title: Johor Bahru

text: As the capital city of Johor, the city plays an important role in the economic welfare of the entire state's population. There is one member of parliament (MP) representing the single parliamentary constituency ("P.160") in the city. The city also elects two representatives to the state legislature from the state assembly districts of Larkin and Stulang.


title: Johor Bahru

text: The city is administered by the Johor Bahru City Council. The current mayor is Dato' Haji Mohd Noorazam bin Dato' Haji Osman, which took office since 15 August 2021. Johor Bahru obtained city status on 1 January 1994. The area under the jurisdiction of the Johor Bahru City Council includes Central District, Kangkar Tebrau, Kempas, Larkin, Majidee, Maju Jaya, Mount Austin, Pandan, Pasir Pelangi, Pelangi, Permas Jaya, Rinting, Tampoi, Tasek Utara and Tebrau. This covers an area of . Currently there are 11 council members in the city council, which consists of 3 Amanah members, 3 Bersatu members, 3 DAP members and 2 PKR members. In August 2021, mayor Adib Azhari Daud was arrested and taken into custody for allegedly accepting bribes from contractors while overseeing development of Johor Bahru. The arrest marks the first time an active Johor mayor has been arrested.


title: Johor Bahru

text: The city high court complex is located along Dato' Onn Road. The Sessions and Magistrate Courts is located on Ayer Molek Road, while another court for Sharia law is located on Abu Bakar Road. The Johor (state) Police Contingent Headquarters is located on Tebrau Road. Johor Bahru's Southern District police headquarters, which also operates as a police station, is on Meldrum Road in the city centre. The Johor Bahru Southern District traffic police headquarters is a separate entity along Tebrau Road, close to the city centre. Johor Bahru's Northern District police headquarters and Northern District Traffic Police headquarters are co-located in Skudai, about 20 km north of the city centre. There are around eleven police stations and seven police substations (Pondok Polis) in the greater Johor Bahru area. Johor Bahru Prison was located in the city along Ayer Molek Road, but was closed down after 122 years operation in December 2005, its function being transferred to an expanded prison in the town of Kluang about 110 km from Johor Bahru. Other temporary lock-ups or prison cells are available in most police stations in the city, as in other parts of Malaysia.


title: Johor Bahru

text: Johor Bahru is located along the Straits of Johor at the southern end of Peninsular Malaysia. Originally, the city area was only in 1933 before it was expanded to over in 2000.


title: Johor Bahru

text: The city has an equatorial climate with consistent temperatures, a considerable amount of rain, and high humidity throughout the course of the year. An equatorial climate is a tropical rainforest climate more subject to the Intertropical Convergence Zone than the trade winds and with no cyclone. Daily average temperatures range from in January to in April with an average annual rainfall of around . The wettest months, with 19 to 25 percent more rain than average, are April, November and December. Although the climate is relatively uniform, it does show some seasonal variation due to the effects of monsoons, with noticeable changes in wind speed and direction, cloud cover and amount of rainfall. There are two monsoon periods each year, the first one between mid-October and January, which is the north-east Monsoon. This period is characterised by heavier rainfall and wind from the north-east. The second one is the south-west Monsoon, which hardly affects the rainfall in Johor Bahru, where winds are from the south and south-west. This occurs between June and September.


title: Johor Bahru

text: Johor Bahru has an official demonym where people are commonly referred to as "Johor Bahruans". The terms "J.B-ites" and "J.B-ians" have also been used to a limited extent. People from Johor are called Johoreans.


title: Johor Bahru

text: The Malaysian Census in 2010 reported the population of Johor Bahru as 497,067. The city's population today is a mixture of three main ethnicities - Malays, Chinese and Indians- along with other bumiputras. Malays comprise a plurality of the population at 240,323, followed by Chinese totalling 172,609, Indians totaling 73,319 and others totalling 2,957. Non-Malaysian citizens form a population of 2,585. The Malays in Johor Bahru are strongly related to the neighbouring Riau Malays. The Chinese mainly are from the majority Teochew, Hokkien, Hainanese, and Hakka dialect groups, while the Indian community mainly and predominantly are Tamils, there are also small populations of Telugus, Malayalis and Sikh Punjabis. The Malays are majority Muslims, while the Chinese are predominantly Buddhists and the Indian were mostly Hindus despite there is also a small numbers from the two ethnic groups that are Christians and Muslims. A small number of Sikhs, Taoists, Animists, and secularists can also be found in the city.


title: Johor Bahru

text: The local ethnic Malays speak the Malay language, while the language primarily spoken by the local Chinese is Mandarin Chinese. The Chinese community is represented by several dialect groups: Teochew, Hainanese, Hakka and Hokkien.


title: Johor Bahru

text: The Indian community predominantly speaks Tamil (also lingua franca among all Indians), with a minority of Malayalam, Telugu and Punjabi speakers. The English language (or Manglish) is also used considerably, albeit more so among the older generation, who have attended school during the British rule.


title: Johor Bahru

text: Johor Bahru is one of the fastest-growing cities in Malaysia after Kuala Lumpur. It is the main commercial centre for Johor and is located in the Indonesia–Malaysia–Singapore Growth Triangle. Tertiary-based industry dominates the economy with many international tourists from the regions visiting the city. It is the centre of financial services, commerce and retail, arts and culture, hospitality, urban tourism, plastic manufacturing, electrical and electronics and food processing. The main shopping districts are located within the city, with a number of large shopping malls located in the suburbs. Johor Bahru is the location of numerous conferences, congress and trade fairs, such as the Eastern Regional Organisation for Planning and Housing and the World Islamic Economic Forum. The city is the first in Malaysia to practise a low-carbon economy.


title: Johor Bahru

text: The city has a very close economic relationship with Singapore. There are around 3,000 logistic lorries crossing between Johor Bahru and Singapore every day for delivering goods between the two sides for trading activities. Many residents in Singapore frequently visit the city during the weekends; some of them have also chosen to live in the city. Many of the city's residents work in Singapore.


title: Johor Bahru

text: The internal roads linking different parts of the city are mostly federal roads constructed and maintained by Malaysian Public Works Department. There are five major highways linking the Johor Bahru Central Business District to outlying suburbs: Tebrau Highway and Johor Bahru Eastern Dispersal Link Expressway in the northeast, Skudai Highway in the northwest, Iskandar Coastal Highway in the west and Johor Bahru East Coast Highway in the east. Pasir Gudang Highway and the connecting Johor Bahru Parkway cross Tebrau Highway and Skudai Highway, which serve as the middle ring road of the metropolitan area. The Johor Bahru Inner Ring Road, which connects with the Sultan Iskandar customs complex, aids in controlling the traffic in and around the central business district. Access to the national expressway is provided through the North–South Expressway and Senai–Desaru Expressway. The Johor–Singapore Causeway links the city to Woodlands, Singapore with a six-lane road and a railway line terminating at the Southern Integrated Gateway.


title: Johor Bahru

text: The main bus terminal of the city is the Larkin Sentral located in Larkin. Other bus terminals include Taman Johor Jaya Bus Terminal and Ulu Tiram Bus Terminal. Larkin Sentral has direct bus services to and from many destinations in West Malaysia, southern Thailand and Singapore, while Taman Johor Jaya and Ulu Tiram Bus Terminals serve local destinations. Major bus operators in the city are Causeway Link, Maju and S&S. It is possible to get around the city by bus, though the frequency of the bus might be an issue.


title: Johor Bahru

text: Two types of taxis operate in the city; the main taxi is either in red and yellow, blue, green or red while the larger, less common type is known as a limousine taxi, which is more comfortable but expensive. Most taxis in the city do not use their meter.


title: Johor Bahru

text: The city is served by two railway stations, which are Johor Bahru Sentral railway station and Kempas Baru railway station. Both stations serve train services to Kuala Lumpur and Singapore. In 2015, a new shuttle train service operated by Keretapi Tanah Melayu (KTM) was launched providing transport to Woodlands in Singapore.


title: Johor Bahru

text: The city is served by Senai International Airport located at the neighbouring Senai town and connected through Skudai Highway. Four airlines, AirAsia (and its subsidiaries Indonesia AirAsia and Thai AirAsia), Firefly, Malaysia Airlines, Batik Air Malaysia and formerly Xpress Air, provide flights domestically as well as international flights to Jakarta Soekarno–Hatta, Surabaya, Hồ Chí Minh City, and Bangkok Don Mueang.


title: Johor Bahru

text: Boat services are available to ports in Batam and Bintan Islands in Indonesia from Stulang Laut Ferry Terminal, located near the suburb of Stulang.


title: Johor Bahru

text: There are three public hospitals, four health clinics and thirteen 1Malaysia clinics in Johor Bahru. Sultanah Aminah Hospital, which is located along Persiaran Road, is the largest public hospital in Johor Bahru as well as in Johor with 989 beds. Another government funded hospital is the Sultan Ismail Specialist Hospital with 700 beds. Another large private health facility is the KPJ Puteri Specialist Hospital with 158 beds. Further healthcare facilities are currently being expanded to improve healthcare services in the city.


title: Johor Bahru

text: Many government or state schools are available in the city. The secondary schools include English College Johore Bahru, Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Engku Aminah, Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Sultan Ismail, Sekolah Menengah Infant Jesus Convent, Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan (Perempuan) Sultan Ibrahim and Sekolah Menengah Saint Joseph. There are also a number of independent private schools in the city. These include Austin Heights, Excelsior International School, Foon Yew High School and the Sri Ara Schools. The other private universities are Raffles University Iskandar and Wawasan Open University. There are also a number of private college campuses and one polytechnic operating in the city; these are Crescendo International College, KPJ College, Olympia College, Sunway College Johor Bahru, Taylor's College and College of Islamic Studies Johor.


title: Johor Bahru

text: The Johor Public Library headquarters is the main library in the state, located off Yahya Awal Road. Another public library branch is the University Park in Kebudayaan Road, while there are other libraries or private libraries in schools, colleges, and universities. Two village libraries are available in the district of Johor Bahru.


title: Johor Bahru

text: There are a number of cultural attractions in Johor Bahru. The Royal Abu Bakar Museum located within the Grand Palace building is the main museum in the city. The Johor Bahru Kwong Siew Heritage located in Wong Ah Fook Street housed the former Cantonese clan house that was donated by Wong Ah Fook. The Foon Yew High School houses many historical documents of the city history with a Chinese cultural heritage. The Johor Bahru Chinese Heritage Museum on Ibrahim Road includes the history of Chinese migration to Johor along with a collection of documents, photos, and other artefacts.


title: Johor Bahru

text: The Johor Art Gallery in Petrie Road is a house gallery built in 1910, known as the house for the former third Chief Minister of Johor, Abdullah Jaafar. The house features old architecture and became the centre for the collection of artefacts related to Johor's cultural history since its renovation in 2000.


title: Johor Bahru

text: The Grand Palace is one of the historical attractions in the city, and is an example of Victorian-style architecture with a garden. Figure Museum is another historical colonial building since 1886 which ever become the house for the Johor first Menteri Besar Jaafar Muhammad; it is located on the top of Smile Hill ("Bukit Senyum"). The English College (now "Maktab Sultan Abu Bakar") established in 1914 was located close to the Sungai Chat Palace before being moved to its present location at Sungai Chat Road; some of the ruins are visible at the old site. The Sultan Ibrahim Building is another historical building in the city; built in 1936 by British architect Palmer and Turner, it was the centre of the administration of Johor as since the relocation from Telok Blangah in Singapore, the Johor government never had its own building. Before the current railway station was built, there was Johor Bahru railway station (formerly Wooden Railway) which has now been turned into a museum after serving for 100 years since the British colonial era.


title: Johor Bahru

text: Sultan Abu Bakar State Mosque, located along Skudai Road, is the main and the oldest mosque in the state. It was built with a combination of Victorian, Moorish and Malay architectures. The Johor Bahru Old Chinese Temple, located on the Trus Road, dedicated to the Five Patron Deities from the five Southern Chinese Clans (Hokkien, Teochew, Hakka, Cantonese & Hainanese) in the city. It was built in 1875 and renovated by the "Persekutuan Tiong Hua Johor Bahru" (Johor Bahru Tiong Hua Association) in 1994–95 with the addition of a small L-shaped museum in one corner of the square premises. The Wong Ah Fook Mansion, the home of the late Wong Ah Fook, was a former historical attraction. It stood for more than 150 years but was demolished illegally by its owner in 2014 to make way for a commercial housing development without informing the state government. Other historical religious buildings include the Arulmigu Sri Rajakaliamman Hindu Temple, Sri Raja Mariamman Hindu Temple, Gurdwara Sahib and Church of the Immaculate Conception.


title: Johor Bahru

text: The Danga Bay is a area of recreational waterfront. There are around 15 established golf courses, of which two offer 36-hole facilities; most of these are located within resorts. The city also features several paintball parks which are also used for off-road motorsports activities.


title: Johor Bahru

text: The Johor Zoo is one of the oldest zoos in Malaysia; built in 1928 covering of land, it was originally called "animal garden" before being handed to the state government for renovation in 1962. The zoo has around 100 species of animals, including wild cats, camels, gorillas, orangutans, and tropical birds. Visitors can participate in activities such as horse riding or using pedalos. The largest park in the city is Independence Park.


title: Johor Bahru

text: Dataran Bandaraya was built after Johor Bahru was proclaimed as a city. The site features a clock tower, fountain and a large field. The "Wong Ah Fook Street" is named after Wong Ah Fook. The Tam Hiok Nee Street is named after Tan Hiok Nee, who was the leader of the former Ngee Heng Kongsi, a secret society in Johor Bahru. Together with the Dhoby Street, both are part of a trail known as Old Buildings Road; they feature a mixture of Chinese and Indian heritages, reflected by their forms of ethnic business and architecture.


title: Johor Bahru

text: Shopping malls in Johor Bahru include Komtar JBCC, KSL City, Johor Bahru City Square, R&F Mall, Holiday Plaza, Paradigm Mall Johor Bahru, The Mall Mid Valley Southkey, Toppen Shopping Centre, Plaza Pelangi, Galleria@Kotaraya, AEON Tebrau City, Paragon Market Place, AEON Permas Jaya, Pelangi Leisure Mall, AEON Mall Bandar Dato' Onn, Plaza Sentosa, Stellar Walk and Beletime Danga Bay. The Mawar Handicrafts Centre, a government-funded exhibition and sales centre, is located along the Sungai Chat road and sells various batik and songket clothes. Opposite this is the Johor Area Rehabilitation Organisation (JARO) Handicrafts Centre which sells items such as hand-made cane furniture, soft toys and rattan baskets made by the physically disabled.


title: Johor Bahru

text: The oldest cinema in the city is the Broadway Theatre which mostly screens Tamil and Hindi movies. There are around other five cinemas available in the city with all of them located inside shopping malls.


title: Johor Bahru

text: The city's main association football club is a Johor Darul Ta'zim F.C. Its home stadium is Sultan Ibrahim Stadium has a capacity of around 40,000. There is also a futsal centre, known as Sports Prima, which has eight minimum-sized FIFA approved futsal courts; it is the largest indoor sports centre in the city.


title: Johor Bahru

text: For several decades running, Johor Bahru is notorious for its relatively high crime rate, compared to other urban areas in Malaysia. In 2014, Johor Bahru South police district recorded one of the highest crime rates in the country with 4,151 cases, behind Petaling Jaya. In 2013, the city also accounted for 70% of crimes committed in the entire state of Johor, with a Johor police spokesman admitting that Johor Bahru remained a crime hotspot within the state. Crime in Johor Bahru has also received substantial media coverage by the Singaporean press, as Singaporeans visiting or transiting through the neighbouring city are often targeted by criminals.


title: Johor Bahru

text: Among the more common criminal cases in Johor Bahru are robberies, snatch theft, carjacking, kidnapping and rape. Gang and unarmed robberies accounted for about 76% of the city's criminal cases in 2013 alone. Illegal car cloning is also rampant in the city. In addition, Johor Bahru's reputation for sleaze still exists, with some areas in the city centre turning into red-light districts, despite prostitution being illegal in Malaysia.


title: Johor Bahru

text: Several countries have set up their consulates in Johor Bahru, including Indonesia and Singapore, while Japan has closed its consular office since 2014.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: Jonathan Marc Bairstow (born 26 September 1989) is an English cricketer who plays internationally for England in all formats. In domestic cricket, he represents Yorkshire, and has played in multiple Twenty20 leagues, including for Sunrisers Hyderabad and Punjab Kings in the Indian Premier League.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: Bairstow made his One Day International (ODI) and Twenty20 International (T20I) debuts in 2011, and Test debut in 2012. He was part of the England team that won the 2019 Cricket World Cup.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: Bairstow plays as a right-handed wicket-keeper-batsman. Along with Ben Stokes, he holds the world record for the highest sixth-wicket stand in Tests: 399 against South Africa during England's 2015-16 tour.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: Bairstow was born on 26 September 1989 in Bradford, West Yorkshire, the second son of former Yorkshire and England wicket-keeper David Bairstow and the younger half-brother of former Derbyshire player Andrew Bairstow. He displayed early talent when he was chosen as the inaugural winner of the "Young Wisden Schools Cricketer of the Year" award, after scoring 654 runs in 2007 for St Peter's School, York. Bairstow also played for the Leeds United youth football team.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: During the 2008 season, Bairstow played second XI cricket for Yorkshire. In six championship matches, he scored 308 runs at an average of 61.60. He was called up to the first-team squad for the final County Championship match of the season against Sussex but failed to make the starting eleven. He nevertheless signed a two-year contract with Yorkshire.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: Bairstow began the 2009 season playing second XI cricket but after scoring 202 not out against Leicestershire seconds, he was called up into the first-team match with Somerset when Michael Vaughan was ruled out through injury. On his first-class debut he top scored in the second innings with an unbeaten 82. In Somerset's second innings he took over the gloves from an injured Gerard Brophy and took four catches.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: Bairstow was a regular in the Yorkshire team in 2010, playing 16 first-class matches and scoring 918 runs. He averaged more than 40 for a second successive season, but could not convert any of his eight fifties into a maiden century. His performances led to selection for the England Performance Programme squad to tour Australia in 2010/11.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: He took the gloves for the 2011 season and started well with the bat by scoring his first century against Nottinghamshire in May, finishing on 205. He was the only Yorkshire batsman to score over 1000 runs in the season and on the back of his strong performances was called up to the England one day squad.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: Bairstow was a member of the England ODI squad for their match against Ireland in August 2011; however, he was not picked to play. He made his debut the following month after he was called up for the final ODI against India. Playing as a specialist batsman, he scored an unbeaten 41 off just 21 balls to help England reach a Duckworth-Lewis adjusted total. His innings included three sixes, the first off just the fifth ball he faced, and he was named Man of the Match.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: On 11 October 2011, Bairstow hit a century off 53 balls as England beat a Hyderabad Cricket Association XI – during a warm up for a series against India.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: On 25 February 2012, Bairstow was named man of the match in the second T20 of the series between Pakistan and England at Dubai International Cricket Stadium. England won the match.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: After a successful start to the 2012 season, scoring two hundreds for Yorkshire, Bairstow was named in the England squad for the first test against the West Indies at Lord's, an injury having ruled Ravi Bopara out of selection. This was Bairstow's test debut, and close family friend and former Yorkshire and England cricketer, Geoff Boycott, presented him with his cap.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: Bairstow was selected to play for the England Lions in one of the warm-up games for this series. He came in as the 7th batsman and scored 50 runs before being caught by Ravi Rampaul. Bairstow also made 5 catches throughout the match.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: Bairstow made his debut in the 1st Test against the West Indies at Lord's. Bairstow's first major involvement in the test was when he caught Marlon Samuels for 31 runs. Bairstow came in as the Number 6 batsman in England's 1st innings and made 16 runs off 27 balls hitting 3 fours however he was out from an LBW bowled by Kemar Roach. Bairstow finished the series on a positive note (with England taking the series 2–0) and with an overall score of 38 runs.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: Bairstow was not selected for the first two Tests as England went with Ravi Bopara (for the 1st Test) and handed James Taylor his debut in the Second Test for the 2012 South Africa series. However, he was recalled to the side for the 3rd Test and he made 95 in the first innings against South Africa before being bowled by an excellent ball from fast bowler Morne Morkel. He left the field to a standing ovation. In the second innings, England were set 345 to win, Bairstow came in with England struggling (Jonathan Trott was the only batsman to get into double figures) and he played some good shots but finally was bowled by Imran Tahir for 54 runs, this was not enough to help England to victory and South Africa won the match and won the series 2–0. He finished the Test series with 149 runs (the 5th highest scoring England player) having only played 1 Test. Bairstow was then dropped for the first ODI in favour of Ravi Bopara who had an excellent ODI series against Australia.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: Bairstow was selected in the England squad for the 2012 ICC World Twenty20 in Sri Lanka. Jonny played in England's first group game against Afghanistan, he came in as the number 6 batsman and made 12 runs from 10 balls before being caught to help England to get 196 runs for 5 wickets. In Afghanistan's chase he caught Asghar Stanikzai off a Stuart Broad ball to assist England to a 116 run victory. The second and final group game was against India, England won the toss and sent India in to bat. Bairstow caught Virat Kohli from a Graeme Swann ball when Kohli was on 40, however India got to 170 runs in 20 overs setting England a target of 171. England's batting order failed and Jonny was bowled by Piyush Chawla for 1 run, England only made 80 runs (which was their worst for a Twenty20 International) and lost the match by 90 runs. They still qualified for the Super 8 stage. The first match in the Super 8's was against eventual champions West Indies, Bairstow took an important wicket when he caught opener Johnson Charles on 84 off of a Jade Dernbach bowl. He made amends against New Zealand as he caught opener Rob Nicol for 11 runs and then helped run out James Franklin who was on 50 and looking to really threaten England, Bairstow was needed in the 18th over and made 5 runs in 2 balls to help England to a 6 wicket win. Bairstow was selected as the wicket keeper against Sri Lanka, he caught Kumar Sangakkara on 13 but his performance as the number 3 batter was poor as he only made 2 runs on the way to a 19 runs loss to Sri Lanka. This loss meant England were knocked out of the World Twenty20 and the West Indies took England's title as World Twenty20 champions.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: Bairstow was included in the squad which travelled to India. Bairstow was selected to play in the Second Test after Ian Bell went home for the birth of his child. His first involvement of the test series came when he caught Zaheer Khan (India's last wicket) from a Graeme Swann bowl. He came in to bat as the 5th batsmen however he only managed 9 runs before he was caught by Gautam Gambhir, however Bairstow's dismissal was full of controversy as the ball hit the catcher's helmet first. Jonny continued to do well in the fielding department by catching India's dangerman Cheteshwar Pujara (who had scored a double century in the 1st Test and a century in the 1st Innings of the Second Test) for 6 runs which put England on the front foot in the Second Test. He also caught Yuvraj Singh off a Monty Panesar bowl. However he was dropped for the 3rd Test as Ian Bell returned to the tour following the birth of his child. He was selected for the T20 and ODI teams however he withdrew from both squads due to the illness of a family member , he was replaced by fellow Yorkshire man Joe Root on both occasions.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: Bairstow was chosen to play in the first Twenty20 match of the series, he lost the wicket-keeping spot to Jos Buttler after Buttler put in a couple of great performances in the warm ups, this meant Bairstow would be used as specialist batsman coming in at number 5. He helped England to a 40 run win in the 1st T20I by smashing 38 runs in 22 balls before being caught by Martin Guptill, he also caught New Zealand danger man Ross Taylor on 13. In the Second T20I he caught Ross Taylor on 4 runs and also Colin Munro on 7 runs. Bairstow also played in the 3rd T20I, whilst fielding he caught both Brendon McCullum and Ross Taylor before they could post a decent score, he was not required to bat in England's successful run chase and finished up a 2–1 T20 series winner.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: He was selected as the number 6 batsman for the 3rd Test as Kevin Pietersen was injured so Joe Root moved up to number 5 and struggled with innings of 3 and 6.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: Not long after the series in New Zealand the Black Caps travelled to tour round England. Bairstow was selected in the ODI squad for the New Zealand's 2013 tour of England. His first involvement in the tour was to play for the England Lions against New Zealand in a four-day warm up match, where he batted at number 6 and got 68 runs before getting out to an LBW. He was selected for the 1st Test at number 6 due to the absence of Kevin Pietersen. He top scored for England in the 1st innings after getting 41 runs off 107 balls. Bairstow retained his place for the Second Test at Headingley where he came in and hit 64 off 99 balls and was involved in a 124 partnership with fellow Yorkshireman Joe Root. In the second innings, he made 26 off 22 balls before Alastair Cook declared. Bairstow finished the series with 136 runs (England's 4th highest scorer) as England won the series 2–0.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: For the 2013 Ashes series, Bairstow was named in the squad as Nick Compton was dropped which allowed Joe Root to open the batting and leaving the number six spot free for Bairstow. . He was selected as the number six batsman for the 1st Test where he made scores of 37 and 15. In the Second Test, he made 67 off 146 balls in the first innings and 20 runs in the second innings helping England gain a 2–0 series lead.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: Bairstow was selected in the 2013-14 Ashes series squad however he did not play a match until he was called up to the team for the 4th Test. With England 3–0 down in the series Jonny replaced wicket-keeper Matt Prior after a poor run of form making Bairstow and his father the first father/son combination to keep wicket for England. In the 4th Test Jonny took 6 catches and performed well behind wicket but he could only get 10 runs in the first innings and 21 in the second innings. He finished the series with 49 runs.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: After being out of the England set up for 18 months, Bairstow was called up to the squad for the 5th ODI in New Zealand's tour of England. He replaced the injured Jos Buttler in the team and made two catches and a stumping before scoring 83* in 60 balls to help England to a win in a rain affected match. England won the match and the series 3–2.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: After being omitted from the playing squad for the first two tests of the 2015 Ashes series, Bairstow had been named to start in place of Gary Ballance as a batsman for the last three tests. In the fourth Test he scored 74 as England won the match by an innings and 78 runs.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: Bairstow kept his place in the England side for the series against Pakistan in the UAE in 2015. He made just 23 runs in the first match as England narrowly missed out on winning the game as bad light stopped play with them just short of their target. Bairstow scored 43 in England's first innings of the second Test, as they made 242. After making 41 in the first innings of the final Test, he made his first half-century of the series in his last innings, scoring 79, although it proved to be in vain as England lost the series 2–0.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: After continued poor form in the Pakistani series by Buttler, Bairstow was announced as England's first-choice wicketkeeper in Test cricket. In the first test of the 2015–16 South Africa series, Bairstow, batting at number 7, made 41 runs. He followed this with an excellent 79 from 76 balls in the second innings, as England set the hosts a target of 416 to win. England went on to win the game in convincing fashion, by 241 runs. Despite missing an earlier opportunity against AB de Villiers, he became the first England wicketkeeper to take a stumping since 2012, removing Temba Bavuma for 0 off the bowling of Moeen Ali. In the second Test at Newlands in Cape Town, Bairstow scored 150 not out to record his maiden Test century. He and Ben Stokes (who himself scored 258) put on a world record 399 for the sixth wicket, as England moved from 167–4 to 629–6 declared. England wobbled in the second innings, but Bairstow hit an unbeaten 30 to ensure the match ended in a draw. He made 45 in England's first innings of the third Test, helping them surpass South Africa's first innings total. A good performance with the ball saw England win the game by seven wickets, to take a 2–0 lead in the series.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: Bairstow scored 140 in the first game against Sri Lanka to help England out of a precarious situation in the 2016 series against England. He was named man of the match for his efforts, which also included taking nine catches, as England won the game to go 1–0 up in the series. He scored 48 in the second match, with England posting a big first innings score. He was not required to bat in the second innings as England won the match by nine wickets. He continued his excellent form into the final match of the series, where he scored an unbeaten 167 in England's first innings to help them to 416. He made 32 in the second innings, although rain ended the match, with no result being reached. England won the series 2–0, with Bairstow being awarded player of the series jointly with Kaushal Silva.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: Bairstow scored 29 in England's first innings in the first Test against Pakistan. He made 48 in the second innings, but it was not enough to prevent a defeat for England. In the second Test, he scored 58 in England's first innings total of 589/8 as they won the match by 330 runs. He made 12 in the first innings of the third Test and followed this up with 83 in the second innings to help England turn the match around and secure an unlikely win. In the final match of the series Bairstow made 55 in the first innings as England made 328, and was dismissed for 81 in the second innings as Pakistan secured a ten wicket victory. He played in the fourth ODI against Pakistan and made 61 as England won by four wickets. England lost the fifth ODI by four wickets, with Bairstow making 33, as England won the series 4–1.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: In the first Test against India in 2016, Bairstow scored 46 in England's first innings total of 537, and was not required to bat in the second innings. He also took six catches and a stumping in the match. In the second Test he made 53 in the first innings before making an unbeaten 34 in the second as England suffered a loss of 246 runs. In the third Test he made 89 in England's first innings total of 283, but after England conceded a first innings lead, he could make just 15 in the second innings as India secured an eight wicket victory. In the fourth Test he made 14 in the first innings, before making 51 in the second innings as England were dismissed for 195 to lose the match by an innings and 36 runs.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: Bairstow played in the third ODI against India and made 56 as England posted 321/8 and won by five runs, although they lost the series 2–1. In the 4th Test of the home series against South Africa, Bairstow became the ninth England wicket-keeper to take 100 Test dismissals. On 19 September 2017, Bairstow scored an unbeaten 100 against the West Indies at Old Trafford to record his first century in ODI cricket. On 29 September 2017, Bairstow scored an unbeaten 141 against the West Indies at Rose Bowl, Southampton which is the highest score by an England batsman against the West Indies in ODIs, beating the previous best of 130 made by Marcus Trescothick in 2004.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: On 15 December 2017, with Bairstow promoted to no.6 in place of the suspended Ben Stokes, he scored 119 runs against Australia. He was promoted to be an opening batsman in the limited overs series.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: In 2018, he became the first English batsman to score three consecutive centuries in One-Day Internationals. For his performances in 2018, he was named in the World ODI XI by ICC and Cricinfo. On 14 May 2019 Bairstow scored 128 off 93 balls to help England to a win over Pakistan in a One Day International at Bristol County Ground.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: He was named in the England squad for the 2019 cricket World Cup. He started the tournament with a golden duck against South Africa. Later in the tournament, he was out for another golden duck against Sri Lanka, becoming the fourth English batsman to be out for a golden duck twice in a World Cup tournament. However, he later amassed scores of 90, 111 and 109 against Afghanistan, India and New Zealand respectively. England went to win all three of these matches. England went on to qualify for the semifinal and defeated five times champions Australia in the semifinal, and eventually beat 2015 runners up New Zealand in a thrilling final. Although he scored just 36, England went on to win the match as well as the trophy after having the edge over the Black Caps on boundary count.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: Bairstow was included in England's squad for the 2019 Ashes series. He averaged 23.77 with the bat throughout the series, making just one half-century. Bairstow was dropped from England's Test squad for the tour of New Zealand, with England selector Ed Smith saying 'He does drop out of the Test squad for these two Tests in New Zealand, which are not part of the World Test Championship, and I predict he'll come back stronger for having had a bit of time away from the Test set-up', leaving open the possibility of a return, amidst calls for Bairstow to work on his technique in red ball cricket. Bairstow returned to the team as a cover for the unwell Ollie Pope, making 9 and 25 before again being dropped from the side on Pope's return. Bairstow was already in South Africa at a training camp working on his red ball technique. He was then dropped from the squad for England's tour of Sri Lanka in favour of Keaton Jennings, which was criticised by some in the media as too 'short-term' an approach.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: In July 2020, Bairstow was named in England's squad for the ODI series against Ireland, in which he played all three matches and scored 88 runs. On 6 September 2020, in the second T20I against Australia, Bairstow became the first batsman for England to be dismissed by hitting his own wicket in a T20I match.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: In September 2021, Bairstow played all six matches for England at for the 2021 ICC Men's T20 World Cup, though he finished with just 47 runs and a top score of 16. He was picked for the 2021-2022 Ashes series, though did not feature in the team until the Third Test, where he replaced Ollie Pope who had suffered a poor run of form. In the fourth test he performed well, scoring England's only century of the series and helped them hold on for a draw in the final innings. He was ruled out for the final test after being hit on the hand in a net session. He scored a century in the first test of England's tour of the West Indies later the same year.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: In June 2022, during the second test of the England v New Zealand Test series at Trent Bridge, Bairstow hit a match winning 136 off just 92 balls on the 5th day, as part of a successful England chase of 299. He was awarded man of the match for this innings. His hundred came off just 77 balls, making it the second fastest Test century by an English batsman. In the third test, Bairstow brought England back from 55-6 to score 162 at better than a run-a-ball en-route to victory. He went on to score his third and fourth centuries of the summer in the rescheduled fifth test against India - his 114 not out in the fourth innings coming as England completed a record test match chase. He was ruled out of the 2022 T20 World Cup after breaking his leg in a golf accident. For his performances in the 2022 English Summer, Bairstow was awarded the Professional Cricketers' Association Men's Cricketer of the Year and the Cricket Writers' Club Bob Willis Trophy.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: In December 2018, he was bought by the Sunrisers Hyderabad in the player auction for the 2019 Indian Premier League.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: In late November 2018, after the England v Sri Lanka Test series ended, Bairstow signed a short-term contract to play for the Kerala Kings in the T10 League in Sharjah – where he played alongside Eoin Morgan. In his second (and final) game for the franchise that year, he scored 84 not out off 24 balls – a new record in the format – helping his side record a 7 wickets win.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: In The Hundred he was signed for Welsh Fire as an England centrally contract player for the 2021 and 2022 seasons.


title: Jonny Bairstow

text: In 2017, Jonny Bairstow published a biography titled "A Clear Blue Sky", written with Duncan Hamilton. The book explores the loss of his father David Bairstow early in his life, and the journey from that to scoring his first test century, where he looks up to the sky in tribute to his dad, and sees "a clear blue sky" hence the title of the book.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: The history of slavery in the Muslim world began with institutions inherited from pre-Islamic Arabia; and the practice of keeping slaves subsequently developed in radically different ways, depending on social-political factors such as the Arab slave trade. Any non-Muslim could be enslaved. Throughout Islamic history, slaves served in various social and economic roles, from powerful emirs to harshly treated manual laborers. Early on in Muslim history slaves provided plantation labor similar to that in the early-modern Americas, but this practice was abandoned after harsh treatment led to destructive slave revolts, the most notable being the Zanj Rebellion of 869–883. Slaves were widely employed in irrigation, mining, and animal husbandry, but most commonly as soldiers, guards, domestic workers, concubines (sex slaves). Many rulers relied on military slaves (often in huge standing armies) and on slaves in administration – to such a degree that the slaves could sometimes seize power. Among black slaves, there were roughly two females to every one male. Two rough estimates by scholars of the numbers of just one group – black slaves held over twelve centuries in the Muslim world – are 11.5 million


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: while other estimates indicate a number between 12 and 15 million African slaves prior to the 20th century.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Islam encouraged the manumission of Muslim slaves as a way of expiating sins. Many early converts to Islam, such as Bilal, were former slaves. In theory, slavery in Islamic law does not have a racial or color basis, although this has not always been the case in practice. In 1990 the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam declared that "no one has the right to enslave" another human being. Many slaves were imported from outside the Muslim world.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: The Arab slave trade was most active in West Asia, North Africa, and Southeast Africa. The Ottoman slave trade exploited the human resources of eastern and central Europe and the Caucasus; the Barbary Coast slave traders raided the Mediterranean coasts of Europe and as far afield as the British Isles and Iceland. In the early 20th century (post-World War I), authorities gradually outlawed and suppressed slavery in Muslim lands, largely due to pressure exerted by Western nations such as Britain and France. Slavery in the Ottoman Empire was abolished in 1924 when the new Turkish Constitution disbanded the Imperial Harem and made the last concubines and eunuchs free citizens of the newly proclaimed republic. Slavery in Iran was abolished in 1929. Mauritania became the last state to abolish slavery – in 1905, 1981, and again in August 2007. Oman abolished slavery in 1970, and Saudi Arabia and Yemen abolished slavery in 1962 under pressure from Britain. However, slavery claiming the sanction of Islam is documented at present in the predominantly Islamic countries of the Sahel, and is also practiced by ISIS and Boko Haram. It is also practiced in countries like Libya and Mauritania – despite being outlawed.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Slavery was widely practiced in pre-Islamic Arabia, as well as in the rest of the ancient and early medieval world. The minority were European and Caucasus slaves of foreign extraction, likely brought in by Arab caravaners (or the product of Bedouin captures) stretching back to biblical times. Native Arab slaves had also existed, a prime example being Zayd ibn Harithah, later to become Muhammad's adopted son. Arab slaves, however, usually obtained as captives, were generally ransomed off amongst nomad tribes. The slave population increased by the custom of child abandonment (see also infanticide), and by the kidnapping or sale of small children. Whether enslavement for debt or the sale of children by their families was common is disputed. (historian Henri Brunschvig argues it was rare, but according to Jonathan E. Brockopp, debt slavery was persistent.) Free persons could sell their offspring, or even themselves, into slavery. Enslavement was also possible as a consequence of committing certain offenses against the law, as in the Roman Empire.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Two classes of slave existed: a purchased slave, and a slave born in the master's home. Over the latter, the master had complete rights of ownership, though these slaves were unlikely to be sold or disposed of by the master. Female slaves were at times forced into prostitution for the benefit of their masters, in accordance with Near Eastern customs.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: W. Montgomery Watt points out that Muhammad's expansion of Pax Islamica to the Arabian peninsula reduced warfare and raiding, and therefore cut off the basis for enslaving freemen. According to Patrick Manning, Islamic legislations against abuse of slaves limited the extent of enslavement in the Arabian peninsula and, to a lesser degree, for the area of the entire Umayyad Caliphate, where slavery had existed since the most ancient times.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: According to Bernard Lewis, the growth of internal slave populations through natural increase was insufficient to maintain slave numbers through to modern times, which contrasts markedly with rapidly rising slave populations in the New World. He writes that


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Bernard Lewis writes: "In one of the sad paradoxes of human history, it was the humanitarian reforms brought by Islam that resulted in a vast development of the slave trade inside, and still more outside, the Islamic empire." He notes that the Islamic injunctions against the enslavement of Muslims led to the massive importation of slaves from the outside. According to Patrick Manning, Islam by recognizing and codifying slavery seems to have done more to protect and expand slavery than the reverse.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: The 'Arab' slave trade was part of the broader 'Islamic' slave trade. Bernard Lewis writes that "polytheists and idolaters were seen primarily as sources of slaves, to be imported into the Islamic world and molded-in Islamic ways, and, since they possessed no religion of their own worth the mention, as natural recruits for Islam." Patrick Manning states that religion was hardly the point of this slavery. Also, this term suggests comparison between Islamic slave trade and Christian slave trade. Propagators of Islam in Africa often revealed a cautious attitude towards proselytizing because of its effect in reducing the potential reservoir of slaves.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: In the 8th century, Africa was dominated by Arab-Berbers in the north: Islam moved southwards along the Nile and along the desert trails. One supply of slaves was the Solomonic dynasty of Ethiopia which often exported Nilotic slaves from their western borderland provinces, or from newly conquered or reconquered Muslim provinces. Native Muslim Ethiopian sultanates exported slaves as well, such as the sometimes independent sultanate of Adal.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: For a long time, until the early 18th century, the Crimean Khanate maintained a massive slave trade with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East. Between 1530 and 1780 there were almost certainly 1 million and quite possibly as many as 1.25 million white, European Christians enslaved by the Muslims of the Barbary Coast of North Africa.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: On the coast of the Indian Ocean too, slave-trading posts were set up by Muslim Arabs. The archipelago of Zanzibar, along the coast of present-day Tanzania, is undoubtedly the most notorious example of these trading colonies. Southeast Africa and the Indian Ocean continued as an important region for the Oriental slave trade up until the 19th century. Livingstone and Stanley were then the first Europeans to penetrate to the interior of the Congo basin and to discover the scale of slavery there. The Arab Tippu Tib extended his influence and made many people slaves. After Europeans had settled in the Gulf of Guinea, the trans-Saharan slave trade became less important. In Zanzibar, slavery was abolished late, in 1897, under Sultan Hamoud bin Mohammed. The rest of Africa had no direct contact with Muslim slave-traders.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: While slaves were employed for manual labour during the Arab slave trade, although most agricultural labor in the medieval Islamic world consisted of paid labour. Exceptions include the plantation economy of southern Iraq (which led to the Zanj Revolt), in 9th-century Ifriqiya (modern-day Tunisia), and in 11th-century Bahrain (during the Karmatian state).


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: A system of plantation labor, much like that which would emerge in the Americas, developed early on, but with such dire consequences that subsequent engagements were relatively rare and reduced. Slaves in Islam were mainly directed at the service sector concubines and cooks, porters and soldiers with slavery itself primarily a form of consumption rather than a factor of production. The most telling evidence for this is found in the gender ratio; among slaves traded in Islamic empire across the centuries, there were roughly two females to every male.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Outside of explicit sexual slavery, most female slaves had domestic occupations. Often, this also included sexual relations with their masters – a lawful motive for their purchase and the most common one.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Military service was also a common role for slaves. Barbarians from the "martial races" beyond the frontiers were widely recruited into the imperial armies. These recruits often advanced in the imperial and eventually metropolitan forces, sometimes obtaining high ranks.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Though the Qur'an expresses no racial prejudice against black Africans, Bernard Lewis argues that ethnocentric prejudice later developed among Arabs, for a variety of reasons: their extensive conquests and slave trade; the influence of Aristotelian ideas regarding slavery, which some Muslim philosophers directed towards Zanj (Bantu) and Turkic peoples; and the influence of religious ideas regarding divisions among humankind. By the 8th century, anti-black prejudice among Arabs resulted in discrimination. A number of medieval Arabic authors argued against this prejudice, urging respect for all black people and especially Ethiopians. By the 14th century, a significant number of slaves came from sub-Saharan Africa; Lewis argues that this led to the likes of Egyptian historian Al-Abshibi (1388–1446) writing that "[i]t is said that when the [black] slave is sated, he fornicates, when he is hungry, he steals."


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: In 2010, at the Second Afro-Arab summit Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi apologized for Arab involvement in the African slave trade, saying: "I regret the behavior of the Arabs... They brought African children to North Africa, they made them slaves, they sold them like animals, and they took them as slaves and traded them in a shameful way. I regret and I am ashamed when we remember these practices. I apologize for this."


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: In Classical Arabic terminology, female slaves were generally called "jawāri" (, s. "jāriya" ). Slave-girls specifically might be called "imā’" (, s. "ama" ), while female slaves who had been trained as entertainers or courtesans were usually called "qiyān" (, IPA /qi'jaːn/; singular "qayna", , IPA /'qaina/).


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Choosing slaves to undergo the grooming process was highly selective in the Moroccan empire. There are many attributes and skills slaves can possess to win the favour and trust of their masters. When examining master/slave relationships we are able to understand that slaves with white skin were especially valued in Islamic societies. Mode of acquisition, as well as age when acquired heavily influenced slave value, as well as fostering trusting master-slave relationships. Many times, slaves acquired as adolescents or even young adults became trusted aides and confidants of their masters. Furthermore, acquiring a slave during adolescence typically leads to opportunities for education and training, as slaves acquired in their adolescent years were at an ideal age to begin military training. In Islamic societies, it was normal to begin this process at the age of ten, lasting until the age of fifteen, at which point these young men would be considered ready for military service. Slaves with specialised skills were highly valued in Islamic slave societies. Christian slaves were often required to speak and write in Arabic. Having slaves fluent in English and Arabic was a highly valued tool for diplomatic affairs. Bi-lingual slaves like Thomas Pellow used their translating ability for important matters of diplomacy. Pellow himself worked as a translator for the ambassador in Morocco.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: In some cases, slaves would join domestic rebellions or even rise up against governors. The most renowned of these rebellions was the Zanj Rebellion.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: The Zanj Revolt took place near the city of Basra, located in southern Iraq, over a period of fifteen years (869–883 AD). It grew to involve over 500,000 slaves imported from across the Muslim empire, and claimed over “tens of thousands of lives in lower Iraq”. The revolt was said to have been led by Ali ibn Muhammad, who claimed to be a descendant of Caliph Ali ibn Abu Talib. Several historians, such as Al-Tabari and Al-Masudi, consider this revolt one of the “most vicious and brutal uprising[s]” out of the many disturbances that plagued the Abbasid central government.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Mamluks were slave-soldiers who were converted to Islam, and served the Muslim caliphs and the Ayyubid sultans during the Middle Ages. Over time, they became a powerful military caste, often defeating the Crusaders and, on more than one occasion, they seized power for themselves, for example, ruling Egypt in the Mamluk Sultanate from 1250 to 1517.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Saqaliba is a term used in medieval Arabic sources to refer to Slavs and other peoples of Central, Southern, and Eastern Europe, or in a broad sense to European slaves under Arab Islamic rule.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Through the Middle Ages up until the early modern period, a major source of slaves sent to Muslim lands was Central and Eastern Europe. Slaves of Northwestern Europe were also favored. The slaves captured were sent to Islamic lands like Spain and Egypt through France and Venice. Prague served as a major centre for castration of Slavic captives. The Emirate of Bari also served as an important port for trade of such slaves. After the Byzantine Empire and Venice blocked Arab merchants from European ports, Arabs started importing slaves from the Caucasus and Caspian Sea regions, shipping them off as far east as Transoxiana in Central Asia. Despite this, slaves taken in battle or from minor raids in continental Europe remained a steady resource in many regions. The Ottoman Empire used slaves from the Balkans and Eastern Europe. The Janissaries were primarily composed of enslaved Europeans. Slaving raids by Barbary Pirates on the coasts of Western Europe as far as Iceland remained a source of slaves until suppressed in the early 19th century. Common roles filled by European slaves ranged from laborers to concubines, and even soldiers.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: In the Muslim conquests of the 8th century, the armies of the Umayyad commander Muhammad bin Qasim enslaved tens of thousands of Indian prisoners, including both soldiers and civilians. In the early 11th century Tarikh al-Yamini, the Arab historian Al-Utbi recorded that in 1001 the armies of Mahmud of Ghazna conquered Peshawar and Waihand (capital of Gandhara) after the Battle of Peshawar in 1001, "in the midst of the land of Hindustan", and captured some 100,000 youths. Later, following his twelfth expedition into India in 1018–19, Mahmud is reported to have returned with such a large number of slaves that their value was reduced to only two to ten "dirhams" each. This unusually low price made, according to Al-Utbi, "merchants [come] from distant cities to purchase them, so that the countries of Central Asia, Iraq and Khurasan were swelled with them, and the fair and the dark, the rich and the poor, mingled in one common slavery". Elliot and Dowson refer to "five hundred thousand slaves, beautiful men, and women.". Later, during the Delhi Sultanate period (1206–1555), references to the abundant availability of low-priced Indian slaves abound. Levi attributes this primarily to the vast human resources of India, compared to its neighbors to the north and west (India's Mughal population being approximately 12 to 20 times that of Turan and Iran at the end of the 16th century).


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: The Delhi sultanate obtained thousands of slaves and eunuch servants from the villages of Eastern Bengal (a widespread practice which Mughal emperor Jahangir later tried to stop). Wars, famines and pestilences drove many villagers to sell their children as slaves. The Muslim conquest of Gujarat in Western India had two main objectives. The conquerors demanded and more often forcibly wrested both Hindu women as well as land owned by Hindus. Enslavement of women invariably led to their conversion to Islam. In battles waged by Muslims against Hindus in Malwa and the Deccan plateau, a large number of captives were taken. Muslim soldiers were permitted to retain and enslave prisoners of war as plunder.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: The first Bahmani sultan, Alauddin Bahman Shah is noted to have captured 1,000 singing and dancing girls from Hindu temples after he battled the northern Carnatic chieftains. The later Bahmanis also enslaved civilian women and children in wars; many of them were converted to Islam in captivity.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: During the rule of Shah Jahan, many peasants were compelled to sell their women and children into slavery to meet the land revenue demand.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: After the Seljuks conquered parts of Asia Minor, they brought to the devastated lands Greek, Armenian and Syrian farmers after enslaving entire Byzantine and Armenian villages and towns.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Slavery was a legal and important part of the economy of the Ottoman Empire and Ottoman society until the slavery of Caucasians was banned in the early 19th century, although slaves from other groups were still permitted. In Constantinople (present-day Istanbul), the administrative and political center of the Empire, about a fifth of the population consisted of slaves in 1609. Even after several measures to ban slavery in the late 19th century, the practice continued largely uninterrupted into the early 20th century. As late as 1908, female slaves were still sold in the Ottoman Empire. Concubinage was a central part of the Ottoman slave system throughout the history of the institution.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: A member of the Ottoman slave class, called a "" in Turkish, could achieve high status. Black castrated slaves, were tasked to guard the imperial harems, while white castrated slaves filled administrative functions. Janissaries were the elite soldiers of the imperial armies, collected in childhood as a "blood tax", while galley slaves captured in slave raids or as prisoners of war, manned the imperial vessels. Slaves were often to be found at the forefront of Ottoman politics. The majority of officials in the Ottoman government were bought slaves, raised free, and integral to the success of the Ottoman Empire from the 14th century into the 19th. Many officials themselves owned a large number of slaves, although the Sultan himself owned by far the largest number. By raising and specially training slaves as officials in palace schools such as Enderun, the Ottomans created administrators with intricate knowledge of government and a fanatic loyalty.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Ottomans practiced "devşirme", a sort of "blood tax" or "child collection", young Christian boys from Eastern Europe and Anatolia were taken from their homes and families, brought up as Muslims, and enlisted into the most famous branch of the "Kapıkulu", the Janissaries, a special soldier class of the Ottoman army that became a decisive faction in the Ottoman invasions of Europe. Most of the military commanders of the Ottoman forces, imperial administrators, and "de facto" rulers of the Empire, such as Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha and Sokollu Mehmed Pasha, were recruited in this way.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: In the East Indies, slavery was common until the end of the 19th century. The slave trade was centered on the Muslim Sultanates in the Sulu Sea: the Sultanate of Sulu, the Sultanate of Maguindanao, and the Confederation of Sultanates in Lanao (the modern Moro people). Also the Aceh Sultanate on Sumatra took part in the slave trade. The economies of these sultanates relied heavily on the slave trade.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: It is estimated that from 1770 to 1870, around 200,000 to 300,000 people were enslaved by Iranun and Banguingui slavers. These were taken by piracy from passing ships as well as coastal raids on settlements as far as the Malacca Strait, Java, the southern coast of China and the islands beyond the Makassar Strait. Most of the slaves were Tagalogs, Visayans, and "Malays" (including Bugis, Mandarese, Iban, and Makassar). There were also occasional European and Chinese captives who were usually ransomed off through Tausug intermediaries of the Sulu Sultanate.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: The scale of this activity was so massive that the word for "pirate" in Malay became "Lanun", an exonym of the Iranun people. Male captives of the Iranun and the Banguingui were treated brutally, even fellow Muslim captives were not spared. They were usually forced to serve as galley slaves on the "lanong" and "garay" warships of their captors. Within a year of capture, most of the captives of the Iranun and Banguingui would be bartered off in Jolo usually for rice, opium, bolts of cloth, iron bars, brassware, and weapons. The buyers were usually Tausug "datu" from the Sultanate of Sulu who had preferential treatment, but buyers also included European (Dutch and Portuguese) and Chinese traders as well as Visayan pirates ("renegados").


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: The economy of the Sulu sultanates was largely based on slaves and the slave trade. Slaves were the primary indicators of wealth and status, and they were the source of labor for the farms, fisheries, and workshops of the sultanates. While personal slaves were rarely sold, slave traders trafficked extensively in slaves purchased from the Iranun and Banguingui slave markets. By the 1850s, slaves constituted 50% or more of the population of the Sulu archipelago.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Chattel slaves, known as "banyaga", "bisaya", "ipun", or "ammas" were distinguished from the traditional debt bondsmen (the "kiapangdilihan", known as "alipin" elsewhere in the Philippines). The bondsmen were natives enslaved to pay off debt or crime. They were slaves only in terms of their temporary service requirement to their master, but retained most of the rights of the freemen, including protection from physical harm and the fact that they could not be sold. The "banyaga", on the other hand, had little to no rights.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Some slaves were treated like serfs and servants. Educated and skilled male slaves were largely treated well. Since most of the aristocratic classes in Sulu were illiterate, they were often dependent on the educated "banyaga" as scribes and interpreters. Slaves were often given their own houses and lived in small communities with slaves of similar ethnic and religious backgrounds. Harsh punishment and abuse were not uncommon, despite Islamic laws, especially for slave laborers and slaves who attempt to escape.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Spanish authorities and native Christian Filipinos responded to the Moro slave raids by building watchtowers and forts across the Philippine archipelago, many of which are still standing today. Some provincial capitals were also moved further inland. Major command posts were built in Manila, Cavite, Cebu, Iloilo, Zamboanga, and Iligan. Defending ships were also built by local communities, especially in the Visayas Islands, including the construction of war ""barangayanes"" ("balangay") that were faster than the Moro raiders' ships and could give chase. As resistance against raiders increased, "Lanong" warships of the Iranun were eventually replaced by the smaller and faster "garay" warships of the Banguingui in the early 19th century. The Moro raids were eventually subdued by several major naval expeditions by the Spanish and local forces from 1848 to 1891, including retaliatory bombardment and capture of Moro settlements. By this time, the Spanish had also acquired steam gunboats ("vapor"), which could easily overtake and destroy the native Moro warships.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: The slave raids on merchant ships and coastal settlements disrupted traditional trade in goods in the Sulu Sea. While this was temporarily offset by the economic prosperity brought by the slave trade, the decline of slavery in the mid-19th century also led to the economic decline of the Sultanates of Brunei, Sulu, and Maguindanao. This eventually led to the collapse of the latter two states and contributed to the widespread poverty of the Moro region in the Philippines today. By the 1850s, most slaves were local-born from slave parents as the raiding became more difficult. By the end of the 19th century and the conquest of the Sultanates by the Spanish and the Americans, the slave population was largely integrated into the native population as citizens under the Philippine government.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: The Sultanate of Gowa of the Bugis people also became involved in the Sulu slave trade. They purchased slaves (as well as opium and Bengali cloth) from the Sulu Sea sultanates, then re-sold the slaves in the slave markets in the rest of Southeast Asia. Several hundred slaves (mostly Christian Filipinos) were sold by the Bugis annually in Batavia, Malacca, Bantam, Cirebon, Banjarmasin, and Palembang by the Bugis. The slaves were usually sold to Dutch and Chinese families as servants, sailors, laborers, and concubines. The sale of Christian Filipinos (who were Spanish subjects) in Dutch-controlled cities led to formal protests by the Spanish Empire to the Netherlands and its prohibition in 1762 by the Dutch, but it had little effect due to lax or absent enforcement. The Bugis slave trade was only stopped in the 1860s, when the Spanish navy from Manila started patrolling Sulu waters to intercept Bugis slave ships and rescue Filipino captives. Also contributing to the decline was the hostility of the Sama-Bajau raiders in Tawi-Tawi who broke off their allegiance to the Sultanate of Sulu in the mid-1800s and started attacking ships trading with the Tausug ports.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Both non-Muslims and Muslims in Southeast Asia during the end of the 19th century bought Japanese girls as slaves who were imported to the region by sea. In Singapore as late as 1891, there was a regular trade in Chinese slaves by Muslim slaveowners, with girls and women sold for concubinage. However, the buying of Chinese girls in Singapore was forbidden for Muslims by a Batavia (Jakarta) based Arab Muslim Mufti, Usman bin Yahya in a fatwa because he ruled that in Islam it was illegal to buy free non-Muslims or marry non-Muslim slave girls during peace time from slave dealers and non-Muslims could only be enslaved and purchased during holy war (jihad).


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: A Chinese non-Muslim man had a female concubine who was of Muslim Arab Hadhrami Sayyid origin in Solo, the Dutch East Indies, in 1913 which was scandalous in the eyes of Ahmad Surkati and his Al-Irshad Al-Islamiya.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: In Jeddah, Kingdom of Hejaz on the Arabian peninsula, the Arab king Ali bin Hussein, King of Hejaz had in his palace 20 young pretty Javanese girls from Java (modern day Indonesia).


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: The strong abolitionist movement in the 19th century in England and later in other Western countries influenced slavery in Muslim lands. Appalling loss of life and hardships often resulted from the processes of acquisition and transportation of slaves to Muslim lands and this drew the attention of European opponents of slavery. Continuing pressure from European countries eventually overcame the strong resistance of religious conservatives who were holding that forbidding what God permits is just as great an offense as to permit what God forbids. Slavery, in their eyes, was "authorized and regulated by the holy law". Even masters persuaded of their own piety and benevolence sexually exploited their concubines, without a thought of whether this constituted a violation of their humanity. There were also many pious Muslims who refused to have slaves and persuaded others not to do so. Eventually, the Ottoman Empire's orders against the traffic of slaves were issued and put into effect.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: According to Brockopp, in the 19th century, "Some authorities made blanket pronouncements against slavery, arguing that it violated the Qurʾānic ideals of equality and freedom. The great slave markets of Cairo were closed down at the end of the nineteenth century and even conservative Qurʾān interpreters continue to regard slavery as opposed to Islamic principles of justice and equality."


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Slavery in the forms of carpet weavers, sugarcane cutters, camel jockeys, sex slaves, and even chattel exists even today in some Muslim countries (though some have questioned the use of the term slavery as an accurate description).


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: According to a March 1886 article in "The New York Times", the Ottoman Empire allowed a slave trade in girls to thrive during the late 1800s, while publicly denying it. Girl sexual slaves sold in the Ottoman Empire were mainly of three ethnic groups: Circassian, Syrian, and Nubian. Circassian girls were described by the American journalist as fair and light-skinned. They were frequently sent by Circassian leaders as gifts to the Ottomans. They were the most expensive, reaching up to 500 Turkish lira and the most popular with the Turks. The next most popular slaves were Syrian girls, with "dark eyes and hair", and light brown skin. Their price could reach to thirty "lira". They were described by the American journalist as having "good figures when young". Throughout coastal regions in Anatolia, Syrian girls were sold. The "New York Times" journalist stated Nubian girls were the cheapest and least popular, fetching up to 20 lira.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Murray Gordon said that, unlike Western societies which developed anti-slavery movements, no such organizations developed in Muslim societies. In Muslim politics, the state interpreted Islamic law. This then extended legitimacy to the traffic in slaves.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Writing about the Arabia he visited in 1862, the English traveler W. G. Palgrave met large numbers of slaves. The effects of slave concubinage were apparent in the number of persons of mixed race and in the emancipation of slaves he found to be common. Charles Doughty, writing about 25 years later, made similar reports.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: According to British explorer (and abolitionist) Samuel Baker, who visited Khartoum in 1862 six decades after the British had declared slave trade illegal, slave trade was the industry "that kept Khartoum going as a bustling town". From Khartoum slave raiders attacked African villages to the south, looting and destroying so that "surviving inhabitants would be forced to collaborate with slavers on their next excursion against neighboring villages," and taking back captured women and young adults to sell in slave markets.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: In the 1800s, the slave trade from Africa to the Islamic countries picked up significantly when the European slave trade dropped around the 1850s only to be ended with European colonisation of Africa around 1900.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: In 1814, Swiss explorer Johann Burckhardt wrote of his travels in Egypt and Nubia, where he saw the practice of slave trading: "I frequently witnessed scenes of the most shameless indecency, which the traders, who were the principal actors, only laughed at. I may venture to state, that very few female slaves who have passed their tenth year, reach Egypt or Arabia in a state of virginity."


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Richard Francis Burton wrote about the Medina slaves, during his 1853 Haj, "a little black boy, perfect in all his points, and tolerably intelligent, costs about a thousand piastres; girls are dearer, and eunuchs fetch double that sum." In Zanzibar, Burton found slaves owning slaves.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: David Livingstone wrote of the slave trade in the African Great Lakes region, which he visited in the mid-nineteenth century:


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Zanzibar was once East Africa's main slave-trading port, and under Omani Arabs in the 19th century as many as 50,000 slaves were passing through the city each year.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: At Istanbul, the sale of black and Circassian women was conducted openly, even well past the granting of the Constitution in 1908.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, slavery gradually became outlawed and suppressed in Muslim lands, due to a combination of pressures exerted by Western nations such as Britain and France, internal pressure from Islamic abolitionist movements, and economic pressures.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: By the Treaty of Jeddah, May 1927 (art.7), concluded between the British Government and Ibn Sa'ud (King of Nejd and the Hijaz) it was agreed to suppress the slave trade in Saudi Arabia. Then by a decree issued in 1936, the importation of slaves into Saudi Arabia was prohibited unless it could be proved that they were slaves at the treaty date. In 1962, all slavery practices or trafficking in Saudi Arabia was prohibited.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: By 1969, it could be observed that most Muslim states had abolished slavery, although it existed in the deserts of Iraq bordering Arabia and it still flourished in Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Oman. Slavery was not formally abolished in Yemen and Oman until the following year. The last nation to formally enact the abolition of slavery practice and slave trafficking was the Islamic Republic of Mauritania in 1981.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: During the Second Sudanese Civil War (1983-2005) people were taken into slavery; estimates of abductions range from 14,000 to 200,000.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Slavery in Mauritania was legally abolished by laws passed in 1905, 1961, and 1981. It was finally criminalized in August 2007. It is estimated that up to 600,000 Mauritanians, or 20% of Mauritania's population, are currently in conditions which some consider to be "slavery", namely, many of them used as bonded labour due to poverty.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: The issue of slavery in the Islamic world in modern times is controversial. Critics argue there is hard evidence of its existence and destructive effects. According to the Oxford Dictionary of Islam, slavery in central Islamic lands has been "virtually extinct" since the mid-20th century, though there are reports indicating that it is still practiced in some areas of Sudan and Somalia as a result of warfare.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Earlier in the 20th century, prior to the "reopening" of slavery by Salafi scholars like Shaykh al-Fawzan, Islamist authors declared slavery outdated without actually clearly supporting its abolition. This has caused at least one scholar, William Clarence-Smith, to bemoan the "dogged refusal of Mawlana Mawdudi to give up on slavery" and the notable "evasions and silences of Muhammad Qutb".


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Muhammad Qutb, brother and promoter of the Egyptian author and revolutionary Sayyid Qutb, vigorously defended Islamic slavery from Western criticism, telling his audience that "Islam gave spiritual enfranchisement to slaves" and "in the early period of Islam the slave was exalted to such a noble state of humanity as was never before witnessed in any other part of the world." He contrasted the adultery, prostitution, and (what he called) "that most odious form of animalism" casual sex, found in Europe, with (what he called) "that clean and spiritual bond that ties a maid [i.e. slave girl] to her master in Islam."


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: In recent years, according to some scholars, there has been a "reopening" of the issue of slavery by some conservative Salafi Islamic scholars after its "closing" earlier in the 20th century when Muslim countries banned slavery.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: In 2003, Shaykh Saleh Al-Fawzan, a member of Saudi Arabia's highest religious body, the Senior Council of Clerics, issued a fatwa claiming "Slavery is a part of Islam. Slavery is part of jihad, and jihad will remain as long there is Islam."


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Muslim scholars who said otherwise were "infidels". In 2016, Shaykh al-Fawzan responded to a question about taking Yazidi women as sex slaves by reiterating that "Enslaving women in war is not prohibited in Islam", he added that those who forbid enslavement are either "ignorant or infidel".


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: While Saleh Al-Fawzan's fatwa does not repeal Saudi laws against slavery, the fatwa carries weight among many Salafi Muslims. According to reformist jurist and author Khaled Abou El Fadl, it "is particularly disturbing and dangerous because it effectively legitimates the trafficking in and sexual exploitation of so-called domestic workers in the Gulf region and especially Saudi Arabia." "Organized criminal gangs smuggle children into Saudi Arabia where they are enslaved, sometimes mutilated, and forced to work as beggars. When caught, the children are deported as illegal aliens."


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: In Mauritania slavery was abolished in the country's first constitution of 1961 after independence, and abolished yet again, by presidential decree, in July 1980. The "catch" of these abolitions was that slave "ownership" was not abolished. The edict "recognized the rights of owners by stipulating that they should be compensated for their loss of property". No financial payment was provided by the state, so that the abolition amounted to "little more than propaganda for foreign consumption". Religious authorities within Mauritania assailed abolition. One leader, El Hassan Ould Benyamine, imam of a mosque in Tayarat attacked it as "not only illegal because it is contrary to the teachings of the fundamental text of Islamic law, the Koran. The abolition also amounts to the expropriation from Muslims of their goods, goods that were acquired legally. The state, if it is Islamic, does not have the right to seize my house, my wife or my slave."


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: In 1994–95, a Special Rapporteur of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights documented the physical and emotional abuse of captives by the Sudanese Army and allied militia and army. The captives were "sold as slaves or forced to work under conditions amounting to slavery". The Sudanese government responded with "fury", accusing the author, Gaspar Biro of "harboring anti-Islam and Anti-Arab sentiments". In 1999, the UN Commission sent another Special Rapporteur who "also produced a detailed examination of the question of slavery incriminating the government of Sudan." At least in the 1980s, slavery in Sudan was developed enough for slaves to have a market price the price of a slave boy fluctuating between $90 and $10 in 1987 and 1988.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Saudi Arabia is a destination for men and women from South and East Asia and East Africa trafficked for the purpose of labor exploitation, and for children from Yemen, Afghanistan, and Africa trafficking for forced begging. Hundreds of thousands of low-skilled workers from India, Indonesia, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Kenya migrate voluntarily to Saudi Arabia; some fall into conditions of involuntary servitude, suffering from physical and sexual abuse, non-payment or delayed payment of wages, the withholding of travel documents, restrictions on their freedom of movement and non-consensual contract alterations.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: The Government of Saudi Arabia does not comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking and is not making significant efforts to do so.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Libya is a major exit point for African migrants heading to Europe. International Organization for Migration (IOM) published a report in April 2017 showing that many of the migrants from Sub-Saharan Africa heading to Europe are sold as slaves after being detained by people smugglers or militia groups. African countries south of Libya were targeted for slave trading and transferred to Libyan slave markets instead. According to the victims, the price is higher for migrants with skills like painting and tiling. Slaves are often ransomed to their families and in the meantime until ransom can be paid tortured, forced to work, sometimes to death and eventually executed or left to starve if they can't pay for too long. Women are often raped and used as sex slaves and sold to brothels and private Libyan clients. Many child migrants also suffer from abuse and child rape in Libya.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: In November 2017, hundreds of African migrants were being forced into slavery by human smugglers who were themselves facilitating their arrival in the country. Most of the migrants are from Nigeria, Senegal and Gambia. They however end up in cramped warehouses due to the crackdown by the Libyan Coast Guard, where they are held until they are ransomed or are sold for labor. Libyan authorities of the Government of National Accord announced that they had opened up an investigation into the auctions. A human trafficker told Al-Jazeera that hundreds of the migrants are bought and sold across the country every week. Dozens of African migrants headed for a new life in Europe in 2018 said they were sold for labor and trapped in slavery in Algeria.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Militants insurgencies have raged in recent times in the Muslim world in places like the Palestinian territories, Syria, Chechnya, Yemen, Kashmir and Somalia, and many of them have taken prisoners of war. Despite Taliban fighting in Afghanistan for decades, they have never sought to enslave their war captives (as of 2019). The Palestinian group Hamas has held Israeli prisoners (such as Gilad Shalit). Yet Hamas, which claims to uphold Islamic law, has also never sought to enslave its prisoners.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: However, other jihadist groups have enslaved their captives, claiming sanction from Islam. In 2014, Islamic terrorist groups in the Middle East (ISIS also known as Islamic State) and Northern Nigeria (Boko Haram) have not only justified the taking of slaves in war but actually enslaved women and girls.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Abubakar Shekau, the leader of the Nigerian extremist group Boko Haram said in an interview, "I shall capture people and make them slaves". In the digital magazine "Dabiq", ISIS claimed religious justification for enslaving Yazidi women. ISIS claimed that the Yazidi are idol worshipers and their enslavement part of the old shariah practice of spoils of war. "The Economist" reports that ISIS has taken "as many as 2,000 women and children" captive, selling and distributing them as sexual slaves. ISIS appealed to apocalyptic beliefs and "claimed justification by a Hadith that they interpret as portraying the revival of slavery as a precursor to the end of the world."


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: In response to Boko Haram's Quranic justification for kidnapping and enslaving people and ISIS's religious justification for enslaving Yazidi women, 126 Islamic scholars from around the Muslim world signed an open letter in late September 2014 to the Islamic State's leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, rejecting his group's interpretations of the Qur'an and hadith to justify its actions. The letter accuses the group of instigating fitna sedition by instituting slavery under its rule in contravention of the anti-slavery consensus of the Islamic scholarly community.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: There is historical evidence of North African Muslim slave raids all along the Mediterranean coasts across Christian Europe. The majority of slaves traded across the Mediterranean region were predominantly of European origin from the 7th to 15th centuries.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Slaves were also brought into the Arab world via Central Asia, mainly of Turkic or Tartar origin. Many of these slaves later went on to serve in the armies forming an elite rank.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Slaves were often bartered for objects of various kinds: in the Sudan, they were exchanged for cloth, trinkets and so on. In the Maghreb, slaves were swapped for horses. In the desert cities, lengths of cloth, pottery, Venetian glass slave beads, dyestuffs and jewels were used as payment. The trade in black slaves was part of a diverse commercial network. Alongside gold coins, cowrie shells from the Indian Ocean or the Atlantic (Canaries, Luanda) were used as money throughout sub-saharan Africa (merchandise was paid for with sacks of cowries).


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Enslaved Africans were sold in the towns of the Arab World. In 1416, al-Maqrizi told how pilgrims coming from Takrur (near the Senegal River) brought 1,700 slaves with them to Mecca. In North Africa, the main slave markets were in Morocco, Algiers, Tripoli and Cairo. Sales were held in public places or in souks.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Potential buyers made a careful examination of the "merchandise": they checked the state of health of a person who was often standing naked with wrists bound together. In Cairo, transactions involving eunuchs and concubines happened in private houses. Prices varied according to the slave's quality. Thomas Smee, the commander of the British research ship "Ternate", visited such a market in Zanzibar in 1811 and gave a detailed description:


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: In April 1998, Elikia M'bokolo, wrote in "Le Monde diplomatique". "The African continent was bled of its human resources via all possible routes. Across the Sahara, through the Red Sea, from the Indian Ocean ports and across the Atlantic. At least ten centuries of slavery for the benefit of the Muslim countries (from the ninth to the nineteenth)." He continues: "Four million slaves exported via the Red Sea, another four million through the Swahili ports of the Indian Ocean, perhaps as many as nine million along the trans-Saharan caravan route, and eleven to twenty million (depending on the author) across the Atlantic Ocean"


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: In the 8th century, Africa was dominated by Arab-Berbers in the north: Islam moved southwards along the Nile and along the desert trails.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: The history of the slave trade has given rise to numerous debates amongst historians. For one thing, specialists are undecided on the number of Africans taken from their homes; this is difficult to resolve because of a lack of reliable statistics: there was no census system in medieval Africa. Archival material for the transatlantic trade in the 16th to 18th centuries may seem useful as a source, yet these record books were often falsified. Historians have to use imprecise narrative documents to make estimates which must be treated with caution: Luiz Felipe de Alencastro states that there were 8 million slaves taken from Africa between the 8th and 19th centuries along the Oriental and the Trans-Saharan routes.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: Olivier Pétré-Grenouilleau has put forward a figure of 17 million African people enslaved (in the same period and from the same area) on the basis of Ralph Austen's work. Ronald Segal estimates between 11.5 and 14 million were enslaved by the Arab slave trade. Other estimates place it around 11.2 million.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: There has also been a considerable genetic impact on Arabs throughout the Arab world from pre-modern African and European slaves.


title: History of slavery in the Muslim world

text: These are given in chronological order. Scholars and geographers from the Arab world had been travelling to Africa since the time of Muhammad in the 7th century.


title: Matt Bloom

text: Matthew Jason Bloom (born November 14, 1972) is an American former professional wrestler and professional football player. He is currently employed by WWE, where he is the head trainer at the WWE Performance Center in Orlando, Florida.


title: Matt Bloom

text: Bloom is best known for his in-ring appearances with WWE as Prince Albert, Albert and A-Train from 1999 to 2004, and as Lord Tensai and Tensai from 2012 to 2014, as well as for his appearances in Japan from 2005 to 2012 with All Japan Pro Wrestling (AJPW), New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) and Pro Wrestling Noah (Noah) as . Championships held by Bloom over the course of his career include the GHC Tag Team Championship, IWGP Tag Team Championship and WWF Intercontinental Championship.


title: Matt Bloom

text: Bloom was born in Peabody, Massachusetts. He attended Peabody Veterans Memorial High School, where he earned three letters in football and basketball, two in track and field, and one in baseball. Bloom also attended Camp Tevya in Brookline, New Hampshire in the early 1980s, and went on to attend the University of Pittsburgh, where he played football as an offensive tackle and an offensive guard. Bloom graduated in 1996 with a degree in sign language. Following the 1995 NFL Draft, he was signed by the San Diego Chargers as an undrafted free agent, but was eventually waived by the team. He then became a schoolteacher, teaching mathematics and English to children with behavioral problems and deaf children at Revere High School. After rewarding his three most apt students with a trip to a professional wrestling event, Bloom, who as a child had aspired to wrestle professionally, met wrestler and wrestling trainer Killer Kowalski and expressed an interest in learning how to wrestle. Kowalski invited Bloom to attend his school, and Bloom opted to leave teaching and train as a wrestler.


title: Matt Bloom

text: Bloom wrestled his first match in the WWA on May 15, 1998, facing Tiger Ali Singh in a loss, during his brief time in WWA he wrestled notable names such as Sgt. Slaughter and Bart Gunn. In November 1998, Bloom made his NWA debut losing to Shawn Stasiak. During his stay in NWA, Bloom and Bull Pain challenged Nick Dinsmore and Rob Conway for the NWA OVW Southern tag team titles ending in a no contest. He briefly wrestled as Baldo, a gimmick given to him by referee Freddy Sparta that saw him wear a fur rug to the ring.


title: Matt Bloom

text: After being introduced to talent scout Tom Prichard by George Steele, Bloom was hired by the World Wrestling Federation (WWF). After receiving supplementary training from Dory Funk Jr., Bloom was assigned to the Power Pro Wrestling developmental territory in Memphis, Tennessee, where he wrestled as Baldo. While wrestling in PPW, Bloom won both the Young Guns Championship and the Heavyweight Championship, and engaged in a feud with Memphis mainstay Jerry Lawler, where he defeated him to become the inaugural PPW Heavyweight champion.


title: Matt Bloom

text: Bloom debuted on WWF television on the April 11, 1999 episode of "Sunday Night Heat", saving Droz from a beating at the hands of Big Boss Man. Introduced as the personal body artist of Droz, Bloom was dubbed Prince Albert (a pun on the Prince Albert genital piercing), and together they formed a short-lived trio with Key. Droz and Albert continued to team together until Droz was paralyzed in October 1999, at which point Albert became the protege of the Big Boss Man. The duo separated in early 2000 following the debut of Bull Buchanan, who formed a tag team with the Big Boss Man.


title: Matt Bloom

text: In March 2000, Bloom continuing to wrestle as Prince Albert, was recruited by Trish Stratus to form a tag team with Test, with Bloom having his name shortened to Albert at WrestleMania 2000's 'All Day Long' Event in a tag team match with Test against Al Snow and Steve Blackman. The tag team, known as T & A, competed in the tag team division throughout 2000, feuding with rival tag teams such as the Dudley Boyz and the Acolytes. In December 2000, the team separated after Bloom attacked Test under the orders of Stephanie McMahon-Helmsley.


title: Matt Bloom

text: Following the dissolution of T & A, Albert had a brief feud with Test in January 2001. He competed in the 2001 Royal Rumble, being eliminated by Kane. Over the following months, he wrestled primarily at house shows and on "Jakked" and "Sunday Night Heat".


title: Matt Bloom

text: In April 2001, Albert formed a stable called X-Factor with Justin Credible and X-Pac. On the June 28 episode of "SmackDown!", Albert defeated Kane with help from Diamond Dallas Page to win the WWF Intercontinental Championship, his first and only title in the WWF. Albert later lost it to Alliance member Lance Storm on the July 23 episode of "Raw", after several wrestlers interfered. In July, Credible left X-Factor and joined The Alliance. Albert and X-Pac continued X-Factor as a tag team until November, when X-Pac was sidelined with an injury.


title: Matt Bloom

text: In late 2001, Albert was nicknamed "The Hip Hop Hippo" as he began teaming with Scotty 2 Hotty. Upon the introduction of the Brand Extension, both Albert and Scotty were assigned to the SmackDown! brand. They disbanded on the April 4, 2002 episode of "SmackDown!" when Albert attacked Scotty after the duo failed to defeat Billy and Chuck for the WWF Tag Team Championship.


title: Matt Bloom

text: Subsequently, he spent much of his time on "Velocity" until December 2002, when he joined forces with Paul Heyman and Big Show, which saw Heyman persuade him to rename himself to A-Train and debut new attire, the latter of which saw fans often chant "Shave Your Back!" at him during his matches due to his hairy torso. A-Train and Big Show lost to The Undertaker at WrestleMania XIX, after which A-Train continued the feud, culminating in a match at SummerSlam, which A-Train lost to Undertaker. A-Train then lost to Chris Benoit at No Mercy and, at Survivor Series, was on Brock Lesnar's team in a ten-man Survivor Series match in a losing effort to Kurt Angle's team, in which he was pinned by Bradshaw. He competed in the 2004 Royal Rumble match, and was eliminated by the eventual winner, Chris Benoit. After Benoit decided to wrestle Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship on the Raw brand, General Manager Paul Heyman held a SmackDown! brand-exclusive Royal Rumble, to determine who would meet Lesnar for the WWE Championship at No Way Out. A-Train was eliminated by Eddie Guerrero, who went on to win the match. A-Train was traded to the Raw brand on March 22, 2004 before making his official "Raw" debut on June 7, losing to Chris Jericho. His last match was a loss to Val Venis on "Heat". Two weeks later, he was sidelined with a torn rotator cuff and was released from his WWE contract on November 1, 2004 before he could return.