title: Financial accounting

text: The stable monetary unit assumption is not applied during hyperinflation. IFRS requires entities to implement capital maintenance in units of constant purchasing power in terms of IAS 29 Financial Reporting in Hyperinflationary Economies.


title: Financial accounting

text: Financial accountants produce financial statements based on the accounting standards in a given jurisdiction. These standards may be the Generally Accepted Accounting Principles of a respective country, which are typically issued by a national standard setter, or International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS), which are issued by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB).


title: Financial accounting

text: The accounting equation (Assets = Liabilities + Owners' Equity) and financial statements are the main topics of financial accounting.


title: Financial accounting

text: The trial balance, which is usually prepared using the double-entry accounting system, forms the basis for preparing the financial statements. All the figures in the trial balance are rearranged to prepare a profit & loss statement and balance sheet. Accounting standards determine the format for these accounts (SSAP, FRS, IFRS). Financial statements display the income and expenditure for the company and a summary of the assets, liabilities, and shareholders' or owners' equity of the company on the date to which the accounts were prepared.


title: Financial accounting

text: Asset, expense, and dividend accounts have normal debit balances (i.e., debiting these types of accounts increases them).


title: Financial accounting

text: Liability, revenue, and equity accounts have normal credit balances (i.e., crediting these types of accounts increases them).


title: Financial accounting

text: When the same thing is done to an account as its normal balance it increases; when the opposite is done, it will decrease. Much like signs in math: two positive numbers are added and two negative numbers are also added. It is only when there is one positive and one negative (opposites) that you will subtract.<br>


title: Financial accounting

text: However, it is important to note that there are instances of accounts, known as contra-accounts, which have a normal balance opposite that listed above. Examples include:


title: Financial accounting

text: Many professional accountancy qualifications cover the field of financial accountancy, including Certified Public Accountant CPA, Chartered Accountant (CA or other national designations, American Institute of Certified Public Accountants AICPA and Chartered Certified Accountant (ACCA).


title: George Gaynes

text: George Gaynes (born George Jongejans; May 16, 1917 – February 15, 2016) was a Finnish-born American singer, actor, and voice artist. Born to Dutch and Russian-Finnish parents in the Grand Duchy of Finland of the Russian Empire, he served in the Royal Netherlands Navy during World War II, and subsequently emigrated to the United States, where he became a citizen and began his acting career on Broadway.


title: George Gaynes

text: Gaynes' most recognized roles in cinema were that of Commandant Eric Lassard in the "Police Academy" series and as John Van Horn in the 1982 comedy film "Tootsie". He appeared as Senator Strobe Smithers in the hit TV show "Hearts Afire"; as the curmudgeonly but lovable foster parent Henry Warnimont on the NBC series "Punky Brewster"; as high-powered theatrical producer Arthur Feldman on "The Days and Nights of Molly Dodd", in which Gaynes' real-life wife, Allyn Ann McLerie, co-starred as his love interest; and as Frank Smith, the mob boss brought down by Luke Spencer (Anthony Geary) and Laura Spencer (Genie Francis) on the soap opera "General Hospital".


title: George Gaynes

text: Gaynes was born on May 16, 1917, in Helsinki, in what was then the Grand Duchy of Finland, part of the Russian Empire (Finland became independent that year), the son of Iya Grigorievna de Gay (later known as Lady Abdy), a Russian artist of Finnish descent, and Gerrit Jongejans, a Dutch businessman. His uncle was the actor Gregory Gaye. He was raised in France, England, and Switzerland. Gaynes graduated from the Collège Classique Cantonal near Lausanne in 1937. He also attended the Music School of Milan from 1938 to 1939, and many years later trained at the Actors Studio in New York City from 1953 to 1958.


title: George Gaynes

text: In 1940, Gaynes lived in France, but after the Battle of France and the German occupation, he escaped to the Pyrenees, but was soon arrested by the Francoist Spain police. In 1942 after his release, Gaynes intended to return to the Netherlands to join the Dutch resistance against the Nazi occupation, but instead made his way to the United Kingdom to enlist in the Royal Dutch Navy. On April 8, 1943, Gaynes was commissioned as a seaman recruit and assigned to the auxiliary ship HNLMS "Oranje Nassau", which was stationed at Holyhead in Wales. Because of his multilingualism (he spoke Dutch, English, French, Italian, and Russian), he was detached on May 1, 1943, to the Royal Navy as a translator assigned to the convoy commodore aboard , which participated during July and August 1943 in Operation Husky the Allied invasion of Sicily. On September 1, 1943, Gaynes was reassigned to the destroyer , which participated during January 1944 in the Battle of Anzio. On January 1, 1944, he was promoted to sergeant (petty officer, 1st class). After the Battle of Anzio, HMS "Wilton" was assigned to the Adriatic Sea and continued to see action during the Adriatic Campaign. On July 14, 1946, Gaynes was honorably discharged from the Royal Dutch Navy.


title: George Gaynes

text: In 1946, Gaynes returned to France, but an American theater director offered him a role in a Broadway musical and he moved to New York City later that year and became an American citizen in 1948. During this time, his best-known appearances were in "Wonderful Town", the musical version of "My Sister Eileen". Gaynes alternated between stage musicals and both comedic and dramatic plays, including his role as Bob Baker in the original production of "Wonderful Town" (1953), Jupiter in the Cole Porter musical "Out of This World" (credited as George Jongejans), Gilbert and Sullivan operettas, and as Henry Higgins in the 1964 U.S. tour of "My Fair Lady". In television, Gaynes played the role of Henry Warnimont, the eventual foster father for "Punky Brewster" in the eponymous series. He also provided the voice for Henry in the animated Ruby-Spears version of the show. Behind the camera, he directed the last episode of "WKRP in Cincinnati". Films in which he appeared include "The Way We Were", "Nickelodeon", and "Tootsie".


title: George Gaynes

text: Entering films and television in the early 1960s, Gaynes was a regular on the TV daytime dramas "Search for Tomorrow" (replacing Robert Mandan in the role of Jo's husband, Sam Reynolds) and "General Hospital" (originating the role of mobster Frank Smith), and showed up in such movies as "The Group" (1966), "Marooned" (1969), and "Doctor's Wives" (1971). He appeared in one episode of the sci-fi television series "Sliders" as the old-aged version of Quinn Mallory, played by Jerry O'Connell. In 1984, he played Commandant Lassard, the titular leader, in the first of seven "Police Academy" movies. In 1994, he played Serybryalzov in Louis Malle's acclaimed independent feature, "Vanya on 42nd Street".


title: George Gaynes

text: Gaynes was married to stage and television actress and dancer Allyn Ann McLerie from December 20, 1953 until his death; they had two children, Matthew Gaynes and Iya Gaynes Falcone Brown. Matthew was shortlisted for the Olympic team the year that President Jimmy Carter boycotted the 1980 Olympics after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Matthew died in a car crash in India in 1989.


title: George Gaynes

text: In addition to Gaynes joining the cast of his wife's series "The Days and Nights of Molly Dodd" in 1989, McLerie and he had previously worked together on "Punky Brewster", when she guest starred in a first-season episode as a love interest of Henry Warnimont's.


title: George Gaynes

text: Gaynes died at his daughter's home in North Bend, Washington, on February 15, 2016, at the age of 98.


title: Blended learning

text: Blended learning, also known as technology-mediated instruction, web-enhanced instruction, or mixed-mode instruction, is an approach to education that combines online educational materials and opportunities for interaction online with physical place-based classroom methods.


title: Blended learning

text: Blended learning requires the physical presence of both teacher and student, with some elements of student control over time, place, path, or pace. While students still attend brick-and-mortar schools with a teacher present, face-to-face classroom practices are combined with computer-mediated activities regarding content and delivery. It is also used in professional development and training settings.


title: Blended learning

text: Since blended learning is highly context-dependent, a universal conception of it is difficult. Some reports have claimed that a lack of consensus on a hard definition of blended learning has led to difficulties in research on its effectiveness. A well-cited 2013 study broadly defined blended learning as a mixture of online and in-person delivery where the online portion effectively replaces some of the face-to-face contact time rather than supplementing it.


title: Blended learning

text: Additionally, a 2015 meta-analysis that historically looked back at a comprehensive review of evidence-based research studies around blended learning, found commonalities in defining that blended learning was "considered a combination of physical f2f [face to face] modes of instruction with online modes of learning, drawing on technology-mediated instruction, where all participants in the learning process are separated by distance some of the time." This report also found that all of these evidence-based studies concluded that student achievement was higher in blended learning experiences when compared to either fully online or fully face-to-face learning experiences.


title: Blended learning

text: "Blended learning" is sometimes used in the same breath as "personalized learning" and differentiated instruction.


title: Blended learning

text: The terms "blended learning", "hybrid learning", "technology-mediated instruction", "web-enhanced instruction", and "mixed-mode instruction" are often used interchangeably in research literature.


title: Blended learning

text: Although the concepts behind blended learning first developed in the 1960s, the formal terminology to describe it did not take its current form until the late 1990s. One of the earliest uses of the term appears in a 1999 press release, in which the Interactive Learning Centers, an Atlanta-based education business, announced a change of name to EPIC Learning. The release mentions that "The Company currently operates 220 on-line courses, but will begin offering its Internet courseware using the company's Blended Learning methodology."


title: Blended learning

text: The term "blended learning" was initially vague, encompassing a wide variety of technologies and pedagogical methods in varying combinations (some making no use of technology whatsoever). In 2006, the term became more concrete with the publication of the first "Handbook of Blended Learning" by Bonk and Graham. Graham challenged the breadth and ambiguity of the term's definition, and defined "blended learning systems" as learning systems that "combine face-to-face instruction with computer mediated instruction".


title: Blended learning

text: In a report titled "Defining Blended Learning", researcher #REDIRECT Norm Friesen suggests that, in its current form, blended learning "designates the range of possibilities presented by combining Internet and digital media with established classroom forms that require the physical co‐presence of teacher and students".


title: Blended learning

text: Technology-based training emerged as an alternative to instructor-led training in the 1960s on mainframes and mini-computers. The major advantage that blended learning offers is scale, whereas one instructor can only teach so many people.


title: Blended learning

text: One example is PLATO (Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operations), a system developed by the University of Illinois and Control Data. PLATO in particular had a long history of innovations and offered coursework from elementary to the college level. Mainframe-based training had a number of interface limitations that gave way to satellite-based live video in the 1970s. The advantage here was serving people who were not as computer literate. The major challenge was the expense required to make this work.


title: Blended learning

text: In the early 1990s, CD-ROMs emerged as a dominant form of providing technology-based learning as bandwidth through 56k modems wasn't able to support very high quality sound and video. The limitation to CD-ROMs was tracking completion of coursework, so learning management systems emerged as a way to facilitate progress tracking. The aviation industry used this heavily to track how well one did on courses, how much time was spent, and where someone left off. AICC, Aviation Industry Computer-Based Training Committee, was formed in 1988 and companies such as Boeing used CD-ROMs to provide training for personnel.


title: Blended learning

text: Modern blended learning is delivered online, although CD-ROMs could feasibly still be used if a learning management system meets an institution's standards. Some examples of channels through which online blending learning can be delivered include webcasting (synchronous and asynchronous) and online video (live and recorded).


title: Blended learning

text: Solutions such as Khan Academy have been used in classrooms to serve as platforms for blended learning.


title: Blended learning

text: There is little consensus on the definition of blended learning. Some academic studies have suggested it is a redundant term. However, there are distinct blended learning models suggested by some researchers and educational think-tanks. These models include:


title: Blended learning

text: It is important to note that even blended learning models can be blended together and many implementations use some, many, or even all of these as dimensions of larger blended learning strategy. These models, for the most part, are not mutually exclusive.


title: Blended learning

text: There are many components that can comprise a blended learning model, including "instructor-delivered content, e-learning, webinars, conference calls, live or online sessions with instructors, and other media and events, for example, Facebook, e-mail, chat rooms, blogs, podcasting, Twitter, YouTube, Skype and web boards".


title: Blended learning

text: Blended instruction is reportedly more effective than purely face-to-face or purely online classes. Blended learning methods can also result in high levels of student achievement more effective than face-to-face learning.


title: Blended learning

text: By using a combination of digital instruction and one-on-one face time, students can work on their own with new concepts which frees teachers up to circulate and support individual students who may need individualized attention. "Rather than playing to the lowest common denominator – as they would in a physical classroom – teachers can now streamline their instruction to help all students reach their full potential."


title: Blended learning

text: Proponents of blended learning argue that incorporating the "asynchronous Internet communication technology" into higher education courses serves to "facilitate a simultaneous independent and collaborative learning experience".


title: Blended learning

text: This incorporation is a major contributor to student satisfaction and success in such courses. The use of information and communication technologies have been found to improve student attitudes towards learning.


title: Blended learning

text: By incorporating information technology into class projects, communication between lecturers and part-time students has improved, and students were able to better evaluate their understanding of course material via the use of "computer-based qualitative and quantitative assessment modules".


title: Blended learning

text: Blended learning also has the potential to reduce educational expenses, although some dispute that blended learning is inherently less expensive than physical classroom learning.


title: Blended learning

text: Blended learning can lower costs by putting classrooms in the online space and it essentially replaces pricey textbooks with electronic devices that students often bring themselves to class. E-textbooks, which can be accessed digitally, may also help to drive down textbook budgets. Proponents of blended learning cite the opportunity for data collection and customization of instruction and assessment as two major benefits of this approach.


title: Blended learning

text: Blended learning often includes software that automatically collects student data and measures academic progress, providing teachers, students and parents detailed students data. Often, tests are automatically scored, providing instantaneous feedback. Student logins and work times are also measured to ensure accountability. Schools with blended learning programs may also choose to reallocate resources to boost student achievement outcomes.


title: Blended learning

text: Students with special talents or interests outside of the available curricula use educational technology to advance their skills or exceed grade restrictions. Blended learning allows for personalized education, replacing the model where a teacher stands in front of the classroom and everyone is expected to stay at the same pace. "Blended learning allows students to work at their own pace, making sure they fully understand new concepts before moving on."


title: Blended learning

text: A classroom environment that incorporates blended learning naturally requires learners to demonstrate more autonomy, self-regulation, and independence in order to succeed. If teachers offer a form of initial program orientation before introducing blended learning strategies, it can better prepare students to feel confident navigating the different components and developing a stronger sense of independence.


title: Blended learning

text: Blended learning plays an important role to prime students’ learning and to then maximise in-person opportunities and resources.


title: Blended learning

text: Some online institutions connect students with instructors via web conference technology to form a digital classroom. These institutions borrow many of the technologies that have popularized online courses at the university level. Some advantages of blended learning, particularly at a Kindergarten to grade 12 level of education, can be found under the general concept of educational technology. It is also one of the most effective ways for personalized learning at scale.


title: Blended learning

text: Blended learning supports the use of standards as a way to manage quality and ease of use. This includes multiple kinds of standards: interoperability standards like the SIF specification from A4L or the Learning Tools Interoperability specification from IMS Global Consortium or academic standards like state standards and Common Core State Standards, which encourage integration of technology into a variety of subjects.


title: Blended learning

text: A learning management system, or federation of systems, helps develop a better feel for an online community where discussions can be held to better aid students.


title: Blended learning

text: This virtual learning environment helps connect professors with students without physically being present, thus making this a 'virtual cafe'. Many schools use this online tool for online classes, classwork, question & answer forums, and other school related work. Blended learning yielded positive results from the online community. Such results were compared and showed similar results from that of Alcoholics Anonymous and Weight Watchers.


title: Blended learning

text: The advantages of blended learning are dependent on the quality of the programs being implemented. Some indicators of excellent blended learning programs are "facilitating student learning, communicating ideas effectively, demonstrating an interest in learning, organizing effectively, showing respect for students, and assessing progress fairly".


title: Blended learning

text: Unless successfully planned and executed, blended learning could have disadvantages in technical aspects since it has a strong dependence on the technical resources or tools with which the blended learning experience is delivered. These tools need to be reliable, easy to use, and up to date, for them to have a meaningful impact on the learning experience.


title: Blended learning

text: There are several disadvantages to blended learning. While this type of learning does offer students the ability to go online when necessary, or learn from anywhere, there is no guarantee that each student will have access to the tools that they need to learn on the computer. Another problem that may arise is unreliable internet. Many times, the internet may be down. If the whole class does not have access to the same tools, then the teacher will not be able to keep the class on the same page. This creates a learning gap within classrooms. Unless the education system can offer reliable internet and computers to all students, it is not possible to ensure that this is an effective alternative to mainstream education.


title: Blended learning

text: IT literacy can serve as a significant barrier for students attempting to get access to the course materials, making the availability of high-quality technical support paramount. Other aspects of blended learning that can be challenging is group work because of difficulties with management in an online setting.


title: Blended learning

text: Reportedly the use of lecture recording technologies can result in students falling behind on the materials. In a study performed across four different universities, it was found that only half of the students watched the lecture videos on a regular basis, and nearly 40% of students watched several weeks' worth of videos in one sitting. This has further implications for the educator and in how much online resources need to be revealed to the student but also ensure it is at the right level for the intended student.


title: Blended learning

text: From an educator's perspective, most recently, it has been noted that providing effective feedback is more time-consuming (and therefore more expensive) when electronic media are used, in comparison to traditional (e.g. paper-based) assessments. Using e-learning platforms can be more time-consuming than traditional methods and can also come with new costs as e-learning platforms and service providers may charge user fees to educators.


title: Blended learning

text: Another critical issue is access to network infrastructure. Although the digital divide is narrowing as the Internet becomes more pervasive, many students do not have pervasive and ubiquitous access to the Internet – even in their classrooms. Any attempt to incorporate blended learning strategies into an organization's pedagogical strategy needs to account for this. This is why learning centers are built with good wi-fi connections to make sure this issue is addressed.


title: Blended learning

text: Finally, in educational fields where interprofessional simulation and clinical based placement are key components (i.e. medicine, obstetrics & gynaecology), in-person teaching remains a cornerstone of clinical skills education, and teaching via online discourse alone is not sufficient to completely replace and provide comparable learning outcomes.


title: Blended learning

text: The term "21st century literacies" was coined by The National Council of Teachers of English to describe the social nature of learning that is supported by the ability to collaborate using digital technologies in learning. These 'new literacies' are described as "skills students will need for the society in which they will work", including "strong communication and collaboration skills, expertise in technology, innovative and creative thinking skills, and an ability to solve problems". This set of skills and understandings will "prepare the workforce or citizenry for a changing, interconnected world".


title: Blended learning

text: These literacies are dynamic due to the ability to be linked to one another. According to NCTE, active, successful participants in this 21st century global society must be able to:


title: Chuck Traynor

text: Charles Everett Traynor (August 21, 1937 – July 22, 2002) was an American businessman and talent agent best known for having promoted the careers of pornographic film stars Linda Lovelace and Marilyn Chambers, both of whom were also married to him. Lovelace wrote in her autobiography "Ordeal" (1980) that Traynor was abusive during their marriage and had threatened and coerced her into her role in the pornographic film "Deep Throat" (1972).


title: Chuck Traynor

text: Traynor was a minor figure in the early US East Coast pornographic film industry and appeared in a number of short "loops" in the early 1970s, usually with his then-wife, Linda Lovelace. He was the production manager of the 1972 movie "Deep Throat".


title: Chuck Traynor

text: In a 1980 article in "Ms." magazine, "The Real Linda Lovelace", Gloria Steinem discussed Traynor and Lovelace's relationship. Steinem stated that "the myth that Lovelace loved to be sexually used and humiliated was created by her husband" and that he kept her as his prisoner. Lovelace claimed that Traynor forced her into prostitution by threatening her with a gun, repeatedly beat her, forced her to make pornography, and allowed men to rape her repeatedly. Lovelace tried to escape from Traynor three times before she was successful. She said that during "Deep Throat" one can see scars and bruises left on her legs from a beating by Traynor. According to Steinem, Traynor once stated, "When I first dated [Linda] she was so shy, it shocked her to be seen nude by a man... I created Linda Lovelace."


title: Chuck Traynor

text: In 1979, Lovelace underwent a polygraph examination in which she repeated allegations she made against Traynor. During the session the test results supported the following allegations:


title: Chuck Traynor

text: In a "Vanity Fair" article on Marilyn Chambers, whom Traynor married after Lovelace divorced him, Traynor said he considered himself a country boy in that he could live away from civilization and that if his woman said something he didn't like, he thought nothing of hitting her for it.


title: Chuck Traynor

text: Lovelace's allegations against Traynor have been disputed since she voiced them but in the second commentary on the DVD of "Inside Deep Throat," one member of the production crew of "Deep Throat" backed up Lovelace's allegation of a brutal beating that she claimed left bruises that are visible in the film. The man said his motel room was next to Lovelace and Traynor's and emphatically stated that Traynor beat Lovelace viciously at night. Marilyn Chambers later claimed that Linda's allegations "hurt Chuck," but "Deep Throat, Part 2" actress Andrea True said that most people did not like Chuck Traynor and sided with Lovelace as to her allegations.


title: Chuck Traynor

text: Traynor died at the age of 64 of a heart attack in Chatsworth, California, on July 22, 2002, three months after Lovelace died from massive trauma and internal injuries as a result of a car accident in Colorado. Lovelace's sister, Barbara Boreman, later said in an interview in "Inside Deep Throat" that she was disappointed that Traynor died before she could kill him.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: There are five types of elections in the United Kingdom: elections to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom (commonly called 'general elections' when all seats are contested), elections to devolved parliaments and assemblies, local elections, mayoral elections, and Police and Crime Commissioner elections. Within each of those categories, there may also be by-elections. Elections are held on Election Day, which is conventionally a Thursday, and under the provisions of the Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022 the timing of general elections can be held at the discretion of the Prime Minister during any five-year period. All other types of elections are held after fixed periods, though early elections to the devolved assemblies and parliaments can occur in certain situations. The five electoral systems used are: the single member plurality system (first-past-the-post), the multi-member plurality system, the single transferable vote, the additional member system, and the supplementary vote.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Elections are administered locally: in each lower-tier local authority, the polling procedure is operated by the acting returning officer or returning officer, and the compiling and maintenance of the electoral roll by the electoral registration officer (except in Northern Ireland, where the Electoral Office for Northern Ireland assumes both responsibilities). The Electoral Commission sets standards for and issues guidelines to returning officers and electoral registration officers, and is responsible for nationwide electoral administration (such as the registration of political parties and directing the administration of national referendums).


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: The total number of names in the United Kingdom appearing in Electoral Registers published on 1 December 2010 and based on a qualifying date of 15 October 2010 was 45,844,691.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: In England, anyone who will be aged 18 or over on polling day and who is a national of the United Kingdom (all forms of British nationality but excluding British protected persons), the European Union living in the UK, the Republic of Ireland, a Commonwealth country (including Fiji, Zimbabwe and the "whole" of Cyprus), can apply to the electoral registration officer in the local authority area where they reside with a 'considerable degree of permanence' to be listed in that area's Electoral Register.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: In Scotland and Wales, those fulfilling the nationality requirements (as stated in the previous paragraph), or who otherwise hold leave to remain (limited or indefinite) in the UK, who will be aged 16 or over on polling day can register to vote, as the age for voting in the Scottish Parliament and the Senedd respectively, and local elections in both countries is 16. However, voters in Scotland and Wales under 18 are not entitled to vote in UK general elections.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: A person can still register at their ordinary address if they will be away temporarily (for example, away working, on holiday, in student accommodation or in hospital). A person who has two homes (such as a university student who has a term-time address and lives at home during holidays) may be able to register to vote at both addresses as long as they are not in the same electoral area (though an elector can only vote once in any single election or referendum).


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: In addition, to qualify to appear on the Electoral Register, applicants who are Commonwealth citizens must either possess leave to enter or remain in the UK or not require such leave on the date of their application and no applicant may be a convicted person detained in prison or a mental hospital (or unlawfully at large if they would otherwise have been detained) or a person found guilty of certain corrupt or illegal practices.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: In Northern Ireland, from 1949 until 2014, a minimum of three months’ residency in the territory was required for registration. This requirement was removed in the Northern Ireland (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 2014.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Remand prisoners, voluntary patients in mental hospitals and people without a fixed place of residence can register to vote by making a declaration of local connection.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Members of HM Forces and their immediate family members have the option of registering as a service voter, by making a service declaration based on their last UK address.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: British citizens (but not other categories of British nationals) residing outside the United Kingdom can register as an overseas voter provided that they were on the Electoral Register in the UK within the previous 15 years. The 15-year period begins when they no longer appeared in the electoral register, not the date they moved abroad. British citizens who moved abroad before they turned 18 years old can still qualify for registration, with the 15-years period calculated from the date their parent(s)/guardian ceased to appear in the Electoral Register. Overseas voters can only vote in UK parliamentary elections in the constituency of their last registered UK address (or for those who moved abroad as a minor, the last registered UK address of their parent(s)/guardian). British citizens who are away overseas temporarily do not need to register as overseas electors and can register to vote in the usual way at their UK address.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Crown servants and British Council employees (as well as their spouses who live abroad) employed in a post outside the UK can register by making a Crown Servant declaration, allowing them to vote in all UK elections.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: An individual can register as an anonymous elector if his/her safety (or that of any other person in the same household) would be at risk were his/her name and address to be disclosed publicly on the Electoral Register, but the application needs to be supported by a relevant court order, injunction or an attestation by a chief police officer or a Director of Social Services.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: The right of Commonwealth and Irish citizens to vote is a legacy of the Representation of the People Act 1918, which limited the vote to British subjects. At that time, "British subjects" included the people of Ireland — then part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland — and all other parts of the British Empire. Though most of Ireland (see Ireland Act 1949) and the majority of the colonies became independent nations, their citizens have retained the right to vote if they live in the United Kingdom.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: In theory, members of the Royal Family who are not members of the House of Lords (including those who are peers who lost their right to sit following the House of Lords Act 1999) are eligible to vote, although in practice they do not exercise that right.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: In Great Britain, most electors are enrolled during the course of the annual canvass, which electoral registration officers are obliged to conduct every year between August and November. Canvass forms are sent to all households, and must be returned, otherwise a fine of £1000 can be imposed. One person in the household must confirm the details of all residents who are existing electors, which includes adding or deleting residents who have moved in or out and are eligible to register to vote.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Between December and early August, the rolling registration procedure applies instead. Applications must be submitted individually (unlike the annual canvass forms where one person is responsible for registering all eligible people in a household) using registration forms available from local electoral registration officers or the Electoral Commission's website. Although no proof of identity or address is necessary when submitting an application, the electoral registration officer can require the applicant to provide further "information" regarding the applicant's age, nationality, residence and whether or not they are disqualified and/or "evidence" to prove the applicant's age and/or nationality. Application forms can be returned to the local electoral registration officer by post, by fax or by e-mail as a scanned attachment.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: As of June 2014, as part of the Government's Digital By Default policy, voters in England and Wales can register to the electoral roll online.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Special category electors do not register through the annual canvass procedure. Instead, they submit applications at any time during the year and have to renew their electoral application periodically (every one year for overseas electors and voters with a declaration of local connection and every three years for service voters).


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: After applications are received by the electoral registration officer, he/she must add them to a list of applications (unless they are applications to register as an anonymous elector). The list is open for inspection for five working days, during which any other elector may raise an objection to an application. The electoral registration officer can initiate an application hearing if he/she considers that there are reasonable integrity concerns about the application.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: In Northern Ireland, there is no annual canvass, and instead people register individually at any time during the year. Applicants must supply their National Insurance number or, if they do not have one, make a declaration to that effect. Proof of identity, address, three months' residency in NI and date of birth must also be included with applications, which are submitted by post to the Electoral Office for Northern Ireland.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Knowingly giving false information to an electoral registration officer anywhere in the UK is an offence with a maximum penalty, upon conviction, of £5,000 and/or six months' imprisonment.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Each district council or unitary authority has an Electoral Register which is compiled by the electoral registration officer listing all registered electors. The Electoral Register contains the name, qualifying address and electoral number of every ordinary elector, the name of every special category elector (such as service voters) and the electoral number of every anonymous elector. Any elector who was not aged 18 yet at the time of registration will also have his/her date of birth printed. Each district's Electoral Register is subdivided into separate registers for each polling district.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Because the franchise differs between individual voters, various markers may be placed next to voters' names to identify in which elections they are entitled to vote. European Union citizens who are not Commonwealth or Irish citizens have their entry prefixed either with G (meaning they can only vote in local government elections) or K (meaning they can only vote in European Parliamentary and local government elections). Overseas electors are prefixed with the letter F, meaning they can only vote in European and UK Parliamentary elections. Members of the House of Lords residing in the UK are prefixed with the letter L, meaning they can only vote in European Parliamentary and local government elections, whilst peers who are overseas electors are prefixed with the letter E, indicating that they can only vote in European Parliamentary elections.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: The register is published every year on 1 December after the annual canvass period (unless there has been an election during the annual canvass period between 1 July and 1 December, in which case the publication date is 1 February in the following year). However, in 2012, because the Police and Crime Commissioner elections were held on 15 November, the annual canvass in England and Wales (excluding London) was held between July and October and the Electoral Register was published on 16 October. Between January and September, during the 'rolling registration' period, notices of alteration are published on the first working day of each month to add, remove or amend names. Notices of alteration are also published 5 working days before an election at any time of the year and just before the close of poll at any election to correct any clerical errors or to implement any court decisions. With the exception of a deceased elector who is removed from the register, any individual who is added or removed from the register must be notified by the electoral registration officer.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: There are two versions of the Register: the full register and the edited register. The full register can only be inspected under supervision at the office of the local electoral registration officer, and must be supplied free of charge to the district's returning officer, the British Library, the Electoral Commission, the Office for National Statistics (only English and Welsh Registers), the General Register Office for Scotland (only Scottish Registers), the National Library of Wales (only English and Welsh Registers), the National Library of Scotland (only English and Scottish Registers) and the relevant Boundary Commission. The edited register is available for general sale from electoral registration officers and can be used for any purpose. Electors can choose to opt out from appearing in the edited register by informing their local electoral registration officer.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Political parties are the dominant organisations in the modern UK political system. The majority of election candidates stand on behalf of political parties of varying sizes. All parties, however large or small, must be registered with the Electoral Commission to be able to operate and stand candidates. Parties must regularly report donations, loans and spending on national elections. Larger parties must also submit audited accounts on an annual basis.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Most parties will have an individual leader (some parties choose to nominate one or more "spokespersons" rather than having a "leader"). Leaders of the main parties will be those parties' "candidates" for the post of prime minister – though there is no formal position of "prime ministerial candidate" since the prime minister is appointed by the monarch rather than being elected directly. Where a party has members elected to a parliament, devolved assembly or local council, they will typically seek to follow a united position and maintain a disciplined group using the whip system.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Historically (until 2005, with the sole exception of 1923), the United Kingdom has effectively had a two party system as a result of the First-Past-The-Post system used for general and local elections. Duverger's law certainly seems borne out in the history of British parliamentary politics. Before World War I, the United Kingdom had a true two-party system: the main parties were the Tories (which became the Conservative Party) and the Whigs (which became the Liberal Party), though after Catholic Emancipation there was also a substantial Irish Parliamentary Party. After World War II, the dominant parties have been Conservative and Labour. No third party has come close to winning a parliamentary majority, although Johnston et al. wrote of the elections from 1950 to 1997, "Increasingly, a number of smaller (or third) parties has won a substantial proportion of the votes cast." Third parties and smaller parties have always polled at least 20% of the vote between them since the 1980s, while the Liberal Democrats won 62 of the 646 seats in the House of Commons in 2005, which led some spectators to regard the Westminster Parliament as a "two and a half" party system.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: More recently, in 2010 the share of the vote for the two largest parties fell to 65%, with seats won by several other parties, including nationalist parties. In 2015, televised election debates included leaders of up to seven different parties. In the general election, the Scottish National Party (SNP) won over 90% of Scottish constituencies, to become the third party in terms of seats in the House of Commons. At the same time, the UK Independence Party won nearly 13% of the UK vote (more than double the UK-wide share obtained by the SNP) to finish third in terms of popular support, yet they won only one seat. Meanwhile, the Liberal Democrats remain the third largest political party in the House of Lords, with over 100 seats.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Smaller parties receive a higher proportion of votes, and a much higher proportion of seats, in those elections which use some form of proportional system: i.e. the regional elections for the Scottish Parliament, the Senedd, Northern Ireland Assembly and London Assembly. Parties, such as Plaid Cymru, UKIP and the Green Parties perform better in these elections, which can therefore be considered to produce a multi-party system.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: It is relatively easy to stand for election as an independent candidate, although wins are very rare and usually involve special circumstances (for example Martin Bell's 1997 victory against the discredited Conservative MP Neil Hamilton was aided by the major parties standing aside and not contesting the election). Following the 2005 General Election there were three independent MPs, the highest number since 1945, however only one of these was returned in the 2010 election.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Almost any registered elector is entitled to stand for election to parliament, provided they are able to submit nomination forms signed by ten voters from the constituency they wish to contest, along with a £500 deposit (which is returned to the candidate after the election if they poll more than 5% of the vote). The selection of candidates standing for political parties is the responsibility of the party itself, and all parties follow different procedures. Per the Registration of Political Parties Act 1998, political party candidates must be authorised to stand for election for their party by their party's "nominating officer", or someone authorised in writing by the nominating officer. The three largest parties, the Conservative Party, Labour Party, and Liberal Democrats, have centrally-approved lists of candidates.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: In the Conservative Party, constituency associations select their constituency's candidates. Some associations have organised open parliamentary primaries. A Constituency Association must choose a candidate using the rules approved by, and (in England, Wales and Northern Ireland) from a list established by, the Committee on Candidates of the Board of the Conservative Party. Prospective candidates apply to the Conservative Central Office to be included on the approved list of candidates, some candidates will be given the option of applying for any seat they choose, while others may be restricted to certain constituencies. A Conservative MP can only be deselected at a special general meeting of the local Conservative association, which can only be organised if backed by a petition of more than fifty members.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: In the Labour Party, the Constituency Labour Parties (CLP) select the parliamentary general election candidates using procedures agreed by the National Executive Committee (NEC). The selection will always involve a "one member, one vote" ballot where all members of the CLP are entitled to select their candidate from a shortlist. The methods used to draw up the shortlist will vary according to the structure of the CLP, the time available before the election, and the number of candidates who express an interest in the selection. All selected candidates must attend and pass an interview conducted on behalf of the NEC - most candidates will do this before starting to apply for selections, though the interview can occur after a candidate is selected. Different procedures apply when a sitting Labour MP indicates they wish to stand for re-selection. On very rare occasions, the NEC may withdraw their endorsement of a candidate (including sitting MPs) after the selection process is complete. They exercised this power with regards to some of the MPs involved in the expenses scandal prior to the 2010 General Election.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: The Liberal Democrats operate an assessment process for members wishing to join the party's list of potential candidates. Once on the list, candidates are free to apply for selection in any constituency. The candidate in each seat is selected by local party members following a hustings.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: UKIP, the Scottish National Party and Plaid Cymru select their candidates in a similar manner to the Liberal Democrats.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: The Green Party's selections are open to all members to apply. Applicants are not shortlisted, so local parties vote directly on the full list of applicants.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: All voters must be listed on the electoral register, even if the person is otherwise qualified to vote. If, because of a clerical error, someone's name has been left off the electoral register (even though a correctly completed application form was submitted by the deadline), the electoral registration officer can amend the register up to 9pm on polling day. Because the franchise between electors varies (for example, EU citizens who are not Commonwealth or Irish citizens cannot vote in UK parliamentary elections) ballot papers are only issued after checking the marker in the electoral register before an elector's name to identify in which elections the individual is eligible to vote.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Votes can be cast either in person at a polling station, by post or by proxy. British citizens residing abroad and registered as overseas electors cannot vote at British high commissions, embassies or consulates - their votes can only be cast either in person in the constituency where they are enrolled in the United Kingdom, by proxy (who must reside in and be eligible to vote in the UK) or by post (although this option is less popular as postal ballot packs are only despatched by returning officers at 4pm, 19 working days before polling day at the earliest and must be received by the returning officer by the close of poll to be counted).


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Polling stations (also known as polling places) are open from 7am to 10pm on polling day. Voters receive a poll card from the returning officer at their local authority with details of their allocated polling place. They are not required to show their poll card (unless they are an anonymous elector) or any other form of identification at the polling place in order to vote, except in Northern Ireland, where one piece of photographic ID (current or expired) must be presented at the polling station - a NI Electoral Identity Card, a photographic NI or GB or other EEA driving licence, a British or other EU passport, a Translink 60+ SmartPass, a Translink Senior SmartPass, a Translink Blind Person's SmartPass or a Translink War Disabled SmartPass.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: At 7am when the poll opens, the presiding officer must show the empty ballot box to those who are present inside the polling station, before closing and sealing it.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Having verified and marked off the voter's name and address on the list of electors, the presiding officer or poll clerk issues the ballot paper, calling out the voter's name, elector number and polling district reference, unless the voter is an anonymous elector, in which case only his/her elector number is called out. Ballot papers cannot be issued before 7am and can only be issued after 10pm to a voter who was present in the queue at/outside the polling station at 10pm. All ballot papers contain both an official mark (e.g. a watermark or perforation) and a unique identifying number; any papers issued without both these features (even if it is the presiding officer/poll clerk's mistake) will be invalid and rejected at the count. On a separate list (called the corresponding number list) the presiding officer or poll clerk writes the voter's elector number next to the unique identifying number of the ballot paper issued. However, the secrecy of the vote is usually maintained, as at the close of the poll this list linking voters to their ballot paper numbers is sealed inside a packet which may only be opened by the order of a court if the election result is challenged. The ballot paper is folded and then handed to the voter.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: The voter marks the ballot papers in the privacy of a voting booth. Polling stations must provide a writing implement for voters; usually pencils are provided (for practical reasons, as ink pens may dry out or spill), but there is no legal requirement for voters to mark their ballot papers with a pencil (they can use their own pen instead). If the ballot paper has been spoilt, the presiding officer/poll clerk can issue a new one after the old ballot paper is cancelled. Before placing the ballot papers in the ballot box, the voter has (in theory) to show the presiding officer or the poll clerk the official mark and the unique identifying number printed on the reverse of the ballot papers.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: If a voter requests a ballot paper but someone has already voted in their name, or they are listed as having requested a postal vote, they can only cast a tendered ballot. After marking the tendered ballot in private, the voter must not place it in the ballot box. Instead, it must be returned to the presiding officer who will endorse it with the voter's name, elector number and polling district reference, before placing it in a special envelope. The voter's name and elector number is then written down in the 'List of Tendered Votes'. Although tendered ballots are not included at the count, they serve as a formal record that a voter has tried, but has been unable, to cast a vote and is evidence of a voter's concern about the conduct of an election. If a voter wants to make a complaint, marking a tendered ballot is the first step in pursuing the complaints procedure.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Voters may bring their underage children with them inside the polling station, but they may only observe the voting procedure and are not permitted to participate (for example, by marking the voter's ballot paper).


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: The presiding officer and the poll clerk(s) are responsible for maintaining order in the polling station (this includes ensuring that candidates/agents/tellers in the vicinity of the polling station do not interfere with the election process and/or impede voters' access to/from the polling station, and removing any campaign literature from inside the polling station) and ensuring the secrecy and security of all ballots cast. They are under a duty to act impartially at all times.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Candidates may appoint polling agents to observe the voting process in polling stations. These are a type of "Electoral observer", and must follow a code of practice to avaoid influencing the eleciton, or obtainting information that could predict the result.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Tellers are often present outside the polling station and record the elector number (as it appears on the Electoral Register and poll card) of those who have voted. Tellers volunteer on behalf of political parties (identifiable by their rosette), but have no legal or official status, and voters are not obliged to give them their elector number. By recording who has voted, tellers help their parties identify supporters who have not yet voted, so that they can be contacted and encouraged to vote, and offered assistance — such as transport to the polling station — if necessary.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: At the close of poll, the slot at the top of the ballot box is sealed by the presiding officer or poll clerk (the election and polling agents appointed by candidates can also apply their own seals to the boxes) before being transported 'directly and without delay' by the presiding officer to the central counting location.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Voters can apply to receive a postal ballot either for specific elections or on a permanent basis until further notice without having to give a reason (except in Northern Ireland, where voters have to give a specific reason explaining why they cannot physically attend their allocated polling station). Applications for postal ballots close at 5pm 11 working days before polling day. Postal ballots can be sent anywhere within and outside the United Kingdom, although if they are not sent to a voter's registered address, a reason must be provided to the electoral registration officer as to why the postal ballot is to be sent to an alternative address.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: The returning officer must issue and send out postal ballot packs 'as soon as is practicable' (i.e. as soon as possible after the close of nominations at 4pm 19 working days before polling day).


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Where an elector has applied for a postal ballot to be sent to an overseas address, the returning officer should prioritise the dispatch of their postal ballot packs (over those sent to UK addresses), send them by air mail and ensure that the postal ballot pack includes a return envelope with sufficient postage to be sent to the UK from abroad.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Voters return their postal ballots together with postal voting statements filled in with their date of birth and signature either by post or by hand directly to the returning officer, or by hand to the presiding officer on polling day at a polling station situated within the constituency/ward printed on the postal ballot return envelope. However, for the postal ballot to be counted, the returning officer (or the presiding officer if returned at a polling station) must receive the ballot paper by the close of poll (usually 10pm on polling day).


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Any person who is "eligible" to vote (he/she does not necessarily have to be on the Electoral Register already) can be appointed by another voter as his/her proxy, but for the proxy to be able to vote in an election the proxy application must be received by the electoral registration officer at the voter's local authority by 5pm 6 working days before polling day. The proxy can either vote in person, or can apply for a postal proxy vote (though a postal proxy vote application has an even earlier deadline - any such request must be received by the electoral registration officer by 5pm 11 working days before polling day at the latest). A voter who has become ill or disabled after 5pm six working days before polling day can make an emergency application to vote by proxy as long as the application is received by the electoral registration officer by 5pm on polling day. Unless a close relative, a person can only vote as a proxy on behalf of a maximum of two other voters in any single election in each constituency/ward. When applying to vote by proxy for more than one particular election, the application must be accompanied by a relevant attestation and must be justified based on one of the following reasons: blindness; other disability; employment; on an education course; registered as a service, overseas or anonymous elector. If only applying to vote by proxy for one particular election, the elector only needs to explain why he/she cannot vote in person, but does not need an attestation. If it is possible to get to the polling station from the registered address by only air or by sea, the elector can apply for a permanent proxy vote without an attestation.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: In Northern Ireland, voters can only appoint another person to be their proxy if they can provide a specific reason explaining why they cannot physically attend their allocated polling station.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: All polling stations are legally required to be wheelchair-accessible and be equipped with a tactile voting device and at least one large print display version of the ballot paper to assist visually impaired voters. Though the large print version cannot be marked, it can be used for reference. Disabled voters can also request the Presiding Officer in the polling station or bring along a family member to mark their ballot papers for them if they wish. If a voter is unable to enter the polling station because of a disability, the Presiding Officer can take the ballot paper to him/her.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Although the Electoral Commission provides electoral registration forms in a number of foreign languages, by law all voting materials (e.g. ballot papers) are only printed in English (and also in Welsh in Wales).


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: United Kingdom general elections are held following a dissolution of Parliament. All the Members of Parliament (MPs) forming the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom are elected. Following the Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022, parliamentary sessions last five years and one way that an early election can be called is in a dissolution of Parliament by the monarch at the Prime Minister's request. Under the Act, dissolution occurs automatically 25 working days before the election (previously, a minimum period of 17 working days applied). At this point, all parliamentary business ends and the role of MP ceases to exist until after polling day.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Candidates for each constituency are chosen by political parties or stand as independents. Almost all successful candidates are members of a political party, with only one independent elected in the 2010 election. Each constituency elects one MP by the first past the post system of election. At the 2005 general election, there were 646 constituencies, thus 646 MPs were elected to Parliament. At the 2017 election the number of MPs was 650.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: A party with an overall parliamentary majority (more seats than all the other parties combined) following an election forms the government. If no party has an outright majority, parties can seek to form coalitions. At the 2010 election, even though the Conservatives won the greatest number of seats, it would have been possible for the Liberal Democrats to form a coalition with Labour (and maybe also other, smaller parties) instead of with the Conservatives. Situations such as these can give smaller parties considerable power: the eventual outcome of the 2010 election was effectively decided by the Liberal Democrats, while in 2017 the Conservatives lost their overall majority and had to rely on the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) who held 10 seats to 'prop up' the minority conservative government in order to achieve the 326 seats needed for a majority government.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: The largest party not in government forms His Majesty's Loyal Opposition. This is currently the Labour Party.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: A general election must take place before each parliamentary term begins. Since the maximum term of a parliament is five years, the interval between successive general elections can exceed that period by no more than the combined length of the election campaign and the time for the new parliament to assemble (a total of typically around four weeks). The five years runs from the first meeting of Parliament following the election.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: After the 2010 general election, the coalition government enacted the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 which set fixed term parliaments of five years. Thus the next general election was held on 7 May 2015, with subsequent elections scheduled to be held every five years thereafter on the first Thursday in May. However the Act also contained provisions for Parliament to be dissolved and an early election held if no government can be formed within 14 days after a vote of no confidence in the government. Similarly, the Act allowed for an election to be triggered by a vote of two-thirds of MPs in the House of Commons calling for one. This provision of the act was used to trigger the 2017 United Kingdom general election. The Fixed-term Parliaments Act was repealed, reviving the prerogative powers of the monarch to dissolve and summon parliament, by the Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022 on 22 March 2022.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: It is also possible for a general election to be triggered by a separate Act of Parliament. This scenario happened in October 2019 when the then minority Government led by Boris Johnson, after three failed attempts to trigger an election though the two-thirds majority method, introduced the Early Parliamentary General Election Bill to by-pass the Fixed-term Parliaments Act. The Bill, which required only simple majority votes to pass each stage through the Houses of Parliament, stated that the next general election would be held on 12 December 2019. The Act received royal assent on 31 October 2019. However, since the passing of the Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022 it is extremely unlikely that this legal avenue will be used again.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: The Prime Minister asks the Monarch to dissolve Parliament by royal proclamation. The proclamation also orders the issue of the formal writs of election which require an election to be held in each constituency.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Since 1935 every general election has been held on a Thursday. Of the 19 general elections since 1945, six were held in May, five in June, four in October, two in February, and one each in March, April, July, and December. The 2019 general election was the first to be held in December since 1923.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: The Cabinet Office imposes "purdah" before elections. This is a period of roughly six weeks in which Government Departments are not allowed to communicate with members of the public about any new or controversial Government initiatives (such as modernisation initiatives, and administrative and legislative changes).


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Voting ends at 10 pm (or once all voters present in a queue at or outside the polling station at 10 pm have cast their vote). Presiding officers are responsible for sealing ballot boxes in polling stations (election and polling agents appointed by candidates can also apply their own seals to the boxes) and transporting them 'directly and without delay' to the central counting location for the constituency. Multiple counts can take place at the same location, for example when a town is covered by two or more constituencies. Returning officers are required to "take reasonable steps to begin counting ... as soon as practicable within the period of four hours starting with the close of the poll" (i.e. no later than 2 am). In most constituencies, upon receipt by the returning officer at the central counting location, ballot boxes are unsealed and emptied, and ballot papers are verified and counted immediately. Ballot papers are verified manually and counted by hand. As with Polls and Postal Votes, the counting process is observed by "Election Observers" who may be individuals or nominated by e.g. parties.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: The Representation of the People Act 1983 prohibits the publication of exit polls until voting has ended. In recent general elections, broadly accurate exit poll results have been announced by the major broadcasters at the stroke of 10 pm.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Results are declared in each individual constituency by the local returning officer. National broadcasters are present at the majority of counts, particularly where there are high-profile candidates or close results expected. The earliest results are declared by about 11 pm, with most having been declared by 3 or 4 am; some constituencies do not declare their results until later the following day. Each individual MP assumes office immediately upon the declaration by the local returning officer.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: When all the results are known, or when one party achieves an absolute majority of the seats in the House of Commons, the first response comes from the current (and possibly outgoing) Prime Minister. If a majority in the new Parliament has been achieved by their party, they remain in office without the need for reconfirmation or reappointment—no new "term" of office is started. If a majority has not been achieved, and another party has the numbers to form a government, the Prime Minister submits his/her resignation to the Monarch. The Monarch then commissions the leader of the new majority party to form a new government. The Prime Minister can try to remain in power even without a majority. The subsequent King's Speech (giving an outline of the government's proposed legislative programme) offers a chance for the House of Commons to cast a vote of confidence or no confidence in the government by accepting or rejecting the King's Speech.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: By precedent, and in the absence of any formal written constitutional objection, the Monarch could in theory dismiss the incumbent Prime Minister and seek to appoint a replacement. However, this has not occurred since the dismissal of Lord Melbourne in 1834, and would almost certainly trigger a constitutional crisis, similar to the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Once the result of a general election is known, the incumbent prime minister will make a statement regarding whether they will stay on as prime minister or not. When the outcome is decisive, in particular a majority either for their party or the opposition, they will make this announcement immediately, resigning if they lost. In the case of a hung parliament, they will remain as prime minister until one party either concludes a coalition agreement or decides to govern as a minority. Until that time, the Monarch conventionally plays no role. The most recent Prime Ministers who, having failed to win a majority, opted not to resign immediately, were Edward Heath in 1974, Gordon Brown in 2010, and Theresa May in 2017.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: The largest party not in government becomes the Official Opposition, known as "His Majesty's Loyal Opposition". Any smaller parties not in government (or formally supporting it, such as in a confidence and supply agreement) are collectively known as "the opposition".


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: After each election, having remained in power, a Prime Minister may engage in a major or minor reshuffle of ministers; such a reshuffle may occur at any time if the Prime Minister wishes it. Any vacancy arising in the House, due to death, ennoblement, resignation, or recall, is filled by a by-election. The timing for this is not automatic and it can be months after the vacancy arose, or even abandoned if there is a general election due soon.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: The influence of media on elections in the UK – and elsewhere – is often a topic of debate, and overall, there seems to be little academic consensus. The often cited 'chicken and egg' or 'self-selection' problem makes it difficult to tell whether media outlets have an impact on their users' political affiliations, and ultimately, on what party they vote for: one can argue that users choose media outlets that fit their politics, or that their politics are molded to fit the source of news they consume.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Many studies have attempted to sway the balance one way or the other; for instance, Newton and Brynin analysed voting patterns in the general elections of 1992 and 1997, and concluded that newspapers had a statistically significant effect on voting, larger for Labour than Conservative sympathizers, and larger for the 1992 than the 1997 election. Alternatively, Cowley reviewed "The Observer" claims that it had encouraged tactical voting during the 1997 election by publishing poll results for 16 constituencies with a guide on how to vote tactically against the Conservatives; Cowley concluded that the newspaper had had little to no tangible impact on the result of the election in these constituencies.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: When it comes to social media, the debate seems to be more about its effect on legality and fairness: the Conservative Party spent £1.2 million on Facebook during the UK 2015 general election campaign, which "enabled the party to target specific voters in marginal constituencies with tailored messages". Moore believes the sheer amount parties are spending on Facebook is itself proof of how 'central' digital media has become when it comes to political campaigning, but whether one believes online campaigning can encourage citizens to vote one way or another ("Brits believe traditional media mattered more in the 2017 general election"), the use of social media might be "compromising the principles of fair and open elections in the UK"; Moore uses the example of how Facebook algorithms helped the Conservative Party bypass spending limits by assigning constituency-specific expenses to the national budget in 2015. The "potential for fraud, lies and disproportionate influence", says a "Guardian" editorial advocating for new digital campaigning legislation, is "only too obvious".


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Scottish Parliament elections occur every four years to elect the Members of the Scottish Parliament (MSPs). The first election to the unicameral Scottish Parliament that was created by the Scotland Act 1998, was held in 1999. Elections to the Scottish Parliament are by the Additional Member System, which is a hybrid of single member plurality and party list.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Elections to the National Assembly for Wales were held every four years from 1999; this was increased to five years following the Wales Act 2014 for the 2016 election, originally scheduled for 2015 but moved to avoid a clash with the 2015 UK Parliament general election. The elections elected Members of the National Assembly for Wales (AMs). Following the passage of the Senedd and Elections (Wales) Act 2020, the Assembly was renamed (in English formally "Welsh Parliament"), and elections from 2021 elect Members of the Senedd (MSs).


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Elections use the Additional Member System, which is a hybrid of single member plurality and proportional representation.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Northern Ireland Assembly elections occur every five (formally four) years on the first Thursday in May. They began in 1998, when the assembly created by the Northern Ireland Act 1998 began its first session. For elections to the Northern Ireland Assembly, the Single Transferable Vote system, is used. Under this system, voters rank individual candidates in order of preference. STV was chosen as the electoral method to attempt to give adequate representation to the different sectarian groups in Northern Ireland. Elections continued even when the assembly was suspended between 2002 and 2007.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: In local elections, councillors are elected forming the local administrations of the United Kingdom. A number of tiers of local council exist, at region, county, district/borough and town/parish levels. A variety of voting systems are used for local elections. In Northern Ireland and Scotland, the single transferable vote system is used, whilst in most of England and Wales the single member plurality system is used. The remainder of England (including all of the London Boroughs) and Wales use the plurality at-large system, except for the elections of the Mayor and Assembly of the Greater London Authority (GLA).


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: The only Region of England which has a directly elected administration is London. London Assembly elections began in 2000, when it was created. The Additional Member System is used for elections to the Assembly. The Mayor is elected via the Supplementary Vote system.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Local elections are held in different parts of the country each year. In general, local elections are held on the first Thursday in May. In years with a general election it is usual practice to hold both general and local elections on the same day. In 2004, for the first time, local elections were held on the same day as European elections, and London Mayoral and Assembly elections. The date was referred to as 'Super Thursday'. This was repeated in 2021 where elections scheduled for 2020 were postponed to 2021, leading to English local elections, England and Wales crime commissioner elections, the Scottish Parliament election, the Senedd election, a UK parliament by-election, and mayoral elections (such as the London mayoral election or Greater Manchester mayoral election) were all held on 6 May 2021 and also dubbed as a 'Super Thursday'.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Unlike general elections, for local elections there is no legal requirement as to when the count should begin after the close of poll. For this reason, some returning officers have decided to store the sealed ballot boxes overnight at the central counting location and begin the count the next working day. However, once the count has started, the returning officer must, so far as practicable, proceed continuously with the count between the hours of 9am and 7pm (subject to refreshments). Ballot papers are verified manually and counted by hand (with the exception of London Mayoral and Assembly elections, where optical scanners are used).


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: In the Kingdom of England (of which Wales was incorporated into from 1542), a small fraction of the adult male population were able to vote in parliamentary elections that occurred at irregular intervals to the Parliament of England since 1265. From 1432 only forty-shilling freeholders held the parliamentary franchise. The franchise for the Parliament of Scotland developed separately but, again, involving just a small proportion of the adult population. The Bill of Rights 1689 in England and Claim of Right Act 1689 in Scotland established the principles of regular parliaments and free elections, but no significant changes to the electoral franchise had taken place by the time the United Kingdom had come into being.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Similarly, the history of local government in England stretches over the same period with the election of town mayors and the development of town councils taking place since the Middle Ages. Local government in Scotland and in Wales evolved separately.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Although the institutions implemented after Glorious Revolution were successful in restraining the government and ensuring protection for property rights, the first Act to increase the size of the electorate was the Reform Act 1832 (sometimes known as the Great Reform Act). It abolished 56 rotten boroughs (which had elected 112 MPs) and decreased the property qualification in boroughs. It gave some parliamentary representation to the industrial towns (142 MPs) by redistributing some MPs from boroughs who had disproportional representation. The electoral register was created. The overall result of the Act was that the electorate was increased to 14% of the adult male population. Although this was not a large increase, the Act was the first big step towards equal representation.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Between 1838 and 1848 a popular movement, Chartism, organised around six demands including universal male franchise and the secret ballot. The Reform Act 1867 redistributed more MPs from boroughs which had disproportional representation (42) to London and industrial towns. It decreased the property qualification in boroughs, so that all men with an address in boroughs could vote. For the first time some of the working class could vote and MPs had to take these new constituents into account. Some political parties decided to become national parties. Overall, the Act increased the size of the electorate to 32% of the adult male population.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: The Ballot Act 1872 replaced open elections with a secret ballot system. The Corrupt and Illegal Practices Prevention Act 1883 criminalised attempts to bribe voters and standardised the amount that could be spent on election expenses. The Representation of the People Act 1884 (the Third Reform Act) and the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885 together increased the electorate to 56% of the adult male population.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: From the birth of the United Kingdom, the franchise had been restricted to males by custom rather than statute; on rare occasions women had been able to vote in parliamentary elections as a result of property ownership until the 1832 Great Reform Act, and the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 for local government elections, specified voters as "male persons". In local elections, unmarried women ratepayers received the right to vote in the Municipal Franchise Act 1869. This right was confirmed in the Local Government Act 1894 and extended to include some married women. By 1900, more than 1 million women were registered to vote in local government elections in England.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: The Representation of the People Act 1918 expanded the electorate to include all men over the age of 21 and most women over the age of 30. Later that year, the Parliament (Qualification of Women) Act 1918 gave women over 21 the right to stand for election as MPs. The first woman to become an MP was Constance Markievicz in 1918. However she declined to take up her seat, being a member of Sinn Féin. Nancy Astor, elected in 1919, was the second woman to become an MP, and the first to sit in the Commons. The Equal Franchise Act 1928 lowered the minimum age for women to vote from 30 to 21, making men and women equal in terms of suffrage for the first time. The Representation of the People Act 1949 abolished additional votes for graduates (university constituencies) and the owners of business premises. However, as late as in 1968, only ratepayers were allowed to vote in local elections in Northern Ireland, leading to disenfranchisement and misrepresentation of the communities in the council and to the events that created Free Derry.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: The Representation of the People Act 1969 lowered the voting age from 21 to 18. The Representation of the People Act 1985 gave British citizens abroad the right to vote for a five-year period after they had left the United Kingdom. The Representation of the People Act 1989 extended the period to 20 years; and citizens who were too young to vote when they left the country also became eligible.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: The following table summarises historic developments in extending the franchise in England and later the UK (after 1707). At each stage, it shows the percentage of the adult population entitled to vote and the voting age, separately for males and females.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Prior to 1997, and the Labour Party government of Tony Blair, there were only three types of elections: elections to the House of Commons, local government elections, and elections to the European Parliament. Most elections were conducted under the First Past the Post (FPTP) electoral system. In Northern Ireland, both local government and European elections were conducted under the Single Transferable Vote (STV) system. Labour's constitutional reforms introduced elected assemblies for London, Scotland and Wales, and elected mayors in certain cities. Proportional Representation (PR) was introduced outside Northern Ireland for the first time.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: The hybrid (part PR, part FPTP) Additional Member System was introduced in 1999 for the newly created devolved parliament and assemblies: the Scottish Parliament, Welsh Assembly and London Assembly and STV was used for the newly created Northern Ireland Assembly. The regional party list (Closed list) system was introduced for European elections in Great Britain (which had previously used single member constituency FPTP) though Northern Ireland continues to use STV.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Labour passed the Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000, which created the Electoral Commission, which since 2000 has been responsible for the running of elections and referendums and to a limited extent regulating party funding. It also reduced the period during which British expatriates can vote, from 20 years after they emigrate to 15.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: In 2006 the age of candidacy for public elections in the UK was reduced from 21 to 18 with the passing of the Electoral Administration Act 2006.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: In 2008 the Ministry of Justice delivered a report that failed to conclusively recommend any particular voting system as "best" and instead simply compared working practices used in the different elections. The Minister of State for Justice, Ministry of Justice (Michael Wills) issued a statement following its publication stating that no action would be taken on the various reports that, since 1997, have suggested a move towards proportional representation for the UK general election until reform of the House of Lords is completed.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Labour also made many changes to the election administration underpinning the way that elections are run. Changes included postal voting on demand, rolling registration and some innovative pilots such as internet voting.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: As a former member state of the European Union and its predecessor the European Communities between 1973 and 2020, the United Kingdom elected Members of the European Parliament (MEP's) from 1979 until 2020 with elections being held once every five years. These were the only national elections other than general elections that were held across the United Kingdom. MEP elections differed from general elections in two major ways, the first being that EU citizens from outside Ireland, Malta and Cyprus were eligible to vote and the second that it used forms of proportional representation as the main electoral voting systems.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Elections to the European Parliament took place from 1979, the first year in which the parliament was directly elected. From 1973 to 1979, members were elected by national parliaments.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: From the 1999 election, Members of the European Parliament were elected by a closed-list party list system method of proportional representation, calculated using the D'Hondt method in Great Britain (England, Scotland and Wales). In Northern Ireland the Single Transferable Vote system was used from 1979 onwards.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: The use of proportional representation has significantly increased the representation of minor parties. Until the 1999 election, the First Past the Post system was used, which had prevented parties with moderately large, but geographically spread out vote shares from receiving any seats. For example, in the 1989 election the Green Party received 2,292,718 votes, constituting a 15% vote share, but no seats. The European Parliamentary Elections Act 1999 changed the system in time for the 1999 election.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: From 1979 to 1989, the United Kingdom had 81 MEPs (78 in England, Wales and Scotland, 3 in Northern Ireland). The European Parliamentary Elections Act 1993 increased the number to 87, adding five more seats in England and one more in Wales. The number was reduced to 78 for the 2004 election, and to 72 for the 2009 election, but increased to 73 during the term of the 2009–2014 parliament. The UK's representation in Europe remained at this level for both the 2014 and 2019 elections.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: On 31 January 2020 the United Kingdom left the European Union after 47 years of membership and under the provisions of the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 all legislation for the provision of the holding of European elections and the position of Member of the European Parliament was repealed.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: The United Kingdom was divided into twelve electoral regions, which were the three smaller nations (Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland), and the nine regions of England with the 73 UK seats being divided up between these regions. The number of seats that each region is allocated was determined by the Electoral Commission based on population. The last revision of the seat allocation for the regions took place in 2011 when the West Midlands gained an extra seat.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Using powers granted by devolution, the Scottish Parliament has on two occasions broadened the franchise for elections under its control, namely Scottish Parliament elections and Scottish local authority elections.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Using powers granted by the Scotland Act 2012, in 2015 the Scottish Parliament unanimously passed a bill to lower the minimum voting age from 18 to 16. Prior to that, the Scottish Independence Referendum Act 2013 had likewise allowed 16- and 17-year-olds to vote in the Scottish independence referendum, 2014.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Using powers granted by the Scotland Act 2016, in 2020 the Scottish Parliament passed by a greater than two-thirds majority (required under the Act) a bill to extend the right to vote to all foreign nationals with leave to remain (limited or indefinite), and to allow those with indefinite leave to remain or pre-settled status to stand as candidates.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: The voting age in Wales for elections to the Senedd (Wales' devloved Parliament, also called the Welsh Parliament in English) was lowered from 18-years-old to 16-years-old with the passing of the Senedd and Elections (Wales) Act 2020 in November 2019, before receiving Royal Assent on 15 January 2020, making it official law. The Local Government and Elections (Wales) Bill passed its final stage in the Senedd in November 2020 and was given Royal Assent on 20 January 2021, lowering the voting age from 18 to 16 years old for local elections in Wales. Police and Crime Commissioner (PCC) elections are a reserved matter, meaning it is not within the Senedd/Welsh Parliament's power to lower the voting age for these elections but held by Parliament of the United Kingdom, of which the voting age remains 18. In summary, only PCC and UK Parliament elections in Wales retain a voting age of 18, while local elections in Wales and Senadd elections both have a voting age of 16.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: There are British political parties, campaign groups and campaigners that have long argued that the current first-past-the-post voting system used for Parliamentary elections should be replaced with a proportional representation electoral system. The introduction of proportional representation has been advocated for some time by the Liberal Democrats and the Green Party of England and Wales, and by some pressure groups such as Charter 88, Unlock Democracy and the Electoral Reform Society. In 1998 and 2003 independent commissions were formed to look into electoral reform. After the 2005 election, in which Labour was elected with the lowest share of the national vote for any single party majority government in British history, more public attention was drawn to the issue. The national newspaper "The Independent" started a petition for the introduction of a more proportional system immediately after the election, under the title "Campaign For Democracy".


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: After the UK 2010 general election, the new coalition government agreed to hold a referendum on voting reform. United Kingdom Alternative Vote referendum took place on 5 May 2011: voters were given the choice of switching to the Instant-runoff Vote system or retaining the current one. The country voted against AV, with 32% in favour and 68% against.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: In 2015, the non-profit venture Make Votes Matter was formed to campaign for proportional representation. It makes the point that some 68 per cent of votes were ineffective and hence 'wasted' in the UK general election of 2015.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: A 2015 poll found that 57% of the public agree with the principle that "the number of seats a party gets should broadly reflect its proportion of the total votes cast" – compared to only 9% who disagree. The poll, which was scientifically weighted, also found that 51% of the population said they were "unhappy with the current electoral system and want it to change" compared to only 28% who want to keep first-past-the-post (FPTP).


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: A Redfield and Wilton poll conducted in July 2020 showed 54% of respondents supported switching to a Proportional Representation system, with 16% opposed. Results from a YouGov poll of 1,799 adults in Great Britain, conducted on 29 August 2022, placed those supporting proportional representation at 46%, don't know at 28%, and those supporting first-past-the-post at 26%.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: After its inaugural meeting on 29 November 2016 and until September 2017, the All-Party Parliamentary Group on Electoral Reform was a cross-party group consisting of 150 MPs who support electoral reform, chaired by Richard Burden and latterly Chuka Umunna.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: Labour pledged in its manifesto for the 1997 general election to set up a commission on alternatives to the first-past-the-post system for general elections and to hold a referendum on whether to change the system. The Independent Commission on the Voting System, headed by Lord Jenkins of Hillhead and known as the Jenkins Commission, was established in December 1997. It reported in October 1998 and suggested the Alternative vote top-up or AV+ system.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: The government had expected a recommendation which could have been implemented within the Parliament, and decided that it would be impractical to have a general election using First Past the Post (FPTP) after a referendum decision to adopt a different system, and therefore delayed the referendum until after the next general election. Those elements within the Labour Party opposed to any change persuaded the party not to repeat the pledge for a referendum in the 2001 manifesto, and therefore none was held once the party was re-elected.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: After the 2005 election, Lord Chancellor Lord Falconer said there was "no groundswell" for change, although a Cabinet committee was given the task of investigating reform. John Prescott was appointed as chair; given his known opposition to change, proponents were critical and dismissive of the move. Several prominent Labour MPs expressed a desire for investigating electoral reform, including Peter Hain (who argued in the House of Commons in March 2004 for the Alternative Vote), Patricia Hewitt, Tessa Jowell and Baroness Amos.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: As mentioned above, in January 2008 the government produced a "desk-bound" review of the experience to date of new voting systems in the United Kingdom since Labour came to power in 1997. This review was non-committal as to the need for further reform, especially as regards reform of the voting system used in Parliamentary Elections.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: The Conservative Party in the 2005–2010 parliament were predominantly in favour of retaining FPTP. Although the Conservative Party would have won significantly more seats in the 2005 election if some form of proportional representation had been used, some in the party felt it might find itself politically isolated on the right, and face Labour/Lib Dem coalition governments. Electoral reform, towards a proportional model, was desired by the Liberal Democrats, the Green party, and several other small parties.


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: The Liberal Democrats, Green Party of England and Wales, Scottish National Party, and the Brexit Party have all "signed a declaration calling for the first-past-the-post method for Westminster elections to be replaced by a proportional system".


title: Elections in the United Kingdom

text: In 2021, the Conservative government proposed that the voting system for English mayoral and English and Welsh Police and Crime Commissioner elections be reverted to the first-past-the-post system. These elections currently use the supplementary vote system in which the winner requires at least 50%+1 of the votes after preferences to win. The proposed move was heavily criticised by other parties, which said the Tories "demonstrated their breathtaking arrogance and their utter disdain for devolution". The Electoral Reform Society said the government was seeking to return to "a discredited, outdated and broken voting system".