title: Jerk (physics)

text: A primary design goal for motion control is to minimize the transition time without exceeding speed, acceleration, or jerk limits. Consider a third-order motion-control profile with quadratic ramping and deramping phases in velocity (see figure).


title: Jerk (physics)

text: Segment four's time period (constant velocity) varies with distance between the two positions. If this distance is so small that omitting segment four would not suffice, then segments two and six (constant acceleration) could be equally reduced, and the constant velocity limit would not be reached. If this modification does not sufficiently reduce the crossed distance, then segments one, three, five, and seven could be shortened by an equal amount, and the constant acceleration limits would not be reached.


title: Jerk (physics)

text: Other motion profile strategies are used, such as minimizing the square of jerk for a given transition time and, as discussed above, sinusoidal-shaped acceleration profiles. Motion profiles are tailored for specific applications including machines, people movers, chain hoists, automobiles, and robotics.


title: Jerk (physics)

text: Jerk is an important consideration in manufacturing processes. Rapid changes in acceleration of a cutting tool can lead to premature tool wear and result in uneven cuts; consequently, modern motion controllers include jerk limitation features. In mechanical engineering, jerk, in addition to velocity and acceleration, is considered in the development of cam profiles because of tribological implications and the ability of the actuated body to follow the cam profile without chatter.


title: Jerk (physics)

text: Jerk is often considered when vibration is a concern. A device that measures jerk is called a "jerkmeter".


title: Jerk (physics)

text: Further time derivatives have also been named, as snap or jounce (fourth derivative), crackle (fifth derivative), and pop (sixth derivative). However, time derivatives of position of higher order than four appear rarely.


title: Jerk (physics)

text: The terms "snap", "crackle", and "pop"for the fourth, fifth, and sixth derivatives of positionwere inspired by the advertising mascots Snap, Crackle, and Pop.


title: York City F.C.

text: York City Football Club is a professional association football club based in the city of York, North Yorkshire, England. As of the 2022–23 season, the team compete in the National League, at the fifth tier of the English football league system.


title: York City F.C.

text: Founded in 1922, the club played seven seasons in non-League football before joining the Football League. York played in the Third Division North and the Fourth Division until 1959, when they were promoted for the first time. York achieved their best run in the FA Cup in 1954–55, when they met Newcastle United in the semi-final. They fluctuated between the Third and Fourth Divisions, before spending two seasons in the Second Division in the 1970s. York first played at Wembley Stadium in 1993, when they won the Third Division play-off final. At the end of 2003–04, they lost their Football League status after being relegated from the Third Division. The 2011–12 FA Trophy was the first national knockout competition won by York, and they returned to the Football League that season before being relegated back into non-League football in 2016.


title: York City F.C.

text: York are nicknamed the Minstermen, after York Minster, and the team traditionally play in red kits. They played at Fulfordgate from 1922 to 1932, when they moved to Bootham Crescent, their home for 88 years. This ground had been subject to numerous improvements over the years, but the club lost ownership of it when it was transferred to a holding company in 1999. York bought it back five years later, but the terms of the loan used to do so necessitated a move to a new ground. They moved into their current ground, the York Community Stadium, in 2021. York have had rivalries with numerous clubs, but their traditional rivals are Hull City and Scarborough. The club's record appearance holder is Barry Jackson, who made 539 appearances, while their leading scorer is Norman Wilkinson, with 143 goals.


title: York City F.C.

text: The club was founded with the formation of the York City Association Football and Athletic Club Limited in May 1922 and subsequently gained admission to the Midland League. York ranked in 19th place in 1922–23 and 1923–24, and entered the FA Cup for the first time in the latter. York played in the Midland League for seven seasons, achieving a highest finish of sixth, in 1924–25 and 1926–27. They surpassed the qualifying rounds of the FA Cup for the first time in 1926–27, when they were beaten 2–1 by Second Division club Grimsby Town in the second round. The club made its first serious attempt for election to the Football League in May 1927, but this was unsuccessful as Barrow and Accrington Stanley were re-elected. However, the club was successful two years later, being elected to the Football League in June 1929 to replace Ashington in the Third Division North.


title: York City F.C.

text: York won 2–0 against Wigan Borough in their first match in the Football League, and finished 1929–30 sixth in the Third Division North. Three years later, York only avoided having to seek re-election after winning the last match of 1932–33. In the 1937–38 FA Cup, they eliminated First Division teams West Bromwich Albion and Middlesbrough, and drew 0–0 at home to Huddersfield Town in the sixth round, before losing the replay 2–1 at Leeds Road. York had been challenging for promotion in 1937–38 before faltering in the closing weeks, and in the following season only avoided having to apply for re-election with victory in the penultimate match. They participated in the regional competitions organised by the Football League upon the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939. York played in wartime competitions for seven seasons, and in 1942 won the Combined Counties Cup.


title: York City F.C.

text: Peacetime football resumed in 1946–47 and York finished the next three seasons in midtable. However, they were forced to apply for re-election for the first time after finishing bottom of the Third Division North in 1949–50. York pursued promotion in 1952–53, before finishing fourth with 53 points, which were new club records in the Football League. The club's longest cup run came when they reached the semi-final of the 1954–55 FA Cup, a campaign in which Arthur Bottom scored eight goals. In the semi-final, York drew 1–1 with Newcastle United at Hillsborough, before being beaten 2–0 at Roker Park in the replay. This meant York had become the first third-tier club to play in an FA Cup semi-final replay. With a 13th-place finish in 1957–58, York became founder members of the Fourth Division, while the clubs finishing in the top half of the North and South sections formed the new Third Division.


title: York City F.C.

text: York only missed out on the runners-up spot in 1958–59 on goal average, and were promoted for the first time in third place. However, they were relegated from the Third Division after just one season in 1959–60. York's best run in the League Cup came in 1961–62, the competition's second season, after reaching the fifth round. They were beaten 2–1 by divisional rivals Rochdale. York had to apply for re-election for the second time after finishing 22nd in 1963–64, but achieved a second promotion the next season, again in third place in the Fourth Division. York were again relegated after one season, finishing bottom of the Third Division in 1965–66. The club was forced to apply for re-election in three successive seasons, from 1966–67 to 1968–69, after finishing in the bottom four of the Fourth Division in each of those season. York's record of earning promotion every six years was maintained in 1970–71, with a fourth-place finish in the Fourth Division.


title: York City F.C.

text: York avoided relegation from the Third Division in 1971–72 and 1972–73, albeit only on goal average in both seasons. After these two seasons they hit form in 1973–74, when "three up, three down" was introduced to the top three divisions. After being among the leaders most of the season, York were promoted to the Second Division for the first time in third place. The club's highest-ever league placing was achieved in mid October 1974 when York were fifth in the Second Division, and they finished 1974–75 in 15th place. York finished in 21st place the following season, and were relegated back to the Third Division. York dropped further still, being relegated in 1976–77 after finishing bottom of the Third Division. The 1977–78 season culminated in the club being forced to apply for re-election for the sixth time, after ranking third from bottom in the Fourth Division. Two midtable finishes followed before York made their seventh application for re-election, after they finished bottom of the Fourth Division in 1980–81.


title: York City F.C.

text: In 1981–82, York endured a club-record run of 12 home matches without victory, but only missed out on promotion in 1982–83 due to their poor away form in the second half of the season. York won the Fourth Division championship with 101 points in 1983–84, becoming the first Football League team to achieve a three-figure points total in a season. In January 1985, York recorded a 1–0 home victory over First Division Arsenal in the fourth round of the 1984–85 FA Cup, courtesy of an 89th-minute penalty scored by Keith Houchen. They proceeded to draw 1–1 at home with European Cup holders Liverpool in February 1985, but lost 7–0 in the replay at Anfield; York's record cup defeat. The teams met again in the following season's FA Cup, and after another 1–1 home draw, Liverpool won 3–1 in the replay after extra time at Anfield. Their finish of seventh in the Third Division in 1985–86 marked the fifth consecutive season York had improved their end-of-season league ranking.


title: York City F.C.

text: York only avoided relegation with a draw in the last match of 1986–87, but did go down the following season after finishing second from bottom in the Third Division. In 1992–93, York ended a five-year spell in the Third Division by gaining promotion to the Second Division via the play-offs. Crewe Alexandra were beaten in the play-off final at Wembley Stadium, with a 5–3 penalty shoot-out victory following a 1–1 extra time draw. York reached the Second Division play-offs at the first attempt, but lost 1–0 on aggregate to Stockport County in the semi-final. York recorded a 4–3 aggregate victory in the 1995–96 League Cup second round over the eventual Premier League and FA Cup double winners Manchester United. This included a 3–0 win in the first leg at Old Trafford against a strong United team that included some younger players, and a more experienced United team was unable to overcome the deficit in the second leg, York losing 3–1. They then beat Everton in the second round of the following season's League Cup; they drew the first leg 1–1 at Goodison Park, but won the second leg 3–2 at home.


title: York City F.C.

text: York were relegated from the Second Division in 1998–99, after dropping into 21st place on the last day of the season. In December 2001, long-serving chairman Douglas Craig put the club and its ground up for sale for £4.5 million, before announcing that the club would resign from the Football League if a buyer was not found. Motor racing driver John Batchelor took over the club in March 2002, and by December the club had gone into administration. The Supporters' Trust (ST) bought the club in March 2003 after an offer of £100,000 as payment for £160,000 owed in tax was accepted by the Inland Revenue. Batchelor left having diverted almost all of the £400,000 received from a sponsorship deal with Persimmon to his racing team, and having failed to deliver on his promise of having ST members on the board. York failed to win any of their final 20 league fixtures in 2003–04 and finished bottom of the Third Division. This meant the club was relegated to the Football Conference, ending 75 years of Football League membership.


title: York City F.C.

text: York only avoided relegation late into their first Conference National season in 2004–05, before reaching the play-off semi-final in 2006–07, when they were beaten 2–1 on aggregate by Morecambe. Having only escaped relegation towards the end of 2008–09, York participated in the 2009 FA Trophy Final, and were defeated 2–0 by Stevenage Borough at Wembley Stadium. They reached the 2010 play-off final at Wembley Stadium, but were beaten 3–1 by Oxford United. York won their first national knockout competition two years later, after they beat Newport County 2–0 in the 2012 FA Trophy Final at Wembley Stadium. A week later they earned promotion to League Two after they beat Luton Town 2–1 at Wembley Stadium in the 2012 Conference Premier play-off Final, marking the club's return to the Football League after an eight-year absence.


title: York City F.C.

text: York only secured survival from relegation late into 2012–13, their first season back in the Football League. They made the League Two play-offs the following season, and were beaten 1–0 on aggregate by Fleetwood Town in the semi-final. However, York were relegated to the National League four years after returning to the Football League, with a bottom-place finish in League Two in 2015–16. York were further relegated to the National League North for the first time in 2016–17; however, they ended the season with a 3–2 win over Macclesfield Town at Wembley Stadium in the 2017 FA Trophy Final. The club was promoted back to the National League at the end of the 2021–22 season via the play-offs, with a 2–0 victory over Boston United in the final. The ST purchased JM Packaging's 75% share of the club in July 2022 to regain its 100% shareholding, before transferring 51% of those shares to businessman Glen Henderson, who took over as chairman of the club.


title: York City F.C.

text: York are nicknamed "the Minstermen", in reference to York Minster. It is believed to have been coined by a journalist who came to watch the team during a successful cup run, and was only first used officially in literature in 1972. Before this, York were known as "the Robins", because of the team's red shirts. They were billed "the Happy Wanderers", after a popular song, at the time of their run in the 1954–55 FA Cup.


title: York City F.C.

text: For most of the club's history, York have worn red shirts. However, in the club's first season, 1922–23, the kit comprised maroon shirts, white shorts and black socks were worn. Maroon and white striped shirts were worn for three years in the mid 1920s, before the maroon shirts returned. In 1933, York changed their maroon jerseys to chocolate and cream stripes, a reference to the city's association with the confectionery industry. After four years they changed their colours to what were described as "distinctive red shirts", with the official explanation that the striped jerseys clashed with opponents too often. York continued to don red shirts before a two-year spell of wearing all-white kits from 1967 to 1969.


title: York City F.C.

text: York resumed wearing maroon shirts with white shorts in 1970. To mark their promotion to the Second Division in 1974, a bold white "Y" was added to the shirts, which became known as the "Y-fronts". Red shirts returned in 1978, along with the introduction of navy blue shorts. In 2004, the club dropped navy from the kits and instead used plain red and white, until 2008 when a kit mostly of navy was introduced. For 2007–08, the club brought in a third kit, which comprised light blue shirts and socks, with maroon shorts. A kit with purple shirts was introduced for a one-off appearance in the 2009 FA Trophy Final. Red shirts returned in 2010, and have been worn with red, navy blue, light blue and white shorts.


title: York City F.C.

text: York adopted the city's coat of arms as their crest upon the club's formation, although it only featured on the shirts from 1950 to 1951. In 1959, a second crest was introduced, in the form of a shield that contained York Minster, the White Rose of York and a robin. This crest never appeared on the shirts, but from 1970 to 1973 they bore the letters "YCFC" running upwards from left to right, and from 1974 to 1978 the "Y-fronts" shirts included a stylised badge in which the "Y" and "C" were combined. The shirts bore a new crest in 1978, which depicted Bootham Bar, two heraldic lions and the club name in all-white, and in 1983 this was updated into a coloured version.


title: York City F.C.

text: When Batchelor took over the club in 2002, the crest was replaced by one signifying the club's new name of "York City Soccer Club" and held a chequered flag motif. After Batchelor's one-year period at the club, the name reverted to "York City Football Club" and a new logo was introduced. It was selected following a supporters' vote held by the club, and the successful design was made by Michael Elgie. The badge features five lions, four of which are navy blue and are placed on a white "Y" shaped background. The rest of the background is red with the fifth lion in white, placed between the top part of the "Y".


title: York City F.C.

text: York's first ground was Fulfordgate, which was located on Heslington Lane, Fulford in the south-east of York. With the ground not ready, York played their first two home matches at Mille Crux, Haxby Road, before they took to the field at Fulfordgate for a 4–1 win over Mansfield Town on 20 September 1922. Fulfordgate was gradually improved; terracing replaced banking behind one of the goals, the covered Popular Stand was extended to house 1,000 supporters, and a small seated stand was erected. By the time of York's election to the Football League in 1929, the ground was estimated to hold a capacity of 17,000. However, attendances declined in York's second and third Football League seasons, and the directors blamed this on the ground's location. In April 1932, York's shareholders voted to move to Bootham Crescent, which had been vacated by York Cricket Club, on a 21-year lease. This site was located near the city centre, and had a significantly higher population living nearby than Fulfordgate.


title: York City F.C.

text: Bootham Crescent was renovated over the summer of 1932; the Main and Popular Stands were built and terraces were banked up behind the goals. The ground was officially opened on 31 August 1932, for York's 2–2 draw with Stockport County in the Third Division North. It was played before 8,106 supporters, and York's Tom Mitchell scored the first goal at the ground. There were teething problems in Bootham Crescent's early years: attendances were not higher than at Fulfordgate in its first four seasons, and there were questions over the quality of the pitch. In March 1938 the ground's record attendance was set when 28,123 people watched York play Huddersfield Town in the FA Cup. The ground endured slight damage during the Second World War, when bombs were dropped on houses along the Shipton Street End. Improvements were made shortly after the war ended, including the concreting of the banking at the Grosvenor Road End being completed.


title: York City F.C.

text: With the club's finances in a strong position, York purchased Bootham Crescent for £4,075 in September 1948. Over the late 1940s and early 1950s, concreting was completed on the terracing in the Popular Stand and the Shipton Street End. The Main Stand was extended towards Shipton Street over the summer of 1955, and a year later a concrete wall was built at the Grosvenor Road End, as a safety precaution and as a support for additional banking and terracing. The ground was fitted with floodlights in 1959, which were officially switched on for a friendly against Newcastle United. The floodlights were updated and improved in 1980, and were officially switched on for a friendly with Grimsby Town. A gymnasium was built at the Grosvenor Road End in 1981, and two years later new offices for the manager, secretary, matchday and lottery manager were built, along with a vice-presidents' lounge.


title: York City F.C.

text: During the early 1980s, the rear of the Grosvenor Road End was cordoned off as cracks had appeared in the rear wall, and this section of the ground was later segregated and allocated to away supporters. Extensive improvements were made over the mid 1980s, including new turnstiles, refurbished dressing rooms, new referees' changing room and physiotherapist's treatment room being readied, hospitality boxes being built to the Main Stand and crash barriers being strengthened. The David Longhurst Stand was constructed over the summer of 1991, and was named after the York player who collapsed and died from heart failure in a match a year earlier. It provided covered accommodation for supporters in what was previously the Shipton Street End, and was officially opened for a friendly match against Leeds United. In June 1995, new floodlights were installed, which were twice as powerful as the original floodlights.


title: York City F.C.

text: In July 1999, York ceased ownership of Bootham Crescent when their real property assets were transferred to a holding company called Bootham Crescent Holdings. Craig announced the ground would close by 30 June 2002, and under Batchelor York's lease was replaced with one expiring in June 2003. In March 2003, York extended the lease to May 2004, and proceeded with plans to move to Huntington Stadium under the ownership of the Supporters' Trust. The club instead bought Bootham Crescent in February 2004, using a £2 million loan from the Football Stadia Improvement Fund (FSIF).


title: York City F.C.

text: The ground was renamed KitKat Crescent in January 2005, as part of a sponsorship deal in which Nestlé made a donation to the club, although the ground was still commonly referred to as Bootham Crescent. The deal expired in January 2010, when Nestlé ended all their sponsorship arrangements with the club. There had not been any major investment in the ground since the 1990s, and it faced problems with holes in the Main Stand roof, crumbling in the Grosvenor Road End, drainage problems and toilet conditions.


title: York City F.C.

text: Per the terms of the FSIF loan, the club was required to have identified a site for a new stadium by 2007, and have detailed planning permission by 2009, to avoid financial penalties. York failed to formally identify a site by the end of 2007, and by March 2008 plans had ground to a halt. In May 2008, City of York Council announced its commitment to building a community stadium, for use by York and the city's rugby league club, York City Knights. In July 2010, the option of building an all-seater stadium at Monks Cross in Huntington, on the site of Huntington Stadium, was chosen by the council. In August 2014, the council named GLL as the preferred bidder to deliver an 8,000 all-seater stadium, a leisure complex and a community hub. Construction started in December 2017, and after a number of delays, was completed in December 2020. The club officially moved into the stadium in January 2021, with the first match being a 3–1 defeat to AFC Fylde on 16 February, which was played behind closed doors because of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom. The stadium holds an all-seated capacity of 8,500.


title: York City F.C.

text: The club has a number of domestic supporters' groups, including the East Riding Minstermen, Harrogate Minstermen, York Minstermen, York City South and the Supporters' Trust. The now-disbanded group Jorvik Reds, who were primarily inspired by the continental ultras movement, were known for staging pre-match displays. The York Nomad Society is the hooligan firm associated with the club.


title: York City F.C.

text: For home matches, the club produces a 60-page official match programme, entitled "The Citizen". York have been the subject of a number of independent supporters' fanzines, including "Terrace Talk", "In The City", "New Frontiers", "Johnny Ward's Eyes", "Ginner's Left Foot", "RaBTaT" and "Y Front". The club mascot is a lion named "Yorkie the Lion" and he is known for performing comic antics before matches. John Sentamu, the Archbishop of York, became the club patron for 2007–08, having become a regular spectator at home matches as a season ticket holder.


title: York City F.C.

text: The 2003 Football Fans Census revealed that no other team's supporters considered York to be among their club's main rivals. Traditionally, York's two main rivalries have been with Hull City and Scarborough. While York fans saw Hull as their main rival, this was not reciprocated by the East Yorkshire club, who saw Leeds United as their main rival. York also had a rivalry with Halifax Town and they were the team most local to York when the two played in the Conference. A rivalry with Luton Town developed during the club's final years in the Conference as both clubs met regularly in crucial matches, accompanied by a series of contentious incidents involving crowd trouble, contentious transfers and complaints about the behaviour of directors.


title: York City F.C.

text: The record for the most appearances for York is held by Barry Jackson, who played 539 matches in all competitions. Jackson also holds the record for the most league appearances for the club, with 428. Norman Wilkinson is the club's top goalscorer with 143 goals in all competitions, which includes 127 in the league and 16 in the FA Cup. Six players, Keith Walwyn, Billy Fenton, Alf Patrick, Paul Aimson, Arthur Bottom and Tom Fenoughty, have also scored more than 100 goals for the club.


title: York City F.C.

text: The first player to be capped at international level while playing for York was Eamon Dunphy, when he made his debut for the Republic of Ireland against Spain on 10 November 1965. The most capped player is Peter Scott, who earned seven caps for Northern Ireland while at the club. The first York player to score in an international match was Anthony Straker, who scored for Grenada against Haiti on 4 September 2015.


title: York City F.C.

text: York's largest victory was a 9–1 win over Southport in the Third Division North in 1957, while the heaviest loss was 12–0 to Chester City in 1936 in the same division. Their widest victory margin in the FA Cup is by six goals, which was achieved five times. These were 7–1 wins over Horsforth in 1924, Stockton Malleable in 1927 and Stockton in 1928, and 6–0 wins over South Shields in 1968 and Rushall Olympic in 2007. York's record defeat in the FA Cup was 7–0 to Liverpool in 1985.


title: York City F.C.

text: The club's highest attendance at their former Fulfordgate ground was 12,721 against Sheffield United in the FA Cup on 14 January 1931, while the lowest was 1,500 against Maltby Main on 23 September 1925 in the same competition. Their highest attendance at Bootham Crescent was 28,123, for an FA Cup match against Huddersfield Town on 5 March 1938; the lowest was 608 against Mansfield Town in the Conference League Cup on 4 November 2008.


title: York City F.C.

text: The highest transfer fee received for a York player is £950,000 from Sheffield Wednesday for Richard Cresswell on 25 March 1999, while the most expensive player bought is Adrian Randall, who cost £140,000 from Burnley on 28 December 1995. The youngest player to play for the club is Reg Stockill, who was aged 15 years and 281 days on his debut against Wigan Borough in the Third Division North on 29 August 1929. The oldest player is Paul Musselwhite, who played his last match aged 43 years and 127 days against Forest Green Rovers in the Conference on 28 April 2012.


title: York City F.C.

text: Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality. Squad correct as of 15 December 2022.


title: Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford

text: Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford ("née" Jane Parker; c. 1505 – 13 February 1542), was an English noblewoman. Her husband, George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford, was the brother of Anne Boleyn, the second wife of King Henry VIII. Jane had been a member of the household of Henry's first wife, Catherine of Aragon. It is possible that she played a role in the verdicts against, and subsequent executions of, her husband and Anne Boleyn. She was later a lady-in-waiting to Henry's third and fourth wives, and then to his fifth wife, Catherine Howard, with whom she was executed.


title: Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford

text: Born Jane Parker, she was the daughter of Henry Parker, 10th Baron Morley, and Alice St. John, great-granddaughter of Margaret Beauchamp of Bletso. Through Margaret, Jane was a distant relative of King Henry VIII — specifically his half-second-cousin- and this, in turn, made her a second cousin once removed cousin of all of the King's children, including her niece-by-marriage, Elizabeth I. She was born in Norfolk around the year 1505; her family were wealthy, well-connected, politically active and respected members of the English upper class. Her father was an intellectual, with a great interest in culture and education. She was sent to Court in her early teens, certainly before her fifteenth birthday, where she joined the household of King Henry VIII's first wife, Catherine of Aragon. She is recorded as having accompanied the royal party on the state visit to France in 1520, "The Field of the Cloth of Gold".


title: Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford

text: Although it has long been supposed that nothing is recorded of Jane's appearance (and there is no surviving portrait that can be identified as her), her biographer Julia Fox, in "Jane Boleyn: The Infamous Lady Rochford", suggests that there is a very remote chance that a Holbein painting represents a likeness of Jane (pp. 317–319). She was probably considered attractive in her day, given that she was chosen to appear as one of the lead actresses/dancers in the prestigious ""Château Vert"" masquerade at Court in 1522. The seven performers were selected from the ladies of court in large part for their attractiveness. Two of the other performers included Jane's future sisters-in-law, Anne and Mary Boleyn.


title: Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford

text: In late 1524 or early 1525, she was married to George Boleyn (later Viscount Rochford), brother of Anne Boleyn, who later became the second queen of Henry VIII. At this stage, however, Anne was not completely attached to the King, although she was already one of the leaders of fashionable society.


title: Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford

text: As a wedding present, King Henry gave Jane and George a mansion, Grimston Manor in Norfolk. Since she gained the courtesy title of Viscountess Rochford by marriage in 1529, she was usually known at Court (and by subsequent historians) as "Lady Rochford". As the Boleyn family's wealth and influence increased, the couple were given the Palace of Beaulieu in Essex as their chief residence, which George and Jane decorated with a lavish chapel, a tennis court, a bathroom with hot-and-cold running water, imported carpets, mahogany furniture and their own large collection of silverware. Their marital bed was draped in cloth of gold with a white satin canopy, linen quilts and a yellow counterpane. Beaulieu had initially belonged to the Boleyns as one of their country retreats before they sold it to the King, who spent over £17,000 lavishly refurbishing and expanding it. In the early 1530s, it became the main residence of his eldest daughter, Mary, but when she was disgraced and banished to Hatfield House, George Boleyn was given the palace to live in, although the deeds were never formally signed over.


title: Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford

text: The marriage of Jane and George made her sister-in-law to the Queen Consort as well as aunt to the Princess Elizabeth, future Elizabeth I.


title: Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford

text: Traditionally, George and Jane's marriage has been portrayed as an unhappy one. One modern historian has suggested that George was homosexual. British historian Alison Weir concludes that the marriage was unhappy, principally because of George, although she concludes that the exact nature of his sexuality is difficult to ascertain: "[A] talented young man ... he was very good-looking and very promiscuous. In fact, according to George Cavendish, he lived in 'bestial' fashion, forcing widows, deflowering virgins ... [and] it has been suggested he indulged in homosexual activity too, but there is no evidence for this, although he may well have committed buggery with female partners." Julia Fox, Jane's most recent biographer, disagrees with both arguments, concluding that the exact nature of the marriage is unclear but suggesting that it was by no means unhappy.


title: Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford

text: The exact nature of her relationship with her royal sister-in-law is not clear either, and there is no evidence as to what she thought of her other sister-in-law, Mary Boleyn, who had been at court with Jane since they were both teenagers. It is generally assumed that Jane was not overly fond of Anne, allegedly because of Jane's jealousy of her. Regardless, Jane plotted with Anne to banish one of the King's young unnamed mistresses from court in 1534. When the King discovered her involvement, Lady Rochford was herself exiled for a few months.


title: Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford

text: After 11 years of marriage, George Boleyn was arrested in May 1536 and imprisoned in the Tower of London, accused of having had sexual intercourse with his sister, the Queen. Elizabeth Somerset, Countess of Worcester, is said by contemporaries to have provided the evidence against the Queen and her brother. There was no truth in these rumours, according to the vast majority of contemporary witnesses, but they provided the legal pretext that the Boleyns' enemies needed to bring about the execution of Lord Rochford. Jane was mentioned only once during the trials, when George Boleyn was asked if the Queen had relayed information about Henry's sexual troubles to her.


title: Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford

text: The first mention of any tensions between Jane and her husband came long after their deaths, when George Wyatt called her "wicked wife, accuser of her own husband, even to the seeking of his own blood," in his biography of Queen Anne, but this view would have been informed by the disastrous Catherine Howard episode, when both she and the queen were executed for treason, and Wyatt's own attempts to exonerate the late Queen. Subsequent generations of historians also believed that Jane's testimony against her husband and sister-in-law in 1536 was motivated by spite rather than any actual belief in their guilt, hence her generally unfavourable historical reputation. A century later, an historian asserted that Jane had testified against them because of her "inveterate hatred" of Queen Anne, which sprang from jealousy at Anne's superior social skills and George's preference for his sister's company to that of his wife. This assertion is not consistent with the records of the period; not only is there no mention of any serious rift between the couple (and the few mentions of their marriage imply at least a tolerable relationship), but by the death of Jane Seymour, Jane had already rebuilt her reputation at court and been one of the Queen's chief mourners (she would go to serve two more of Henry's queens). Georgian and Victorian histories pointed to Jane's execution in 1542 to suggest that moral justice had triumphed because "the infamous Lady Rochford ... justly deserved her fate for the concern which she had in bringing Anne Boleyn, as well as her own husband, to the block". This view of Jane as accuser, despite lacking historicity, gained traction after her death, and was popularized by subsequent historians.


title: Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford

text: This negative view of Jane was rejected nearly 500 years later by her biographer, Julia Fox, who believes that Jane actually enjoyed a warm and supportive relationship with Queen Anne and that terror of the palace coup against the Boleyns in 1536 provoked Jane's testimony, which in any case was twisted by the family's enemies. In her 2007 book, Fox writes:


title: Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford

text: George Boleyn was beheaded on Tower Hill on 17 May 1536 before a large crowd. His final speech was chiefly concerned with promoting his new-found Protestant faith. Four other men, one of them a commoner, were executed alongside him, also accused of having been Anne's lovers. Only the commoner, Mark Smeaton, a musician, had confessed, and it was reported that he had been savagely tortured into doing so. (Members of the aristocracy and gentry could not legally be tortured.) Anne was executed two days later, beheaded by a French swordsman, within the walls of the Tower of London. Anne's poise and courage at the scaffold were much commented upon, and public opinion in the weeks and months after often "made of Anne a persecuted heroine, bright with promise and goodness as a young woman, beautiful and elegant." It is not known whether Jane witnessed the execution of either her husband or her sister-in-law, but the posthumous sympathy Anne aroused in many meant that many of those linked to her fall were cast in the roles of villains. According to Julia Fox, this mindset explains how Jane's actions were construed as being those of a cruel and jealous intriguer.


title: Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford

text: The immediate aftermath of the fall of the Boleyns was hard for her, both socially and financially. The lands which the Boleyns had built up during Anne Boleyn's reign and over the previous four generations, including the titles Earl of Wiltshire and Earl of Ormond, were to pass through the male line only, and thus were lost to the family with George's death. Jane continued to use the courtesy title of Viscountess Rochford but without a son she could not benefit from what remained of the Boleyn family fortune. (Modern rumours that George Boleyn, Dean of Lichfield, a colourful character, was the child of Jane and George are now thought to be false.)


title: Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford

text: After her husband's execution, Lady Rochford was absent from court for several months. She spent this time securing her financial position by negotiations with her father-in-law, Sir Thomas Boleyn, but mainly with Thomas Cromwell, the king's chief minister. The Boleyns eventually allocated her the sizable annual pension of £100, precisely what they had given their eldest daughter Mary, when she had been widowed eight years earlier. It was much less than her previous income as sister-in-law to the queen-consort, but it was enough to keep her as a noblewoman, which was essential for her return to Court, something Jane worked doggedly for in 1536 and 1537. It is unknown when she returned to court, but she was a lady-in-waiting to Queen Jane Seymour, so she probably returned within a year of her husband's death. (Jane Seymour died soon after childbirth, within eighteen months of becoming Henry's wife.) As a viscountess, she was allowed to bring a number of her own servants with her, lodge in the palace, and be addressed as "Lady Rochford". Fine meals were provided for her every day from the budget of the queen's household.


title: Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford

text: Following Jane Seymour's death, the King subsequently married Anne of Cleves, a German princess recommended by Cromwell. However, Henry soon wanted to be rid of Anne, and sought an annulment. In July 1540, Lady Rochford testified that the Queen had confided in her that the marriage had never been consummated. This allowed the king to annul the marriage and marry his teenaged mistress, Catherine Howard.


title: Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford

text: Lady Rochford kept her post as lady-in-waiting to the new Queen Catherine. Queen Catherine's past indiscretions were uncovered in the autumn, and her private life was investigated.


title: Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford

text: The Queen was first detained in her apartments and then placed under house arrest at Syon Abbey, a disused convent. Her confidantes and favourites were questioned and their rooms searched. Lady Rochford was herself detained for questioning, implicated in arranging meetings between the Queen and Thomas Culpeper.


title: Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford

text: During her imprisonment in the Tower, Lady Rochford was interrogated for many months but was not tortured. However, she seems to have suffered a full nervous breakdown and by the beginning of 1542 was pronounced insane. Her "fits of frenzy" meant that legally she could not stand trial for her role in facilitating the queen's adultery, but since he was determined to have her punished, the King implemented a law which allowed the execution of the insane for high treason. Jane was thus condemned to death by an Act of Attainder, and the execution date was set for 13 February 1542, the same day as Catherine Howard.


title: Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford

text: The Queen died first, apparently in a weak physical state, although she was not hysterical. Jane was then escorted from her lodgings to the scaffold where she spoke before kneeling on the just-used scaffold. Despite her nervous collapse over the previous five months, she was calm and dignified and both women won mild posthumous approval for their behaviour. One eyewitness, a merchant named Ottwell Johnson, wrote that their 'souls [must] be with God, for they made the most godly and Christian end.' The French ambassador Marillac merely stated that Jane gave a 'long discourse'; Johnson says that she apologised for her 'many sins', but neither man's account supports the later legend that she spoke at length about her late husband or sister-in-law. According to Alison Weir, Catherine Howard was not much more than 20 at the time of her death and Boleyn was about 36.


title: Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford

text: She was beheaded with a single blow of the axe and was buried in the Tower of London alongside Catherine Howard, close to the bodies of Anne Boleyn and George Boleyn.


title: Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford

text: Lady Rochford has appeared in numerous novels, especially those on Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard. As noted earlier, "Vengeance Is Mine" by Brandy Purdy is written from Lady Rochford's viewpoint. She also features in Robin Maxwell's "The Secret Diary of Anne Boleyn", Suzannah Dunn's "The Queen of Subtleties" and briefly in Margaret George's "The Autobiography of Henry VIII". Jane's character is also mentioned in Wendy J. Dunn's "Dear Heart, How Like You This?" which is based on the life of the poet Thomas Wyatt. Rochford is a minor character in "Sovereign", the third instalment of C. J. Sansom's Shardlake series of murder mystery novels, set in 16th century England. A larger role is given to Lady Rochford in Jean Plaidy's novel "The Rose Without a Thorn." Jane Rochford also appears in the Thomas Cromwell trilogy by Hilary Mantel.


title: Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford

text: Jane appears in the historical novel "The Other Boleyn Girl" by Philippa Gregory, which tells the story of her other sister-in-law, Mary Boleyn. One of its sequels is "The Boleyn Inheritance", which casts Lady Rochford as one of its lead characters and its central villain. It details the final three years of her life and her involvement with Anne of Cleves and Catherine Howard. "The Raven's Widow" by Adrienne Dillard, takes a much different tack than previous portrayals. Lady Rochford is liberated from the entrenched version of villainess and shown as a beloved wife and close friend to the Boleyns. Her later role in the relationship between Catherine Howard and Thomas Culpeper coming about because of the trauma of her husband's death and the knowledge that disobedience comes at a price.


title: Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford

text: In some modern novels, Jane's vicious resentment of Anne leads to her psychological disintegration - she is portrayed as being mentally deranged and obsessively jealous in "Vengeance is Mine" and almost sociopathically amoral in "The Boleyn Inheritance".


title: Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford

text: In the 1970 BBC series "The Six Wives of Henry VIII" starring Keith Michell as Henry, Sheila Burrell portrayed Lady Rochford in several segments throughout the programme, primarily in the segments concerning Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard. In the 2003 British 2-part television drama "Henry VIII", Lady Rochford was played by Kelly Hunter. She appeared opposite Helena Bonham Carter as Anne Boleyn, Ray Winstone as Henry VIII and Emily Blunt as Catherine Howard. In the film adaptation of Philippa Gregory's novel "The Other Boleyn Girl", Jane Boleyn (played by Juno Temple) was a minor character. In both these representations, Jane was shown as being a political tool in the hands of her husband's uncle, the Duke of Norfolk, although the presentation of her in "The Other Boleyn Girl" was more sympathetic.


title: Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford

text: Jane is also represented on seasons two to four of the Showtime series "The Tudors," by Joanne King opposite Padraic Delaney as her husband George. In this version, their marriage is miserable, with both pressured into it by their parents and Jane finding it increasingly humiliating to put up with her husband's love affair with Mark Smeaton. They are shown frequently arguing and there is one incident of marital rape, which has no factual basis. However, Jane is not shown as hating Anne and so her betrayal of the Boleyns is motivated by her hatred of George. She befriends Jane Seymour when she is queen and is made her lady-in-waiting and remains a close friend until Queen Jane's death. She remains chief lady-in-waiting to Anne of Cleves and Catherine Howard. She eventually enters into a sexual relationship with Thomas Culpeper (a detail invented for the series). She is responsible for instigating the affair between Culpeper and Catherine, motivated both by a desire to keep Culpeper (who has a pathological obsession with the young queen) and out of a hatred for Catherine, whom she sees as grossly inferior to Jane Seymour and even Anne of Cleves.


title: Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford

text: In "Wolf Hall", a TV mini-series adaptation of the historical novel by Hilary Mantel, she was played by Jessica Raine.


title: 2024 elections in India

text: The 2024 elections in India are expected to include the general election and elections to the Rajya Sabha, to state legislative assemblies, to Panchayats and urban local bodies.


title: Third-party logistics

text: Third-party logistics (abbreviated as 3PL, or TPL) in logistics and supply chain management is an organization's use of third-party businesses to outsource elements of its distribution, warehousing, and fulfillment services.


title: Third-party logistics

text: Third-party logistics providers typically specialize in integrated operations of warehousing and transportation services that can be scaled and customized to customers' needs, based on market conditions, to meet the demands and delivery service requirements for their products. Services often extend beyond logistics to include value-added services related to the production or procurement of goods, such as services that integrate parts of the supply chain. A provider of such integrated services is referenced as a third-party supply chain management provider (3PSCM), or as a supply chain management service provider (SCMSP). 3PL targets particular functions within supply management, such as warehousing, transportation, or raw material provision.


title: Third-party logistics

text: The global 3PL market reached $75 billion in 2014, and grew to $157 billion in the US; demand growth for 3PL services in the US (7.4% YoY) outpaced the growth of the US economy in 2014. As of 2014, 80 percent of all "Fortune" 500 companies and 96 percent of "Fortune" 100 used some form of 3PL services.


title: Third-party logistics

text: Third-party logistics providers include freight forwarders, courier companies, and other companies integrating and offering subcontracted logistics and transportation services. Hertz and Alfredsson (2003) describe four categories of 3PL providers:


title: Third-party logistics

text: Outsourcing may involve a subset of an operation's logistics, leaving some products or operating steps untouched because the in-house logistics is able to do the work better or cheaper than an external provider.


title: Third-party logistics

text: Another important point is the customer orientation of the 3PL provider. The provider has to fit to the structures and the requirements of the company. This fit is more important than the pure cost savings, like a survey of 3PL providers shows clearly: The customer orientation in form of adaptability to changing customer needs, reliability and the flexibility of third-party logistics provider were mentioned as much more important than pure cost savings.


title: Third-party logistics

text: 3PL providers without their own assets are called lead logistics providers. Lead logistics providers have the advantage that they have specialized industry expertise combined with low overhead costs, but lower negotiating power and fewer resources than a third-party provider has based on a normally big company size, a good customer base and established network systems. 3PL providers may sacrifice efficiency by preferring their own assets in order to maximize their own efficiency. Lead logistics providers may also be less bureaucratic with shorter decision-making cycles due to the smaller size of the company.


title: Third-party logistics

text: First party logistics providers (1PL) are single service providers in a specific geographic area that specialize in certain goods or shipping methods. Examples are: carrying companies, port operators, depot companies. The logistics department of a producing firm can also be a first party logistics provider if they have own transport assets and warehouses.


title: Third-party logistics

text: Second-party logistics providers (2PL) are service providers which provide their specialized logistics services in a larger (national) geographical area than the 1PL do. Often there are frame contracts between the 2PL and the customer, which regulate the conditions for the transport duties that are mostly placed short term. 2PLs provide own and external logistics resources like trucks, forklifts, warehouses etc. for transport, handling of cargo or warehouse management activities.


title: Third-party logistics

text: Second-party logistics arose in the course of the globalization and the uprising trend of lean management when the companies began to outsource their logistics activities to focus on their own core competencies.


title: Third-party logistics

text: Examples are courier, express and parcel services; ocean carriers, freight forwarders and transshipment providers.


title: Third-party logistics

text: The most significant difference between a second party logistics provider and a third-party logistics provider is the fact that a 3PL provider is always integrated into the customer's system. The 2PL is not integrated; in contrast to the 3PL, it is only an outsourced logistics provider with no system integration. A 2PL works often on call (e.g. express parcel services) whereas a 3PL is almost every time informed about the workload of the near future. As technology progresses, the methodology for notifying a 3PL of inbound workload usually falls on API integrations that connect, for example, an E-commerce store with a fulfilment center. Another point that distinguishes 2PL and 3PL is the specification and customizing of services. A 2PL normally only provides standardized services, whereas 3PLs often provide services that are customized and specialized to the needs of their customer. This is possible due to long term contracts that are usual in the third-party logistics market. Cost-effectiveness of a third-party logistics provider is only given over long periods of time with stable contract and profits. In contrast to that, second party logistics services can’t be customized, concerning to the fluctuating market with hard competition and a price battle on a low level. And there we have another distinguishing point between 2PL and 3PL: Durability of contracts. 3PL contracts are long term contracts, whereas 2PL contracts are of low durability so that the customer is flexible in responding to market and price changes.


title: Third-party logistics

text: With companies operating globally, the need to increase supply chain visibility and reduce risk, improve velocity and reduce costs – all at the same time – requires a common technological solution. Non-asset based providers perform functions such as consultation on packaging and transportation, freight quoting, financial settlement, auditing, tracking, customer service and issue resolution. However, they do not employ any truck drivers or warehouse personnel, and they don’t own any physical freight distribution assets of their own – no trucks, no storage trailers, no pallets, and no warehousing. A non-assets based provider consists of a team of domain experts with accumulated freight industry expertise and information technology assets. They fill a role similar to freight agents or brokers but maintain a significantly greater degree of “hands-on” involvement in the transportation of products. These providers are 4PL and 5PL services.


title: Third-party logistics

text: A fourth party logistics provider has no owned transport assets or warehouse capacity. They have an allocative and integration function within a supply chain with the aim of increasing the efficiency of it. The idea of a fourth-party logistics provider was born in the seventies by the consulting company Accenture. Firms are outsourcing their selection of third-party logistics provider and the optimization process of the integration of these to a PL as an intermediary. That reduces costs and the 4PL have to have an overview of the whole logistics market to choose the ideal 3PL for all operative logistic activities. For being able to provide such an ideal solution fourth-party logistics providers need a good knowledge of the logistics branch and a good IT infrastructure. A fourth party logistics provider selects the 3PL providers from the market which are most suitable for the logistical issues of their customer. Unlike the allocative function of a 4PL in the supply chain, the core competence of a 3PL provider is the operative logistics.


title: Third-party logistics

text: Fifth party logistics providers (5PL) provide supply chain management and offer system-oriented consulting and supply chain management services to their customers. Advancements in technology and the associated increases in supply chain visibility and inter-company communications have given rise to a relatively new model for third-party logistics operations – the "non-asset based logistics provider."


title: Third-party logistics

text: On-demand transportation is a relatively new term coined by 3PL providers to describe their brokerage, ad-hoc, and "flyer" service offerings. On-demand transportation has become a mandatory capability for today's successful 3PL providers in offering client specific solutions to supply chain needs.


title: Third-party logistics

text: These shipments do not usually move under the "lowest rate wins" scenario and can be very profitable to the 3PL that wins the business. The cost quoted to customers for on-demand services are based on specific circumstances and availability and can differ greatly from normal "published" rates.


title: Third-party logistics

text: Specific modes of transport that may be subject to the on-demand model include (but are not limited to) the following:


title: Third-party logistics

text: New brokers tend to use what has become known as "smile and dial" brokering that essentially work as telemarketing call centers. Brokers have no obligation to successfully ship all loads (as opposed to contract logistics providers) and almost all sales representatives are heavily (and 100%) commissioned, and much of the workers' day is spent cold-calling sales leads. Smile-and-dial brokerages typically require a 15% gross profit margin (the difference between what the shipper pays the brokerage and what the brokerage pays the carrier), and the commission compensation scheme means that the turnover of personnel in the call centers approaches 100% per year.


title: Third-party logistics

text: Raue & Wieland (2015) describe the example of horizontal alliances between logistics service providers, i.e., the cooperation between two or more logistics companies that are potentially competing. Logistics companies can benefit twofold from such an alliance. On the one hand, they can "access tangible resources which are directly exploitable". This includes extending common transportation networks, their warehouse infrastructure and the ability to provide more complex service packages by combining resources. On the other hand, LSPs can "access intangible resources, which are not directly exploitable". This includes know-how and information and, in turn, innovation.


title: Third-party logistics

text: Logistics is the core competence of third-party logistics providers. Providers may have better related knowledge and greater expertise than the producing or selling company, and may also have more global networks enabling greater time and cost efficiencies.


title: Third-party logistics

text: The equipment and the IT systems of 3PL providers are constantly updated and adapted to match the requirements of their customers and their customer’s suppliers. Producing or selling companies often do not have the time, resources, or expertise to adapt their equipment and systems as quickly.


title: Third-party logistics

text: If most or all operative functions are outsourced to a 3PL provider, there is usually no need for the client to own its own warehouse or transport facilities, lowering the amount of capital required for the client's business. This is particularly beneficial if a company's warehouse has high variations in capacity utilization, leading to overpurchasing of warehouse capacity and reducing profitability.


title: Third-party logistics

text: Logistics outsourcing allows companies with limited logistics expertise to focus on their core business. Increasing complexity in business suggests that companies benefit from not devoting resources to areas in which they are not skilled.


title: Third-party logistics

text: 3PLs often specialize in specific industries. Their experience can help clients scale their business quickly through levering the logistics providers knowledge across their industry.


title: Third-party logistics

text: Third-party logistics providers can provide higher flexibility for geographic distribution and may offer a larger variety of services than clients could provide for themselves. Postal services and private couriers typically factor in distance when they calculate the cost of shipping; many 3PL providers market the benefit of what is known as zone skipping to potential clients, because it shortens the distance between products to be shipped and customers, resulting in lower shipping costs. This also allows businesses to more predictably manage their resources including workforce size, and turn fixed costs into variable costs.


title: Third-party logistics

text: 3PL Providers typically have a large network of carriers (air, ground, and ocean) which are located all throughout the state, country, or region of the globe. This allows them to connect the dots and service their customers no matter where they are trying to transport their commodities.


title: Third-party logistics

text: One disadvantage is the loss of control a client has by using third-party logistics. With outbound logistics, the 3PL provider usually assumes communication and interactions with a firm's customer or supplier. To mitigate this, some 3PL’s attempt to brand themselves as their clients, such as applying clients' logos on their assets and dressing their employees like their clients' employees.


title: Third-party logistics

text: The IT systems of the provider and the client must be interoperable. Technology helps increase visibility for the client by way of continuous status updates via Dispatch Management Software and Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) which does involve a cost, but it can help avoid penalties for delays and subsequent financial losses such as from not unloading freight in time.


title: Third-party logistics

text: Numerous studies have shown that selling products online, rather than in a brick and retail environment, adds extra costs when it comes to handling returns (i.e, reverse logistics). The reliance upon third-party logistics providers to handle aspects of the e-commerce supply chain such as warehousing and pick-and-pack also means these companies must be relied on to handle reverse logistics. Artificially induced demand events such as Black Friday in the United States or Singles' Day in China come with an influx of returned products, which can slow down warehouse operations and in turn delay the issuing of refunds or other methods for mitigating dissatisfied customers.


title: Third-party logistics

text: Various industries have found ways to capitalize on reverse logistics by recycling materials such as metal and electrical goods recycling.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: Rio de Janeiro () is one of the 27 federative units of Brazil. It has the second largest economy of Brazil, with the largest being that of the state of São Paulo. The state, which has 8.2% of the Brazilian population, is responsible for 9.2% of the Brazilian GDP.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: The state of Rio de Janeiro is located within the Brazilian geopolitical region classified as the Southeast (assigned by IBGE). Rio de Janeiro shares borders with all the other states in the same Southeast macroregion: Minas Gerais (N and NW), Espírito Santo (NE) and São Paulo (SW). It is bounded on the east and south by the South Atlantic Ocean. Rio de Janeiro has an area of . Its capital is the city of Rio de Janeiro, which was the capital of the Portuguese Colony of Brazil from 1763 to 1815, of the following United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves from 1815 to 1822, and of later independent Brazil as a kingdom and republic from 1822 to 1960.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: The state's 22 largest cities are Rio de Janeiro, São Gonçalo, Duque de Caxias, Nova Iguaçu, Niterói, Campos dos Goytacazes, Belford Roxo, São João de Meriti, Petrópolis, Volta Redonda, Magé, Macaé, Itaboraí, Cabo Frio, Armação dos Búzios, Angra dos Reis, Nova Friburgo, Barra Mansa, Barra do Piraí, Teresópolis, Mesquita and Nilópolis.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: Rio de Janeiro is the smallest state by area in the Southeast macroregion and one of the smallest in Brazil. It is, however, the third most populous Brazilian state, with a population of 16 million people in 2011 (making it the most densely populated state in Brazil) and has the third longest coastline in the country (after those of the states of Bahia and Maranhão).


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: In the Brazilian flag, the state is represented by Mimosa, the beta star in the Southern Cross (β Cru).


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: The original demonym for the State of Rio de Janeiro is "fluminense", from Latin "flumen, fluminis", meaning "river". While "carioca" (from Old Tupi) is an older term, first attested in 1502, "fluminense" was sanctioned in 1783, twenty years after the city had become the capital of the Brazilian colonies, as the official demonym of the Royal Captaincy of Rio de Janeiro and subsequently of the Province of Rio de Janeiro. From 1783 through the Imperial Regime, "carioca" remained an unofficial term which other Brazilians used for the inhabitants of the city as well as the province. During the first years of the Brazilian Republic, "carioca" came to be the name given to those who lived in the city's slums or a pejorative used to refer to the bureaucratic elite of the Federal District. Only when the city lost its status as Federal District (to Brasília) and became the State of Guanabara in 1960 did "carioca" become an official demonym along with "guanabarino". In 1975, Guanabara State was incorporated into Rio de Janeiro State, becoming the present City of Rio de Janeiro. "Carioca" became the demonym of the city, while "fluminense" continues to be used for the state as a whole.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: European presence in Rio de Janeiro dates back to 1502. Rio de Janeiro originated from parts of the captainships of de Tomé and São Vicente. Between 1555 and 1567, the territory was occupied by the French, who intended to install a colony, France Antarctique. Aiming to prevent the occupation of the Frenchmen, in March 1565, the city of Rio de Janeiro was established by Estácio de Sá.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: In the 17th century, cattle raising and sugar cane cultivation stimulated the city's progress, which was definitively assured when the port started to export gold extracted from Minas Gerais in the 18th century. In 1763, Rio de Janeiro became the capital of Colonial Brazil. With the flight of the Portuguese royal family from Portugal to Brazil in 1808, the region soon benefited from urban reforms to house the Portuguese. Chief among the promoted changes were: the transformation of agencies of public administration and justice, the creation of new churches, and hospitals, the foundation of the first bank of the country - the Banco do Brasil - and the Royal Press, with the Gazette do Rio of Janeiro. The following years witnessed the creation of the Jardim Botânico (Botanical Garden) and the Academia Real Militar.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: There followed a process of cultural enhancement influenced not only by the arrival of the Royal Family, but also by the presence of European graphic artists who were hired to record the society and Brazilian natural features. During this same time, the Escola Real de Ciências, Artes e Ofícios (The Royal School of Sciences, Arts, and Works) was founded as well.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: In 1834, the city of Rio de Janeiro was transformed into a "neutral city", remaining as capital of the state, while the captainships became provinces, with headquarters in Niterói, a neighbouring city. In 1889, the city became the capital of the Republic, the neutral city became the federal district and the province a state. In 1894, Petrópolis became the capital of Rio de Janeiro, until 1902 when Niterói recovered its capital status. With the relocation of the federal capital to Brasília in 1960, the city of Rio de Janeiro became Guanabara State. Niterói remained the state capital for Rio de Janeiro state, while Rio de Janeiro served the same status for Guanabara.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: In 1975, the states of Guanabara and Rio de Janeiro were merged under the name of Rio de Janeiro, with the city of Rio de Janeiro as state capital. The symbols of the former State of Rio de Janeiro were preserved, while the symbols of Guanabara were kept by the city of Rio de Janeiro.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: The state is part of the Mata Atlântica biome and is made up of two distinct morphological areas: a coastal plain, known as "baixada", and a plateau, which are disposed in parallel fashion from the shoreline on the Atlantic Ocean inland towards Minas Gerais.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: The coastline extends 635 kilometers and is formed by the bays of Guanabara, Sepetiba, and Ilha Grande.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: There are prominent slopes near the ocean, featuring also diverse environments, such as restinga vegetation, bays, lagoons and tropical forests.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: Most of the state however consists of highlands, often higher than 1000 m, formed by several mountain chains like the Serra do Mar which separates Rio from the state of São Paulo. The highest point of the state, the Pico das Agulhas Negras (Black Needles Peak) is located in the Serra da Mantiqueira which forms the physical border with neighbouring Minas Gerais.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: Tropical forests used to cover more than 90% of the territory of Rio; large portions were devastated for urbanization and for plantations (coffee, sugar cane); preserved areas can be found in the steepest parts of the mountain chains.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: The state's tropical coast and river areas are the only remaining habitat of the golden lion tamarin.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: The entire state is located within the tropics (the Tropic of Capricorn passes just a few kilometers south of the state's southernmost point) so a tropical climate is predominant. However, due to altitude, temperatures can drop to freezing point or below in some parts. Frost is not uncommon in some mountainous cities such as Teresópolis, Nova Friburgo and Petrópolis and snow has been reported occasionally in the Itatiaia National Park.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: Annual mean temperatures on the coast are around , in summer and in winter. In the mountains annual mean temperatures are around but can range from at an elevation of above sea level to in the Itatiaia National Park. Summers in these areas tend to be warm but not hot, with averages around . Winters are quite chilly by Brazilian standards with lows around


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: Rains tend to be concentrated in the summer (December to March) with a dry season in the winter (June to September). Most of the state receives between of rainfall in a year.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: According to the IBGE of 2008, there were 15,772,000 people residing in the state. The population density was .


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: The last PNAD (National Household Survey) census revealed the following numbers: 8,509,000 White people (54.2%), 5,302,000 Pardo (Multiracial) people (33.8%), 1,809,000 Black people (11.5%), 25,000 Asian people (0.2%), 19,000 Amerindian people (0.1%).


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: People of Portuguese ancestry predominate in most of the state. The Brazilian census of 1920 showed that 39,74% of the Portuguese who lived in Brazil lived in Rio de Janeiro. Including all of the Rio de Janeiro, the proportion raised to 46,30% of the Portuguese who lived in Brazil. The numerical presence of the Portuguese was extremely high, accounting for 72% of the foreigners who lived in the capital. Portuguese born people accounted for 20,36% of the population of Rio, and those with a Portuguese father or a Portuguese mother accounted for 30,84%. In other words, native born Portuguese and their children accounted for 51,20% of the inhabitants of Rio, or a total of 267664 people in 1890.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: Other European ethnic groups, such as Swiss, Finnish and Germans settled mostly in the mountainous areas (Nova Friburgo, Petrópolis, etc.) and in the capital. Italians and Spaniards are also present in the capital as well as in the surrounding cities.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: People of African descent are numerous, particularly in the metropolitan area of the capital city. Those of mixed-race ancestry (tri-racials, "mulatos", and some "caboclos" and "cafuzos") make up the majority of the population in many cities. The city of Itaguaí was considered a Japanese colony in the 20th century, but many of the Asian Cariocas that once lived there moved overseas (most of them to Japan) as well to other Brazilian states like São Paulo.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: According to the 2010 Brazilian census, there were 7 324 315 Roman Catholics (45.8%), 4 696 906 Protestants (29.4%), 647 572 Spiritists (4%), and 2 416 303 people without religion (14.6%). There are also adherents of Islam, Judaism, Buddhism, Hinduism, esoterism, neo-paganism, afro-Brazilian religions and Asian religions. Together, the adherents of these and other minorities constitute 6.2% of Rio de Janeiro's population.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: Rio de Janeiro is the state with the lowest percentage of Catholics in Brazil, and the state with the highest percentage of people without religion (such as atheists, and agnostics). In addition, it is the state with the highest percentage of spiritists in Brazil. The variety of denominations is a mark of the presence of religious diversity in the demographic profile of the state.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: The state of Rio de Janeiro has the 4th best education in Brazil, second only to the Federal District, São Paulo and Goiás.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: The state has the fourth lowest illiteracy rate in Brazil, about 4% of its population. The illiteracy rate in the state is compared to countries like Singapore, Portugal, and China.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: Most of the state's leading universities are public. The most prestigious university is the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, regarded as the best Federal university in Brazil, and fifth best in Latin America according to the QS World University Rankings.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: The industrial sector is the largest component of GDP at 51.6%, followed by the service sector at 47.8%. Agriculture represents 0.6% of GDP (2004). Rio de Janeiro (state) exports: petroleum 44.8%, fuel 17.5%, siderurgy 13%, chemicals 3.6%, not ferrous metals 2.8%, vehicles 2.1% (2002).


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: There are 3,915,724 vehicles in the state (as of Jan. 2006), 10 million mobile phones, 5.3 million telephones, and 92 cities.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: The occasion of the last five days leading up to Lent is annually cause for a great explosion of joy in Rio – a round-the-clock party uniting emotions, creativity, plasticity, colours, sounds and much fantasy. It is the greatest popular party in the world, a unique record of the rich cultural melting pot typical of Brazil. In Rio, it is celebrated in various ways, most famously through the elaborate competition of samba schools comprising thousands of dancers in each school, each of which has composed a new "enredo de samba" (samba script) for the year that is released and popularized by the time Carnaval arrives, thus already recognizable for its lyrics, themes, and rhythms by the energized audience in the bleachers thronging to see the all-night competition of one samba school after another until dawn. Each samba school consists of 'alas' (wings) of samba dancers costumed to carry out one aspect of the theme of the song they all sing. This event began in the 1930s as a diversion for what politicians sought to assuage as an otherwise restive populace. It came to be held on the bleacher-lined Marques du Sapucai for decades until a covered sambadrome was built in the 1980s.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: In other parts of the city, Carnaval festivities include the Banda de Ipanema, a street parade of transvestite costuming that draws its throngs of revelers to the streets of Ipanema. In the city center on the final night of Carnaval, into the wee hours of Quarta Cinza (Ash Wednesday), a very different flavor of street parade is provided by Quilombo (the word given to slave refugee colonies) with authentic African costuming. For others, Carnaval is a time of clubbing in costume in more exclusive locales in the Zona Sul.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: In Rio de Janeiro, a globally unique New Year's Eve celebration involves the whole city population. Local inhabitants and visitors join in flocking to the ocean to celebrate the night of the year when thanks are given and wishes are made to the goddess of the sea, Iemanja. In honor of her traditional garb, celebrants dress in white and bear gifts like flowers, especially white, and even blancmange. At midnight, beachgoers on the typically hot midsummer night, walk into the surf and cast their flowers (and wishes for the coming year) on the lapping waves to be carried out to honor the goddess (the tradition says that wishes will turn to reality if the waves take the gifts to the sea, and won't if the gifts come back to the beach). Nearby parties, concerts and music last into the dawn, many choosing to sleep it off on the beach on New Year's Day. In recent years, campfires and the oral tradition of shared stories around statues of Iemanja has modernized into massive fireworks displays and to a mega-concert on the famous beach of Copacabana.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: Since August 2004, with the transfer of many flights from Santos Dumont Airport, to Rio de Janeiro-Galeão International Airport, Rio de Janeiro has second international airport of Brazil. According to data from the official Brazilian travel bureau, Embratur, nearly 40% of foreign tourists who visit Brazil choose Rio as their gateway, meaning Galeão Airport. Besides linking Rio to the rest of Brazil with domestic flights, Galeão has connections to 18 other countries. It can handle up to 15 million passengers a year in two passenger terminals. Located 20 kilometers from downtown Rio, the international airport is served by several quick access routes, such as the Linha Vermelha/Red Line and Linha Amarela/Yellow Line freeways and Avenida Brasil/Brazil Avenue, thus conveniently serving residents of the city's southern, northern and western zones. There are special shuttle buses linking Galeão to Santos Dumont, and bus and taxi service to the rest of the city. The airport complex also has Brazil's longest runway at , and one of South America's largest and best equipped cargo logistics terminals.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: Construction is underway on a new Port of Açu. The port will cover 36 square miles. This USD 1.6 billion project at Sao Joao da Barra, approximately 280 kilometers from Rio de Janeiro, has been under construction since October 2007 and will be operational in 2013. It is forecast that the port will eventually handle over 63 million tons of iron ore, 10 million tons of steel products, 15 million tons of coal, 5 million tons of dry bulk and 7.5 million tons of general cargo. A breakwater damn to protect ships from ocean waves is also planned.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: Sports are a very popular pastime in Rio de Janeiro. The most popular is association football. Rio de Janeiro is home to four traditional Brazilian football clubs: Flamengo, Vasco, Fluminense and Botafogo. The state football league is Campeonato Carioca. The city of Rio de Janeiro hosted the 2014 FIFA World Cup. The city built a new stadium near the Maracanã, to hold 45,000 people. It was named after Brazilian ex-FIFA president João Havelange.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: Other notable sports events in Rio include the MotoGP Brazilian Grand Prix and the World Beach volleyball finals. Jacarepaguá was the place of Formula One Brazilian Grand Prix into 1978-1990 and the Champ Car event into 1996–1999. WCT/WQS Surf championships were contested on the beaches from 1985 to 2001.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: On 2 October 2009, Rio de Janeiro was selected to host the 2016 Olympic Games, which will be the first to be held in South America. The games began in August. Two years ago, in 2014, the FIFA games were held. Much of the infrastructure was used again.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: An eagle, symbol of Brazil's royal family, appears on the state flag with the rock formation "Dedo de Deus" ("The Finger of God") near Teresópolis in the background.


title: Rio de Janeiro (state)

text: The outer part of the coat of arms represents the state's agricultural richness, sugarcane (left) and coffee (right).


title: Bible translations

text: The Bible has been translated into many languages from the biblical languages of Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. all of the Bible has been translated into 724 languages, the New Testament has been translated into an additional 1,617 languages, and smaller portions of the Bible have been translated into 1,248 other languages according to Wycliffe Global Alliance. Thus, at least some portions of the Bible have been translated into 3,589 languages.


title: Bible translations

text: Early translators rendered biblical texts into Syriac, Latin, Geez, Gothic and Slavonic languages, among others. Jerome's 4th-century Latin Vulgate version was dominant in Western Christianity during the Middle Ages. Since then, the Bible has been translated into many more languages.


title: Bible translations

text: English Bible translations have a rich and varied history of more than a millennium. (See List of English Bible translations.)


title: Bible translations

text: Textual variants in the New Testament include errors, omissions, additions, changes, and alternate translations. In some cases, different translations have been used as evidence for or have been motivated by doctrinal differences.


title: Bible translations

text: The Hebrew Bible was mainly written in Biblical Hebrew, with some portions (notably in Daniel and Ezra) in Biblical Aramaic. From the 6th century to the 10th century AD, Jewish scholars, today known as Masoretes, compared the text of all known biblical manuscripts in an effort to create a unified, standardized text. A series of highly similar texts eventually emerged, and any of these texts are known as Masoretic Texts (MT). The Masoretes also added vowel points (called niqqud) to the text, since the original text contained only consonants. This sometimes required the selection of an interpretation; since some words differ only in their vowels their meaning can vary in accordance with the vowels chosen. In antiquity, variant Hebrew readings existed, some of which have survived in the Samaritan Pentateuch and other ancient fragments, as well as being attested in ancient versions in other languages.


title: Bible translations

text: The New Testament was written in Koine Greek. The "autographs", the Greek manuscripts written by the original authors, have not survived. Scholars surmise the original Greek text from the manuscripts that do survive. The three main textual traditions of the Greek New Testament are sometimes called the Alexandrian text-type, the Byzantine text-type, and the Western text-type.


title: Bible translations

text: Most variants among the manuscripts are minor, such as alternative spelling, alternative word order, the presence or absence of an optional definite article ("the"), and so on. Occasionally, a major variant happens when a portion of a text was missing or for other reasons. Examples of major variants are the endings of Mark, the Pericope Adulteræ, the Comma Johanneum, and the Western version of Acts.


title: Bible translations

text: The discovery of older manuscripts which belong to the Alexandrian text-type, including the 4th-century Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus, led scholars to revise their view about the original Greek text. Karl Lachmann based his critical edition of 1831 on manuscripts dating from the 4th century and earlier, to argue that the "Textus Receptus" must be corrected according to these earlier texts.


title: Bible translations

text: Early manuscripts of the Pauline epistles and other New Testament writings show no punctuation whatsoever. The punctuation was added later by other editors, according to their own understanding of the text.


title: Bible translations

text: Some of the first translations of the Torah began during the Babylonian exile, when Aramaic became the lingua franca of the Jews. With most people speaking only Aramaic and not understanding Hebrew, the Targums were created to allow the common person to understand the Torah as it was read in ancient synagogues.


title: Bible translations

text: By the 3rd century BC, Alexandria had become the center of Hellenistic Judaism, and during the 3rd to 2nd centuries BC translators compiled in Egypt a Koine Greek version of the Hebrew scriptures in several stages (completing the task by 132 BC). The Talmud ascribes the translation effort to Ptolemy II Philadelphus (r. 285–246 BC), who allegedly hired 72 Jewish scholars for the purpose, for which reason the translation is commonly known as the Septuagint (from the Latin "septuaginta", "seventy"), a name which it gained in "the time of Augustine of Hippo" (354–430 AD). The Septuagint (LXX), the very first translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, later became the accepted text of the Old Testament in the Christian church and the basis of its canon. Jerome based his Latin Vulgate translation on the Hebrew for those books of the Bible preserved in the Jewish canon (as reflected in the Masoretic text), and on the Greek text for the deuterocanonical books.


title: Bible translations

text: The translation now known as the Septuagint was widely used by Greek-speaking Jews, and later by Christians. It differs somewhat from the later standardized Hebrew (Masoretic Text). This translation was promoted by way of a legend (primarily recorded as the Letter of Aristeas) that seventy (or in some sources, seventy-two) separate translators all produced identical texts; supposedly proving its accuracy.


title: Bible translations

text: Versions of the Septuagint contain several passages and whole books not included in the Masoretic texts of the Tanakh. In some cases these additions were originally composed in Greek, while in other cases they are translations of Hebrew books or of Hebrew variants not present in the Masoretic texts. Recent discoveries have shown that more of the Septuagint additions have a Hebrew origin than previously thought. While there are no complete surviving manuscripts of the Hebrew texts on which the Septuagint was based, many scholars believe that they represent a different textual tradition ("Vorlage") from the one that became the basis for the Masoretic texts.


title: Bible translations

text: Origen's "Hexapla" placed side by side six versions of the Old Testament: the Hebrew consonantal text, the Hebrew text transliterated into Greek letters (the "Secunda"), the Greek translations of Aquila of Sinope and Symmachus the Ebionite, one recension of the Septuagint, and the Greek translation of Theodotion. In addition, he included three anonymous translations of the Psalms (the "Quinta", "Sexta" and "Septima"). His eclectic recension of the Septuagint had a significant influence on the Old Testament text in several important manuscripts. The canonical Christian Bible was formally established by Bishop Cyril of Jerusalem in 350 (although it had been generally accepted by the church previously), confirmed by the Council of Laodicea in 363 (both lacked the Book of Revelation), and later established by Athanasius of Alexandria in 367 (with Revelation added), and Jerome's "Vulgate" Latin translation dates to between AD 382 and 405. Latin translations predating Jerome are collectively known as "Vetus Latina" texts.


title: Bible translations

text: Christian translations also tend to be based upon the Hebrew, though some denominations prefer the Septuagint (or may cite variant readings from both). Bible translations incorporating modern textual criticism usually begin with the masoretic text, but also take into account possible variants from all available ancient versions. The received text of the Christian New Testament is in Koine Greek, and nearly all translations are based upon the Greek text.


title: Bible translations

text: Jerome began by revising the earlier Latin translations, but ended by going back to the original Greek, bypassing all translations, and going back to the original Hebrew wherever he could instead of the Septuagint.


title: Bible translations

text: The Bible was translated into Gothic in the 4th century by a group of scholars, possibly under the supervision of Ulfilas. In the 5th century, Saint Mesrob translated the Bible using the Armenian alphabet invented by him. Also dating from the same period are the Syriac, Coptic, Old Nubian, Ethiopic and Georgian translations.


title: Bible translations

text: There are also several ancient translations, most important of which are in the Syriac dialect of Aramaic (including the Peshitta and the Diatessaron gospel harmony), in the Ethiopian language of Ge'ez, and in Latin (both the Vetus Latina and the Vulgate).


title: Bible translations

text: In 331, the Emperor Constantine commissioned Eusebius to deliver fifty Bibles for the Church of Constantinople. Athanasius ("Apol. Const. 4") recorded Alexandrian scribes around 340 preparing Bibles for Constans. Little else is known, though there is plenty of speculation. For example, it is speculated that this may have provided motivation for canon lists, and that Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209, Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Alexandrinus are examples of these Bibles. Together with the Peshitta, these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles.


title: Bible translations

text: When ancient scribes copied earlier books, they wrote notes on the margins of the page ("marginal glosses") to correct their text—especially if a scribe accidentally omitted a word or line—and to comment about the text. When later scribes were copying the copy, they were sometimes uncertain if a note was intended to be included as part of the text. See textual criticism. Over time, different regions evolved different versions, each with its own assemblage of omissions, additions, and variants (mostly in orthography).


title: Bible translations

text: The earliest surviving complete manuscript of the entire Bible in Latin is the Codex Amiatinus, a Latin Vulgate edition produced in 8th-century England at the double monastery of Wearmouth-Jarrow.


title: Bible translations

text: During the Middle Ages, translation, particularly of the Old Testament was discouraged. Nevertheless, there are some fragmentary Old English Bible translations, notably a lost translation of the Gospel of John into Old English by the Venerable Bede, which is said to have been prepared shortly before his death around the year 735. An Old High German version of the gospel of Matthew dates to 748. Charlemagne in c. 800 charged Alcuin with a revision of the Latin Vulgate. The translation into Old Church Slavonic was started in 863 by Cyril and Methodius.


title: Bible translations

text: Alfred the Great, a ruler in England, had a number of passages of the Bible circulated in the vernacular in around 900. These included passages from the Ten Commandments and the Pentateuch, which he prefixed to a code of laws he promulgated around this time. In approximately 990, a full and freestanding version of the four Gospels in idiomatic Old English appeared, in the West Saxon dialect; these are called the "Wessex Gospels". Around the same time, a compilation now called the "Old English Hexateuch" appeared with the first six (or, in one version, seven) books of the Old Testament.


title: Bible translations

text: Pope Innocent III in 1199 banned unauthorized versions of the Bible as a reaction to the Cathar and Waldensian heresies. The synods of Toulouse and Tarragona (1234) outlawed possession of such renderings. There is evidence of some vernacular translations being permitted while others were being scrutinized.


title: Bible translations

text: The complete Bible was translated into Old French in the late 13th century. Parts of this translation were included in editions of the popular "Bible historiale", and there is no evidence of this translation being suppressed by the Church. The entire Bible was translated into Czech around 1360.


title: Bible translations

text: The most notable Middle English Bible translation, Wycliffe's Bible (1383), based on the Vulgate, was banned by the Oxford Synod in 1408. The Hungarian Hussite Bible appeared in 1416. In 1478, a Catalan translation was made in the dialect of Valencia. Many parts of the Bible were printed by William Caxton in his translation of the Golden Legend, and in "Speculum Vitae Christi" ("The Mirror of the Blessed Life of Jesus Christ").


title: Bible translations

text: The earliest printed edition of the Greek New Testament appeared in 1516 from the Froben press, by Desiderius Erasmus, who reconstructed its Greek text from several recent manuscripts of the Byzantine text-type. He occasionally added a Greek translation of the Latin Vulgate for parts that did not exist in the Greek manuscripts. He produced four later editions of this text. Erasmus was Roman Catholic, but his preference for the Byzantine Greek manuscripts rather than the Latin Vulgate led some church authorities to view him with suspicion.


title: Bible translations

text: During 1517 and 1519 Francysk Skaryna printed a translation of the Bible in Old Belarusian language in twenty-two books.


title: Bible translations

text: In 1521, Martin Luther was placed under the Ban of the Empire, and he retired to the Wartburg Castle. During his time there, he translated the New Testament from Greek into German. It was printed in September 1522. The first complete Dutch Bible, partly based on the existing portions of Luther's translation, was printed in Antwerp in 1526 by Jacob van Liesvelt.


title: Bible translations

text: The first printed edition with "critical apparatus" (noting variant readings among the manuscripts) was produced by the printer Robert Estienne of Paris in 1550. The Greek text of this edition and of those of Erasmus became known as the "Textus Receptus" (Latin for "received text"), a name given to it in the Elzevier edition of 1633, which termed it as the text "nunc ab omnibus receptum" ("now received by all").


title: Bible translations

text: The use of numbered chapters and verses was not introduced until the Middle Ages and later. The system used in English was developed by Stephanus (Robert Estienne of Paris) (see Chapters and verses of the Bible)


title: Bible translations

text: Later critical editions incorporate ongoing scholarly research, including discoveries of Greek papyrus fragments from near Alexandria, Egypt, that date in some cases within a few decades of the original New Testament writings. Today, most critical editions of the Greek New Testament, such as UBS4 and NA27, consider the Alexandrian text-type corrected by papyri, to be the Greek text that is closest to the original "autographs". Their "apparatus" includes the result of votes among scholars, ranging from certain {A} to doubtful {E}, on which variants best preserve the original Greek text of the New Testament.


title: Bible translations

text: Critical editions that rely primarily on the Alexandrian text-type inform nearly all modern translations (and revisions of older translations). For reasons of tradition, however, some translators prefer to use the Textus Receptus for the Greek text, or use the "Majority Text" which is similar to it but is a critical edition that relies on earlier manuscripts of the Byzantine text-type. Among these, some argue that the Byzantine tradition contains scribal additions, but these later interpolations preserve the orthodox interpretations of the biblical text—as part of the ongoing Christian experience—and in this sense are authoritative. Distrust of the textual basis of modern translations has contributed to the King-James-Only Movement.


title: Bible translations

text: The churches of the Protestant Reformation translated the Greek of the Textus Receptus to produce vernacular Bibles, such as the German Luther Bible (1522), the Polish Brest Bible (1563), the Spanish "Biblia del Oso" (in English: Bible of the Bear, 1569) which later became the Reina-Valera Bible upon its first revision in 1602, the Czech Melantrich Bible (1549) and Bible of Kralice (1579-1593) and numerous English translations of the Bible. Tyndale's New Testament translation (1526, revised in 1534, 1535 and 1536) and his translation of the Pentateuch (1530, 1534) and the Book of Jonah were met with heavy sanctions given the widespread belief that Tyndale "changed" the Bible as he attempted to translate it. Tyndale's unfinished work, cut short by his execution, was supplemented by Myles Coverdale and published under a pseudonym to create the Matthew Bible, the first complete English translation of the Bible. Attempts at an "authoritative" English Bible for the Church of England would include the Great Bible of 1538 (also relying on Coverdale's work), the Bishops' Bible of 1568, and the Authorized Version (the King James Version) of 1611, the last of which would become a standard for English speaking Christians for several centuries.


title: Bible translations

text: The first complete French Bible was a translation by Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples, published in 1530 in Antwerp. The Froschauer Bible of 1531 and the Luther Bible of 1534 (both appearing in portions throughout the 1520s) were an important part of the Reformation.


title: Bible translations

text: The first English translations of Psalms (1530), Isaiah (1531), Proverbs (1533), Ecclesiastes (1533), Jeremiah (1534) and Lamentations (1534), were executed by the Protestant Bible translator George Joye in Antwerp. In 1535 Myles Coverdale published the first complete English Bible also in Antwerp.


title: Bible translations

text: By 1578 both Old and New Testaments were translated to Slovene by the Protestant writer and theologian Jurij Dalmatin. The work was not printed until 1583. The Slovenes thus became the 12th nation in the world with a complete Bible in their language. The translation of the New Testament was based on the work by Dalmatin's mentor, the Protestant Primož Trubar, who published the translation of the Gospel of Matthew already in 1555 and the entire testament by parts until 1577.


title: Bible translations

text: Following the distribution of a Welsh New Testament and Prayer Book to every parish Church in Wales in 1567, translated by William Salesbury, Welsh became the 13th language into which the whole Bible had been translated in 1588, through a translation by William Morgan, the bishop of Llanrhaeadr-ym-Mochnant.


title: Bible translations

text: Samuel Bogusław Chyliński (1631–1668) translated and published the first Bible translation into Lithuanian.


title: Bible translations

text: The "Nova Vulgata" is the most recent translation to Latin. On 29 November 1965, Pope Paul VI instituted the Pontifical Commission for the Revised Standard Version of the Bible, in order to prepare a new translation from Hebrew, Aramaic, and Koine Greek, to Latin. The result was the "Nova Vulgata", promulgated by Pope John Paul II in 1979.


title: Bible translations

text: The purpose was to achieve more precision and clarity in the texts, and to remove the errors and obscure passages that were present in the version of Jerome of Stridon, known as the Vulgate.