people purchase or refinance homes and thereby putting a floor under falling home prices. However, due to the tighter flow of credit from the banks, total FHA loans in 2009 were four times that of 2006, raising concern that year that if the economy were to dip back into recession, more Fed funds could be required to keep those loans afloat. Frank's response was that the additional defaults—2.2% more of the total portfolio in 2009 than the year before—were worth the economic stabilization of the broader policy, noting "It was an effort to keep prices from falling too fast." In that context, he opined, "I don't think it's a bad thing that the bad loans occurred." In fact, the unprecedented number of loans made since 2008 were noted to be performing far better than those in the prior two years.


title: Barney Frank

text: In 2009 Frank had a 100% rating from NARAL Pro-Choice America, indicating a pro-choice voting record. He voted against the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act, against the Unborn Victims of Violence Act and against restrictions on the transportation of minors across state lines by non-family members to circumvent local abortion laws. In 1993 Frank co-sponsored the "Freedom of Choice Act" (H.R.25) (1993-H25) to "protect the reproductive rights of women". In 2006, he co-sponsored the "Compassionate Assistance for Rape Emergencies Act" (S.3945) (06-S3945), a bill for "emergency contraception for rape victims". In 2007 he co-sponsored the "Compassionate Care for Servicewomen Act" (S.1800 & HR.2064) (07-HR2064) to "providing emergency contraception at military facilities"; the "Prevention First Act" (S.21&H.R.463 2009-S21) to "expand access to preventive health care services that help reduce unintended pregnancy, reduce abortions, and improve access to women's health care".


title: Barney Frank

text: In 1987, Frank was the Chair of the House Judiciary Subcommittee on Administrative Law and Governmental Relations in the 100th Congress. In this position, he was one of the staunchest supporters of redress and reparations for Japanese American internment during World War II. In 2001, Frank co-sponsored an amendment to the U.S. Constitution to apply equal rights based on gender differences. In 2002 he co-sponsored the "Federal Agency Protection of Privacy Act" (H.R.4561) to require a "Privacy Impact Statement" on new federal rules. In 2002 he was scored at 93% by the American Civil Liberties Union on civil rights issues indicating a pro-civil rights voting record.


title: Barney Frank

text: In 2006, Frank was one of three Representatives to oppose the Respect for America's Fallen Heroes Act, which restricted protests (notably those of Fred Phelps' Westboro Baptist Church) at soldiers' funerals. He opposed the bill, which passed unanimously in the Senate, on civil liberties and constitutional grounds. Frank said of the vote, "I think it's very likely to be found unconstitutional. It's true that when you defend civil liberties you are typically defending people who do obnoxious things ... You play into their hand when you let them provoke you into overdoing it. I don't want these thugs to [make the] claim [that] America is hypocritical." The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People scored him at 100% in 2006 indicating a pro-affirmative-action stance.


title: Barney Frank

text: In 2007, Frank co-sponsored the "Partnership Benefits and Obligations Act" (S.2521/H.R.4838) to "provide benefits to domestic partners of Federal employees". That same year, he co-sponsored the "Equal Rights Amendment" (S.J.RES.10/H.J.RES.40) to "strengthen the ongoing efforts of women across the country to obtain equal treatment." In 2009, he signed bills recognizing the 40th anniversary of the Stonewall Riots and the 100th anniversary of the NAACP.


title: Barney Frank

text: Frank has been outspoken on many civil rights issues, including lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) rights. In 1987, he publicly came out as gay. In 1990, Frank was instrumental in crafting the 1990 Immigration Act, which restated the reasons for which a person could be denied entry into the country. The act did not include "sexual preference exclusion[s]", reforming earlier immigration law which allowed persons to be excluded for a sexual deviance "afflict[ion]". He said in a 1996 interview: "I'm used to being in the minority. I'm a left-handed gay Jew. I've never felt, automatically, a member of any majority." In 1995, then-Republican House Majority Leader Dick Armey famously referred to Frank as "Barney Fag" in a press interview. Armey apologized and said it was "a slip of the tongue". Frank did not accept Armey's explanation, saying "I turned to my own expert, my mother, who reports that in 59 years of marriage, no one ever introduced her as Elsie Fag." In 1998, Frank founded the National Stonewall Democrats, the national LGBT Democratic organization.


title: Barney Frank

text: In 2006, Frank and incoming House Speaker Nancy Pelosi were accused by Rep. John Hostettler (R-IN) of having a "radical homosexual agenda"; Frank responded "I do have things I would like to see adopted on behalf of LGBT people: they include the right to marry the individual of our choice; the right to serve in the military to defend our country; and the right to a job based solely on our own qualifications. I acknowledge that this is an agenda, but I do not think that any self-respecting radical in history would have considered advocating people's rights to get married, join the army, and earn a living as a terribly inspiring revolutionary platform." Frank's stance on outing gay Republicans has been called the "Frank Rule" whereby a closeted person who uses her or his power, position, or notoriety to hurt LGBT people can be outed. The issue became relevant during the Mark Foley scandal of 2006, during which Frank clarified his position on HBO's "Real Time with Bill Maher": "I think there's a right to privacy. But the right to privacy should not be a right to hypocrisy. And people who want to demonize other people shouldn't then be able to go home and close the door and do it themselves."


title: Barney Frank

text: In February 2009, Frank was one of three openly gay members of Congress, along with Tammy Baldwin of Wisconsin and Jared Polis of Colorado. In April 2009, Frank was named in the LGBT magazine "Out"s "Annual Power 50 List", landing at the top spot.


title: Barney Frank

text: In 2000, Frank was rated at 89% by Citizens United for Rehabilitation of Errants, indicating pro-rehabilitation crime votes. He co-sponsored "Innocence Protection Act of 2001" (H.R. 912, S.486) to "reduce the risk that innocent persons may be executed [by examining DNA evidence more thoroughly]" and the "National Death Penalty Moratorium Act of 2001" (H.R.1038, S.233) to limit capital punishment until the National Commission on the Death Penalty reviewed the "fairness of the imposition of the death penalty". In 2001, he also co-sponsored the "Local Law Enforcement Hate Crimes Prevention Act" (01-HR1343) to "provide Federal assistance to States and local jurisdictions to prosecute hate crimes." Frank co-sponsored the "Recidivism Reduction and Second Chance Act of 2007" to reduce recidivism. (this became Public Law No: 110-199).


title: Barney Frank

text: In 2001, Frank authored the States' Rights to Medical Marijuana Act (H.R. 2592), an attempt to stop the federal government from preempting states' medical marijuana laws. He consistently voted for the bipartisan Hinchey–Rohrabacher amendment, annually proposed by Dana Rohrabacher (R-CA) and Maurice Hinchey (D-NY), to prohibit the Justice Department from prosecuting individuals complying with state medical cannabis laws. In March 2008, he proposed the Personal Use of Marijuana by Responsible Adults Act of 2008 (HR 5843), which would have decriminalized small amounts of the drug, but which died in committee during the 110th Congress. On June 18, 2009, he re-introduced the bill as the Personal Use of Marijuana by Responsible Adults Act of 2009 (HR 2943). On June 23, 2011, Frank introduced the Ending Federal Marijuana Prohibition Act to remove marijuana from the Controlled Substances Act. Commenting on legislation to remove federal criminal penalties for possession of small amounts of marijuana for personal use, Frank stated "In a free society a large degree of human activity is none of the government's business. We should make criminal what's going to hurt other people and other than that we should leave it to people to make their own choices." In 2003, he was rated "A" by Vote Hemp, indicating a pro-hemp voting record. In 2006 he was rated "+30" by NORML, indicating a pro-drug-reform stance. In 2007 he co-sponsored the "Drug Sentencing Reform & Kingpin Trafficking Act" ((S.1711) 07-S1711) to "target cocaine kingpins and address sentencing disparity between crack and powder cocaine". In 2008, Frank sponsored "Removing Impediments to Students Education" (RISE) ((H.R.5157) 08-HR5157) to allow rehabilitated drug offenders to get student loans.


title: Barney Frank

text: In 2009 Frank signed the "Community AIDS and Hepatitis Prevention Act" (HR 179 2009-H179) to "use Federal funds for syringe exchange programs for purposes of reducing the transmission of bloodborne pathogens, including HIV and viral hepatitis" and the Industrial Hemp Farming Act of 2009 (H.R.1866 2009-H1866) to "grant each state regulating authority for the growing and processing of industrial hemp."


title: Barney Frank

text: Frank was a member of the Congressional Internet Caucus established in 1996 to "promoting growth and advancement of the Internet and advance the United States' world leadership in the digital world". In 2001, he co-sponsored the "Anti-Spamming Act" (01-HR718) to protect people and businesses from "unsolicited and unwanted electronic mail".


title: Barney Frank

text: In 2006, Frank voted for the "Communications, Opportunity, Promotion, and Enhancement Act" (Bill HR 5252 Amendment 987) to "establish "network neutrality" (non-tiered Internet)." In 2008, Frank voted against the "FISA Amendments Act" (Bill HR6304) which would give retroactive immunity for those involved in the NSA warrantless surveillance controversy. That same year, he co-sponsored overturning FCC approval of media consolidation (S.J.RES.28&H.J.RES.79 2008-SJR28).


title: Barney Frank

text: In 1993, Frank co-sponsored "Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments" (H.R.3392) to regulate more contaminants under the Clean Water Act. In 2001, he co-sponsored the "National Forest Protection and Restoration Act" (H.R.1494) to "prohibiting commercial logging on Federal public lands". In 2003, he was rated 95% by the League of Conservation Voters, indicating pro-environment votes. In 2007, he co-sponsored the "Great Cats and Rare Canids Act" (H.R.1464) to "provide financial resources and to foster international cooperation for promoting conservation of rare felids & canids". In the same year, he co-sponsored the "Animal Fighting Prohibition Enforcement Act" (S.261/H.R.137) to "strengthen prohibitions against animal fighting".


title: Barney Frank

text: In 1996 Frank co-sponsored the "Federal Law Enforcement Dependents Assistance Act" (H.R.4111. Became Public Law No: 104–238.) "to provide educational assistance to the dependents of Federal law enforcement officials who are killed or disabled in the performance of their duties." In 2001 Frank co-sponsored "the MX Missile Stand-Down Act" (01-HR2718) to take fifty Peacekeeper missiles off of high-alert status as well as the Landmine Elimination and Victim Assistance Act (01-HR948). As of December 2003, Frank had an 89% rating by Peace Action, indicating a pro-peace voting record. In 2005, he co-sponsored "Rail Security Act" (S.1379/H.R.153) (05-S1379) giving higher priority to rail transportation security. In 2008, he co-sponsored the "Veterans Suicide Study Act" ( (S.2899/H.R.4204) 08-S2899) designed to study and address suicides among veterans. Frank advocated for a 25-percent reduction in the overall Military budget of the United States. "The math is compelling: if we do not make reductions approximating 25 percent of the military budget starting fairly soon, it will be impossible to continue to fund an adequate level of domestic activity ... ," wrote Frank. He claimed that such a significant reduction would have no effect on the United States' ability to defend itself. "If," he said, "beginning one year from now, we were to cut military spending by 25 percent from its projected levels, we would still be immeasurably stronger than any combination of nations with whom we might be engaged." Frank supports having fewer F-35 Joint Strike Fighter planes, but also supports a $3-billion backup engine project that the Pentagon does not want. Frank told MSNBC's Keith Olbermann that he actually wanted to cut the entire F-35 program, but as long as military spending continued, he would fight for his district's share of it.


title: Barney Frank

text: Frank has partnered with Ron Paul in support of online gambling rights. In 2006, both strongly opposed H.R. 4777, the Internet Gambling Prohibition and Enforcement Act, and H.R. 4411, the Goodlatte-Leach Internet Gambling Prohibition Act. To restore online gambling rights, in 2007 Frank sponsored H.R. 2046, the Internet Gambling Regulation and Enforcement Act. This bill would have established licensing and regulation of online gaming sites. It provided for age verification and protections for compulsive gamblers. In 2008, he and Paul introduced H.R. 5767, the Payment Systems Protection Act, a bill that sought to place a moratorium on enforcement of the Unlawful Internet Gambling Enforcement Act of 2006 while the United States Treasury Department and the Federal Reserve defined "unlawful Internet gambling". As a result of these efforts, Frank (who does not gamble) has been praised by poker players and online gamblers, including many Republicans.


title: Barney Frank

text: Frank has been a determined supporter of the State of Israel. "The Israeli government has been a wholly democratic one from the beginning," he said in a lecture to students. "It is one of the freest democracies in the world". He attributed the primary reason for Israel's long war to his belief that Palestinians are unwilling to make concessions.


title: Barney Frank

text: In August 2009, a confidential memo written by the consul general of Israel in Boston, Nadav Tamir, was leaked to the Israeli media. In the memo, Tamir said that Israel's dealings with the Obama administration on differences over settlements were eroding US support. After Tamir was reprimanded by the Israeli government, Frank defended Tamir in a letter sent to Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, in which Frank wrote: "I was sorry to learn that he (Tamir) is being criticized because of his accurate reporting of significant (negative) sentiment in the United States ... If the people who work for me did not give me the kind of straightforward, thoughtful analysis that the consul is providing, even if it wasn't the most welcome news, that failure — not the information — would cause me unhappiness."


title: Barney Frank

text: In the wake of the fiscal cliff legislation at the start of 2013, Frank stated that he was interested in the interim appointment that Governor Deval Patrick was expected to make to fill John Kerry's U.S. Senate seat once the latter resigned to serve as United States Secretary of State. Frank had initially said he was not interested in the seat, but went on to change his mind, noting that "that [fiscal cliff] deal now means that February, March, and April are going to be among the most important months in American financial history". He said he would not run in the special election that would be held to fill the seat for the remainder of Kerry's term.


title: Barney Frank

text: In 2018, Frank was featured on Sacha Baron Cohen's spoof comedy series "Who Is America?", discussing the Donald Trump "Access Hollywood" tape and the Pizzagate conspiracy theory with Baron Cohen's alter ego Billy Wayne Ruddick Jr. Frank eventually walked out of the interview.


title: Barney Frank

text: On December 8, 2022, Frank, despite being retired from the U.S. Congress, was present on the floor of the House of Representatives when the Respect for Marriage Act was successfully passed.


title: Barney Frank

text: Frank resides in a studio apartment complex in Newton, Massachusetts. His husband, Jim Ready, is a surfing enthusiast whom Frank met during a gay political fundraiser in Maine. On July 7, 2012, Frank married Ready at the Boston Marriott Newton in suburban Boston. Frank's net worth was estimated by OpenSecrets to be between $619,024 and $1,510,000. Frank chose not to participate in the Congressional pension system. He said he did not believe he'd live long enough after retirement to reap benefits over contributions; and he was convinced that he would remain single and have no beneficiary. His sister, Ann Lewis, served as a senior adviser for the Hillary Clinton 2008 presidential campaign.


title: Barney Frank

text: On August 3, 2013, Frank expressed sympathy with the host's atheism on the television program "Real Time with Bill Maher". In his biography, however, Frank states unequivocally that he is not an atheist and is uncomfortable expressing firm views on questions for which he is unable to provide an answer. Frank's agnosticism led him to resolve—if he had been appointed as interim senator—to take the oath of office on the United States Constitution, rather than the Bible. For most of his life and entire Congressional career, Frank was known as a Jew. Frank continues to identify strongly with the Jewish community and has been careful throughout his career that his agnosticism not reflect negatively on other Jews. For example, when he stopped going to temple services on the High Holy Days he was careful to remain at home and out of the public eye in order that other Jews would not be criticized using his example.


title: Barney Frank

text: In May 2014, the American Humanist Association awarded Frank the Humanist of the Year and during his acceptance speech he spoke about his personal beliefs and the complexities of working in government. He talked primarily about the politicized case of Terri Sciavo and the public's evolving view about government intrusion into personal healthcare decisions.


title: Barney Frank

text: According to Stuart Weisberg's 2009 biography "Barney Frank: The Story of America's Only Left-Handed, Gay, Jewish Congressman", Frank dated women in an effort to deny his homosexuality. His last romance with a woman was a nearly two-year-long affair with Irish-American Catholic Kathleen Sullivan, a Boston School Committee member and the daughter of former New England Patriots owner Billy Sullivan, that began in 1974. When the two split up, at Frank's instigation, he admitted to her that he was gay. He was still closeted publicly. According to Frank, he "realized it was crazy" to try to have a romance with someone he cared for but was not sexually compatible with due to his homosexuality. "That was the last effort to avoid being gay," Weisberg quotes Frank as saying. Frank never again dated a woman. In 2015, in an interview with Boston Magazine, Frank said it was unfair to Sullivan to date her with him being gay.


title: Barney Frank

text: Frank started coming out as gay to friends before he ran for Congress and came out publicly on May 30, 1987, "prompted in part by increased media interest in his private life" and the death of Stewart McKinney, "a closeted bisexual Republican representative from Connecticut". Frank told "The Washington Post" after McKinney's death that there was "An unfortunate debate about 'Was he or wasn't he? Didn't he or did he?' I said to myself, I don't want that to happen to me." Frank's announcement had little impact on his electoral prospects. Shortly after coming out, Frank met and began dating Herb Moses, an economist and LGBT activist; their relationship lasted for eleven years until an amicable break-up in July 1998. Moses, who was an executive at Fannie Mae from 1991 to 1998, was the first partner of an openly gay member of Congress to receive spousal benefits and the two were considered "Washington's most powerful and influential gay couple".


title: KSI vs. Logan Paul II

text: KSI vs. Logan Paul II was a cruiserweight professional boxing match contested between British YouTuber KSI and American YouTuber Logan Paul. The bout was held on 9 November 2019, at Staples Center in Los Angeles, California. KSI defeated Paul via split decision, with two judges scoring the bout 56–55 and 57–54 in favour of KSI, and a third judge scoring the fight 56–55 in favour of Paul.


title: KSI vs. Logan Paul II

text: On the undercard, Billy Joe Saunders successfully defended the WBO super middleweight title against Marcelo Coceres, and Devin Haney was also successful in his defence of the WBC lightweight title against Alfredo Santiago. The decision to have two world-title bouts on the undercard, beneath the two YouTubers, was criticised, with some going as far as describing the event as an 'insult' to boxing. However, a number of figures within the sport, including professional boxers, were receptive to the event and highlighted the professionalism of Paul and KSI – both of whom received coaching from previous world champion coaches and boxers – as well as their intention to bring a new audience to the sport of boxing


title: KSI vs. Logan Paul II

text: After the successful first fight against Paul, KSI requested for the second fight to be postponed until May 2019. Citing the difference in time-zones and the potential for the fight to be too late for some UK viewers, KSI said he would prefer the bout to take place in New York City. On 28 August 2018, it was announced that the fight would take place in May 2019 in an undetermined United States venue, provided neither KSI nor Paul opted out, though a date in May was never agreed. On 3 September 2019, KSI and Paul announced via Instagram that the fight would take place on 9 November 2019 at the Staples Center, Los Angeles and that it would be a professional bout, with no head guards—unlike the previous bout. The announcement confirmed that the fight would be promoted by Eddie Hearn's Matchroom Boxing.


title: KSI vs. Logan Paul II

text: Paul's main coach for the fight was two-time heavyweight champion, Shannon Briggs, while KSI trained under up-and-coming professional boxer, Viddal Riley, and Jeff Mayweather, uncle of Floyd Mayweather Jr. As a professional event, only fighters with professional boxing licences, and no other YouTubers, were allowed to participate; this decision was met with contention from some in the YouTube community who were hoping to see others participate in what was originally a 'YouTube' event.


title: KSI vs. Logan Paul II

text: Upon its announcement as a professional bout, the event drew criticism from a number of figures within boxing, as well as boxing journalists and fans, some of whom labelled the fight as an 'insult' to boxing. The headline accusation was that the pair were using the event as a 'cash grab' and questioned the 'legitimacy' of the match as a professional bout, and many questioned the choice of putting professional world-title bouts on the undercard beneath two YouTubers. Others within the sport, however, were more receptive to the fight and embraced the event. The executive director of the California State Athletic Commission (the fight's sanctioning body), Andy Foster, defended the accusation that the YouTubers weren't fit to fight professionally, saying in an interview that "If they weren’t YouTube stars, this fight is still approvable in every commission in this country as debut athletes". Kevin Draper of "The New York Times" notes KSI, Paul and the organisers' intention to bring a new audience to a 'stagnant' sport and highlights the fact both YouTubers sought coaching from world-champion boxers and trainers. Professional boxers Anthony Joshua, Deontay Wilder, Tyson Fury, Dillian Whyte and Andy Ruiz Jr. also expressed support for the event and the fact it was being held as a professional bout, highlighting the benefit it could bring to boxing in terms of expanding the sport's audience.


title: KSI vs. Logan Paul II

text: The weigh-in took place at 1 pm PST on 8 November at the Xbox Plaza in Los Angeles. Paul stepped on the scales first, weighing in at 199.4lbs, just under the 200lbs cruiserweight limit, while KSI weighed in at 193.4lbs, just over 6lbs lighter, before the pair shared a brief head to head. Paul entered the ring first, sporting a red-white-and-blue robe and shorts and accompanied by his brother, Jake Paul, and musician Justin Bieber; KSI then entered the arena donning a red-and-black robe, shorts and mask, as American rappers Rick Ross and Lil Baby, and British singer and producer S-X performed KSI's newly-released song, titled "Down Like That", on which they feature. After they entered, God Save the Queen and The Star-Spangled Banner were performed by Brian King Joseph and Nova Miller, respectively.


title: KSI vs. Logan Paul II

text: The first three rounds were controlled by KSI, who offloaded more punches and appeared the aggressor, while Paul employed a more cautious approach, throwing more tentative jabs. On the back foot after the first two rounds, Paul slipped to the canvas twice in the third round, before KSI landed an overhand right behind Paul's ear – enough to send Paul to the canvas – but no knockdown was called by the referee. A chaotic fourth round saw Paul land a clean uppercut on KSI, but for the second uppercut which followed Paul had his other arm around the back of KSI's head. The illegal blow was enough to send the Briton falling to the canvas. On KSI's way down, Paul broke KSI's fall and offloaded a further illegal punch to the back of his head, then hit him once more when he reached the canvas. What was originally unanimously scored as a 10–8 round in favour of Paul for scoring a knockdown was negated by a two-point deduction from Paul's card for the illegal back-of-the-head blows. As well as deducting Paul points, the referee allowed KSI time to regain his composure before resuming the fight. The fifth round was a closer contest, with Paul landing the more meaningful jabs while KSI stayed out of any trouble. The sixth and final round matched the frantic pace of the first as both fighters swung wildly in a last attempt to snatch victory, but neither could land a decisive knockout blow.


title: KSI vs. Logan Paul II

text: After six rounds, the fight resulted in a split decision victory for KSI, with two judges scoring the bout 57–54 and 56–55 in favour of KSI, and a third scoring it 56–55 in favour of Paul. After the split decision victory, Paul and KSI shook hands and shared an embrace after the fight, with both paying respect to one another, though Paul stated his intention to contest the commission for his point deduction for his illegal punches, stating that he does not dispute what happened but thought he deserved only a warning. Paul did indeed appeal the decision, but the appeal was denied in early December 2019. When asked about a possible rematch, Paul expressed his support for the idea, but KSI rejected any prospect of a third fight against Paul, saying "It's done ... I'm on to the next thing".


title: KSI vs. Logan Paul II

text: KSI vs. Logan II had an attendance of 12,000 people in which a number of celebrities were in attendance. This included Canadian singer Justin Bieber, Paul's brother Jake Paul, Wiz Khalifa, Post Malone, former UFC welterweight champion Tyron Woodley, Dan Bilzerian, Mike Tyson, as well as all the members of KSI's YouTube group, the Sidemen.


title: KSI vs. Logan Paul II

text: The fight was streamed live on DAZN in the United States and seven other countries. The fight was broadcast live on Sky Sports Box Office in the United Kingdom and Ireland for a fee of £9.95. The fight was streamed live on FITE TV in the countries where the rights are not sold. Due to piracy concerns, the fight was not broadcast on YouTube, like the previous event, this event lost an estimated 1.4 million potential pay-per-view buys to pirated Twitch streams. On British radio, the fight aired on BBC Radio 5 Live.


title: KSI vs. Logan Paul II

text: On DAZN, it was the third most streamed fight of 2019 across nine markets, behind only Andy Ruiz Jr. vs. Anthony Joshua II and Canelo Álvarez vs. Sergey Kovalev. On Sky Sports Box Office, the fight sold 216,000 pay-per-view buys in the United Kingdom.


title: KSI vs. Logan Paul II

text: Both KSI and Paul earned a minimum of $900,000 for the bout as stipulated in their contract with the California State Athletic Commission, although their final earnings from the fight are expected to be much higher.


Automatic Dependent Surveillance–Broadcast (ADS-B) is a surveillance technology and form of Electronic Conspicuity in which an aircraft determines its position via satellite navigation or other sensors and periodically broadcasts it, enabling it to be tracked. The information can be received by air traffic control ground stations as a replacement for secondary surveillance radar, as no interrogation signal is needed from the ground. It can also be received by other aircraft to provide situational awareness and allow self-separation.


title: Automatic Dependent Surveillance–Broadcast

text: ADS-B is "automatic" in that it requires no pilot or external input. It is "dependent" in that it depends on data from the aircraft's navigation system.


text: ADS-B is being incorporated in various jurisdictions worldwide. It is an element of the United States Next Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen), the Airports Authority of India upgrade plans in line with the ICAO Global Plan Initiatives and Aviation System Block Upgrade (ASBU), and the Single European Sky ATM Research project (SESAR). ADS-B equipment is mandatory for instrument flight rules (IFR) category aircraft in Australian airspace; the United States has required many aircraft (including all commercial passenger carriers and aircraft flying in areas that required a transponder) to be so equipped since January 2020; and, the equipment has been mandatory for some aircraft in Europe since 2017. Canada uses ADS-B for surveillance in remote regions not covered by traditional radar (areas around Hudson Bay, the Labrador Sea, Davis Strait, Baffin Bay and southern Greenland) since January 15, 2009. Aircraft operators are encouraged to install ADS-B products that are interoperable with US and European standards, and Canadian air traffic controllers can provide better and more fuel efficient flight routes when operators can be tracked via ADS-B.


text: ADS-B, which consists of two different services, "ADS-B Out" and "ADS-B In", could replace radar as the primary surveillance method for controlling aircraft worldwide. In the United States, ADS-B is an integral component of the NextGen national airspace strategy for upgrading and enhancing aviation infrastructure and operations. Also within the United States, the ADS-B system can provide traffic- and government-generated graphical weather information at no cost through TIS-B and FIS-B applications. ADS-B enhances safety by making an aircraft visible, realtime, to air traffic control (ATC) and to other appropriately equipped ADS-B aircraft with position and velocity data transmitted every second. ADS-B data can be recorded and downloaded for post-flight analysis. ADS-B also provides the data infrastructure for inexpensive flight tracking, planning, and dispatch.


text: Using "ADS-B Out", each aircraft periodically broadcasts information about itself, such as identification, current position, altitude and velocity, through an onboard transmitter. ADS-B Out provides air traffic controllers with real-time position information that is, in most cases, more accurate than the information available with current radar-based systems. With more accurate information, ATC will be able to position and separate aircraft with improved precision and timing.


text: "ADS-B In" is the reception by aircraft of FIS-B and TIS-B data and other ADS-B data such as direct communication from nearby aircraft. The ground station broadcast data is typically only made available in the presence of an ADS-B Out broadcasting aircraft, limiting the usefulness of purely ADS-B In devices.


text: The system relies on two avionics components aboard each aircraft: a high-integrity satellite navigation source (i.e. GPS or other certified GNSS receiver) and a datalink (the ADS-B unit). There are several types of certified ADS-B data links, but the most common ones operate at 1090 MHz, essentially a modified Mode S transponder, or at 978 MHz. The FAA would like to see aircraft that operate exclusively below use the 978 MHz link, as this will alleviate congestion of the 1090 MHz frequency. To obtain ADS-B Out capability at 1090 MHz, user-operators can install a new transponder or modify an existing transponder if the manufacturer offers an ADS-B upgrade (plus install a certified GNSS position source if one is not already present).


text: ADS-B provides many benefits to both pilots and air traffic control that improve both the safety and efficiency of flight.


text: When using an "ADS-B In" system, a pilot is able to view traffic information about surrounding aircraft if those aircraft are equipped with ADS-B Out. This information includes altitude, heading, speed, and distance to aircraft. In addition to receiving position reports from ADS-B Out participants, in the US, TIS-B can provide position reports on non ADS-B Out-equipped aircraft if suitable ground equipment and ground radar exist. ADS-R re-transmits ADS-B position reports between UAT and 1090 MHz frequency bands.


text: Aircraft equipped with universal access transceiver (UAT) "ADS-B In" technology will be able to receive weather reports, and in the US, weather radar through flight information service-broadcast (FIS-B), which also transmits readable flight information such as temporary flight restrictions (TFRs) and NOTAMs.


text: ADS-B ground stations are significantly cheaper to install and operate compared to primary and secondary radar systems used by air traffic control for aircraft separation and control.


text: Unlike some alternative in-flight weather services currently being offered commercially, there will be no subscription fees to use ADS-B services or its various benefits in the US. The aircraft owner will pay for the equipment and installation, while the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) will pay for administering and broadcasting all the services related to the technology.


text: ADS-B makes flying significantly safer for the aviation community by providing pilots with improved situational awareness. Pilots in an ADS-B In equipped cockpit will have the ability to see, on their in-cockpit flight display, other traffic operating in the airspace as well as access to clear and detailed weather information. They will also be able to receive pertinent updates ranging from temporary flight restrictions to runway closings.


text: Even aircraft only equipped with ADS-B Out will benefit from air traffic controllers' ability to more accurately and reliably monitor their position. When using this system both pilots and controllers will see the same radar picture. Other fully equipped aircraft using the airspace around them will be able to more easily identify and avoid conflict with an aircraft equipped with ADS-B Out. With past systems such as the Traffic alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) aircraft could only see other aircraft equipped with the same technology. With ADS-B, information is sent to aircraft using ADS-B In, which displays all aircraft in the area, provided those aircraft are equipped with ADS-B Out. ADS-B provides better surveillance in fringe areas of radar coverage. ADS-B does not have the siting limitations of radar. Its accuracy is consistent throughout the range. In both forms of ADS-B (1090ES & 978 MHz UAT), the position report is updated once per second. The 978 MHz UAT provides the information in a single, short duration transmission. The 1090ES system transmits two different kinds of position reports (even/odd) randomly. To decode the position unambiguously, one position report of both kinds or a reference position nearby is needed.


text: ADS-B technology provides a more accurate report of an aircraft's position. This allows controllers to guide aircraft into and out of crowded airspace with smaller separation standards than it was previously possible to do safely. This reduces the amount of time aircraft must spend waiting for clearances, being vectored for spacing and holding. Estimates show that this is already having a beneficial impact by reducing pollution and fuel consumption.


text: The ADS-B data link supports a number of airborne and ground applications. Each application has its own operational concepts, algorithms, procedures, standards, and user training.


text: A cockpit display of traffic information (CDTI) is a generic display that provides the flight crew with surveillance information about other aircraft, including their position. Traffic information for a CDTI may be obtained from one or multiple sources, including ADS-B, TCAS, and TIS-B. Direct air-to-air transmission of ADS-B messages supports display of proximate aircraft on a CDTI.


text: In addition to traffic based on ADS-B reports, a CDTI function might also display current weather conditions, terrain, airspace structure, obstructions, detailed airport maps, and other information relevant to the particular phase of flight.


text: ADS-B is seen as a valuable technology to enhance airborne collision avoidance system (ACAS) operation. Incorporation of ADS-B can provide benefits such as:


text: Eventually, the ACAS function may be provided based solely on ADS-B, without requiring active interrogations of other aircraft transponders.


text: Aircraft with transponder only, or no transponder capability at all will not be shown. Pilots who become complacent or overconfident in this system are thus a safety problem, not only for themselves but for other transponder-only aircraft, and glider aircraft without ADS-B transponder.


text: Glider aircraft often use the FLARM system for collision avoidance with other glider aircraft, but this system is not compatible with ADS-B. Aircraft with ADS-B but without FLARM are thus a safety risk for gliders with FLARM but without ADS-B and vice versa. Some aircraft, like those used for towing gliders, have both FLARM and ADS-B transponders for this reason.


text: A security researcher claimed in 2012 that ADS-B has no defence against being interfered with via spoofed ADS-B messages because they were neither encrypted nor authenticated. The FAA responded to this criticism saying that they were aware of the issues and risks but were unable to disclose how they are mitigated as that is classified. A possible mitigation is multilateration to verify that the claimed position is close to the position from which the message was broadcast. Here the timing of received messages is compared to establish distances from the antenna to the plane.


text: The lack of any authentication within the standard makes it mandatory to validate any received data by use of the primary radar. Because the content of ADS-B messages is not encrypted, it may be read by anybody.


text: The ADS-B system has three main components: 1) ground infrastructure, 2) airborne component, and 3) operating procedures.


text: The source of the state vector and other transmitted information as well as user applications are not considered to be part of the ADS-B system.


text: Two link solutions are used as the physical layer for relaying ADS-B position reports: universal access transceiver, and 1090 MHz extended squitter.


text: A universal access transceiver is a data link intended to serve the majority of the general aviation community. The data link is approved in the Federal Aviation Administration's "final rule" for use in all airspace except class A (above 18,000 ft. MSL). UAT is intended to support not only ADS-B, but also flight information service – broadcast (FIS-B), traffic information service – broadcast (TIS-B), and, if required in the future, supplementary ranging and positioning capabilities. Due to the set of standards required for this rule, it is seen as the most effective application for general aviation users. UAT will allow aircraft equipped with "out" broadcast capabilities to be seen by any other aircraft using ADS-B In technology as well as by FAA ground stations. Aircraft equipped with ADS-B In technology will be able to see detailed altitude and vector information from other ADS-B Out equipped aircraft as well as FIS-B and TIS-B broadcasts. The FIS-B broadcast will allow receiving aircraft to view weather and flight service information including AIRMETs, SIGMETs, METARs, SPECI, national NEXRAD, regional NEXRAD, D-NOTAMs, FDC-NOTAMs, PIREPs, special use airspace status, terminal area forecasts, amended terminal aerodrome forecasts (TAFs), and winds and temperatures aloft forecasts. These broadcasts serve to provide early adopters of the technology with benefits as an incentive for more pilots to use the technology before 2020. Aircraft receiving traffic information through the TIS-B service will see other aircraft in a manner that is similar to how all aircraft will be seen after they have equipped by 2020. The availability of a non-subscription weather information service, FIS-B, provides general aviation users with a useful alternative to other monthly or annual fee-based services.


text: The UAT system is specifically designed for ADS-B operation. UAT is also the first link to be certified for "radar-like" ATC services in the United States. Since 2001 it has been providing en-route separation (the same as mosaic radar but not of single-site sensors) in Alaska. UAT is the only ADS-B link standard that is truly bidirectional: UAT users have access to ground-based aeronautical data (FIS-B) and can receive reports from proximate traffic (TIS-B) through a multilink gateway service that provides ADS-B reports for 1090ES-equipped aircraft and non-ADS-B equipped radar traffic. UAT equipped aircraft can also observe each other directly with high accuracy and minimal latency. Viable ADS-B UAT networks are being installed as part of the United States' NextGen air traffic system.


text: In 2002 the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) announced a dual link decision using the 1090 MHz extended squitter (1090 ES) link for air carrier and private or commercial operators of high-performance aircraft, and universal access transceiver link for the typical general aviation user. In November 2012, the European Aviation Safety Agency confirmed that the European Union would also use 1090 ES for interoperability. The format of extended squitter messages has been codified by the ICAO.


text: With 1090 ES, the existing Mode S transponder (TSO C-112 or a standalone 1090 MHz transmitter) supports a message type known as the extended squitter message. It is a periodic message that provides position, velocity, time, and, in the future, intent. The basic ES does not offer intent since current flight management systems do not provide such data (called trajectory change points). To enable an aircraft to send an extended squitter message, the transponder is modified (TSO C-166A) and aircraft position and other status information is routed to the transponder. ATC ground stations and aircraft equipped with traffic collision avoidance system (TCAS) already have the necessary 1090 MHz (Mode S) receivers to receive these signals, and would only require enhancements to accept and process the additional extended squitter information. As per the FAA ADS-B link decision, and the technical link standards, 1090 ES does not support FIS-B service.


text: Radar directly measures the range and bearing of an aircraft from a ground-based antenna. The primary surveillance radar is usually a pulse radar. It continuously transmits high power radio frequency (RF) pulses. Bearing is measured by the position of the rotating radar antenna when it receives the RF pulses that are reflected from the aircraft skin. Range is measured by measuring the time it takes for the RF energy to travel to and from the aircraft.


text: Primary surveillance radar does not require any cooperation from the aircraft. It is robust in the sense that surveillance outage failure modes are limited to those associated with the ground radar system. Secondary surveillance radar depends on active replies from the aircraft. Its failure modes include the transponder aboard the aircraft. Typical ADS-B aircraft installations use the output of the navigation unit for navigation and for cooperative surveillance, introducing a common failure mode that must be accommodated in air traffic surveillance systems.


text: The radiated beam becomes wider as the distance between the antenna and aircraft becomes greater, making the position information less accurate. Additionally, detecting changes in aircraft velocity requires several radar sweeps that are spaced several seconds apart. In contrast, a system using ADS-B creates and listens for periodic position and intent reports from aircraft. These reports are generated based on the aircraft's navigation system, and distributed via one or more of the ADS-B data links. The accuracy of the data is no longer susceptible to the position of the aircraft or the length of time between radar sweeps. (However, the signal strength of the signal received from the aircraft at the ground station is still dependent on the range from the aircraft to the receiver, and interference, obstacles, or weather could degrade the integrity of the received signal enough to prevent the digital data from being decoded without errors. When the aircraft is farther away, the weaker received signal will tend to be more affected by the aforementioned adverse factors and is less likely to be received without errors. Error detection will allow errors to be recognized, so the system maintains full accuracy regardless of aircraft position when the signal can be received and decoded correctly. This advantage does not equate to total indifference to the range of an aircraft from the ground station.)


text: Today's air traffic control (ATC) systems do not rely on coverage by a single radar. Instead a multiradar picture is presented via the ATC system's display to the controller. This improves the quality of the reported position of the aircraft, provides a measure of redundancy, and makes it possible to verify the output of the different radars against others. This verification can also use sensor data from other technologies, such as ADS-B and multilateration.


text: ADS-A is based on a negotiated one-to-one peer relationship between an aircraft providing ADS information and a ground facility requiring receipt of ADS messages. For example, ADS-A reports are employed in the Future Air Navigation System (FANS) using the Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS) as the communication protocol. During flight over areas without radar coverage, "e.g.", oceanic and polar, reports are periodically sent by an aircraft to the controlling air traffic region.


text: Traffic information service – broadcast (TIS–B) supplements ADS-B's air-to-air services to provide complete situational awareness in the cockpit of all traffic known to the ATC system. TIS–B is an important service for an ADS-B link in airspace where not all aircraft are transmitting ADS-B information. The ground TIS–B station transmits surveillance target information on the ADS-B data link for unequipped targets or targets transmitting only on another ADS-B link.


text: The multilink gateway service is a companion to TIS-B for achieving interoperability between different aircraft equipped with 1090ES or UAT by using ground-based relay stations. These aircraft cannot directly share air-to-air ADS-B data due to the different communication frequencies. In terminal areas, where both types of ADS-B link are in use, ADS-B/TIS-B ground stations use ground-to-air broadcasts to relay ADS-B reports received on one link to aircraft using the other link.


text: Although multilink "solves" the issue of heavy airliners working on one frequency vs. light aircraft, the dual frequency nature of the system has several potential issues:


text: Because of the issues with multilink, many ADS-B manufacturers are designing ADS-B systems as dual-frequency capable.


text: FIS-B provides weather text, weather graphics, NOTAMs, ATIS, and similar information. FIS-B is inherently different from ADS-B in that it requires sources of data external to the aircraft or broadcasting unit, and has different performance requirements such as periodicity of broadcast.


text: In the United States, FIS-B services are provided over the UAT link in areas that have a ground surveillance infrastructure.


text: Another potential aircraft-based broadcast capability is to transmit aircraft measurements of meteorological data.


text: Australia has full continental ADS-B coverage above FL300 (30,000 feet). ADS-B equipment is mandatory for all aircraft flying at this altitude. To achieve this level of coverage Airservices Australia operates more than 70 ADS-B ground receiver sites. In Australia the aviation regulator, the Civil Aviation Safety Authority, mandated a phased requirement for all Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) aircraft to be equipped with ADS-B Out by 2 February 2017. This applies to all Australian aircraft.


text: Nav Canada commissioned operational use of ADS-B in 2009 and is now using it to provide coverage of its northern airspace around Hudson Bay, most of which currently has no radar coverage. The service was then extended to cover some oceanic areas off the east coast of Canada including the Labrador Sea, Davis Strait, Baffin Bay, and part of the North Atlantic Tracks around southern Greenland. The service is expected to be later extended to cover the rest of the Canadian Arctic, and to the rest of Canada.


text: In 2018, Nav Canada issued an aeronautical study proposing a mandate for Aireon-compatible ADS-B Out for all aircraft in Class A Airspace by 2021 and Class B Airspace by 2022, requiring a transponder capable of delivering antenna diversity performance. In response to stakeholder feedback, Nav Canada later announced that such equipment will not be mandated according to that timeline, but rather that suitably equipped aircraft would be handled on a priority basis. The dates upon which equipment will be required for operation in Canadian airspace have been announced as August 10, 2023 for Class A Airspace, May 16 2024 for Class B Airspace and Class C,D and E no sooner than 2026.


text: In May 2021, the not-for-profit Canadian In-Flight Information Broadcasting Association announced its intention to build and operate a network broadcasting FIS-B (weather) and TIS-B (traffic) information on 978 MHz. By spring 2022, five ground stations were operating in Ontario, with several more stations planned for Alberta and Saskatchewan. The Canadian network is fully compatible with the United States network. Aircraft can use the same ADS-B In receivers in both countries and the provided services operate seamlessly when crossing the border. CIFIB plans to have about 100 stations operating within a few years. Coverage in Canada will not be coast-to-coast, but will focus on areas with higher traffic.


text: An American company ADS-B Technologies created one of the largest and most successful ADS-B systems in the world (an eight-station, 350+ aircraft network that spans more than 1,200 nmi across Central China). This was also the first UAT installation outside the United States. As of March 2009, more than 1.2 million incident/failure free flight hours have been flown with these ADS-B systems.


text: As of 2010, Isavia is in the process of installing ADS-B across the North Atlantic Ocean. The system is made up by 18 ADS-B receiver stations in Iceland, Faroe Islands, and Greenland.


text: The Airports Authority of India (AAI), which manages the country's airspace, first commissioned German company Comsoft to install ADS-B ground stations at 14 airport sites nationwide in 2012. Comsoft finished installing seven new ADS-B ground stations under a second phase of deployment which India subsequently integrated into its ATC system in 2014, thus completing its ground network for automatic dependent surveillance-broadcast (ADS-B) tracking of aircraft.


text: In line with the International Civil Aviation Organization's aviation system block upgrade plan, AAI has said that its ADS-B network will provide redundant, satellite-based surveillance where radar coverage exists, fill gaps in surveillance where radar coverage is not possible due to high terrain or remote airspace and enable it to share ADS-B data with neighboring countries. The network covers the Indian subcontinent, plus parts of the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea.


text: LFV Group in Sweden has implemented a nationwide ADS-B network with 12 ground stations. Installation commenced during spring 2006, and the network was fully (technically) operational in 2007. An ADS-B–supported system is planned for operational usage in Kiruna, Sweden, during spring 2009. Based on the VDL Mode 4 standards, the network of ground stations can support services for ADS-B, TIS-B, FIS-B, GNS-B (DGNSS augmentation) and point-to-point communication, allowing aircraft equipped with VDL 4-compliant transceivers to lower fuel consumption and reduce flight times.


text: United Arab Emirates commissioned three operational redundant ADS-B ground stations in early 2009 and is now using ADS-B to provide enhanced coverage of its upper airspace in combination and integrated with conventional surveillance radars.


text: To reduce congestion and cope with growing aircraft traffic, the Federal Aviation Administration has been developing the Next-Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen), including ADS-B. ADS-B equipment is built to meet one of two sets of industry standards, DO-260B and DO-282B.


text: Aircraft operating in the United States in the airspace classes listed below are required to carry equipment that produces an ADS-B Out broadcast. ADS-B Out broadcasts information about an aircraft through an onboard transmitter to a ground receiver, moving air traffic control from a radar-based system to a satellite-derived aircraft location system.


text: There is no such mandate for ADS-B In, which receives data and provides it to in-cockpit displays. The FAA airspace requirements intentionally exclude some airspace that is frequently used by general aviation.


text: Operators can choose the 1090 megahertz extended squitter broadcast link, or the universal access transceiver broadcast link. FAA did not adopt higher performance standards that would enable all of the initial ADS-B In applications, but these can optionally be adopted.


text: Fleet: 250,000 GA aircraft that will need ADS-B by 2020 of which 165,000 aircraft subject to ADS-B Out (Class I and Class II aircraft that generally fly below 18 000 feet). FAA forecasts an increase in the GA fleet from 224,172 aircraft in 2010 to 270,920 aircraft in 2031, growing an average of 0.9% per year.


text: Recent (April 2011) US federal legislation via House Bill for FAA re-authorization permits an "equipping fund" that includes a portion for some general aviation aircraft. The fund would provide financing at competitive rates backed by loan guarantees. A public-private partnership has been formed as the NextGen Equipage Fund, LLC which is managed by NEXA Capital Partners, LLC.


text: The Federal Aviation Administration ADS-B implementation is broken into three segments each with a corresponding time line. Ground segment implementation and deployment is expected to begin in 2009 and be completed by 2013 throughout the National Airspace System (NAS). Airborne equipment is user-driven and is expected to be completed both voluntarily based on perceived benefits and through regulatory actions (Rulemaking) by the FAA. The cost to equip with ADS-B Out capability is relatively small and would benefit the airspace with surveillance in areas not currently served by radar. The FAA intends to provide similar service within the NAS to what radar is currently providing (5 nmi en route and 3 nmi terminal radar standards) as a first step to implementation. However, ADS-B In capability is viewed as the most likely way to improve NAS throughput and enhance capacity.


text: In December 2008, Acting FAA Administrator Robert A. Sturgell gave the go-ahead for ADS-B to go live in southern Florida. The south Florida installation, which consists of 11 ground stations and supporting equipment, is the first commissioned in the United States, although developmental systems have been online in Alaska, Arizona, and along the East Coast since 2004. The completed system will consist of 794 ground station transceivers. The December 2008 action is in compliance with a late-term executive order from George W. Bush which mandated accelerated approval of NextGen.


text: ADS-B deployment and voluntary equipment, along with rule-making activities. Pockets of development will exploit equipment deployment in the areas that will provide proof of concept for integration to ATC automation systems deployed in the NAS. It is being developed at the FAA's William J. Hughes Technical Center near Egg Harbor City, New Jersey.


text: ADS-B ground stations will be deployed throughout the NAS, with an in-service decision due in the 2012–2013 time frame. Completed deployment will occur in 2013–14. Equipment rules have been finalized and the current standards are DO-282B for UAT and DO-260B for 1090ES:


text: ADS-B In equipment will be based on user perceived benefit, but is expected to be providing increased situational awareness and efficiency benefits within this segment. Those aircraft who choose to equip in advance of any mandate will see benefits associated with preferential routes and specific applications. Limited radar decommissioning will begin in the time frame with an ultimate goal of a 50% reduction in the secondary surveillance radar infrastructure.


text: On 27 May 2010, the FAA published its final rule mandating that by 2020 all aircraft owners will be required to have ADS-B Out capabilities when operating in any airspace that currently requires a transponder (airspace classes A, B, and C, and airspace class E at certain altitudes).


text: On 14 June 2012, FreeFlight Systems and Chevron received STC for first rule-compliant ADS-B installation in GOMEX helicopters that was awarded by the FAA.


text: A concern for any ADS-B protocol is the capacity for carrying ADS-B messages from aircraft, as well as allowing the radio channel to continue to support any legacy services. For 1090 ES, each ADS-B message is composed of a pair of data packets. The greater the number of packets transmitted from one aircraft, the fewer aircraft that can participate in the system, due to the fixed and limited channel data bandwidth.


text: System capacity is defined by establishing a criterion for what the worst environment is likely to be, then making that a minimum requirement for system capacity. For 1090 ES, both TCAS and ATCRBS/MSSR are existing users of the channel. 1090 ES ADS-B must not reduce capacity of these existing systems.


text: The FAA national program office and other international aviation regulators are addressing concerns about ADS-B non-secure nature of ADS-B transmissions. ADS-B messages can be used to know the location of an aircraft, and there is no means to guarantee that this information is not used inappropriately. Additionally, there are some concerns about the integrity of ADS-B transmissions. ADS-B messages can be produced, with simple, low-cost measures, which spoof the locations of multiple phantom aircraft to disrupt safe air travel. There is no foolproof means to guarantee integrity, but there are means to monitor for this type of activity. This problem is however similar to the usage of ATCRBS/MSSR where false signals also are potentially dangerous (uncorrelated secondary tracks).


text: There are some concerns about ADS-B dependence on satellite navigation systems to generate state vector information, although the risks can be mitigated by using redundant sources of state vector information; e.g., GPS, GLONASS, Galileo or multilateration.


text: There are some general aviation concerns that ADS-B removes anonymity of the VFR aircraft operations. The ICAO 24-bit transponder code specifically assigned to each aircraft will allow monitoring of that aircraft when within the service volumes of the Mode-S/ADS-B system. Unlike the Mode A/C transponders, there is no code "1200"/"7000", which offers casual anonymity. Mode-S/ADS-B identifies the aircraft uniquely among all in the world, in a similar fashion as a MAC number for an Ethernet card or the International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) of a GSM phone. However, the FAA is allowing UAT-equipped aircraft to utilize a random self-assigned temporary ICAO address in conjunction with the use of beacon code 1200. 1090 ES equipped aircraft using ADS-B will not have this option.


text: In order for the ADS-B system to function to the fullest extent, equipage into all aircraft in the airspace is required. This demands the transponder technology be scalable from the smallest aircraft to the largest aircraft to allow for 100% equipage for any given airspace. Current transponder technology is capable of equipping the larger, traditional aircraft but a new type of transponder is required for equipping into aircraft that are smaller and lighter or don't have electrical systems like the large traditionally transponder equipped aircraft. The requirements for these smaller and lighter aircraft are mainly size, weight, and power (SWAP) and transponder technology must allow for equipage of these types of aircraft to enable saturation of ADS-B for total visibility in any given airspace.


text: On 7 June 2002 the FAA published a historical overview of its decision on the ADS-B link architecture for use in the National Airspace System (NAS).


text: A significant step forward for ADS-B is the reception by artificial satellites of the ADS-B signal. It was tested for the first time in 2013 on ESA's PROBA-V and it is being deployed by companies like Spire Global using low-cost nanosatellites. Aireon is also working on space-based ADS-B with the Iridium satellite network, a LEO (Low Earth Orbit) satellite network that was originally created to deliver phone and data service anywhere on the planet. By capturing ADS-B position data from aircraft flying below the satellite, the network will give the following capabilities:


text: The system only receives ADS-B on aircraft broadcasting on the 1090 MHz frequency. This limits the system generally to airliners and business aircraft, despite the fact that small aircraft are frequently off radar due to mountains blocking the signal at low altitudes. The system could be compromised by smaller, private aircraft with exclusively belly mounted ADS-B antennas, due to the aircraft hull blocking the signal.


text: In September 2016, Aireon and FlightAware announced a partnership to provide this global space-based ADS-B data to airlines for flight tracking of their fleets and, in response to Malaysia Airlines Flight 370, for compliance with the ICAO Global Aeronautical Distress and Safety System (GADSS) requirement for airlines to track their fleets. In December 2016, Flightradar24 entered an agreement with Gomspace for space-based tracking in 2016.


text: SpaceX subsequently placed 66 operational and 9 spare Iridium satellites in orbit over the course of 8 launches between 14 January 2017 and 11 January 2019. Another 6 spare satellites remain on the ground.


text: The ICAO describes space-based ADS-B as a technology equalizer, offering developing nations an airspace surveillance capability.


text: By 2020, 34 nations will deploy the system, including the 17 members of the Asecna in Africa, and the Cocesna air navigation services agency in Central America.


text: More frequent updates in the North Atlantic Tracks allowed reducing longitudinal separation from and lateral separations from .


text: The FAA plans an evaluation in the Caribbean airspace from March 2020 until 2021, to complement the unreliable Grand Turk Island radar which allow reducing separation from .


title: Midnight Runners

text: Midnight Runners () is a 2017 South Korean action comedy film directed by Jason Kim (Kim Ju-hwan) and starring Park Seo-joon and Kang Ha-neul. The film was released on 9 August 2017. An Indian remake titled "Saakini Daakini" was released on 16 September 2022.


title: Midnight Runners

text: Ki-joon and Hee-yeol are students at the Korean National Police University. One day, around midnight, they witness a kidnapping of a girl named Yun-Jung on their way back from the club. The local police station's missing persons department, however, is busy with the kidnapping of a son of a business mogul at the time and is unable to investigate the case. Knowing that they are in the critical hours after a kidnapping, they embark on their amateur investigation. When Ki-joon and Hee-yeol catch up with the kidnappers, it appears that the gang is running an unfertilized egg harvesting ring and there are many more girls locked up at their hideout.


title: Midnight Runners

text: Ki-joon and Hee-yeol tries to save them but are instead beaten and locked up. After escaping their captors, they return the next day to an empty hideout and a cold trail. As they are not acting police officers, their professor Yang Sung-il tells them not to pursue the case any further. Unable to wait for the bureaucracy to resolve the case, they once again embark on their own investigation. They undergo heavy physical training and manage to track the kidnappers down, with the help of CCTV footage, to a fertility clinic. Armored up with weapons, the duo venture in to liberate the girls by themselves, this time much more prepared.


title: Midnight Runners

text: They successfully take down all the kidnappers and their boss Yang-choon. Unable to arrest the kidnappers and rescue all the kidnapped girls themselves, they call the police in, knowing they might get expelled for their actions. However, due to some among the disciplinary committee believing that they had done the right thing morally, they are instead held back a year in their studies and sentenced to 500 hours of community service, leaving the two satisfied with the outcome. In a mid-credit scene, Yun-Jung visits Ki-joon and Hee-yeol as they're serving their community service and thanks them for rescuing her.


title: Midnight Runners

text: "Midnight Runners" was sold to six countries at the Hong Kong International Film & TV Market. The rights to the film have been purchased by companies including Japan's The Klockworx, Taiwan's Long Shong, Hong Kong's Deltamac HK, Philippines' Viva Comm and Singapore's Purple Plan.


title: Midnight Runners

text: Filming began on 21 November 2016 in Yongin, Gyeonggi Province, South Korea and ended on 23 February 2017.


title: Midnight Runners

text: The film was released on 9 August 2017. It was screened across South Korea in 1,058 theatres. The film placed second at the box office on the opening day and earned US$1.97 million with a total of 308,303 ticket sales.


title: Midnight Runners

text: During the first five days of its release, the film attracted 1.9 million viewers and earned a total of .


title: Midnight Runners

text: Within the first eight days after its release, the movie garnered 2.73 million admissions, earning a total of US$18.9 million, which exceeded the production budget of US$6.13 million.


title: Midnight Runners

text: By 20 August, less than two weeks after the movie was released, "Midnight Runners" had been watched by a total of 3,906,566 people. By 21 August, within 13 days after its premiere, the movie surpassed 4 million ticket sales. As of 24 August, the film has grossed US$30 million with a total of 4.3 million ticket sales. The total number of admissions increased to 4.83 million by 27 August 19 days after the movie was released, and the film earned a gross income of US$34.04 million. As of 14 September, five weeks after its release, the film reached 5.61 million admissions mark with US$39 million gross, making it the 7th highest-grossing South Korean film in 2017.


title: Midnight Runners

text: "Midnight Runners" was screened in 12 countries. After the initial release in local cinemas, the film was released in Indonesia on 23 August, followed by North America on 25 August, Australia on 31 August then proceeded to be screened in New Zealand, Hong Kong, Britain, Singapore, Malaysia, Japan, Taiwan, Vietnam, and the Philippines.


title: Midnight Runners

text: The official Indian remake in Telugu language is titled "Saakini Daakini", was produced by Guru Films and Suresh Productions. It stars Regina Cassandra and Nivetha Thomas in the lead roles, and was directed by Sudheer Varma, where the film was released on 16 September 2022.


title: Sib Hashian

text: John Thomas "Sib" Hashian (August 17, 1949 – March 22, 2017) was an American musician, best known as a drummer for the rock band Boston.


title: Sib Hashian

text: Hashian was chosen by Boston founder and band leader Tom Scholz in 1975 to replace original drummer Jim Masdea when Epic Records demanded that Masdea be replaced for recording. Hashian is heard on Boston's self-titled debut album, as well as on the follow-up "Don't Look Back", although the drum parts he played on many tracks were note-for-note transcriptions of Masdea's original drum arrangements. Hashian was involved in the early sessions for Boston's "Third Stage" album, but was later replaced when Masdea returned.


title: Sib Hashian

text: After leaving Boston, Hashian sued Tom Scholz for back royalties and the two later settled out of court.


title: Sib Hashian

text: Hashian was also the drummer for fellow Boston member Barry Goudreau's self-titled solo album which was released in 1980. The album achieved moderate success with the rock radio hit "Dreams".


title: Sib Hashian

text: Boston and the Barry Goudreau album were the last mainstream projects Hashian worked on. He went on to own a chain of tanning salons in Boston, as well as a small record shop. He occasionally played gigs in the Boston area with former bandmates, including Goudreau, Fran Sheehan, and Brad Delp.


title: Sib Hashian

text: In 2001 he made his first stage appearance as an actor at the Cape Cod Repertory Theater in the world premiere of the play "9-Ball" written by his friend Art Devine.


title: Sib Hashian

text: In 2004 he returned to the stage at the Tremont Theater for the Boston premiere of "9-Ball" which he also produced along with Ernie Boch Jr.


title: Sib Hashian

text: In 2005 he appeared in "R U the Girl" as his daughter Lauren was a contestant trying out to win the chance to perform with TLC.


title: Sib Hashian

text: In 2012 he began co-hosting Scorch's PFG-TV, a local TV show in New England, episodes of which were regularly featured on the Opie and Anthony Show, although each segment was centered on mocking PFG-TV's entire show.


title: Sib Hashian

text: Hashian was of Armenian and Italian ancestry and lived in Lynnfield, Massachusetts with his wife, Suzanne (née Jipp). They had one son, Adam, and two daughters, songwriter Aja Hashian and singer-songwriter Lauren Hashian, who appeared as a contestant on the reality series "R U the Girl" in 2005 and has been in a relationship with Dwayne Johnson since 2007. The two were married on August 18, 2019. Prior to his death, Sib was the maternal grandfather of their two daughters. The Hashian sisters write and produce music together.


title: Sib Hashian

text: Hashian died on March 22, 2017, at the age of 67 of a heart attack, after collapsing in the middle of a set while performing on board a cruise ship, the "Independence of the Seas".


title: Testicular torsion

text: Testicular torsion occurs when the spermatic cord (from which the testicle is suspended) twists, cutting off the blood supply to the testicle. The most common symptom in children is sudden, severe testicular pain. The testicle may be higher than usual in the scrotum and vomiting may occur. In newborns, pain is often absent and instead the scrotum may become discolored or the testicle may disappear from its usual place.


title: Testicular torsion

text: Most of those affected have no obvious prior underlying health problems. Testicular tumor or prior trauma may increase risk. Other risk factors include a congenital malformation known as a "bell-clapper deformity" wherein the testis is inadequately attached to the scrotum allowing it to move more freely and thus potentially twist. Cold temperatures may also be a risk factor. The diagnosis should usually be made based on the presenting symptoms, but requires timely diagnosis and treatment to avoid testicular loss. An ultrasound can be useful when the diagnosis is unclear.


title: Testicular torsion

text: Treatment is by physically untwisting the testicle, if possible, followed by surgery. Pain can be treated with opioids. Outcome depends on time to correction. If successfully treated within six hours onset, it is often good. However, if delayed for 12 or more hours the testicle is typically not salvageable. About 40% of people require removal of the testicle.


title: Testicular torsion

text: It is most common just after birth and during puberty. It occurs in about 1 in 4,000 to 1 in 25,000 males under 25 years of age each year. Of children with testicular pain of rapid onset, testicular torsion is the cause of about 10% of cases. Complications may include an inability to have children. The condition was first described in 1840 by Louis Delasiauve.


title: Testicular torsion

text: Testicular torsion usually presents with severe testicular pain or pain in the groin and lower abdomen. Pain generally begins suddenly and typically involves only one side. There is often associated nausea and vomiting. The testicle may lie higher in the scrotum due to twisting and subsequent shortening of the spermatic cord or may be positioned in a horizontal orientation. Mild warmth and redness of the overlying area may be present. Elevation of the testicle may worsen the pain. Urinary symptoms, such as pain or increased frequency of urination are also typically absent. Symptom onset often follows physical activity or trauma to the testes or scrotum. Children with testicular torsion may awaken with testicular or abdominal pain in the middle of the night or in the morning. There may be a history of previous, similar episodes of scrotal pain due to prior transient testicular torsion with spontaneous resolution.


title: Testicular torsion

text: Most of those affected with testicular torsion have no prior underlying health problems or predisposing conditions. However, there are certain factors that may increase risk of testicular torsion. A larger testicle either due to normal variation or testicular tumor increases the risk of torsion. Similarly, the presence of a mass or malignancy involving the spermatic cord can also predispose to torsion.


title: Testicular torsion

text: Age is also an important risk factor for torsion. Torsion most commonly occurs either in the newborn or just before or during puberty. Testicular torsion often occurs before or during puberty, prior to complete testicular descent. Epididymitis is more commonly a postpubertal condition.


title: Testicular torsion

text: Several congenital anatomic malformations or variations in the testicle or the surrounding structures may allow for increased scrotal rotation and increase the risk of testicular torsion. A congenital malformation of the processus vaginalis known as "bell-clapper deformity" accounts for 90% of all cases. In this condition, rather than the testes attaching posteriorly to the inner lining of the scrotum by the mesorchium, the mesorchium terminates early and the testis is free floating in the tunica vaginalis. Other anatomic risk factors include horizontal lie of the testicle or a spermatic cord with a long intrascrotal portion. Cryptorchidisim is also a risk factor for torsion with some studies proposing a 10-fold higher risk.


title: Testicular torsion

text: Testicular torsion may also be caused by trauma to the scrotum or exercise (in particular, bicycle riding), however only about 4-8% of cases are the result of trauma. There is thought to be a possible genetic basis for predisposition to torsion, based on multiple published reports of familial testicular torsion. There is controversy whether cold weather months are associated with an increased risk.


title: Testicular torsion

text: Testicular torsion occurs when there is mechanical twisting of the spermatic cord, which suspends the testicle within the scrotum and contains the testicular artery and vein. Twisting of the cord reduces or eliminates blood flow to the testicle. The degree of arterial and venous obstruction depends on the duration and severity of the torsion event. Typically, venous blood flow is compromised first. The increase in venous pressure subsequently causes decreased arterial blood flow, leading to decreased oxygen supply to the testicle, and if untreated, testicular infarction.


title: Testicular torsion

text: It is also believed that torsion occurring during fetal development can lead to so-called neonatal torsion or vanishing testis, and is one of the causes of an infant being born with monorchism (one testicle).


title: Testicular torsion

text: Intermittent testicular torsion (ITT) is a less serious but chronic variant of torsion. It is characterized by intermittent scrotal or testicular pain, followed by eventual spontaneous detorsion and resolution of pain. Nausea and vomiting may also occur. Though less pressing, such individuals are at significant risk of complete torsion and possible subsequent orchiectomy and the recommended treatment is elective bilateral orchiopexy. Ninety-seven percent of patients who undergo such surgery experience complete relief from their symptoms.


title: Testicular torsion

text: Torsion occurring outside of the tunica vaginalis, when the testis and gubernaculum can rotate freely, is termed an extravaginal testicular torsion. This type occurs exclusively in newborns, however, newborns can be affected by other testicular torsion variants as well. Neonates experiencing such a torsion typically present with painless scrotal swelling, discoloration, and a firm, painless mass in the scrotum. Such testes are usually necrotic from birth and must be removed surgically. The exact cause of or specific risk factors for extravaginal torsion in this population remain unclear.


title: Testicular torsion

text: Intravaginal testicular torsion occurs when the testicle rotates on the spermatic cord within the tunica vaginalis. This variant more commonly occurs in older children and adults. The "bell-clapper deformity," in which there is inappropriately high attachment of the tunica vaginalis over the spermatic cord and failure of the normal posterior attachment of the testicle to the inner scrotum, which allows the testicle to move freely within the tunica vaginalis and predisposes to intravaginal testicular torsion.


title: Testicular torsion

text: The testicular appendix is located in the upper pole of the testicle. It is an embryonic remnant that has no known function, but is at risk for torsion events. This type of torsion is the most common cause of acute scrotal pain in boys ages 7–14. Its appearance is similar to that of testicular torsion but the onset of pain is typically more gradual. Palpation reveals a small firm nodule on the upper portion of the testis which displays a characteristic "blue dot sign". This is the appendix of the testis which has become discolored and is noticeably blue through the skin. Unlike other torsions, however, the cremasteric reflex is still active. Typical treatment involves the use of over-the-counter analgesics and the condition resolves within 2–3 days.


title: Testicular torsion

text: The undescended testis is at increased risk of testicular torsion. The mechanism for torsion in the undescended testicle is not fully understood, though it may be due to abnormal contractions of the cremaster muscle, which covers the testicle and spermatic cord and is responsible for raising and lowering the testicle to regulate scrotal temperature. The undescended testicle is also at higher risk for testicular tumor, which due to the increased weight and size compared to a healthy testicle can predispose to torsion.


title: Testicular torsion

text: The diagnosis should generally be made based on the presenting symptoms. An ultrasound can be useful when the diagnosis is unclear. However, imaging should not delay surgical intervention as complications develop with prolonged ischemia. Immediate surgery is recommended regardless of imaging findings if there is a high degree of suspicion based on history and physical examination.


title: Testicular torsion

text: Given the treatment implications of testicular torsion, it is important to distinguish testicular torsion from other causes of testicular pain, such as epididymitis, which can present similarly. While both conditions can cause testicular pain, the pain of epididymitis is typically localized to the epididymis at the rear pole of the testicle. Epididymitis may also be characterized by discoloration and swelling of the testis, and fever. The cremasteric reflex in epididymitis is usually present. Testicular torsion, or more probably impending testicular infarction, can also produce a low-grade fever. There is often an absent or decreased cremasteric reflex.


title: Testicular torsion

text: The absence of the cremasteric reflex in an acutely painful testicle is most indicative of testicular torsion (the twisting of the spermatic cord of the testicle makes reflexive responses all but impossible). The cremasteric reflex normally causes elevation of the testicle by stroking the inner thigh. Absence is especially common in children, but its presence does not exclude a diagnosis of testicular torsion.


title: Testicular torsion

text: On physical examination, the testis can be swollen, tender, high-riding, and with an abnormal transverse lie.


title: Testicular torsion

text: Prehn's sign, a classic physical exam finding, has not been reliable in distinguishing torsion from other causes of testicular pain such as epididymitis. The individual will not usually have a fever, though nausea is common.


title: Testicular torsion

text: A doppler ultrasound scan of the scrotum can identify the absence of blood flow in the twisted testicle and is nearly 90% accurate in diagnosis. It can also help distinguish torsion from epididymitis.


title: Testicular torsion

text: Radionuclide scanning (scintigraphy) of the scrotum is the most accurate imaging technique, but it is not routinely available, particularly with the urgency that might be required. The agent of choice for this purpose is technetium-99m pertechnetate. Initially it provides a radionuclide angiogram, followed by a static image after the radionuclide has perfused the tissue. In the healthy patient, initial images show symmetric flow to the testes, and delayed images show uniformly symmetric activity. In testicular torsion, the images may show heterogenous activity within the affected testicle.


title: Testicular torsion

text: Testicular torsion is a surgical emergency that requires immediate intervention to restore the flow of blood to the testicle. If treated either manually or surgically within six hours, there is a high chance (approximately 90%) of saving the testicle. At 12 hours the rate decreases to 50%; at 24 hours it drops to 10%, and after 24 hours the ability to save the testicle approaches 0, although salvage of the testicle has been reported beyond 24 hours. About 40% of cases result in loss of the testicle.


title: Testicular torsion

text: With prompt diagnosis and treatment the testicle can often be saved. Typically, when a torsion takes place, the surface of the testicle has rotated towards the midline of the body. Non-surgical correction can sometimes be accomplished by manually rotating the testicle in the opposite direction (i.e., outward, towards the thigh); if this is initially unsuccessful, a forced manual rotation in the other direction may correct the problem. The success rate of manual detorsion is not known with confidence.


title: Testicular torsion

text: When salvage of the testicle is accomplished, long-term testicular damage is common. Testicular size is often diminished, and injury to the unaffected testicle is common. The effect of a torsion event on long-term fertility is not fully understood.


title: Testicular torsion

text: A repeat doppler ultrasound scan may confirm restoration of blood flow to the testicle following manual detorsion. However, surgical exploration is often performed in order to assess the health and viability of the testicle. An orchiopexy is performed to both the affected and unaffected testicles in order to prevent recurrence. If the testis is not viable, it is removed (orchiectomy).


title: Testicular torsion

text: Torsion is most frequent among adolescents with about 65% of cases presenting between 12 and 18 years of age. It is the most common cause of rapid onset testicular pain and swelling in people under 18 years old. It occurs in about 1 in 4,000 to 1 per 25,000 males per year before 25 years of age; but it can occur at any age, including infancy.


title: Human female sexuality

text: Human female sexuality encompasses a broad range of behaviors and processes, including female sexual identity and sexual behavior, the physiological, psychological, social, cultural, political, and spiritual or religious aspects of sexual activity. Various aspects and dimensions of female sexuality, as a part of human sexuality, have also been addressed by principles of ethics, morality, and theology. In almost any historical era and culture, the arts, including literary and visual arts, as well as popular culture, present a substantial portion of a given society's views on human sexuality, which include both implicit (covert) and explicit (overt) aspects and manifestations of feminine sexuality and behavior.


title: Human female sexuality

text: In most societies and legal jurisdictions, there are legal bounds on what sexual behavior is permitted. Sexuality varies across the cultures and regions of the world, and has continually changed throughout history, and this also applies to female sexuality. Aspects of female sexuality include issues pertaining to biological sex, body image, self-esteem, personality, sexual orientation, values and attitudes, gender roles, relationships, activity options, and communication.


title: Human female sexuality

text: While most women are heterosexual, significant minorities are homosexual or varying degrees of bisexual. Bisexual females are more common than bisexual males.


title: Human female sexuality

text: Sexual activity can encompass various sexually stimulating factors (physiological stimulation or psychological stimulation), including sexual fantasies and different sex positions, or the use of sex toys. Foreplay may precede some sexual activities, often leading to sexual arousal of the partners. It is also common for people to be sexually satisfied by being kissed, touched erotically, or held.


title: Human female sexuality

text: Orgasm, or sexual climax, is the sudden discharge of accumulated sexual tension during the sexual response cycle, resulting in rhythmic muscular contractions in the pelvic region characterized by an intense sensation of pleasure. Women commonly find it difficult to experience orgasms during vaginal intercourse. Mayo Clinic states: "Orgasms vary in intensity, and women vary in the frequency of their orgasms and the amount of stimulation necessary to trigger an orgasm." Additionally, some women may require more than one type of sexual stimulation in order to achieve orgasm. Clitoral stimulation in normal copulation happens when the thrusting of the penis moves the clitoral hood and labia minora, extending from the clitoris.


title: Human female sexuality

text: Orgasm in women has typically been divided into two categories: clitoral and vaginal (or G-spot) orgasms. 70–80% of women require direct clitoral stimulation to achieve orgasm, though indirect clitoral stimulation may also be sufficient. Clitoral orgasms are easier to achieve because the glans of the clitoris, or clitoris as a whole, has more than 8,000 sensory nerve endings, which is as many (or more in some cases) nerve endings as are present in the human penis or glans penis. As the clitoris is homologous to the penis, it is the equivalent in its capacity to receive sexual stimulation.


title: Human female sexuality

text: Although orgasms by vaginal stimulation are more difficult to achieve, the G-spot area may produce an orgasm if properly stimulated. The G-spot's existence, and existence as a distinct structure, is still under dispute, as its reported location can vary from woman to woman, appears to be nonexistent in some women, and it is hypothesized to be an extension of the clitoris and therefore the reason for orgasms experienced vaginally.


title: Human female sexuality

text: Women are able to achieve multiple orgasms due to the fact that they generally do not require a refractory period like men do after the first orgasm. Although it is reported that women do not experience a refractory period and thus can experience an additional orgasm, or multiple orgasms, soon after the first orgasm, some sources state that both men and women experience a refractory period because, due to clitoral hypersensitivity or sexual satisfaction, women may also experience a period after orgasm in which further sexual stimulation does not produce excitement.


title: Human female sexuality

text: Nipples can be sensitive to touch, and nipple stimulation can incite sexual arousal. Few women report experiencing orgasm from nipple stimulation. Before Komisaruk et al.'s functional magnetic resonance (fMRI) research on nipple stimulation in 2011, reports of women achieving orgasm from nipple stimulation relied solely on anecdotal evidence. Komisaruk's study was the first to map the female genitals onto the sensory portion of the brain; it indicates that sensation from the nipples travels to the same part of the brain as sensations from the vagina, clitoris and cervix, and that these reported orgasms are genital orgasms caused by nipple stimulation, and may be directly linked to the genital sensory cortex ("the genital area of the brain").


title: Human female sexuality

text: Women, on average, tend to be more attracted to men who have a relatively narrow waist, a V-shaped torso, and broad shoulders. Women also tend to be more attracted to men who are taller than they are, and display a high degree of facial symmetry, as well as relatively masculine facial dimorphism. Based on contemporary research and surveys, women, regardless of sexual orientation, are just as interested in a partner's physical attractiveness as men are.


title: Human female sexuality

text: Historically, many cultures have viewed female sexuality as being subordinate to male sexuality, and as something to be controlled through restrictions on female behavior. Traditional cultural practices, such as enforced modesty and chastity, have tended to place restrictions principally on women, without imposing similar restrictions on men.


title: Human female sexuality

text: According to psychoanalytic literature, the "Madonna–whore complex" is said to occur when a male desires sexual encounters only with women whom he sees as degraded ("whores") while he cannot desire sexually a respectable woman ("the Madonna"). This was first described by Sigmund Freud.


title: Human female sexuality

text: The interpretation of female sexuality is significantly different according to C.G. Jung's psychological research. He explained the female libido as a pre-cursor of cultural expression and personal creativity. He identified Freud's theories as the source of this significant misunderstanding, and theorized that the "rhythmic factor" is not merely a principle in the "nutritive phase" and later in sexuality, but that it is at the base of all emotional processes.


title: Human female sexuality

text: Some controversial traditional cultural practices, such as female genital mutilation (FGM), have been described as attempts at nullifying women's sexuality altogether. FGM continues to be practised in some parts of Africa and the Middle East, as well as in some immigrant communities in Western countries, though it is widely outlawed. The procedure is typically carried out on young girls, before the age of 15.


title: Human female sexuality

text: Methods employed to control female sexuality and behavior include the threat of death, such as honor killings. The reason for such a killing may include refusing to enter an arranged marriage, being in a relationship that is disapproved by their relatives, having sex outside marriage, becoming the victim of rape, or dressing in ways which are deemed inappropriate.


title: Human female sexuality

text: Another historical device used to control female sexual behavior was the chastity belt, which is a locking item of clothing designed to prevent sexual intercourse. The belts were worn by women to protect their chastity, which included preventing masturbation or sexual access by unauthorized males.


title: Human female sexuality

text: Prior to the European colonization of North America, Native American attitudes regarding female sexuality were generally open-minded, particularly for younger, un-married women. However, when Europeans arrived, more rigid views were enforced. These rigid views were especially restrictive for women, predominantly in Puritan colonies.


title: Human female sexuality

text: Following the European colonization of North America, there was the creation of the African American archetypes of the Jezebel and mammy. The Jezebel was characterized as a woman who was lewd, tempting and seductive. Mammies, also called Aunt Jemima, were maternal figures who were portrayed as content within the institution of slavery – always with a smile on her face as the white family took up her life and her entire world. These stereotyping frameworks not only justified slavery but also justified the rape and abuse of African American women as being sexually driven, sexual beings in the case of the Jezebel, or a being where sex and sexuality are the last things on a woman's mind because her world is taken up by the lives of her white masters in the case of the mammy.


title: Human female sexuality

text: In the modern age, psychologists and physiologists explored female sexuality. Sigmund Freud propounded the theory of two kinds of female orgasms, "the vaginal kind, and the clitoral orgasm." However, Masters and Johnson (1966) and Helen O'Connell (2005) reject this distinction.


title: Human female sexuality

text: Ernst Gräfenberg was famous for his studies of female genitalia and human female sexual physiology. He published, among other studies, the pioneering "The Role of Urethra in Female Orgasm" (1950), which describes female ejaculation, as well as an erogenous zone where the urethra is closest to the vaginal wall. In 1981, sexologists John D. Perry and Beverly Whipple named that area the Gräfenberg spot, or G-spot, in his honor. While the medical community generally has not embraced the complete concept of the G-spot,


title: Human female sexuality

text: In terms of female psychological arousal, recent research by personality psychologist and biological anthropologist Gerulf Rieger in 2015 suggested that homosexual females experienced more male-typical sexual arousal to members of the same sex than heterosexual females did to members of the opposite sex, as well as being more masculine in non-sexual behaviours.