title: Matt Nagy

text: In Nagy's first season as head coach, the Bears won the NFC North for the first time since 2010. After defeating the Green Bay Packers on December 16 to improve to 10–4, he became the second Bears rookie head coach in team history to win ten games, joining George Halas in 1920. He ended the regular season with two more wins, finishing his first year as a head coach with a 12–4 record; he and Paddy Driscoll (1956) are the only coaches in Bears history to have a winning record and qualify for the playoffs in their debut seasons. However, the Bears were defeated by Pederson and the Eagles in the Wild Card Round 16–15 after the game-winning field goal was blocked and hit the crossbar twice. In January 2019, Nagy received Coach of the Year honors from the Pro Football Writers Association and Associated Press. He was the first Bears coach to be given the AP award since Lovie Smith in 2005 and the fifth in team history. He is also the fifth coach in team history to record at least 12 wins in a season, joining George Halas, Mike Ditka, Dick Jauron, and Lovie Smith.


title: Matt Nagy

text: After the 2018 season, Fangio departed the Bears to become the Denver Broncos head coach; to replace him, Nagy hired Pagano as defensive coordinator. Nagy also reunited with Childress, who rejoined the Bears as a senior offensive assistant, and Mark DeLeone, who was the Chiefs' inside linebackers coach during Nagy's tenure and would serve the same position in Chicago. Despite a 3–1 start to the 2019 season, offensive struggles and a four-game losing streak sank them to 4–6. Although the team won three straight games to remain in playoff contention, a Week 15 loss to the Packers dropped them to 7–7 and ended their postseason hopes. The Bears finished the season 8–8, while Nagy's combined 20 wins in 2018 and 2019 were the most by a Bears head coach in his first two seasons. Chicago continued to experience difficulties through the season, leading to an offense ranked 29th in the league for the 2019 season. Season's end inspired offensive staff changes such as firing offensive coordinator Mark Helfrich.


title: Matt Nagy

text: Among Nagy's new hirings for the 2020 season were offensive line coach Juan Castillo, who worked with him in Philadelphia, and quarterbacks coach John DeFilippo, also a former Eagles coach. The team also traded for quarterback Nick Foles, who worked with Nagy in Philadelphia and Kansas City, to compete with starter Mitchell Trubisky. The Bears started the season 5–1 but followed with a six-game losing streak. With the offense's struggles persisting through the first nine games of the year and through the stretch, including being ranked 29th in points per game and 31st in yards per play, Nagy relinquished play calling duties to new offensive coordinator Bill Lazor. Despite losing a Week 17 contest to the Packers where a win would have guaranteed them a playoff spot, the 8–8 Bears made the postseason for the second time in three years under Nagy due to winning a tiebreaker with the Arizona Cardinals. They were subsequently eliminated in the Wild Card round with a 21–9 loss to the New Orleans Saints.


title: Matt Nagy

text: Following Trubisky's departure via free agency, the 2021 season began with Andy Dalton as the Bears' starting quarterback over first-round rookie Justin Fields, while Nagy promoted safeties coach Sean Desai to defensive coordinator after Pagano retired. Fields was named the starter in Week 3 against the Cleveland Browns after Dalton suffered an injury, but the offense struggled with just 47 net yards as Fields was sacked nine times and recorded only one net passing yard. Nagy surrendered play calling back to Lazor for the next week's game against Detroit. Despite a 3–2 start, the Bears went on a five-game losing streak for the third consecutive year with Fields suffering multiple injuries. On October 25, Nagy tested positive for COVID-19, resulting in special teams coordinator Chris Tabor assuming head coaching duties for Week 8 against the San Francisco 49ers. Chicago would finish the season with a 6–11 record, their first losing season since 2017 and Nagy's first as a head coach.


title: Matt Nagy

text: On January 10, 2022, both Nagy and general manager Ryan Pace were fired by the Bears. Nagy's tenure in Chicago concluded with a record in four seasons, including an 0–2 playoff record. In a statement released following his dismissal, Nagy thanked the team "for the opportunity to lead one of the game's most storied franchises" and described his stint as "four years I'll always remember."


title: Matt Nagy

text: Nagy was brought back by the Chiefs on February 25, 2022 as a senior assistant and quarterbacks coach, replacing the outgoing Mike Kafka.


title: Matt Nagy

text: Upon his hiring as Bears head coach, Chicago general manager Ryan Pace called Nagy "highly intelligent" and had a "very creative, outside-the-box thought process". He operates a variation of the West Coast offense inspired by Reid, completing short, quick passes to receivers and maintaining possession of the football by throwing instead of running; the quarterback is also permitted to attempt deeper throws, even if they are not completed, to force the defense to cover a wider range of the field. Nagy considers himself an aggressive coach, a doctrine that has drawn criticism for being "too cute".


title: Matt Nagy

text: Nagy's offense heavily incorporates the run-pass option (RPO), which allows the quarterback to analyze the defense as a play begins and make decisions based on what he sees, along with player movement before the snap and misdirection feints to distract the defense. To better run the RPO, Nagy hired former Oregon head coach Mark Helfrich as offensive coordinator in 2018; despite Helfrich's lack of NFL coaching experience at the time, he ran a fast-paced read-option offense at Oregon, a system that would otherwise not work in the NFL as defensive players are too fast but features enough nuances to be included in Nagy's offense. During Nagy's first year as Bears head coach, 19.2 percent of the team's total play calls was an RPO, the second most in the league behind Reid's Chiefs; the previous year under John Fox, only 2.7 percent of plays were RPOs (ranked 26th). Wide receiver routes are derived from the air raid offense.


title: Matt Nagy

text: For running plays, the offensive line uses a gap blocking scheme in which the line creates one lane for the running back to enter, though a zone blocking scheme, which lets the back decide his own lane based on the line's motions, was also implemented during the 2018 season. Aspects of his offense are also inspired by his playing career; certain player archetypes and West Coast plays such as the bubble screen and hot read are based in arena football strategy, while his preference to throw deep to stretch the defense is influenced by the indoor sport's tendency to do the same. In Kansas City, he devised running plays that relied on misdirection and jet sweeps, which were inspired by the Wing T at Delaware.


title: Matt Nagy

text: During the 2018 season, Nagy frequently used trick plays, designed with assistance from his players and given nicknames like "Willy Wonka" and "Oompa Loompa", that featured unorthodox formations and players like defenders on offense. One such play, dubbed "Santa's Sleigh" and used against the Los Angeles Rams in 2018, has exclusively linemen as the five eligible receivers (including four defensive linemen); in the Rams game, quarterback Mitchell Trubisky faked a hand-off to defensive tackle Akiem Hicks posing as a running back before throwing to offensive lineman Bradley Sowell for the touchdown. Nagy draws inspiration for the plays from his career in arena football, where players often played both offense and defense and tackles are eligible receivers. As traditional offensive play-calling can be easily adapted and adjusted for accordingly by defenses, Nagy explained the gadget plays can confuse them and allow him to "stay one step ahead of these defensive coordinators." During his tenure as Bears coach, he has also called plays that are tributes to the team's history; examples include "Papa Bear Left", which uses the T formation made famous by team founder and longtime head coach George "Papa Bear" Halas during the 1930s and 1940s, and "Freezer Left", in which a defensive tackle is given the football on a run up the middle in a manner similar to William "The Refrigerator" Perry, a defensive lineman who occasionally played fullback for the Bears in the 1980s. The plays decreased in use in 2019 due to the Bears' offensive struggles.


title: Matt Nagy

text: Personnel-wise, he prefers players who can be utilized in multiple offensive roles. For example, he fields running backs capable of running and catching, including lining up at wide receiver. With this versatility, players can exploit certain deficiencies in the defense, such as defeating a smaller defender with his size and outmatching larger defenders with his speed. Unlike offenses that feature a top pass catcher, Nagy-led receiving success is shared between multiple players, a strategy that "Sports Illustrated" Kalyn Kahler wrote is "like a football Hydra"; during Nagy's two seasons as the Chiefs' offensive coordinator, Tyreek Hill was their top receiver but tight end Travis Kelce led the team in multiple receiving categories, while wide receiver Allen Robinson topped the 2018 Bears in receiving yards yet running back Tarik Cohen had the most receptions.


title: Matt Nagy

text: As an offensive coach, Nagy relinquishes control of the defense to his defensive coordinator, as he did with Vic Fangio in 2018, Chuck Pagano in 2019, and Sean Desai in 2021.


title: Matt Nagy

text: Nagy has received praise from players and media for his positive attitude and effect on team morale. Although the Bears struggled offensively, various outlets noted his personality enabled him to maintain locker room cohesion; in an October 2019 article, when the offense was one of the worst-ranked units in the league, NBC Sports Chicago's JJ Stankevitz divided Nagy into two personas: "Nagy the leader, and Nagy the offensive mind" with the former being "unquestioned." When Nagy's firing loomed in December 2021, "Chicago Sun-Times" writer Rick Morrissey explained "the Bears fell in love with a person, not a football coach."


title: Matt Nagy

text: He models his philosophy after former Chicago Cubs manager Joe Maddon's phrase "Be You", which promotes individualism by urging players and coaches to enjoy the sport and freely express themselves instead of worry about the NFL's strict and businesslike nature; the line also appears on Nagy's playbook in bold letters. In May 2018, he said, "What can happen, as a player, is you think you need to maybe try a little harder, you may have to act a little different – don't do that. Just be yourself. Do what got you here. As coaches, don't change. If you have a certain style of teaching, then teach that way. Don't change because now you're in the NFL."


title: Matt Nagy

text: Following victories in 2018, with inspiration from Maddon, Nagy created a post-game locker room celebration called "Club Dub" in which the team participates in a dance party with a disco ball, lights, and music; "dub" is a slang term for "win". According to Nagy, Club Dub was organized as a means to cherish each win considering the difficulty in finding success. His post-win speeches also included saying "Boom!" while driving his arm into the ground like a football spike, which became an unofficial rallying cry for the team.


title: Matt Nagy

text: During the 2019 season, Nagy established the Sweep the Sheds Award, consisting of a metal broom and bear head, which is given to an unsung Bears player after every victory; "Sweep the Sheds" is a phrase from the James Kerr book "Legacy", which follows the New Zealand national rugby union team. After games, the All Blacks clean their locker room as an act of humility.


title: Matt Nagy

text: Nagy married his high school sweetheart Stacey in 2002. The two have four sons. Before joining the Arena Football League, he was a teacher in the Manheim Central School District. After his playing career ended, Nagy worked at home construction company Keystone Custom Homes, receiving the position after Steve Saunders introduced him to Keystone executive Larry Wisdom. With Wisdom's blessing, he left the business when he joined the Eagles full-time.


title: Matt Nagy

text: In spite of his parents' divorce, Nagy remained close with both. His father Bill is a former defensive line coach for New Jersey high schools, winning a state championship with Elizabeth High School in 1980. After his coaching career, he was a businessman for various ventures before becoming a teacher in 2009, teaching at schools in the areas where Matt was coaching at the time. Nagy has stepsiblings Luke and Jenna on his father's side; Luke played receiver and safety at Manheim Central High School.


title: Performance-enhancing substance

text: Performance-enhancing substances, also known as performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs), are substances that are used to improve any form of activity performance in humans. A well-known example of cheating in sports involves doping in sport, where banned physical performance-enhancing drugs are used by athletes and bodybuilders. Athletic performance-enhancing substances are sometimes referred to as ergogenic aids. Cognitive performance-enhancing drugs, commonly called nootropics, are sometimes used by students to improve academic performance. Performance-enhancing substances are also used by military personnel to enhance combat performance.


title: Performance-enhancing substance

text: The classifications of substances as performance-enhancing substances are not entirely clear-cut and objective. As in other types of categorization, certain prototype performance enhancers are universally classified as such (like anabolic steroids), whereas other substances (like vitamins and protein supplements) are virtually never classified as performance enhancers despite their effects on performance. As is usual with categorization, there are borderline cases; caffeine, for example, is considered a performance enhancer by some but not others.


title: Performance-enhancing substance

text: Anabolic steroids are synthetically derived from testosterone and modified to have greater anabolic effects. They work by increasing the concentration of nitrogen in the muscle which inhibits catabolic glucocorticoid binding to muscle. This ultimately prohibits the breakdown of muscle and preserves muscle mass. Examples of anabolic steroids include: oxandrolone, stanozolol and nandrolone. Anabolic steroids can be taken through a transdermal method, orally, or through injection. Injectable forms of the steroid are the most potent and long-lasting. In general, potential side effects include: muscle hypertrophy, acne, increased blood pressure, elevated cholesterol, thrombosis, decreased high-density lipoproteins, altered libido, hepatic carcinoma, cholestasis, peliosis hepatitis, septic arthritis, Wilm's tumor, psychosis, aggression, addiction, and depression. Potential side effects specifically in males include: male pattern baldness, oligospermia, prostate hypertrophy, testicular atrophy, and prostate cancer. Potential side specifically in females include: hirsutism, uterine atrophy, amenorrhea, breast atrophy, and thickening of vocal cords (voice deepening). Urine samples are tested to determine the ratio of testosterone glucuronide to epitestosterone glucuronide, which should be 3:1. Any ratio of 4:1 or greater is considered a positive test. The 1988 Anti-Drug Abuse Act and 1990 Anabolic Steroid Act both deemed anabolic steroids as an illegal substance when not used for disease treatment.


title: Performance-enhancing substance

text: Stimulants improve focus and alertness. Low (therapeutic) doses of dopaminergic stimulants (e.g., reuptake inhibitors and releasing agents) also promote mental and athletic performance, as cognitive enhancers and ergogenic aids respectively, by improving muscle strength and endurance while decreasing reaction time and fatigue;. Stimulants are commonly used in lengthy exercises that require short bursts (e.g., tennis, team sports, etc.). Stimulants work by increasing catecholamine levels and agonistic activity at the adrenergic receptors. Examples of stimulants include: caffeine, ephedrine, methylphenidate and amphetamine. Potential side effects include: hypertension, insomnia, headaches, weight loss, arrhythmia, tremors, anxiety, addiction, and strokes. Some stimulants are allowed in competitive sports and are widely accessible (e.g., caffeine). Others are banned as per the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) (e.g., cocaine, amphetamines, ephedrine, etc.).


title: Performance-enhancing substance

text: Ergogenic aids, or athletic performance-enhancing substances, include a number of drugs with various effects on physical performance. Drugs such as amphetamine and methylphenidate increase power output at constant levels of perceived exertion and delay the onset of fatigue, among other athletic-performance-enhancing effects; bupropion also increases power output at constant levels of perceived exertion, but only during short term use.


title: Performance-enhancing substance

text: Adaptogens are plants that support health through nonspecific effects, neutralize various environmental and physical stressors while being relatively safe and free of side effects. As of 2008, the position of the European Medicines Agency was that "The principle of an adaptogenic action needs further clarification and studies in the pre-clinical and clinical area. As such, the term is not accepted in pharmacological and clinical terminology that is commonly used in the EU."


title: Performance-enhancing substance

text: Nootropics, or "cognition enhancers", benefit overall cognition by improving memory (e.g., increasing working memory capacity or updating) or other aspects of cognitive control (e.g., inhibitory control, attentional control, attention span, etc.).


title: Performance-enhancing substance

text: Allows performance beyond the usual pain threshold. Some painkillers raise blood pressure, increasing oxygen supply to muscle cells. Painkillers used by athletes range from common over-the-counter medicines such as NSAIDs (such as ibuprofen) to powerful prescription narcotics.


title: Performance-enhancing substance

text: Used in sports like archery which require steady hands and accurate aim, and also to overcome excessive nervousness or discomfort. Diazepam and propranolol are common examples; ethanol and cannabis are also used occasionally.


title: Performance-enhancing substance

text: Blood doping agents increase the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood beyond the individual's natural capacity. They are used in endurance sports like long-distance running, cycling, and Nordic skiing. Recombinant human erythropoietin (rhEPO) is one of the most widely known drugs in this class.


title: Performance-enhancing substance

text: Erythropoietin, or EPO, is a hormone that helps increase the production of red blood cells which increases the delivery of oxygen to muscles. It is commonly used among endurance athletes such as cyclists. It functions by protecting red blood cells against destruction whilst simultaneously stimulating bone marrow cells to produce more red blood cells. Potential side effects include: dehydration and an increase in blood viscosity which could result in a pulmonary embolism or stroke. Per the World Anti-Doping Agency, it is a banned substance. Urine samples can be tested via electrophoresis, and blood samples via indirect markers.


title: Performance-enhancing substance

text: Gene doping agents are a relatively recently described class of athletic performance-enhancing substances. These drug therapies, which involve viral vector-mediated gene transfer, are not known to currently be in use .


title: Performance-enhancing substance

text: Also known as anabolic steroid precursors, they promote lean body mass. Once in the body, these precursors are converted to testosterone and because they increase endogenous testosterone. The desired effects of steroid precursors however, are often not seen as they do not bind well to androgen receptors. Examples of prohormones include norandrostendione, androstenediol, and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). These steroids have little desired effect compared to anabolic steroids, but have the same side effects. Androstenedione in 2005 became classified as a controlled substance by WADA, however DHEA can still be obtained legally as an over-the-counter nutritional supplement.


title: Performance-enhancing substance

text: While the use of PEDs has expanded in recent times, the practice of using substances to improve performance has been around since the Ancient Olympic Games. In the Olympic Games of 668 BC, Charmis had consumed a diet consisting of dried figs which was a significant factor in winning the 200-yard stade race. Ancient Greek athletes at the time also incorporated stimulants such as wine and brandy into their training routines. Stimulants derived from plants (e.g., Cola Nitida, Bufotein, etc.) were used by the Roman Gladiators to overcome injuries and fatigue.


title: Performance-enhancing substance

text: In the late 19th century as modern medicine and pharmacology were developing, PEDs saw an increase in use. Supplements were now exclusively being used to enhance muscular work capacity. The main stimulants being used included alcoholic drinks, caffeine, and mixtures created by the athletic trainers (e.g., strychnine tablets made of cocaine and brandy). Testosterone was also a commonly taken stimulant, however, it was more difficult to obtain. In 1889, a three-week program began where an athlete injected themselves with blood from the testicular veins, semen, and fluids from the testicles of a dog or guinea pig. By 1895, it had been assessed that testicular extracts did in fact improve athletic performance by increasing muscular strength.


title: Performance-enhancing substance

text: In the 20th century, testosterone was isolated and characterized by scientists. In 1941, the first record of synthesized testosterone use occurred when a horse was given testosterone which successfully improved its race performance. Sports trainers soon after began advocating for testosterone use. Images of bodybuilders with massive muscles began circulating which further perpetuated a desire among athletes to use testosterone.


title: Performance-enhancing substance

text: In the 1980s, the main PEDs were cortisone and anabolic steroids. In 1988, the United States Congress establishes the Anti-Drug Abuse Act to criminalize the distribution and possession of non-medical anabolic steroids. In 1999, WADA was formed to address the escalating use of substances in sports, particularly after the 1998 doping scandal in cycling.


title: Performance-enhancing substance

text: Adolescents are the most vulnerable group when it comes to taking performance-enhancing substances. This is in part due to the significance placed on physical appearance by this age group as well as feelings of invincibility combined with a lack of knowledge surrounding long-term consequences. Studies have shown that the most common gendered risk factors include being an adolescent female dissatisfied with their body weight or an adolescent male who perceives larger body sizes as the ideal. Having a negative body image or a history of depression can also be a significant risk factor. These are further exacerbated by parental pressures surrounding appearance, media influence, and peer pressure. Studies show that adolescent males who engage with fitness magazines are twice as likely to use performance-enhancing substances. Adolescents who partake in competitive sports are at a particularly high risk, with those involved in football, basketball, wrestling, baseball, and gymnastics at the top.


title: Performance-enhancing substance

text: In sports, the term "performance-enhancing drugs" is popularly used in reference to anabolic steroids or their precursors (hence the colloquial term "steroids"); anti-doping organizations apply the term broadly. Agencies such as the WADA and USADA try to prevent athletes from using these drugs by performing drug tests. When medical exemptions are granted they are called therapeutic use exemptions.


title: American chestnut

text: The American chestnut (Castanea dentata) is a large, fast-growing deciduous tree of the beech family native to eastern North America. As is true of all species in genus Castanea, the American chestnut produces burred fruit with edible nuts. The American chestnut was one of the most important forest trees throughout its range and was considered the finest chestnut tree in the world.


title: American chestnut

text: The species was devastated by chestnut blight, a fungal disease that came from Chinese chestnut trees introduced into North America from East Asia. It is estimated that between 3 and 4 billion American chestnut trees were destroyed in the first half of the 20th century by chestnut blight after the blight's initial discovery in North America in 1904. Very few mature specimens of the tree exist within its historical range, although many small shoots of the former live trees remain. There are hundreds of large (2 to 5 ft diameter) American chestnuts outside its historical range, some in areas where less virulent strains of the pathogen are more common, such as the 600 to 800 large trees in Northern Michigan. The species is listed as endangered in the United States and Canada. American chestnuts are also susceptible to ink disease, particularly in the southern part of its native range; this likely contributed to the devastation of the species.


title: American chestnut

text: Several groups are attempting to create blight-resistant American chestnuts. Scientists at the SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry created the Darling 58 cultivar of American chestnut by inserting the oxalate oxidase gene from wheat into the genome of an American chestnut. When expressed in the vascular cambium of the Darling 58 cultivar, the oxalate oxidase enzyme degrades the oxalic acid produced by the chestnut blight, reducing damage to the vascular cambium and resisting girdling of the trunk. As of 2021, the researchers who developed this cultivar are working towards applying for government permission to make these trees available to the public. If approved, these chestnut trees would be the first genetically modified forest trees released into the wild in the United States. Alternate approaches to developing a blight-resistant cultivar include cross-breeding among partially blight-resistant American chestnuts or crossbreeding with the moderately blight-resistant Chinese chestnut, then backcrossing with the American chestnut, with the goal of retaining most of its genes.


title: American chestnut

text: "Castanea dentata" is a rapidly–growing, large, deciduous hardwood tree. Pre-blight sources give a maximum height of , and a maximum circumference of . (Post-blight sources erroneously report a greater maximum size of the species compared with pre-blight, likely due to nostalgia, to interpretations of pre-blight measurements of circumference as being measurements of diameter, and to the misapprehension that pre-blight observations of maximum size represented observations of average size.) It is considerably larger than the closely–related Allegheny Chinquipin Castanea pumila.


title: American chestnut

text: There are several other chestnut species, such as the European sweet chestnut ("C. sativa"), Chinese chestnut ("C. mollissima"), and Japanese chestnut ("C. crenata"). Castanea dentata can be distinguished by a few morphological traits, such as petiole length, nut size and number of nuts per burr, leaf shape, and leaf size, with leaves being long and broad—slightly shorter and broader than the sweet chestnut. It has larger and more widely spaced saw-teeth on the edges of its leaves, as indicated by the scientific name "dentata", Latin for "toothed".


title: American chestnut

text: The European sweet chestnut was introduced in the United States by Thomas Jefferson in 1773. The European sweet chestnut has hairy twig tips in contrast to the hairless twigs of the American chestnut. This species has been the chief source of commercial chestnuts in the United States. Japanese chestnut was inadvertently introduced into the United States by Thomas Hogg in 1876 and planted on the property of S.B. Parsons in Flushing, New York. The Japanese chestnut has narrow leaves, smaller than either American chestnut or sweet chestnut, with small, sharply-pointed teeth and many hairs on the underside of the leaf and is the most blight-resistant species.


title: American chestnut

text: The chestnut is monoecious, and usually protandrous producing many small, pale green (nearly white) male flowers found tightly occurring along 6 to 8 inch long catkins. The female parts are found near the base of the catkins (near twig) and appear in late spring to early summer. Like all members of the family Fagaceae, American chestnut is self-incompatible and requires two trees for pollination, which can be with other members of the "Castanea" genus. The pollen of the American chestnut is considered a mild allergen.


title: American chestnut

text: The American chestnut is a prolific bearer of nuts, with inflorescence and nut production in the wild beginning when a tree is 8 to 10 years old. American chestnut burrs often open while still attached to the tree, around the time of the first frost in autumn, with the nuts then falling to the ground. American chestnut typically have three nuts enclosed in a spiny, green burr, each lined in tan velvet. In contrast, the Allegheny Chinquipin produces but one nut per burr.


title: American chestnut

text: Chestnuts are in the Fagaceae family along with beech and oak. Chestnuts are not closely related to the horse-chestnut, which is in the family Sapindaceae. Phylogenetic analysis indicates a westward migration of extant Castanea species from Asia to Europe to North America, with the American Chestnut more closely related to the Allegheny Chinquipin (Castanea pumila v. pumila) than to European or Asian clades. The genomic range of chestnuts can be roughly divided into a clinal pattern of northeast, central, and southwest populations, with southwest populations showing greatest diversity, reflecting an evolutionary bottleneck likely due to Quaternary glaciation. Two lineages of American chestnut have been identified, one a hybrid between the American chestnut and the Allegheny Chinquipin from the southern Appalachians. The other lineage of American Chestnut shows a gradual loss of genetic diversity along a Northward vector, indicating possible expansion of range following the most recent Glacial Maximum during the Wisconsin glaciation. Ozark chinkapin, which is typically considered either a distinct species ("C. ozarkensis") or a subspecies of the Allegheny chinkapin ("C. pumila" subsp. "ozarkensis"), may be ancestral to both the American chestnut and the Allegheny chinkapin. A natural hybrid of "C. dentata" and "C. pumila" has been named "Castanea" × "neglecta".


title: American chestnut

text: The pre-blight distribution of the American Chestnut was restricted to moist but well-drained steep slopes with acid loam soils. According to analysis of old forest dust data, the tree was rare or absent in New England prior to 2,500 years before the present, but rapidly established dominance in these forests, becoming a common tree over a range from Maine and southern Ontario to Mississippi, and from the Atlantic coast to the Appalachian Mountains and the Ohio Valley. In Pennsylvania, it is estimated to have comprised 25–30% of all hardwoods.


title: American chestnut

text: The tree's abundance was due to a combination of rapid growth, relative fire resistance, and a large annual nut crop in comparison to oaks which do not reliably produce sizable numbers of acorns every year. Fire was common in the pre-blight ecosystem of the American Chestnut, perhaps in part due to unique traits of the tree, including fire tolerance, highly flammable litter, tall stature, rapid growth, and ability to resprout. Historically, the mean fire return interval was 20 years or less in chestnut-predominant ecologies, with a forest stand pattern that was more open than is currently the case.


title: American chestnut

text: The American chestnut was an important tree for wildlife, providing much of the fall mast for species such as white-tailed deer, wild turkey, Allegheny woodrat and (prior to its extinction) the passenger pigeon. Black bears were also known to eat the nuts to fatten up for the winter. The American chestnut also contains more nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and magnesium in its leaves than other trees that share its habitat, so they return more nutrients to the soil which helps with the growth of other plants, animals, and microorganisms. The American chestnut is preferred by some avian seed hoarders, and was particularly important as a food source during years where the oak mast failed.


title: American chestnut

text: Prior to the Chestnut blight, the American chestnut was a dominant tree in the ecosystem of the eastern deciduous forest. It was said that a squirrel could walk from New England to Georgia solely on the branches of American chestnuts. Once an important hardwood timber tree, the American chestnut suffered a catastrophic population collapse due to the chestnut blight, a disease caused by an Asian bark fungus ("Cryphonectria parasitica", formerly "Endothia parasitica"). The fungus was introduced when infected Japanese chestnut trees were brought to North America in the late 19th century. Chestnut blight was first noticed on American chestnut trees in what was then the New York Zoological Park, now known as the Bronx Zoo, in the borough of The Bronx, New York City, in 1904, by chief forester Hermann Merkel. Merkel estimated that by 1906 blight had infected 98 percent of the chestnut trees in the borough. While Asian chestnut species evolved with the blight and developed a strong resistance, the American chestnut and Allegheny chinquapin have little resistance. The airborne bark fungus spread a year and in a few decades girdled and killed up to three billion American chestnut trees. Salvage logging during the early years of the blight may have unwittingly destroyed trees that had high levels of resistance to the disease and thus aggravated the calamity. New shoots often sprout from the roots when the main stem dies, so the species has not yet become extinct. However, the stump sprouts rarely reach more than in height before blight infection returns, so the species is classified as functionally extinct since the chestnut blight only actively kills the above ground portion of the American chestnut tree, leaving behind the below-ground components such as the root systems. It was recorded in the 1900s that the chestnut blight would commonly reinfect any novel stems that grew from the stumps, therefore maintaining a cycle that would prevent the American chestnut tree from re-establishing. However, some American chestnut trees have survived because of a small natural resistance to the chestnut blight.


title: American chestnut

text: Chestnut blight is not to be confused with sun scald, where winter sun reflects off of snow, warming the bark on the sun-facing trunk. (This would be the south-facing trunk in the Northern Hemisphere.) This snow-reflected sunlight repeatedly warms and thaws the trunk during the day, resulting in vulnerability of the bark and cambium to freezing cold temperatures during the subsequent night, eventually resulting in bark cankers that resemble chestnut blight. Also, sun scald makes the damaged bark vulnerable to invasion by pathogens.


title: American chestnut

text: Before the onset of chestnut blight and prior to 1824, an epidemic of ink disease struck American chestnuts, most likely brought to the southern United States on imported cork oak trees from Portugal. This fungal pathogen is known to also kill the roots and collars of several Castanea species, including the European species "C. sativa". It affected primarily chestnuts in the Southeastern US and at the later time when chestnut blight struck, the range of "C. dentata" may have already been reduced. The potential range of blight-resistant American chestnuts is substantially reduced if those chestnuts are susceptible to ink disease. Further, the range of this pathogen will extend northward as the climate warms, which may further limit the potential range of the American Chestnut.


title: American chestnut

text: The Chinese gall wasp attacks all Chestnut species and causes heavy damage. As this species of wasp is a threat to saplings, and is now widely-present in Eastern North American forests, it is a potential problem for reintroduction of the American chestnut. The Chinese parasitoid chalcid wasp "Torymus sinensis Kamijo" is considered an effective control method for the Chinese gall wasp. There are now established populations of "Torymus sinensis Kamijo" in North America.


title: American chestnut

text: The total number of chestnut trees in eastern North America was estimated at over three billion, and 25% of the trees in the Appalachian Mountains were American chestnut. The number of large surviving trees over in diameter within its former range is probably fewer than 100. American chestnuts were also a common part of the forest canopy in southeast Michigan.


title: American chestnut

text: Although large trees are currently rare east of the Mississippi River, they exist in pockets in the blight-free West, where the habitat was agreeable for planting: settlers took seeds of American chestnut with them in the 19th century. Huge planted chestnut trees can be found in Sherwood, Oregon, as the Mediterranean climate of the West Coast discourages the fungus, which relies on hot, humid summer weather. American chestnut also thrives as far north as Revelstoke, British Columbia.


title: American chestnut

text: At present, it is believed that survival of "C. dentata" for more than a decade in its native range is almost impossible. The fungus uses various oak trees as a host, and while the oak itself is unaffected, American chestnuts nearby will succumb to the blight in approximately a year or more. In addition, the hundreds of chestnut stumps and "living stools" dotting eastern woodlands may still contain active pathogens. It is considered extirpated from Florida and Illinois.


title: American chestnut

text: The reduced population of American chestnuts directly impacted many species of insects that relied upon the tree species for survival. Of approximately 60 species that feed upon the American chestnut, seven rely entirely on the American chestnut as a food source. Some of these, like the American chestnut moth, are now extinct or severely reduced in population.


title: American chestnut

text: Researchers at the State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry (SUNY ESF), have developed partially blight-resistant transgenic American chestnuts that are capable of surviving infection by "Cryphonectria parasitica". This was done by inserting a specific gene from wheat, oxalate oxidase, into the American chestnut genome. The enzyme oxalate oxidase is a common fungal defense in plants, and is found in strawberries, bananas, oats, barley, and other cereals. Oxalate oxidase breaks down the oxalic acid which the fungus secretes in the cambium to lower the pH and subsequently kill plant tissues. The chestnut trees which contain this resistance gene can be infected by the chestnut blight, but the tree is not girdled by the resulting canker and heals around the wound. This lets the fungus fulfill its normal lifecycle without the death of the tree. The blight resistance gene is passed down to the tree's offspring to provide subsequent generations with partial blight resistance. In 2015, the researchers applied for government permission to make these trees available to the public. Extensive testing done with the transgenic Darling 58 variant to assess its effects on other species showed that the survival, pollen use, and reproduction of bumble bees were not affected by oxalate oxidase at the typical concentrations found in the pollen of the American chestnut. A deregulation petition for the Darling 58 variant was submitted January 2020 with a public comment period ending October 19, 2020. These trees could be the first genetically modified forest trees released in the wild in the United States.


title: American chestnut

text: More recently, the SUNY ESF group has developed transgenic American chestnut trees incorporating both the oxalate oxidase transgene from wheat and the win3.12 promoter transgene from the necklace poplar. In these trees, oxalate oxidase transgene expression is at a low level of expression under basal conditions; under conditions of wounding or tissue infection, the win 3.12 promotor transgene induces expression of the oxalate oxidase transgene to high levels. This stacking of the oxalate oxidase transgene and the win 3.12 transgene is expected to be more metabolically efficient and thereby have greater transgene stability over successive generations compared with the Darling 58 variant.


title: American chestnut

text: "Castanea dentata" is susceptible to ink disease, particularly in the southern part of its natural range. Unlike "Castanea dentata", "Castanea crenata" exhibits resistance to "Phytophthora cinnamomi", the fungal pathogen that causes ink disease. The mechanism of resistance of "Castanea crenata" to "Phytophthora cinnamomi" may derive from its expression of the Cast_Gnk2-like gene. Transgenic modification of "Castanea dentata" with the Cast_Gnk2-like gene may provide a mechanism for developing "Castanea dentata" trees resistant to "Phytophthora cinnamomi". Stacking of the Cast_Gnk2-like gene and the oxalate oxidase gene may provide a means of developing genetically modified "Castanea dentata" trees resistant to both the chestnut blight and to ink disease.


title: American chestnut

text: American Chestnut Cooperators Foundation (ACCF) is not using crosses with Asian species for blight resistance, but intercrossing among American chestnuts selected for native resistance to the blight, a breeding strategy described by the ACCF as "All-American intercrosses". John Rush Elkins, a research chemist and professor emeritus of chemistry at Concord University, and Gary Griffin, professor of plant pathology at Virginia Tech, think there may be several different characteristics which favor blight resistance. Both Elkins and Griffin have written extensively about the American chestnut. They believe that by making intercrosses among resistant American chestnuts from many locations, they will continue to improve upon the levels of blight resistance to make an American chestnut that can compete in the forest. Griffin, who has been involved with American chestnut restoration for many years, developed a scale for assessing levels of blight resistance, which made it possible to make selections scientifically. He inoculated five-year-old chestnuts with a standard lethal strain of the blight fungus and measured growth of the cankers. Chestnuts with no resistance to blight make rapid-growing, sunken cankers that are deep and kill tissue right to the wood. Resistant chestnuts make slow-growing, swollen cankers that are superficial: live tissue can be recovered under these cankers. The level of blight resistance is judged by periodic measurement of cankers. Grafts from large survivors of the blight epidemic were evaluated following inoculations, and controlled crosses among resistant American chestnut trees were made beginning in 1980. The first "All-American intercrosses" were planted in Virginia Tech's Martin American Chestnut Planting in Giles County, Virginia, and in Beckley, West Virginia. They were inoculated in 1990 and evaluated in 1991 and 1992. Nine of the trees showed resistance equal to their parents, and four of these had resistance comparable to hybrids in the same test. Many ACCF chestnuts have expressed blight resistance equal to or greater than an original blight survivor but so far, only a handful have demonstrated superior, durable blight control. Time will tell if the progeny of these best chestnuts exhibit durable blight resistance in different stress environments.


title: American chestnut

text: Backcrossing as a treatment for blight was first proposed by Charles Burnham of the University of Minnesota in the 1970s. Burnham, a professor emeritus in agronomy and plant genetics who was considered one of the pioneers of maize genetics, realized that experiments conducted by the USDA to cross-breed American chestnuts with European and Asian chestnuts erroneously assumed that a large number of genes were responsible for blight resistance, while it is currently believed the number of responsible genes is low. The USDA abandoned their cross-breeding program and destroyed local plantings around 1960 after failing to produce a blight-resistant hybrid. Burnham's recognition of the USDA's error led to him joining with others to create The American Chestnut Foundation in 1983, with the sole purpose of breeding a blight-resistant American chestnut. The American Chestnut Foundation is backcrossing blight-resistant Chinese chestnut into American chestnut trees, to recover the American growth characteristics and genetic makeup, and then finally intercrossing the advanced backcross generations to eliminate genes for susceptibility to blight. The first backcrossed American chestnut tree, called "Clapper", survived blight for 25 years, and grafts of the tree have been used by The American Chestnut Foundation since 1983. The Pennsylvania chapter of The American Chestnut Foundation, which seeks to restore the American chestnut to the forests of the Mid-Atlantic states, has planted over 22,000 trees.


title: American chestnut

text: The Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 requires owners of abandoned coal mines to cover at least 80 percent of their land with vegetation. While many companies planted invasive grasses, others began funding research on planting trees, because they can be more cost-effective, and yield better results. Keith Gilland began planting American chestnut trees in old strip mines in 2008 as a student at Miami University, and to date has planted over 5,000 trees. In 2005, a hybrid tree with mostly American genes was planted on the lawn of the White House. A tree planted in 2005 in the tree library outside the USDA building was still very healthy seven years later; it contains 98% American chestnut DNA and 2% Chinese chestnut DNA. This tree contains enough Chinese chestnut DNA that encodes for systemic resistance genes to resist the blight. This is essential for restoring the American chestnut trees into the Northeast. The Northern Nut Growers Association (NNGA) has also been active in pursuing viable hybrids. From 1962 to 1990, Alfred Szego and other members of the NNGA developed hybrids with Chinese varieties which showed limited resistance. Initially the backcrossing method would breed a hybrid from an American chestnut nut and a Chinese chestnut, the hybrid would then be bred with a normal American chestnut, subsequent breeding would involve a hybrid and an American chestnut or two hybrids, which would increase the genetic makeup of the hybrids primarily American chestnut but still retain the blight resistance of the Chinese chestnut.


title: American chestnut

text: Hypovirus is the only genus in the family Hypoviridae. Members of this genus infect fungal pathogens and reduce their ability to cause disease (hypovirulence). In particular, the virus infects "Cryphonectria parasitica", the fungus that causes chestnut blight, which has enabled infected trees to recover from the blight. The use of hypovirulence to control blight originated in Europe where the fungal virus spread naturally through populations of European chestnuts. The reduced ability of the fungus to cause disease allowed the European chestnut to regenerate, creating large stands of trees. Hypovirulence has also been found in North America, but has not spread effectively. The "Arner Tree" of Southern Ontario, is one of the best examples of naturally occurring hypovirulence. It is a mature American chestnut that has recovered from severe infections of chestnut blight. The cankers have healed over and the tree continues to grow vigorously. Scientists have discovered that the chestnut blight remaining on the tree is hypovirulent, although isolates taken from the tree do not have the fungal viruses found in other isolates. Trees inoculated with isolates taken from the Arner tree have shown moderate canker control. The cankers of hypovirulent American chestnut trees occur on the outermost tissues of the tree but the cankers do not spread into the growth tissues of the American chestnut tree, thereby providing it with a resistance.


title: American chestnut

text: The nuts were once an important economic resource in North America, being sold on the streets of towns and cities, as they sometimes still are during the Christmas season (usually said to be "roasting on an open fire" because their smell is readily identifiable many blocks away). Chestnuts are edible raw or roasted, though typically preferred roasted. Nuts of the European sweet chestnut are now sold instead in many stores. One must peel the brown skin to access the yellowish-white edible portion. Native Americans used various parts of the American chestnut to treat ailments such as whooping cough, heart conditions and chafed skin. The nuts were commonly fed on by various types of wildlife and was also in such a high abundance that they were commonly used to feed livestock by farmers, by allowing those livestock to roam freely into the forests that were predominantly filled with American chestnut trees. The American chestnut tree was also important to Native Americans as it acted as a food source for both the Native Americans and the wildlife often hunted as game.


title: American chestnut

text: The January 1888 issue of "Orchard and Garden" mentions the American chestnut as being "superior in quality to any found in Europe". The wood is straight-grained, strong, and easy to saw and split, and it lacks the radial end grain found on most other hardwoods. The tree was particularly valuable commercially since it grew at a faster rate than oaks. Being rich in tannins, the wood was highly resistant to decay and therefore used for a variety of purposes, including furniture, split-rail fences, shingles, home construction, flooring, piers, plywood, paper pulp, and telephone poles. Tannins were also extracted from the bark for tanning leather. Although larger trees are no longer available for milling, much chestnut wood has been reclaimed from historic barns to be refashioned into furniture and other items.


title: American chestnut

text: "Wormy" chestnut refers to a defective grade of wood that has insect damage, having been sawn from long-dead, blight-killed trees. This "wormy" wood has since become fashionable for its rustic character.


title: American chestnut

text: The American chestnut is not considered a particularly good patio shade tree because its droppings are prolific and a considerable nuisance. Catkins in the spring, spiny nut pods in the fall, and leaves in the early winter can all be a problem. These characteristics are more or less common to all shade trees, but perhaps not to the same degree as with the chestnut. The spiny seed pods are a particular nuisance when scattered over an area frequented by people.


title: Perpignan

text: Perpignan (, , ; ; ; ) is the prefecture of the Pyrénées-Orientales department in southern France, in the heart of the plain of Roussillon, at the foot of the Pyrenees a few kilometres from the Mediterranean Sea and the scrublands of the Corbières massif. It is the centre of the Perpignan Méditerranée Métropole metropolitan area.


title: Perpignan

text: In 2016 Perpignan had a population of 121,875 ("Perpignanais(e)" in French, "Perpinyanés(a)" in Catalan) in the commune proper, and the metropolitan area had a total population of 268,577, making it the last major French city before the Spanish border. Perpignan is also sometimes seen as the "Entrance" of the Iberian Peninsula.


title: Perpignan

text: Perpignan was the capital of the former province and County of Roussillon ("Rosselló" in Catalan) and continental capital of the Kingdom of Majorca in the 13th and 14th centuries. It has preserved an extensive old centre with its "bodegas" in the historic centre, coloured houses in a series of picturesque streets and alleys stretching between the banks of the Têt and its tributary, the Basse.


title: Perpignan

text: The city is also known for its International Photojournalism Festival, its medieval Trobades and its centuries-old garnet industry.


title: Perpignan

text: Perpignan is located in the center of the Roussillon plain, 13 km west of the Mediterranean coast. It is the southernmost of the cities of metropolitan France.


title: Perpignan

text: Perpignan is crossed by the largest river in Roussillon, the Têt, and by one of its tributaries, the Basse. Floods have occurred, as in 1892 when the rising of the Têt in Perpignan destroyed 39 houses, leaving more than 60 families homeless.


title: Perpignan

text: Perpignan has a typical Mediterranean climate (Köppen "Csa") similar to much of the Mediterranean coastline of France. One might expect rain to be rare in the city, but in fact the annual precipitation levels are similar to the national average. However, the city is known for its patchy rains, with weeks or even months of rain falling in a matter of hours, followed by weeks and weeks without a drop of water. Perpignan experiences very hot summers and fairly mild winters. For decades, there has been no snow most of the time and temperatures can reach 40 °C (104 °F). Most of the precipitation occurs in the cold season, with extremely dry summers. A fresh north-westerly wind often blows, the Tramontana (French: Tramontane, pronounced [tʁamɔ̃tan]), keeping the sky clear much of the time, resulting in high annual sunshine. But the presence of this wind makes winters colder than they should be from the geographical position of the city.


title: Perpignan

text: Perpignan is served by the Gare de Perpignan railway station, which offers connections to Paris, Barcelona, Toulouse, and several regional destinations. Salvador Dalí proclaimed the station to be the "Cosmic Centre of the Universe" after experiencing a vision of cosmogonic ecstasy there in 1963.


title: Perpignan

text: The name of Perpignan appears in 927 as "Perpinianum", followed in 959 by "Villa Perpiniano", "Pirpinianum" in the 11th century, "Perpiniani" in 1176. "Perpenyà", which appears in the 13th century, is the most common form until the 15th century, and was still used in the 17th century. It probably derives from the Roman name "Perpennius".


title: Perpignan

text: Though settlement in the area goes back to Roman times, the medieval town of Perpignan seems to have been founded around the beginning of the 10th century. Shortly afterwards, Perpignan became the capital of the counts of Roussillon. Historically, it was part of the region known as Septimania. In 1172 Count Girard II bequeathed his lands to the Counts of Barcelona. Perpignan acquired the institutions of a partly self-governing commune in 1197. French feudal rights over Roussillon were given up by Louis IX in the Treaty of Corbeil.


title: Perpignan

text: When James I the Conqueror, king of Aragon and count of Barcelona, founded the Kingdom of Majorca in 1276, Perpignan became the capital of the mainland territories of the new state. The succeeding decades are considered the golden age in the history of the city. It prospered as a centre of cloth manufacture, leather work, goldsmiths' work, and other luxury crafts. King Philippe III of France died there in 1285, as he was returning from his unsuccessful crusade against the Aragonese Crown.


title: Perpignan

text: In 1344 Peter IV of Aragon annexed the Kingdom of Majorca and Perpignan once more became part of the County of Barcelona. A few years later it lost approximately half of its population to the Black Death. It was attacked and occupied by Louis XI of France in 1463; a violent uprising against French rule in 1473 was harshly put down after a long siege, but in 1493 Charles VIII of France, wishing to conciliate Castile in order to free himself to invade Italy, restored it to Ferdinand II of Aragon.


title: Perpignan

text: Again besieged and captured by the French during the Thirty Years' War in September 1642, Perpignan was formally ceded by Spain 17 years later in the Treaty of the Pyrenees, and thereafter remained a French possession.


title: Perpignan

text: In June 2020, it was reported that the National Rally's Louis Aliot won the mayor election in Perpignan. it would be the first time that the Marine Le Pen's party has won a city of more than 100,000 people.


title: Perpignan

text: More than 10 000 students from 2 to 12 years old attend 61 preschools and primary schools in the city. Perpignan also has 26 highschools.


title: Perpignan

text: Since 2004, the free three-day "Guitares au Palais" is held each year in the last weekend of August in the Palace of the Kings of Majorca. The festival has a broad mainstream focus with pop-related music as well as traditional acoustic guitar music and alternative music. The festival has attracted international guests like Caetano Veloso (2007), "Rumberos Catalans", Pedro Soler, Bernardo Sandoval, Peter Finger, and Aaron and Bryce Dessner (2008).


title: Perpignan

text: Each September, Perpignan hosts the internationally renowned Visa pour l'Image festival of photojournalism. Free exhibitions are mounted in the Couvent des Minimes, Chapelle des Dominicaines and other buildings in the old town.


title: Perpignan

text: In 2008, Perpignan became Capital of Catalan Culture. In Perpignan many street name signs are in both French and Catalan.


title: Perpignan

text: Like the rest of the south of France, Perpignan is a rugby stronghold: their rugby union side, USAP Perpignan, is a regular competitor in the global elite Heineken Cup and seven times champion of the French Top 14 (most recently in 2009). They play at the Stade Aimé Giral.


title: Perpignan

text: A Perpignan-based rugby league club plays in British Super League under the name Catalans Dragons. The Dragons' games in Perpignan against the Northern English-based sides are usually very popular with British rugby fans, with thousands of them descending on the city on the day of the game, including many vacationing rugby fans travelling up from the Spanish Costa Brava joining the ones who came directly from home. The club was founded in 2000 as the merger of XIII Catalan with nearby neighbours AS Saint Estève to form Union Treiziste Catalane. The club is based at Stade Gilbert Brutus. The youth teams reformed as Saint-Estève XIII Mavericks, while a French top league semi-professional club was retained under the name Saint-Estève XIII Catalan; both play at the Stade Municipal in the in Saint-Estève suburb.


title: Perpignan

text: The local association football team is Canet Roussillon FC, there is also an Australian rules football club Perpignan Tigers and American football club Grizzlys Catalans.


title: Perpignan

text: The Roussillon Grand Prix was a Grand Prix motor racing event that was held between 1946 and 1949 in the streets of Perpignan.


title: Perpignan

text: Traditional commerce was in wine, olive oil, corks (the cork oak "Quercus suber" grows in Perpignan's mild climate), wool, leather, and iron. In May 1907 it was a seat of agitation by southern producers for government enforcement of wine quality following a collapse in prices. JOB rolling papers are currently manufactured in Perpignan.


title: Perpignan

text: The 13th century Palace of the Kings of Majorca sits on the high citadel, surrounded by ramparts, reinforced for Louis XI and Charles V, which were updated in the 17th century by Louis XIV's military engineer Vauban.


title: Perpignan

text: The walls surrounding the town, which had been designed by Vauban, were razed in 1904 to accommodate urban development. The main city door, the Castillet is a small fortress built in the 14th century, which has been preserved. It had also been used as a prison until the end of the 19th century.


title: Perpignan

text: The Hôtel Pams is a lavishly-decorated mansion designed for Jules Pams that illustrates the artistic taste of the wealthy bourgeois at the turn of the 20th century.


title: Perpignan

text: Les Halles de Vauban are a new addition to the banks of the city's canal. Opened in November 2017 the indoor markets are privately owned and cost €1.5 million. Split into two locations, vendors offer fresh fruit and vegetables, bread, flowers, cheese, etc. There is a bar and central eating court with a range of tapas, burgers, omelettes and food from around the world.


title: Perpignan

text: Following a visit in 1963, the Catalan surrealist artist Salvador Dalí declared the city's railway station the centre of the Universe, saying that he always got his best ideas sitting in its waiting room. Dalí's painting "La Gare de Perpignan" commemorates his vision of "cosmogonic ecstasy" there on 19 September 1963. He followed that up some years later by declaring that the Iberian Peninsula rotated precisely at Perpignan station 132 million years ago – an event the artist invoked in his 1983 painting "Topological Abduction of Europe – Homage to René Thom". Above the station is a monument in Dali's honour, and across the surface of one of the main platforms is painted, in big letters, «perpignan centre du monde» (French for "perpignan centre of the world").


title: Multiple-camera setup

text: The multiple-camera setup, multiple-camera mode of production, multi-camera or simply multicam is a method of filmmaking and video production. Several cameras—either film or professional video cameras—are employed on the set and simultaneously record or broadcast a scene. It is often contrasted with a single-camera setup, which uses one camera.


title: Multiple-camera setup

text: Generally, the two outer cameras shoot close-up shots or "crosses" of the two most active characters on the set at any given time, while the central camera or cameras shoot a wider master shot to capture the overall action and establish the geography of the room. In this way, multiple shots are obtained in a single take without having to start and stop the action. This is more efficient for programs that are to be shown a short time after being shot as it reduces the time spent in film or video editing. It is also a virtual necessity for regular, high-output shows like daily soap operas. Apart from saving editing time, scenes may be shot far more quickly as there is no need for re-lighting and the set-up of alternative camera angles for the scene to be shot again from the different angle. It also reduces the complexity of tracking continuity issues that crop up when the scene is reshot from the different angles.


title: Multiple-camera setup

text: Drawbacks include a less optimized lighting setup that needs to provide a compromise for all camera angles and less flexibility in putting the necessary equipment on scene, such as microphone booms and lighting rigs. These can be efficiently hidden from just one camera but can be more complicated to set up and their placement may be inferior in a multiple-camera setup. Another drawback is in the usage of recording capacity, as a four-camera setup may use (depending on the cameras involved) up to four times as much film (or digital storage space) per take compared with a single-camera setup.


title: Multiple-camera setup

text: A multiple-camera setup will require all cameras to be synchronous to assist with editing and to avoid cameras running at different scan rates, with the primary methods being SMPTE timecode and Genlock.


title: Multiple-camera setup

text: Most films use a single-camera setup, but in recent decades larger films have begun to use more than one camera on set, usually with two cameras simultaneously filming the same setup. However, this is not a true multiple-camera setup in the television sense.


title: Multiple-camera setup

text: Some films will run multiple cameras, perhaps four or five, for large, expensive and difficult-to-repeat special effects shots, such as large explosions. Again, this is not a true multiple-camera setup in the television sense as the resultant footage will not always be arranged sequentially in editing, and multiple shots of the same explosion may be repeated in the final film—either for artistic effect or because the different shots can appear to show different explosions since they are taken from different angles.


title: Multiple-camera setup

text: Multiple-camera setups are an essential part of live television. The multiple-camera method gives the director less control over each shot but is faster and less expensive than a single-camera setup. In television, multiple-camera is commonly used for light entertainment, sports events, news, soap operas, talk shows, game shows, variety shows, and some sitcoms, especially ones filmed before a live studio audience.


title: Multiple-camera setup

text: Multiple cameras can take different shots of a live situation as the action unfolds chronologically and is suitable for shows which require a live audience. For this reason, multiple camera productions can be filmed or taped much faster than single camera. Single-camera productions are shot in takes and various setups with components of the action repeated several times and out of sequence; the action is not enacted chronologically so is unsuitable for viewing by a live audience.


title: Multiple-camera setup

text: In multiple-camera television, the director creates a line cut by instructing the technical director (vision mixer in UK terminology) to switch between the feeds from the individual cameras. This is either transmitted live, or recorded. In the case of sitcoms with studio audiences, this line cut is typically displayed to them on studio monitors. The line cut might be refined later in editing, as often the output from all cameras is recorded, both separately (a technique known as "ISO" recording). The camera currently being recorded to the line cut is indicated by a tally light controlled by a camera control unit (CCU) on the camera as a reference both for the talent and the camera operators, and an additional tally light may be used to indicate to the camera operator that they are being ISO recorded.


title: Multiple-camera setup

text: A sitcom shot with a multiple-camera setup will require a different form of script to a single-camera setup.


title: Multiple-camera setup

text: The use of multiple film cameras dates back to the development of narrative silent films, with the earliest (or at least earliest known) example being the first Russian feature film "Defence of Sevastopol" (1911), written and directed by Vasily Goncharov and Aleksandr Khanzhonkov. When sound came into the picture multiple cameras were used to film multiple sets at a single time. Early sound was recorded onto wax discs that could not be edited.


title: Multiple-camera setup

text: The use of multiple video cameras to cover a scene goes back to the earliest days of television; three cameras were used to broadcast "The Queen's Messenger" in 1928, the first drama performed for television. The first drama performed for British television was Pirandello’s play "The Man With the Flower in His Mouth" in 1930, using a single camera. The BBC routinely used multiple cameras for their live television shows from 1936 onward.


title: Multiple-camera setup

text: Before the pre-recorded continuing series became the dominant dramatic form on American television, the earliest anthology programs (see the Golden Age of Television) utilized multiple camera methods.


title: Multiple-camera setup

text: Although some claim the multiple-camera setup was pioneered for television when producer and co-star, Desi Arnaz, associate producer, Al Simon, and cinematographer Karl Freund of Desilu Productions used it to film "I Love Lucy" in 1951; other producers had been using the technique for several years.


title: Multiple-camera setup

text: According to Thomas Schatz, Jerry Fairbanks is the first to develop a 16mm multi-camera system to film a made-for-TV show when he used it to shoot the pilot episode of "Public Prosecutor" in 1947. Fairbanks went on to film 26 episodes for a planned network premiere in September 1948, but it was pulled from the schedule, and the show didn't air until 1951.


title: Multiple-camera setup

text: Assisted by producer-director Frank Telford, Fairbanks also used a multi-camera system to film Edgar Bergen’s "Silver Theater" which aired in the 1949-50 season. He continued working with this system for the pilot of "Truth or Consequences" in April 1950. When Al Simon joined Ralph Edwards Productions in producing "Truth or Consequences" several months later, he improved the system by substituting 35mm film for 16mm film and adding a more sophisticated intercom system.


title: Multiple-camera setup

text: The technique was used for the CBS comedy "The Amos 'n Andy Show", which was filmed at the Hal Roach Studios and was on the air four months before "I Love Lucy".


title: Multiple-camera setup

text: In 1949, Ray Culley of Cinécraft Productions, a sponsored film studio, filmed the first TV infomercial, "Home Miracles for the 1950s", for Vitamix using the technique. Culley also used the technique for three made-for-television TV series featuring Louise Winslow, a pioneer in sewing, cooking, and craft "how-to" programs on daytime television - "Adventures in Sewing" (1950), "Food Is Fun" (1950), and "Kitchen Chats" (1950). A 1950 article in "Printers Ink", “Three-Camera Technique used to shoot TV film,” discussed Cinécraft’s innovative production style. In 1966, the studio made a film, “Cinécraft, Inc. Multi-camera Filming Technique Demonstration,” showing how the technique works and describing rear screen projection and teleprompters, other innovative technologies of the era


title: Multiple-camera setup

text: In the late 1970s, Garry Marshall was credited with adding the fourth camera (known then as the "X" Camera, and occasionally today known as the "D" Camera) to the multi-camera set-up for his series "Mork & Mindy". Actor Robin Williams could not stay on his marks due to his physically active improvisations during shooting, so Marshall had them add the fourth camera just to stay on Williams so they would have more than just the master shot of the actor. Soon after, many productions followed suit and now having four cameras (A, B, C and X/D) is the norm for multi-camera situation comedies.


title: Multiple-camera setup

text: Sitcoms shot with the multiple camera setup include nearly all of Lucille Ball's TV series, as well as "Mary Kay and Johnny", "Our Miss Brooks", "The Dick Van Dyke Show"," The Mary Tyler Moore Show", "All in the Family", "Three's Company", "Cheers", "The Cosby Show", "Full House", "Seinfeld", "Family Matters", "The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air", "Mad About You", "Friends", "The Drew Carey Show", "Frasier", "Will & Grace", "Everybody Loves Raymond", "The King of Queens", "Two and a Half Men", "The Big Bang Theory", "Mike & Molly", "Last Man Standing", "Mom", "2 Broke Girls", "The Odd Couple", "One Day at a Time", "Man with a Plan", "Carol's Second Act", and "Bob Hearts Abishola". Many American sitcoms from the 1950s to the 1970s were shot using the "single camera" method, including "The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet", "Leave It to Beaver", "The Andy Griffith Show", "The Addams Family", "The Munsters", "Get Smart", "Bewitched", "I Dream of Jeannie", "Gilligan's Island", "Hogan's Heroes", and "The Brady Bunch". The earliest seasons of "Happy Days" were filmed using a single-camera setup before the series transitioned to a multi-camera setup (which also occurred alongside its increase in popularity). These did not have a live studio audience, and by being shot single-camera, tightly edited sequences could be created, along with multiple locations and visual effects such as magical appearances and disappearances. Multiple-camera sitcoms were more simplified but have been compared to theatre work due to their similar setup and use of theatre-experienced actors and crew members.


title: Multiple-camera setup

text: While the multiple-camera format dominated US sitcom production in the 1970s and 1980s, there has been a recent revival of the single-camera format with programs such as "Malcolm in the Middle" (2000–2006), "Scrubs" (2001–2010), "Entourage" (2004–2011), "The Office" (2005–2013), "My Name Is Earl" (2005–2009), "Everybody Hates Chris" (2005–2009), "It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia" (2005–present), "30 Rock" (2006–2013), "Glee" (2009–2015), "Modern Family" (2009–2020), "The Middle" (2009–2018), "Community" (2009–2015), "Parks and Recreation" (2009–2015), "Raising Hope" (2010–2014), "Louie" (2010–2015), "The Goldbergs" (2013-present), "Black-ish" (2014-2022), "Superstore" (2015–2021), "Silicon Valley" (2014-2019), "Schitt's Creek (Canada)" (2015-2020), "American Housewife" (2016–present), and "Young Sheldon" (2017–present).


title: Multiple-camera setup

text: The majority of British sitcoms and dramas from the 1950s to the early 1990s were made using a multi-camera format. Unlike the United States, the development of completed filmed programming, using the single camera method, was limited for several decades. Instead, a "hybrid" form emerged using (single camera) filmed inserts, generally location work, which were mixed with interior scenes shot in the multi-camera electronic studio. It was the most common type of domestic production screened by the BBC and ITV. However, as technology developed, some drama productions were mounted on location using multiple electronic cameras. Many all-action 1970s programs, such as "The Sweeney" and "The Professionals" were shot using the single camera method on 16mm film. Meanwhile, by the early 1980s, the most highly budgeted and prestigious television productions, like "Brideshead Revisited" (1981), had begun to use film exclusively.


title: Multiple-camera setup

text: By the later 1990s, soap operas were left as the only TV drama being made in the UK using multiple cameras. Television prime-time dramas are usually shot using a single-camera setup.


title: CBC Television

text: CBC Television (also known as CBC TV) is a Canadian English-language broadcast television network owned by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, the national public broadcaster. The network began operations on September 6, 1952. Its French-language counterpart is Ici Radio-Canada Télé.


title: CBC Television

text: With main studios at the Canadian Broadcasting Centre in Toronto, CBC Television is available throughout Canada on over-the-air television stations in urban centres, and as a must-carry station on cable and satellite television providers. CBC Television can also be live streamed on its CBC Gem video platform. Almost all of the CBC's programming is produced in Canada. Although CBC Television is supported by public funding, commercial advertising revenue supplements the network, in contrast to CBC Radio and public broadcasters from several other countries, which are commercial-free.


title: CBC Television

text: CBC Television provides a complete 24-hour network schedule of news, sports, entertainment and children's programming; in most cases, feeding the same programming at the same local times nationwide, except to the Newfoundland Time Zone, where programs air 30 minutes "late".


title: CBC Television

text: On October 9, 2006, at 6:00 a.m., the network switched to a 24-hour schedule, becoming one of the last major English-language broadcasters to transition to such a schedule. Most CBC-owned stations previously signed off the air during the early morning hours (typically from 1:00 a.m. to 6:00 a.m.).


title: CBC Television

text: Instead of the infomercials aired by most private stations, or a simulcast of CBC News Network in the style of BBC One's nightly simulcast of BBC News Channel, the CBC uses the time to air repeats, including local news, primetime series, films and other programming from the CBC library.


title: CBC Television

text: Its French counterpart, Ici Radio-Canada Télé, which continued to sign off every night for several years thereafter, now broadcasts a simulcast of its sister news network Ici RDI after regular programming ends for the night until the next programming day begins.


title: CBC Television

text: While historically there has been room for regional differences in the schedule, as there is today (see "Stations", below), for CBC-owned stations, funding has decreased to the point that most of these stations no longer broadcast any significant local programming beyond local newscasts and an edition of the summer regional documentary series "Absolutely Canadian".


title: CBC Television

text: Until 1998, the network carried a variety of American programs in addition to its core Canadian programming, directly competing with private Canadian broadcasters such as CTV and Global. Since then, it has restricted itself to Canadian programs, a handful of British programs, and a few American films and off-network repeats. Since this change, the CBC has sometimes struggled to maintain ratings comparable to those it achieved before 1995, although it has seen somewhat of a ratings resurgence in recent years. In the 2007–08 season, popular series such as "Little Mosque on the Prairie" and "The Border" helped the network achieve its strongest ratings performance in over half a decade.


title: CBC Television

text: In 2002, CBC Television and CBC News Network became the first broadcasters in Canada that are required to provide closed captioning for all of their programming. On those networks, only outside commercials need not be captioned, though a bare majority of them are aired with captions. All shows, bumpers, billboards, promos and other internal programming must be captioned. The requirement stems from a human rights complaint filed by deaf lawyer Henry Vlug, which was settled in 2002.


title: CBC Television

text: The CBC's flagship newscast, "", airs Sunday through Fridays at 10:00 p.m. local time (except in Newfoundland, where it airs at 10:30 p.m.) and Saturdays at 6:00 p.m. EST. Until October 2006, CBC owned-and-operated stations aired a second broadcast of the program at 11:00 p.m.; this later broadcast included only the main news portion of the program, and excluded the analysis and documentary segment. This second airing was later replaced with other programming, and as of the 2012-13 television season, was replaced on CBC's major market stations by a half-hour late newscast. There is also a short news update, at most, on late Saturday evenings. During hockey season, this update is usually found during the first intermission of the second game of the doubleheader on "Hockey Night in Canada".


title: CBC Television

text: The show is also simultaneously broadcasts rolling coverage from CBC News Network from noon to 1 p.m. local time in most time zones (also from 6 to 7 a.m. in regions where a local CBC Radio One morning show is not simulcast instead).


title: CBC Television

text: In addition to the mentioned late local newscasts, CBC stations in most markets fill early evenings with local news programs, generally from 5:00 p.m. to 6:30 p.m., while most stations also air a single local newscast on weekend evenings (comprising a supper hour broadcast on Saturdays and a late evening newscast on Sundays). Weekly newsmagazine "the fifth estate" is also a CBC mainstay, as are documentary series such as "Doc Zone".


title: CBC Television

text: One of the most popular shows on CBC Television is the weekly Saturday night broadcast of NHL hockey games, "Hockey Night in Canada". It has been televised by the network since 1952. During the NHL lock-out and subsequent cancellation of the 2004–05 hockey season, CBC instead aired various recent and classic films, branded as "Movie Night in Canada", on Saturday nights. Many cultural groups criticized this and suggested the CBC air games from minor hockey leagues; the CBC responded that most such broadcast rights were already held by other groups, but it did base each "Movie Night" broadcast from a different Canadian hockey venue. Other than hockey, CBC Sports properties included Toronto Raptors basketball, Toronto FC soccer, and various other amateur and professional events.


title: CBC Television

text: The telecast of the Olympics including Summer and Winter Olympic Games at Canadian television on CBC's broadcast started in 1956. It has the rights to broadcast the Olympic Games until 2024.


title: CBC Television

text: It was also the exclusive carrier of Canadian Curling Association events during the 2004–05 season. Due to disappointing results and fan outrage over many draws being carried on CBC Country Canada (now called Cottage Life), the association tried to cancel its multiyear deal with the CBC signed in 2004. After the CBC threatened legal action, both sides eventually came to an agreement under which early-round rights reverted to TSN. On June 15, 2006, the CCA announced that TSN would obtain exclusive rights to curling broadcasts in Canada as of the 2008–09 season, shutting the CBC out of the championship weekend for the first time in 40-plus years.


title: CBC Television

text: CBC Sports suffered another major blow when it was announced that after the 2007 season, the CFL regular season games and the Grey Cup would be moving to TSN, ending the CBC's tenure with the CFL. It has been stated that the CFL was not happy with the CBC's lacklustre production during the CBC's 2005 union lock-out, which forced the network to use CBC management to work the behind the scenes telecast and use stadium public address announcers in place of their regular announcer crew.


title: CBC Television

text: On June 23, 2007, the network aired the first game in a two-year deal to broadcast Toronto Blue Jays games; the contract ended at the end of the 2008 season, and was not renewed.


title: CBC Television

text: In August 2007, it was also announced that the CBC would broadcast National Basketball Association games involving the Toronto Raptors, starting with the 2007–08 NBA season, through at least 2009–10; the CBC would carry 10 games for the 2007–08 and 20 games for the 2008-09 and 2009–10 seasons.


title: CBC Television

text: In November 2013, CBC lost its rights to the NHL to Rogers Communications, under a 12-year deal beginning in the 2014–15 NHL season. The CBC concurrently announced a sub-licensing agreement with Rogers, under which it would supply Sportsnet-produced "Hockey Night in Canada" broadcasts to CBC Television at no charge; all advertising during the broadcasts would be sold by Rogers, but the CBC would be provided with advertising time for its own programs. Officially, the broadcasts are carried by a CRTC-licensed part-time network operated by Rogers and affiliated with all CBC Television stations. This was required to formally assign responsibility for the broadcasts to Rogers; on-air, the telecasts otherwise use CBC branding and continuity.


title: CBC Television

text: As a result of funding reductions from the federal government and decreased revenues, in April 2014, CBC announced it would no longer bid for professional sport broadcasting rights.


title: CBC Television

text: Among CBC Television's best-known primetime series are comedy series "Rick Mercer Report" (2004–18), "This Hour Has 22 Minutes" (since 1993) and "Little Mosque on the Prairie" (2007–12), and dramas such as "The Tudors" (2007–10), "Heartland" (since 2007) and "Intelligence" (2006–07). In recent years, British series such as "Coronation Street" and "Doctor Who" have been given greater prominence. As noted above, it now carries very little American programming apart from some syndicated daytime shows.


title: CBC Television

text: In 2006, the CBC announced radical changes to its primetime line-up, including the following new series to premiere that fall:


title: CBC Television

text: Many were surprised by these changes to the CBC schedule, which were apparently intended to attract a younger audience to the network; some suggested they might alienate the core CBC viewership. Another note of criticism was made when the network decided to move "" in some time zones to simulcast the American version of "The One" over the summer. This later became a moot point, as "The One" was taken off the air after two weeks after extremely low American and Canadian ratings, and the newscast resumed its regular schedule.


title: CBC Television

text: In 2006, daytime programming was also revamped. While there were still repeats of CBC and foreign series, new talk shows such as "The Gill Deacon Show" (2006–07) and the regional franchise "Living" (2007–09) were aired. "The Gill Deacon Show" was cancelled after just seven months, and replaced with another talk show, "Steven and Chris" from 2008 to 2015 ("Steven and Chris" is also shown on the Live Well Network in the United States); "Living" was cancelled in August 2009.


title: CBC Television

text: On January 9, 2007, the CBC began airing a highly publicized new series called "Little Mosque on the Prairie" (2007–12), a comedy about a Muslim family living in rural Saskatchewan. The series garnered strong ratings as well as international media attention, for most of its five year run. It was also announced that Martha Stewart's daytime show would be added to the CBC daytime line-up, with the nighttime "Wheel of Fortune" and "Jeopardy!" following in September 2008 (with a few edits to limit the amount of U.S. advertising).


title: CBC Television

text: In January 2008, CBC Television launched the drama series "The Border" (2008–10), "MVP" (2008) and "jPod" (2008), the reality series "The Week The Women Went" (2008–09) and the comedy "Sophie" from 2008 to 2009. Only "The Border" and "Sophie" were renewed for a second season in the fall of 2008. The new series "Being Erica" (2009–10) and the short-lived "Wild Roses" (2009) began airing in January 2009.


title: CBC Television

text: Beginning in 2005, the CBC has contributed production funds for the BBC Wales revival of "Doctor Who", for which it received a special credit at the end of each episode. This arrangement continued until the end of fourth season, broadcast in 2008. The CBC similarly contributed to the first season of the spin-off series, "Torchwood". More recently, the network has also begun picking up Canadian rights to some Australian series, including the drama series "Janet King" and "Love Child", and the comedy-drama series "Please Like Me".


title: CBC Television

text: CBC Gem is CBC Television's video-on-demand platform; it includes streaming of live and on-demand programming from CBC Television, a number of short-form comedy, drama, and non-fiction web series; Canadian feature-length, short, and documentary films, and selected international programming from other public broadcasters around the world.


title: CBC Television

text: The service is available via the web and as a mobile app (formerly the CBC TV app). Gem also offers a premium subscription including ad-free video on-demand, as well as CBC News Network. New and upcoming shows like TopLine can be watched on CBC Gem.


title: CBC Television

text: Children's programming, often marketed as "CBC Kids" and "The Outlet", occupies most of the morning hours on weekdays and much of weekend mornings.


title: CBC Television

text: On March 5, 2005, CBC Television launched a high definition simulcast of its Toronto (CBLT-DT) and Montreal (CBMT-DT) stations. Since that time, the network has also launched HD simulcasts in Vancouver (CBUT-DT), Ottawa (CBOT-DT), Edmonton (CBXT-DT), Calgary (CBRT-DT), Halifax (CBHT-DT), Windsor, (CBET-DT), Winnipeg (CBWT-DT), and St. John's (CBNT-DT). CBC HD is available nationally via satellite and on digital cable as well as for free over-the-air using a regular TV antenna and a digital tuner (included in most new television sets) on the following channels:


title: CBC Television

text: All HD channels map to their analogue positions via the North American PSIP virtual channeling standard.


title: CBC Television

text: In fall 2007, the CBC upgraded its Toronto facilities, becoming the second fully HD news broadcaster in Canada. "The National" and all its news programs originating from the same news studio in Toronto (including "CBC News: Sunday Night") are now available in HD.


title: CBC Television

text: On September 1, 2011, as part of the analogue television shutoff and digital conversion, all CBC over-the-air HD broadcasts switched from the 1080i to 720p resolution format.


title: CBC Television

text: In August 2012, after the CBC shut down all of their remaining analogue transmitters, CBC television (as well as CBC News Network) began broadcasting all programming solely in the aspect ratio and began letterboxing its widescreen feed for standard definition viewers just as Ici Radio-Canada Télé has done since September 2007.


title: CBC Television

text: All CBC television stations, including those in major cities, are owned and operated by the CBC itself. CBC owned-and-operated (O&O) stations operate as a mostly seamless national service with few deviations from the main network schedule, although there are some regional differences from time to time. For on-air identification, most CBC stations use the CBC brand rather than their call letters, not identifying themselves specifically until sign-on or sign-off (though some, like Toronto's CBLT, do not ID themselves at all except through PSIP). All CBC O&O stations have a standard call letter naming convention, in that the first two letters are "CB" (an ITU prefix in the CA-CE block allocated not to Canada (whose block is CF-CK), but to Chile) and the last letter is "T". Only the third letter varies from market to market; however, that letter is typically the same as the third letter of the CBC Radio One and CBC Radio 2 stations in the same market. An exception to this rule are the CBC North stations in Yellowknife, Whitehorse and Iqaluit, whose call signs begin with "CF" due to their historic association with the CBC's Frontier Coverage Package prior to the advent of microwave and satellite broadcasting.


title: CBC Television

text: Some stations that broadcast from smaller cities were private affiliates of the CBC, that is, stations which are owned by commercial broadcasters but predominantly incorporated CBC programming within their schedules. Such stations "generally" followed the CBC schedule, airing a minimum 40 hours per week of network programming. However, they often chose to opt out of some CBC programming in order to air locally produced programs, syndicated series or programs purchased from other broadcasters, such as CTV Two, which do not have a broadcast outlet in the same market. In these cases, the CBC programming being displaced may have been broadcast at a different time than the network, or were not broadcast on the station at all. Most private affiliates generally opted out of CBC's afternoon schedule and Thursday night arts programming. Private affiliates carried the 10 p.m. broadcast of "" as a core part of the CBC schedule, but generally omitted the 11 p.m. repeat (which is no longer broadcast). Most private affiliates produce their own local newscasts for a duration of at least 35 minutes. Some of the private affiliates later began adding CBC's overnight programming to their schedules since the network began broadcasting 24 hours a day in October 2006.


title: CBC Television

text: Following the disaffiliation of the last privately owned CBC affiliate CKSA-DT in Lloydminster on August 31, 2016, no more private stations operate as CBC affiliates, as many such stations have been purchased either by the CBC itself or by Canwest Global or CHUM Limited, respectively becoming E! (a small system owned by Canwest, but separate from its fully national Global Television Network) or A-Channel (later A, now CTV Two) stations. One private CBC affiliate, CHBC-TV in Kelowna, joined E! (then known as CH) on February 27, 2006. When a private CBC affiliate reaffiliated with another network, the CBC normally added a retransmitter of its nearest O&O station to ensure that CBC service is continued. However, due to an agreement between CHBC and CFJC-TV in Kamloops, CFJC also disaffiliated from the CBC on February 27, 2006, but no retransmitters were installed in the licence area. Former private CBC affiliates CKPG-TV Prince George and CHAT-TV Medicine Hat disaffiliated on August 31, 2008, and joined E!, but the CBC announced it would not add new retransmitters to these areas. Incidentally, CFJC, CKPG and CHAT are all owned by an independent media company, Jim Pattison Group. With the closure of E! and other changes in the media landscape, several former CBC affiliates subsequently joined CTV, Citytv or Global, or closed altogether.


title: CBC Television

text: According to filings to the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) by Thunder Bay Electronics (owner of CBC's Thunder Bay affiliate CKPR-DT) and Bell Media (owner of CBC affiliates CFTK-TV in Terrace and CJDC-TV in Dawson Creek), the CBC informed them that it would not extend its association with any of its private affiliates beyond August 31, 2011. Incidentally, that was also the date for analogue to digital transition in Canada. Given recent practice and the CBC's decision not to convert any retransmitters to digital, even in markets with populations in the hundreds in thousands, it was not expected that the CBC would open new transmitters to replace its affiliates, and indeed pared back its existing transmitter network to just its digital transmitters in July 2012. However, in March 2011, CKPR announced that it had come to a programming agreement with the CBC, in which the station would continue to provide CBC programming in Thunder Bay for a period of five years.


title: CBC Television

text: On March 16, 2012, Astral Media announced the sale of its assets to Bell Media, owners of CTV and CTV Two, for $3.38 billion with CFTK and CJDC included in the acquisition. Both stations subsequently became CTV Two stations.


title: CBC Television

text: CBC television stations in Nunavut, the Northwest Territories and Yukon, branded as CBC North, tailor their programming mostly to the local native population, and broadcast in many native languages such as Inuktitut, Gwichʼin and Dene.


title: CBC Television

text: From 1994 through July 2005, CBC Television's news programming was aired in the United States on Newsworld International.


title: CBC Television

text: On September 11, 2001, several American broadcasters without their own news operations, including C-SPAN and Home Shopping Network, carried the CBC's coverage of the terror attacks in New York City and Washington, D.C. In the days after September 11, C-SPAN carried CBC's nightly newscast, "", anchored by Peter Mansbridge.


title: CBC Television

text: Several PBS stations also air some CBC programs, especially "The Red Green Show", although no CBC programming currently airs on the full network schedule.


title: CBC Television

text: For a number of years CBC co-produced a news programme, "Hemispheres", with Australia's national broadcaster, the ABC; the program was hosted from Sydney and Vancouver and included reports from both networks' foreign correspondents. It was broadcast in both Canada and Australia and across Asia and the Pacific on the Australia Network.


title: CBC Television

text: CBC Television stations can be received over-the-air or through cable in many American communities along the Canada–United States border, and have a significant audience in those areas.


title: CBC Television

text: CBC's sports coverage has also attained high viewership in border markets, including its coverage of the NHL's Stanley Cup Playoffs, which was generally considered to be more complete and consistent than coverage by other networks such as NBC. Its coverage of the Olympic Games also found a significant audience in border regions, primarily due to the fact that CBC aired more events live than NBC's coverage, which had been criticized in recent years for tape delaying events to air in primetime, even if the event is being held in a market in the Pacific Time Zone during primetime hours on the East (where it would still be delayed for West Coast primetime).


title: CBC Television

text: The CRTC ordered that in 28 "mandatory markets," full power over-the-air analogue television transmitters had to cease transmitting by August 31, 2011. Broadcasters could either continue serving those markets by transitioning analogue transmitters to digital or cease broadcasting over-the-air. Cable, IPTV, and satellite services are not involved or affected by this digital transition deadline.


title: CBC Television

text: While its fellow Canadian broadcasters converted most of their transmitters to digital by the Canadian digital television transition deadline of August 31, 2011, CBC converted only about half of the analogue transmitters in mandatory areas to digital (15 of 28 markets with CBC Television stations, and 14 of 28 markets with Télévision de Radio-Canada stations). Due to financial difficulties reported by the corporation, the corporation published digital transition plans for none of its analogue retransmitters in mandatory markets to be converted to digital by the deadline. Under this plan, communities that receive analogue signals by rebroadcast transmitters in mandatory markets would lose their over-the-air signals as of the deadline. Rebroadcast transmitters account for 23 of the 48 CBC and Radio-Canada transmitters in mandatory markets. Mandatory markets losing both CBC and Radio-Canada over-the-air signals include London, Ontario (metropolitan area population 457,000) and Saskatoon, Saskatchewan (metro area population 257,000). In both of those markets, the corporation's television transmitters are the only ones that were not planned to be converted to digital by the deadline.