title: Seven hills of Rome

text: In the Book of Revelation, the Whore of Babylon sits on "seven mountains", typically understood by protestants as the seven hills of Rome.


title: Seven hills of Rome

text: In a 2019 interview Lindsey Davis revealed her plan to set a series of books on the seven hills of Rome, now accomplished with the publication of "A Capitol Death", seventh in the Flavia Albia series which began with "The Ides of April", set on the Aventine Hill.


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: The 1804 Haiti massacre also known as the 1804 Haitian Genocide or simply the Haitian Genocide was carried out by Afro-Haitian soldiers, mostly former slaves, under orders from Jean-Jacques Dessalines against the remaining European population in Haiti, which mainly included French people and mulattoes, at the end of the Haitian Revolution, following the Haitian Declaration of Independence. From early January 1804 until 22 April 1804, squads of soldiers moved from house to house throughout Haiti, torturing and killing entire families. Between 3,000 and 5,000 people were killed.


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: Nicholas A. Robins, Adam Jones and A. Dirk Moses theorize that the executions were a "genocide of the subaltern", in which an oppressed group uses genocidal means to destroy its oppressors. Philippe Girard has suggested the threat of reinvasion and reinstatement of slavery as some of the reasons for the massacre.


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: Throughout the early-to-mid nineteenth century, the events of the massacre were well known in the United States. Additionally, many Saint Dominican refugees moved from Saint-Domingue to the U.S., settling in New Orleans, Charleston, New York, Baltimore and other coastal cities. These events spurred fears of potential uprisings in the Southern U.S. and they also polarized public opinion on the question of the abolition of slavery.


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: Henri Christophe's personal secretary, who was a slave for much of his life, attempted to explain the incident by referencing the cruel treatment of black slaves by white slaveholders in Saint-Domingue:


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: Have they not hung up men with heads downward, drowned them in sacks, crucified them on planks, buried them alive, crushed them in mortars? Have they not forced them to consume faeces? And, having flayed them with the lash, have they not cast them alive to be devoured by worms, or onto anthills, or lashed them to stakes in the swamp to be devoured by mosquitoes? Have they not thrown them into boiling cauldrons of cane syrup? Have they not put men and women inside barrels studded with spikes and rolled them down mountainsides into the abyss? Have they not consigned these miserable blacks to man eating-dogs until the latter, sated by human flesh, left the mangled victims to be finished off with bayonet and poniard?


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: In 1791, a man of Jamaican origin named Dutty Boukman became the leader of the enslaved Africans held on a large plantation in Cap-Français. In the wake of the French Revolution, he planned to massacre all the French living in Cap-Français. On 22 August 1791, the enslaved Africans descended on Le Cap, where they destroyed the plantations and executed all the French who lived in the region. King Louis XVI was accused of indifference to the massacre, while the slaves seemed to think the king was on their side. In July 1793, the French in Les Cayes were massacred.


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: Despite the French proclamation of emancipation, the blacks sided with the Spanish who came to occupy the region. In July 1794, Spanish forces stood by while the black troops of Jean-François massacred the French whites in Fort-Dauphin.


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: Philippe Girard writes that genocide was openly considered as a strategy by both sides in the conflict. White forces sent by Napoleon Bonaparte committed massacres but were defeated before they could accomplish genocide, while an army under Jean-Jacques Dessalines, composed mainly of former slaves, was able to wipe out the white Haitian population. Girard describes five main factors leading to the massacre, which he describes as a genocide: (1) Haitian soldiers were influenced by the French Revolution to justify murder and large-scale massacres on ideological grounds; (2) economic interests motivated French planters to want to quell the uprising, as well as influencing former slaves to want to kill the planters and take ownership of the plantations; (3) a slave revolt had been ongoing for more than a decade, and was itself a reaction to a century of brutal colonial rule, making violent death commonplace and therefore easier to accept; (4) the massacre was a form of class warfare in which former slaves were able to take revenge against their former masters; and (5) the last stages of the war became a racial conflict pitting Whites against Blacks and Mulattoes, in which racial hatred, dehumanization, and conspiracy theories all facilitated genocide.


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: Dessalines came to power after France's defeat and subsequent evacuation from what was previously known as Saint-Domingue. In November 1803, three days after Rochambeau's forces surrendered, Dessalines ordered the execution of 800 French soldiers who had been left behind due to illness during the evacuation. He did guarantee the safety of the remaining white civilian population. However, Jeremy Popkin writes that statements by Dessalines such as "There are still French on the island, and still you considered yourselves free," spoke of a hostile attitude toward the remaining white minority.


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: Rumors about the white population suggested that they would try to leave the country to convince foreign powers to invade and reintroduce slavery. Discussions between Dessalines and his advisers openly suggested that the white population should be put to death for the sake of national security. Whites trying to leave Haiti were prevented from doing so.


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: On 1 January 1804, Dessalines proclaimed Haiti an independent nation. Dessalines later gave the order to all cities in Haiti that all whites should be put to death. The weapons used should be silent weapons such as knives and bayonets rather than gunfire, so that the killing could be done more quietly, and avoid warning intended victims by the sound of gunfire and thereby giving them the opportunity to escape.


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: During February and March, Dessalines traveled among the cities of Haiti to assure himself that his orders were carried out. Despite his orders, the massacres were often not carried out until he visited the cities in person.


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: The course of the massacre showed an almost identical pattern in every city he visited. Before his arrival, there were only a few killings, despite his orders. When Dessalines arrived, he first spoke about the atrocities committed by former white authorities, such as Rochambeau and Leclerc, after which he demanded that his orders about mass killings of the area's white population should be put into effect. Reportedly, he ordered the unwilling to take part in the killings, especially men of mixed race, so that the blame should not be placed solely on the black population. Mass killings took place on the streets and on places outside the cities.


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: In parallel to the killings, plundering and rape also occurred. Women and children were generally killed last. White women were "often raped or pushed into forced marriages under threat of death."


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: Dessalines did not specifically mention that the white women should be killed, and the soldiers were reportedly somewhat hesitant to do so. In the end, however, the women were also put to death, though normally at a later stage of the massacre than the adult males. The argument for killing the women was that whites would not truly be eradicated if the white women were spared to give birth to new Frenchmen.


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: Before his departure from a city, Dessalines would proclaim an amnesty for all the whites who had survived in hiding during the massacre. When these people left their hiding place however, most (French) were killed as well. Many whites were, however, hidden and smuggled out to sea by foreigners. However, there were notable exceptions to the ordered killings. A contingent of Polish defectors were given amnesty and granted Haitian citizenship for their renouncement of French allegiance and support of Haitian independence. Dessalines referred to the Poles as ""the White Negroes of Europe"", as an expression of his solidarity and gratitude.


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: The French, who were one of the two main targets of the 1804 Haiti Massacre that Dessalines and his company specifically declared a massacre on made up the overwhelming majority of the white population. Dessalines’ secretary Louis Boisrond-Tonnerre complained that the declaration of independence was not aggressive enough, saying that ‘...we should use the skin of a white man as parchment, his skill as an inkwell, his blood for ink, and a bayonet for a pen', a hyperbole to express the current sentiment of whites at the time. Dessalines later himself specifically pledged to “kill every Frenchman who soils the land of freedom with his sacrilegious presence."


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: The people chosen to be killed were solely targeted based on skin colour rather than political association with the French or nationality. Despite choosing solely on skin colour, the white victims were almost entirely French, who were one of the two main targets of the 1804 Haiti Massacre that Dessalines and his company specifically declared a massacre on as virtually the entire white population composed of French people. Under Dessalines’ instruction, mulattoes were also targets along with whites. It was said that he ordered every white and mulatto to the square in front of the Government House and kill them all at once. Mulattoes often times were more French aligned, having more rights than the African slaves in addition to owning property and sometimes even being educated in Europe. During this time as well, a civil war broke out between blacks and mulattoes which caused Dessalines to order a massacre of mulattoes amidst the ethnic cleansing of the French. This was met with some contention however. When accused of being the one who orchestrated this massacre, Toussaint said “I told Dessalines to prune the tree; not to uproot it. About his targets of the massacre, Dessalines’ slogan exemplified his mission to eradicate the white and mulatto population with the saying “Break the eggs, take out the [sic] yoke [a pun on the word ‘yellow’ which means both yoke and mulatto] and eat the white.' Upper class whites and mulattoes were not the only target; any white and mulatto of any socioeconomic status was also to be killed, including the urban poor known as "petits blancs." During the massacre, stabbing, beheading, and disemboweling were common.


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: In Port-au-Prince, only a few killings had occurred in the city despite the orders. After Dessalines arrived on 18 March, the number of killings escalated. According to a merchant captain, about 800 people were killed in the city, while about 50 survived. On 18 April 1804, Dessalines arrived at Cap-Haïtien. Only a handful of killings had taken place there before his arrival, but the killings escalated to a massacre on the streets and outside the city after his arrival.


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: As elsewhere, the majority of the women were initially not killed. Dessalines's advisers, however, pointed out that the white Haitians would not disappear if the women were left to give birth to white men, and after this, Dessalines ordered that the women should be killed as well, with the exception of those who agreed to marry non-white men. Sources created at the time stated that 3,000 people were killed in Cap-Haïtien; Philippe Girard writes that this figure was unrealistic as in the post-evacuation of the French people the settlement had only 1,700 white people.


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: One of the most notorious of the massacre participants was Jean Zombi, a mulatto resident of Port-au-Prince who was known for his brutality. One account describes how Zombi stopped a white man on the street, stripped him naked, and took him to the stair of the Presidential Palace, where he killed him with a dagger. Dessalines was reportedly among the spectators; he was said to be "horrified" by the episode. In Haitian Vodou tradition, the figure of Jean Zombi has become a prototype for the zombie.


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: At the conclusion of the slaughter, Dessalines rejoiced, saying "I will go to my grave happy. We have avenged our brothers. Haiti has become a blood-red spot on the face of the globe!"


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: By the end of April 1804, some 3,000 to 5,000 people had been killed and the white Haitians were practically eradicated, excluding a select group of whites who were given amnesty. Those spared consisted of the Polish ex-soldiers who were given Haitian citizenship for helping black Haitians in fights against white colonialists; a small group of German colonists invited to the north-west region before the revolution; and a group of medical doctors and professionals. Reportedly, also people with connections to officers in the Haitian army were spared, as well as the women who agreed to marry non-white men.


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: Dessalines did not try to hide the massacre from the world. In an official proclamation of 8 April 1804, he stated, "We have given these true cannibals war for war, crime for crime, outrage for outrage. Yes, I have saved my country, I have avenged America." He referred to the massacre as an act of national authority. Dessalines regarded the elimination of the white Haitians an act of political necessity, as they were regarded as a threat to the peace between the black and the free people of color. It was also regarded as a necessary act of vengeance. Dessalines' secretary Boisrond-Tonnerre stated, "For our declaration of independence, we should have the skin of a white man for parchment, his skull for an inkwell, his blood for ink, and a bayonet for a pen!"


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: Dessalines was eager to assure that Haiti was not a threat to other nations. He directed efforts to establish friendly relations also to nations where slavery was still allowed.


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: In the 1805 constitution, all citizens were defined as "black". The constitution also banned white men from owning land, except for people already born or born in the future to white women who were naturalized as Haitian citizens and the Germans and Poles who got Haitian citizenship. The massacre had a long-lasting effect on the view of the Haitian Revolution. It helped to create a legacy of racial hostility in Haitian society.


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: Girard writes in his book "Paradise Lost": "Despite all of Dessalines' efforts at rationalization, the massacres were as inexcusable as they were foolish." Trinidadian historian C. L. R. James concurred with this view in his breakthrough work "The Black Jacobins", writing that "the unfortunate country... was ruined economically, its population lacking in social culture, [and] had its difficulties doubled by this massacre". James wrote that the massacre was "not policy but revenge, and revenge has no place in politics".


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: Philippe Girard writes "when the genocide was over, Haiti's white population was virtually non-existent." Citing Girard, Nicholas A. Robins and Adam Jones describe the massacre as a "genocide of the subaltern" in which a previously disadvantaged group used a genocide to destroy their previous oppressors.


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: At the time of the U.S. Civil War, a major pretext for Southern whites, most of whom did not own slaves, to support slave-owners (and ultimately fight for the Confederacy) was fear of a genocide similar to the Haitian Massacre of 1804. The failed experiments in Haiti and Jamaica were explicitly referred to in Confederate discourse as a reason for secession.


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: The slave revolt was a prominent theme in the discourse of southern political leaders and had influenced U.S. public opinion since the events took place. Historian Kevin C. Julius writes:


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: In the run-up to the U.S. presidential election of 1860, Roger B. Taney, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, wrote "I remember the horrors of St. Domingo" and said that the election "will determine whether anything like this is to be visited upon our own southern countrymen."


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: Abolitionists recognized the strength of this argument on public opinion in both the north and south. In correspondence to the "New York Times" in September 1861 (during the war), an abolitionist named J. B. Lyon addressed this as a prominent argument of his opponents:


title: 1804 Haiti massacre

text: Lyon argued, however, that the abolition of slavery in the various Caribbean colonies of the European empires before the 1860s showed that an end to slavery could be achieved peacefully.


title: Taste bud

text: Taste buds contain the taste receptor cells, which are also known as gustatory cells. The taste receptors are located around the small structures known as papillae found on the upper surface of the tongue, soft palate, upper esophagus, the cheek, and epiglottis. These structures are involved in detecting the five elements of taste perception: saltiness, sourness, bitterness, sweetness and umami. A popular myth assigns these different tastes to different regions of the tongue; in fact, these tastes can be detected by any area of the tongue. Via small openings in the tongue epithelium, called taste pores, parts of the food dissolved in saliva come into contact with the taste receptors. These are located on top of the taste receptor cells that constitute the taste buds. The taste receptor cells send information detected by clusters of various receptors and ion channels to the gustatory areas of the brain via the seventh, ninth and tenth cranial nerves.


title: Taste bud

text: On average, the human tongue has 2,000-8,000 taste buds. The average lifespan of these is estimated to be 10 days.


title: Taste bud

text: The taste buds on the tongue sit on raised protrusions of the tongue surface called papillae. There are four types of lingual papillae; all except one contain taste buds:


title: Taste bud

text: The bud is formed by two kinds of cells: supporting cells and gustatory cells. The "supporting (sustentacular cells)" are mostly arranged like the staves of a cask, and form an outer envelope for the bud. Some, however, are found in the interior of the bud between the gustatory cells. The "gustatory (taste) cells", which are chemoreceptors, occupy the central portion of the bud; they are spindle-shaped, and each possesses a large spherical nucleus near the middle of the cell. The peripheral end of the cell terminates at the gustatory pore in a fine hair filament, the gustatory hair. The central process passes toward the deep extremity of the bud, and there ends in single or bifurcated varicosities. The nerve fibrils after losing their medullary sheaths enter the taste bud, and end in fine extremities between the gustatory cells; other nerve fibrils ramify between the supporting cells and terminate in fine extremities; these, however, are believed to be nerves of ordinary sensation and not gustatory.


title: Taste bud

text: Salt, sweet, sour and umami tastes causes depolarization of the taste cells, although different mechanisms are applied. Bitter causes an internal release of Ca, no external Ca is required.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: The 2011–12 season was FC Barcelona's 112th in existence and the club's 81st consecutive season in the top flight of Spanish football. Barcelona debuted their new and first paid shirt sponsor Qatar Foundation after an agreement was reached in 2010 with the non-profit organization for a five-and-a-half-year, €170 million deal. The agreement with UNICEF continued and their name had been moved to the lower back portion of the shirt.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: This season also introduced a new away kit in black while the third kit was retained from last season.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: Barcelona was unsuccessful in defending two major trophies. They ended the La Liga season as runners-up, nine points behind winners Real Madrid, who finished with a record 100 points having clinched the league title by defeating Athletic Bilbao 3–0 on 2 May 2012. Barcelona's UEFA Champions League campaign ended in the semi-finals after a 2–3 aggregate loss against eventual winners Chelsea. Pep Guardiola stepped down as manager at the conclusion of the season, which ended on a high as Barcelona won 3–0 in the Copa del Rey final against Athletic Bilbao at the Vicente Calderón.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: Barcelona's under-19 squad played in the inaugural tournament of the NextGen series. After finishing first in their group during the group stage, they were eliminated by Ajax in the quarter-finals of the tournament.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 31 May, Sevilla confirmed it had exercised its right to purchase defender Martín Cáceres, who spent the 2010–11 season on loan with the club from Barcelona. Barcelona received €4.10 million in compensation after making the loan permanent.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 2 July, Barcelona parted ways with midfielder Víctor Sánchez after both parties agreed to rescind the player's contract. Sánchez made 14 appearances with the first team in the 2007–2008 and 2008–2009 seasons. He was loaned to Xerez for the 2009–10 season and at Getafe for the 2010–11 season.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 4 July, defender Andreu Fontàs was promoted to the first team after spending the previous season filling in for an injured Eric Abidal, who had been diagnosed with a liver tumour.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 21 July, Barcelona completed the transfer of Chilean winger Alexis Sánchez from Italian club Udinese. The deal is for five years and the cost of the transfer is €26 million with variable cost of €11.5 million.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 22 July, Barcelona transferred La Masia graduate Bojan to Italian outfit Roma for €10 million and the agreement includes an obligatory re-purchase clause to be exercised by Barcelona at the end of the 2012–13 season, for a cost of €13 million. Roma may override this re-purchase at this time by paying the club an additional €28 million.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 3 August, Portuguese club Sporting CP made official the signing of another Barcelona's La Masia graduate, winger Jeffrén, on a five-year deal. The transfer deal was worth €3.7 million and includes a €30 million buyout clause.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 4 August, Barcelona and Argentine centre-back Gabriel Milito reached an agreement to terminate his contract after four years with the team. He then signed with Argentine club Independiente.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 14 August, both Barcelona and English club Arsenal announced on their respective official websites an agreement for the transfer of Spanish international midfielder Cesc Fàbregas. The deal will cost Barcelona €29 million with €11 million in variables and end one of the longest transfer sagas in football. On the same day, Barcelona and Real Madrid kicked off the 2011–12 season with a 2–2 draw at the Santiago Bernabéu in the first leg of the 2011 Supercopa de España in front of a full house.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 17 August, Barcelona won the Supercopa de España with a thrilling 3–2 win and a 5–4 aggregate over rivals Real Madrid. The match ended with several sending offs for a brawl started after Barcelona players deemed a tackle by Marcelo on Cesc Fàbregas to be dangerous play. David Villa, Mesut Özil and Marcelo all received their marching orders after calm was restored. Real Madrid manager José Mourinho and Barça's assistant Tito Vilanova were also involved in a small physical altercation. Goals from Andrés Iniesta and a brace, including the game winner, by Lionel Messi assured Barça started their season with a trophy by claiming their tenth Supercopa all time.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 19 August, the Association of Spanish Footballers (AFE) went on strike due to unpaid wages for players in the top two divisions of Spanish football by clubs who have gone into financial administration. The AFE and Liga de Fútbol Profesional (LFP) have yet to agree on a guaranteed fund to protect players' wages in the event of their clubs being declared insolvent. The strike forced Spanish league games scheduled for the weekend of 20 and 21 August, including Barcelona's season opener against Málaga, to be postponed.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 25 August, Lionel Messi was voted the winner of the inaugural UEFA Best Player in Europe Award for the 2010–11 season over teammate Xavi and Real Madrid's Cristiano Ronaldo.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 26 August, Barcelona won the UEFA Super Cup with a 2–0 victory over Portuguese outfit Porto in Monaco. The victory gave Barça their fourth UEFA Super Cup trophy all time and saw Fàbregas score his first goal with a Barcelona shirt in the 88th minute.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 10 September, back from the FIFA international break, Barcelona could only draw 2–2 with Real Sociedad at Anoeta. Barça also lost Alexis Sánchez for approximately 6–8 weeks after the player tore his hamstring in his right leg after a tackle by Sociedad's Dani Estrada.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 13 September, Barcelona opened their UEFA Champions League campaign with a 2–2 draw against Milan at the Camp Nou. Midfielder Andrés Iniesta left in the 38th minute with a tore femoral biceps on his left leg and will miss approximately a month.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 17 September, after two consecutive draws Barcelona trashed Osasuna 8–0 at Camp Nou. Lionel Messi scored a hat-trick and lead Barça to their biggest win of the season. Osasuna coach José Luis Mendilibar stated, "we've caught them very angry due to their so-called mini-crisis," while Barça's coach Pep Guardiola stated in regards to the "mini-crisis", "the day I see them not running, that their bellies are full, I'll sit here to tell you all [media]. When we play bad, believe me I'll come here and tell you all. But I did not have that sensation."


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 28 September, Barcelona defeated BATE Borisov 0–5 at the Dynama Stadium in their first meeting in Group H of the Champions League. Lionel Messi scored a brace and tied László Kubala for 2nd place on the all-time goals scoring list for Barcelona with 194 goals.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 2 October, Barcelona defeated Sporting de Gijón 0–1 at El Molinón to take over first place in La Liga's standings for the first time this season. A lone goal by Adriano was enough to see the team go top by goal difference over Levante.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 19 October, Barcelona notched its second Champions League victory of the season by defeating Czech side Viktoria Plzeň 2–0 at the Camp Nou.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 22 October, Barça were held scoreless for the first time in the young season by a heroic performance from Sevilla goalkeeper Javi Varas. The match ended with a scoreless draw after Lionel Messi's penalty kick was saved by Varas in injury time. The match towards the end was marred by a small brawl between Frédéric Kanouté and Cesc Fàbregas as the latter took offense to Kanouté kicking the ball from the penalty spot after Messi had placed it to take the spot kick. After the match, Fàbregas was accused of racially abusing Kanouté, which the player vehemently denied and at the end both players apologized over the incident by telephone.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 25 October, Barcelona traveled to Los Cármenes to take on Granada where they escaped with a 0–1 victory after a 33rd-minute goal from a free-kick by Xavi. Barça also lost forward Pedro for approximately three weeks due to strained tendons in his left ankle.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 1 November, the 23-men shortlist for the 2011 FIFA Ballon d'Or was released with eight Barcelona—Eric Abidal, Dani Alves, Cesc Fàbregas, Andrés Iniesta, Lionel Messi, Gerard Piqué, David Villa and Xavi. Later that night, Barcelona defeated Viktoria Plzeň 0–4 in Prague at the Synot Tip Arena with a hat-trick by Messi and assured their progress into the knock-out stage. With the three goals, he surpassed the 200-goal mark as a Barcelona player in Pep Guardiola's 200th game as first team manager. Goalkeeper Víctor Valdés broke the team record for most minutes without conceding a goal at 877 consecutive minutes. He surpasses Miguel Reina record of 824 minutes set in the 1972–73 season.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 9 November, the first leg of the Round of 16 of the Copa del Rey was moved up due to Barcelona's involvement in the 2011 FIFA Club World Cup in December. Barça won the match 0–1 with a strike outside the area by Andrés Iniesta in the 42nd minute.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 22 November, assistant coach Tito Vilanova was successfully operated for problem in his parotid gland. The club did not release anymore information on the matter due to the coach's wish to have everything remain private. The next day, Barcelona defeated Milan at the San Siro 2–3 in a thrilling European encounter to win Group H.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 26 November, Barça lost its first official match of the season with a 1–0 defeat at Getafe with a goal by Juan Valera in the 67th minute. The defeat leaves Barcelona 6 points behind Real Madrid with 2 matches to go for the first "el Clásico" of the season.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 10 December, the first Clásico of the season was contested at the Bernabéu with Barça securing a 1–3 victory over their great rivals. Real Madrid's forward Karim Benzema scored the fastest goal in Clásico history after getting one past goalkeeper Víctor Valdés off two deflections 24 seconds into the match. Within 30 minutes, Barça equalized with a strike from Alexis followed by a goal by Fàbregas, making it three years running that their big summer transfers score in the first Clásico of the season.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 15 December, David Villa fractured his tibia while attempting to score in Barça's 0–4 FIFA Club World Cup semi-final victory over Qatari club Al-Sadd. The injury will sideline the player for four-to-six months, possibly causing him to miss UEFA Euro 2012.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 18 December, Barcelona claimed the Club World Cup with a 0–4 victory over Brazilian club Santos in Japan. A brace from Lionel Messi and strikes from Xavi and Fabregas gave Barça their fifth title in 2011 and their second title in this competition.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 22 December, Barcelona defeated L'Hospitalet in the second leg of the Copa del Rey 9–0 (10–0 aggregate). Strikes from Pedro, Iniesta, Xavi, Thiago, Cristian Tello and Isaac Cuenca sealed what was another superb display of talent and command on the pitch by the Catalans. The latter three scored a brace each and the win helped the team proceed to the next round of the competition where they face Osasuna at Camp Nou in a first leg Round of 16 tie.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 4 January, Barça started off the year with a 4–0 victory over Osasuna in their Round of 16 tie at the Camp Nou. Lionel Messi came off the bench to score two goals in the last 20 minutes after he was left off the team sheet earlier in the day due to the flu.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 8 January, the "derbi barceloní" ended in a 1–1 draw with goals by Cesc Fàbregas (16th minute) for Barcelona and Álvaro Vázquez (86th minute) for Espanyol. Barcelona right back Dani Alves was racially abused by the Espanyol fans throughout the match and prompted the Espanyol coach Mauricio Pochettino to "condemn the actions of his fans."


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 9 January, Lionel Messi was awarded the 2011 FIFA Ballon d'Or and Pep Guardiola received the FIFA Coach of the Year award in Zürich. With the award, Messi wins his third consecutive Ballon d'Or, joining Michel Platini, Marco van Basten and Johan Cruyff as the only three-time winners, and the first since Platini to win it three consecutive years.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 11 January, Barça and French club Paris Saint-Germain agreed to the transfer of Brazilian left back Maxwell for €4 million.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 12 January, Barcelona defeated Osasuna 1–2 at the Reyno de Navarra to move on to the Copa del Rey quarter-finals where they'll meet Real Madrid for another round of Clásicos. CB Andreus Fontàs will miss the rest of the year when he suffered a torn ACL in the 14th minute of play. Pedro will also be sidelined for ten days due to a minor hamstring injury.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 15 January, Barcelona defeated Real Betis 4–2 to remain five points back in second place in La Liga table. With the victory, Pep Guardiola notched his 100th win in the Primera División, only needing 132 matches to accomplish the feat.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 18 January, Barça defeated Real Madrid at the Bernabéu in consecutive months, by a 1–2 scoreline. Goals by defenders Carles Puyol and Eric Abidal secured the comeback victory in the first leg. The match did not end without some controversy as Real Madrid's defender Pepe seemed to have stepped on Lionel Messi's hand while the latter was sitting on the ground. The player escaped without sanction from the referee even though the action was viewed by every camera angle at the stadium.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 22 January, the postponed Week 1 match against Málaga due to the player's strike was played at La Rosadela with Barça taking a 1–4 victory. A Lionel Messi hat-trick provided all three points for Barcelona to keep pace on Real Madrid for the title.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 25 January, Barcelona eliminated Real Madrid from the Copa del Rey with a 2–2 draw at Camp Nou to win the tie 4–3 on aggregate and reached their 50th semi-final all time in the competition.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 29 January, Barça were held to a scoreless draw by Villarreal at the El Madrigal to put them seven points behind league leaders Real Madrid. Two days later, Isaac Cuenca extended his contract until 30 June 2015 and was officially promoted to the first-team.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 8 February, Barcelona defeated Valencia 2–0 at Camp Nou and 3–1 on aggregate to advance to their 34th Copa del Rey final. Goals from Cesc Fàbregas and Xavi to set up a rematch of the 2009 final against Athletic Bilbao.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 11 February, Barcelona suffered their second loss of the season, 3–2 to Osasuna in Pamplona. With the loss, the team continued to show their struggles in the league away from the Camp Nou, dropping ten points behind leaders Real Madrid.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 14 February, Barcelona defeated Bayer Leverkusen at the BayArena with a 3–1 win in their Champions League first leg encounter to move closer to qualifying for the quarter-finals. Alexis Sánchez scored his first two goals in the Champions League in first start.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 19 February, Barcelona notched their 15th win in La Liga against Valencia with a 5–1 scoreline at Camp Nou to keep pace with Real Madrid. Lionel Messi celebrated his 200th match in La Liga by scoring four goals.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 26 February, Barcelona defeated Atlético Madrid with a 1–2 scoreline at the Vicente Calderón. Lionel Messi was booked in the eighth minute for a handball and will miss his first match in his career due to cards accumulation.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 3 March, Barcelona defeated Sporting Gijón with a 3–1 score despite playing with ten men for more than half-an-hour after Gerard Piqué was sent off for throwing his boot at the Sporting de Gijón kit man at the start of the second half.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 7 March, Barcelona defeated Bayer Leverkusen 7–1 with Lionel Messi becoming the first player to score five goals in a match in the Champions League era. Cristian Tello made a great debut in the competition by scoring his first two goals to complete the Barça rout.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 11 March, Barcelona defeated Racing de Santander 0–2 in Cantabria to notch their 18th win in La Liga. The goals were scored by Lionel Messi to take his season total to 50 goals with more than two months left in the season.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 15 March, Barcelona announced that defender Eric Abidal will have "a liver transplant as a result of the progress of his liver disease" and will miss the rest of the season. No further information was made available "at the express wish of the player, the club requested the utmost respect for the right to privacy and confidentiality".


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 17 March, Barcelona defeated Sevilla 0–2 at the Ramón Sánchez Pizjuán. The first goal was scored off a stunning freekick by Xavi in the 17th minute and the second by Messi in the 24th minute after a great display of team passing.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 20 March, Barcelona beat Granada 5–3 at Camp Nou behind a historic hat-trick by Lionel Messi. Messi took his career tally to 234 goals as a Barcelona player and surpassed César as the all-time top scorer for the club in competitive matches.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 28 March, Barcelona and Milan finished 0–0 at San Siro in their first leg quarter-finals encounter in the Champions League. The next day, Barça filed a complaint with UEFA over the state of the pitch after both clubs agreed it would be in suitable conditions to play. Guardiola said, "it is bad for the spectacle, but to be champions we must overcome all adversities. We have done this many times, although people say otherwise."


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 3 April, Barcelona advanced to its fifth consecutive Champions League semi-finals with a 3–1 victory (3–1 on aggregate) over Milan. Lionel Messi scored two penalties to take his season tally to 14 goals and set a new record in the Champions League era.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 4 April, Barcelona announced that Barcelona B defender Marc Muniesa signed an extension to his contract and will be promoted to the first team for the 2012–13 season.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 10 April, Barcelona defeated Getafe 4–0 at Camp Nou to sleep one point behind league leaders Real Madrid. The victory was dedicated to defender Eric Abidal who underwent a liver transplant, from players and coaches at the post-game press conference.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 14 April, Barcelona came back to defeat Levante 1–2 at the Ciutat de València. Lionel Messi lead with a brace and took his tally to 41 goals in the league, that left him tied with Real Madrid's Cristiano Ronaldo for the league lead. They also surpassed the record of 40 goals in a season set by Cristiano Ronaldo last season.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 18 April, Barcelona lost its first match in this season's Champions League, 1–0 to Chelsea at Stamford Bridge in London. Even though they dominated every aspect of the match, they were defeated at the stroke of half-time by the lone goal scored by Didier Drogba.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 21 April, Barcelona lost their second game in row after being defeated at Camp Nou by fierce rival Real Madrid with a scoreline of 1–2 in "El Clásico". Sami Khedira, Alexis Sánchez and Cristiano Ronaldo provided the goals.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 24 April, Barcelona drew 2–2 with Chelsea in the 2nd leg semi-final of the Champions League at the Camp Nou. Sergio Busquets and Andrés Iniesta put Barcelona up 2–0 by the 44th minute as the Spanish club again dominated possession from the start, owning 73% for the game. In between those goals, Chelsea captain John Terry was given a straight red card for putting his knee into the back of Alexis Sánchez, as Barcelona seemed well on its way to reach a third final in four years making a Chelsea fightback look even more unlikely. But Ramires lobbed a shot right before half-time giving the advantage back to his team on aggregate, and the Spanish giants never found a way to recover after the break. After Lionel Messi blasted a penalty off the crossbar in the 59th minute and came close once again with another, Chelsea goalkeeper Petr Čech making a diving effort to slightly alter the ball's path to the post. Substitute Fernando Torres dribbled round Víctor Valdés to score in added time to make it 2–3 on aggregate and sealed Barcelona's elimination from Europe.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 27 April, manager Pep Guardiola announced he would step down as coach at the end of the season. His record of 13 trophies in four seasons has made him the most successful coach in Barcelona's history. At the press conference in which Barcelona confirmed Guardiola's exit, the team also announced that he would be succeeded by current assistant Tito Vilanova. Vilanova will begin leading the first team at the start of the 2012–13 season.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 2 May, Barcelona defeated Málaga 4–1 at the Camp Nou. Lionel Messi scored a hat-trick and took his season tally to 68 goals in all competitions, passing Gerd Müller's record of 67 goals in the 1972–73 season.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 5 May, Barcelona took the second leg of the "derbi barceloní" with a 4–0 victory over Espanyol. Lionel Messi scored four times and became the first player in La Liga to score 50 goals in a season. It was also an emotional farewell match for Guardiola in his last home game as Barça's manager.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 12 May, Barcelona drew their last league game of the season at the Benito Villamarín 2–2 against Real Betis. Barça finished 9 points off the league winner Real Madrid while Lionel Messi finished with 50 league goals to win the Pichichi Trophy and European Golden Boot as the league's top scorer and Víctor Valdés claimed the Zamora Trophy.


title: 2011–12 FC Barcelona season

text: On 25 May, Barcelona claimed its 26th Copa del Rey with a 0–3 victory over Athletic Bilbao at the Vicente Calderón in Madrid. Pedro scored twice while Messi added the third in the seventh final contested between the two teams.


title: Survivor: South Pacific

text: Survivor: South Pacific is the twenty-third season of the American CBS competitive reality television series "Survivor". The season was filmed from May 30 through July 7, 2011 and premiered on September 14, 2011. Applications were due on January 11, 2011, approximately 800 applicants visited in various states, from there 16 contestants were chosen as participants.


title: Survivor: South Pacific

text: Samoa was not initially selected as a location for this season, as the show had already filmed two seasons ( and ) in the area. The production team withdrew from their original locale, Tonga, due to economic problems. The season was filmed in the vicinity of Upolu and it served as the location for the and this was the third season to be filmed in the country, tied with Panama. Redemption Island, first introduced in the , returned for this season.


title: Survivor: South Pacific

text: Sophie Clarke was named the winner in the final episode on December 18, 2011, defeating Benjamin "Coach" Wade and Albert Destrade in a 6–3–0 vote. Ozzy Lusth won $100,000 as the "Sprint Player of the Season", winning this honor by the largest margin since the award's inception in "", and earning the fans' vote over John Cochran.


title: Survivor: South Pacific

text: This season features 16 new "Survivor" contestants and two returning players: Ozzy Lusth from "" and "", and Benjamin "Coach" Wade from "" and "". Shane Powers of was contacted, however he declined and was replaced by Lusth. Notable contestants include Brandon Hantz, nephew of three-time "Survivor" contestant Russell Hantz; country singer Whitney Duncan, a finalist on the fifth season of "Nashville Star"; and beauty queen and dancer Elyse Umemoto, who was Miss Washington 2007 and 2nd runner-up at Miss America 2008.


title: Survivor: South Pacific

text: The players were initially split into two tribes of nine, each with one returning player: Savaii and Upolu, named after the two main islands of the independent nation of Samoa. When the tribes were merged into one, they chose to name their new tribe Te Tuna, after a Samoan legend about the origins of the coconut tree.


title: Survivor: South Pacific

text: Brandon Hantz, John Cochran, and Dawn Meehan returned for "". Jim Rice and Mikayla Wingle were included on the public poll to choose the cast of "", but neither was chosen to compete. Ozzy Lusth played for a fourth time on "". Cochran also made a special appearance in the fifth episode of "Game Changers", where he gave advice to a contestant who was exiled. Sophie Clarke returned to compete on "".


title: Survivor: South Pacific

text: Outside of "Survivor", Edna Ma appeared on the fifth season of ABC's "Shark Tank" to secure funding for her product "BareEASE". Whitney Duncan and Keith Tollefson have since married; while engaged, they competed as a team for "The Amazing Race 25". Wingle competed with "" castaway Ryan Opray on the Amazon Prime Video series "World's Toughest Race: Eco-Challenge Fiji" as part of Team Peak Traverse.


title: Survivor: South Pacific

text: Sixteen new castaways, previously divided into two tribes, Savaii and Upolu, were joined by returning contestants, Oscar "Ozzy" Lusth and Benjamin "Coach" Wade, with Ozzy joining Savaii and Coach joining Upolu by random draw. Redemption Island was again in play: voted out players would be sent to Redemption Island and participate in duels, with the winner remaining there until either the next duel or until two specific points where players were brought back into the game.


title: Survivor: South Pacific

text: Both tribes rallied under the leadership of Ozzy and Coach. Ozzy's style was somewhat more aggressive, establishing a rift between the majority of his alliance and others, specifically the weaker Cochran. Coach, having reflected on his past performances on "Survivor", had a more open style, which most of the group readily followed, including Brandon, who later revealed himself to be the nephew of former "Survivor" castaway Russell Hantz, and had feared revealing this lest he draw his tribe's ire. Both Ozzy and Coach found their tribes' respective Hidden Immunity Idols.


title: Survivor: South Pacific

text: The two tribes fared equally at challenges and retained similar numbers, and as they approached the perceived merge, Ozzy offered a plan to volunteer to be voted to go to Redemption Island, where he would likely win the challenge over Christine, a former Upolu member, assuring that the tribes would be equal at six members each when merged. This plan went as expected, and the newly merged tribe named themselves Te Tuna. However, Savaii's former rash behavior to Cochran was seen as an opportunity by the former Upolu members, and they were able to turn Cochran to their side on the first vote after the merge, voting out former Savaii member Keith. The Upolu members and Cochran would continue to dominate at Tribal Council, sending the remaining Savaii members to Redemption Island, starting with Ozzy, who dominated at Redemption Island subsequently.


title: Survivor: South Pacific

text: With no other Savaii members remaining, Cochran was voted out next, followed by Upolu outsider Edna. In the subsequent challenge, Brandon won immunity but offered it to his closest ally Albert, who was the intended target of the vote. Brandon was voted out instead and defeated by Ozzy the next day at the final Redemption duel. Ozzy returned to the game and won the subsequent challenge; at Tribal Council, Sophie broke down into tears but affirmed her commitment to the game, and Rick was voted off. In the final immunity challenge between Coach, Ozzy, Sophie, and Albert, Sophie was narrowly able to defeat Ozzy; she and her former Upolu members voted off Ozzy for the third and final time. Coach, Albert, and Sophie faced the final Tribal Council, where Coach was criticized for manipulating his tribe while simultaneously preaching the importance of honor and Albert was considered to have given his former tribe members false hope. The jury awarded Sophie the title of Sole Survivor over Coach and Albert in a 6–3–0 vote, respectively.


title: Survivor: South Pacific

text: "In the case of multiple tribes or castaways who win reward or immunity, they are listed in order of finish, or alphabetically where it was a team effort; where one castaway won and invited others, the invitees are in brackets."


title: Survivor: South Pacific

text: While not to the extent of its predecessor, "Survivor: South Pacific" was generally panned by the time it ended, with the primary criticism being the return of the Redemption Island twist. Dalton Ross of "Entertainment Weekly" criticized the season's "same twist of two returning players, Redemption Island, the predictable vote-offs, and no real water challenges," but reserved some praise for several of the cast members, including Cochran and Brandon. Ross ultimately ranked the season 21st out of 40 (as of May 2020). In 2014, Joe Reid of "The Wire" ranked it as the 5th-worst season, criticizing both of the returning players as continuing "their already tedious tendencies towards self-aggrandizement and shoddy strategy." In 2020, it was ranked as the 5th-worst season by "Survivor" fan site "The Purple Rock Podcast", saying that "there were so many unlikable people that you almost forget about the enjoyable ones." They also criticized the two returning players as mostly "terrible choices, and the Redemption Island gimmick was every bit as much of a failure here as it was the first time it was used." Another prominent fan site, ""Survivor" Oz", ranked it as the 6th-worst season in its first annual poll ranking all seasons of the series in 2012, and thus originally considered it to be the best post-"Heroes vs. Villains" season at the time; however, in both 2013 and 2014, "South Pacific" dropped on the list and was consistently ranked as the second-worst season, only ahead of its predecessor, "". In 2015, a poll by "Rob Has a Podcast" ranked "South Pacific" as the 6th-worst season with Rob Cesternino ranking this season 18th out of 30 seasons. This was updated in 2021 during Cesternino's podcast, "Survivor All-Time Top 40 Rankings", ranking 29th. In 2020, "Inside Survivor" ranked this season 30th out of 40 saying that the season's "dull endgame ultimately prevents it from being a great season of "Survivor". Still, its memorable characters help elevate it above the other 'Dark Age' seasons that came before and after it."


title: Regionalism (politics)

text: Regionalism is a political ideology that seeks to increase the political power, influence, and/or self-determination of the people of one or more subnational regions. It focuses on the "development of a political or social system based on one or more" regions and/or the national, normative or economic interests of a specific region, group of regions or another subnational entity, gaining strength from or aiming to strengthen the "consciousness of and loyalty to a distinct region with a homogeneous population", similarly to nationalism. More specifically, "regionalism refers to three distinct elements: movements demanding territorial autonomy within unitary states; the organization of the central state on a regional basis for the delivery of its policies including regional development policies; political decentralization and regional autonomy".


title: Regionalism (politics)

text: Regions may be delineated by administrative divisions, culture, language and religion, among others. Regionalists' demands occur in "strong" forms, such as sovereignty, separatism, secession and independence, as well as more moderate campaigns for greater autonomy (such as states' rights, decentralization or devolution). Strictly, regionalists favour confederations over unitary nation states with strong central governments. They may, however, embrace intermediate forms of federalism.


title: Regionalism (politics)

text: Proponents of regionalism usually claim that strengthening the governing bodies and political powers within a region, at the expense of a centralized government, will benefit local populations by improving regional or local economies, in terms of better fiscal responsibility, regional development, allocation of resources, implementation of localist policies and plans, competitiveness among regions and, ultimately, the whole country, consistent with the principle of subsidiarity.


title: Regionalism (politics)

text: Regionalism, autonomism, secessionism, and nationalism are interrelated concepts, yet they often have different and sometimes opposite meanings. For instance, in Spain "regionalism" is regarded as strongly associated with "nationalism" and, often, "secessionism", whereas in Italy, it is generally seen as a synonym of "federalism" and the opposite of "nationalism". In some cases movements or parties campaigning for independence may push for federalism or autonomy within the pre-existing nation state.


title: Regionalism (politics)

text: In developed, Western, liberal-democratic countries, secessionist parties include the "Parti Québécois" in Quebec (Canada), the Basque Nationalist Party and "Euskal Herria Bildu" in the Basque Country (Spain and France), the New Flemish Alliance and Vlaams Belang in Flanders (Belgium), the Catalan European Democratic Party and the Republican Left of Catalonia in "Països Catalans" (Spain and France), the Galician Nationalist Bloc and the Galician Left Alternative in Galicia (Spain), the Scottish National Party and the Scottish Green Party in Scotland, "Plaid Cymru" in Wales and, to some extent, "Sinn Féin" in Northern Ireland (United Kingdom).


title: Regionalism (politics)

text: In developing countries they include the Polisario Front in Western Sahara (Morocco), the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad in Azawad (Mali), the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda in the Cabinda Province (Angola), and all national liberation movements.


title: Regionalism (politics)

text: Federalist/autonomist regional parties include the "Coalition Avenir Québec" in Quebec (Canada), the New Progressive Party of Puerto Rico and the Popular Democratic Party in Puerto Rico (a commonwealth of the United States), "Lega Nord" in Northern Italy (the party has, at times, advocated Padania's independence and its "national section" in Veneto, "Liga Veneta", is a proponent of Venetian independence), the Party of the Corsican Nation in Corsica (France), the Martinican Progressive Party in Martinique and the Communist Party of Réunion in Réunion (both French overseas territories), and the New Macau Association in Macau (China).


title: Regionalism (politics)

text: In some countries, the development of regionalist politics may be a prelude to further demands for greater autonomy or even full separation, especially when ethnic, cultural and economic disparities are present. This was demonstrated, among other examples, in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s.


title: Regionalism (politics)

text: Political parties that are "regional" are not necessarily "regionalist" parties. A "regional party" is any political party with its base in a single region, whatever its objectives and platform may be, whereas "regionalist" parties are a subset of regional parties that specifically campaign for greater autonomy or independence in their region.


title: Regionalism (politics)

text: Because regional parties – including regionalist parties – often cannot receive enough votes or legislative seats to be politically powerful, they may join political coalitions or seek to be part of a coalition government. Notable examples include the Sinn Féin's participation in the Northern Ireland Executive since 1999, the New Flemish Alliance's participation in the Federal Government of Belgium in 2014-2019, and "Lega Nord"'s frequent participation in the Italian government.


title: Regionalism (politics)

text: Examples of regional parties that do not generally campaign for greater autonomy or federalism include most provincial parties in Canada, most regional and minority parties in Europe, notably including the Christian Social Union in Bavaria (Germany), most parties in Belgium, most parties in Northern Ireland, the Istrian Democratic Assembly in Istria and the Alliance of Primorje-Gorski Kotar in Primorje-Gorski Kotar (both counties of Croatia), and most political parties in India.


title: Regionalism (politics)

text: Regional parties with an autonomist/federalist or secessionist agendas have included the aforementioned "Bloc Québécois", "Lega Nord", the "Vlaams Belang", the New Flemish Alliance, the Catalan European Democratic Party, the Republican Left of Catalonia, the Scottish National Party, "Plaid Cymru", and "Sinn Féin"


title: Hugo Black

text: Hugo Lafayette Black (February 27, 1886 – September 25, 1971) was an American lawyer, politician, and jurist who served as a U.S. Senator from Alabama from 1927 to 1937 and as an associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court from 1937 to 1971. A member of the Democratic Party and a devoted New Dealer, Black endorsed Franklin D. Roosevelt in both the 1932 and 1936 presidential elections. Before he became a Senator, Black espoused anti-Catholic views and was a member of the Ku Klux Klan in Alabama, from which he resigned in 1925. In 1937, upon being appointed to the Supreme Court, Black said: "Before becoming a Senator I dropped the Klan. I have had nothing to do with it since that time. I abandoned it. I completely discontinued any association with the organization." Black served as the Secretary of the Senate Democratic Conference and the Chair of the Senate Education Committee during his decade in the Senate. Having gained a reputation in the Senate as a reformer, Black was nominated to the Supreme Court by President Roosevelt and confirmed by the Senate by a vote of 63 to 16 (six Democratic Senators and 10 Republican Senators voted against him). He was the first of nine Roosevelt appointees to the court, and he outlasted all except for William O. Douglas.


title: Hugo Black

text: The fifth longest-serving justice in Supreme Court history, Black was one of the most influential Supreme Court justices in the 20th century. For much of his career, Black was considered strongly liberal. He is noted for his advocacy of a textualist reading of the United States Constitution, his position that the liberties guaranteed in the Bill of Rights were imposed on the states ("incorporated") by the Fourteenth Amendment, and his absolutist stance on the First Amendment, often declaring "No law [abridging the freedom of speech] means no law." Black expanded individual rights in his opinions in cases such as "Gideon v. Wainwright", "Engel v. Vitale", and "Wesberry v. Sanders".


title: Hugo Black

text: Black's views were not uniformly liberal. During World War II, he wrote the majority opinion in "Korematsu v. United States" (1944), which upheld the internment of Japanese-Americans. During the mid-1960s, Black became more conservative. Black opposed the doctrine of substantive due process (the anti-New Deal Supreme Court's interpretation of this concept made it impossible for the government to enact legislation that conservatives claimed interfered with the ostensible freedom of business owners), and believed that there was no basis in the words of the Constitution for a right to privacy, voting against finding one in "Griswold v. Connecticut" (1965). He also took conservative positions in cases such as "Shapiro v. Thompson", "Goldberg v. Kelly", "Tinker v. Des Moines", and "Cohen v. California" where he distinguished between "pure speech” and "expressive conduct”.


title: Hugo Black

text: Black was born in Harlan, Clay County, Alabama, on February 27, 1886, the youngest of eight children born to William Lafayette Black and Martha (Toland) Black. In 1890 the family moved to Ashland, the county seat. The family came from a Baptist background.


title: Hugo Black

text: Black attended Ashland College, an academy located in Ashland, then enrolled at the University of Alabama School of Law. He graduated in 1906 with an LL.B. degree, was admitted to the bar, and began to practice in Ashland. In 1907, Black moved to the growing city of Birmingham, where he built a successful practice that specialized in labor law and personal injury cases.


title: Hugo Black

text: As a consequence of his defense of an African American who was forced into a form of commercial slavery after incarceration, Black was befriended by A. O. Lane, a judge connected with the case. When Lane was elected to the Birmingham City Commission in 1911, he asked Black to serve as a police court judgehis only judicial experience prior to the Supreme Court. In 1912, Black resigned to return to practicing law full time. In 1914, he began a four-year term as the Jefferson County Prosecuting Attorney.


title: Hugo Black

text: During World War I, Black resigned to join the United States Army. He served in the 81st Field Artillery, and attained the rank of captain as the regimental adjutant. When the regiment departed for France, its commander was ordered to return to Fort Sill to organize and train another regiment, and he requested Black as his adjutant. The war ended before Black's new unit departed the United States, and he returned to law practice. He joined the Birmingham Civitan Club during this time, eventually serving as president of the group. He remained an active member throughout his life, occasionally contributing articles to Civitan publications.


title: Hugo Black

text: In the early 1920s, Black became a member of the Robert E. Lee Klan No. 1 in Birmingham, and he resigned in 1925. In 1937, after his confirmation to the Supreme Court, it was reported he had been given a "grand passport" in 1926, granting him life membership to the Ku Klux Klan. In response to this news, Black said he had never used the passport and had not kept it. He further stated that when he resigned he completely discontinued his Klan association, that he had never resumed it, and that he expected never to resume his membership.


title: Hugo Black

text: On February 23, 1921, he married Josephine Foster (1899–1951), with whom he had three children: Hugo L. Black, II (1922–2013), an attorney; Sterling Foster (1924–1996), and Martha Josephine (born 1933). Josephine died in 1951; in 1957, Black married Elizabeth Seay DeMeritte.


title: Hugo Black

text: In 1926, Black sought election to the United States Senate from Alabama, following the retirement of Senator Oscar Underwood. Since the Democratic Party had dominated Alabama politics since disenfranchising most blacks (and Republicans) at the turn of the century, Black easily defeated his Republican opponent, E. H. Dryer, winning 80.9% of the white vote. He was reelected in 1932, winning 86.3% of the vote against Republican J. Theodore Johnson. Senator Black gained a reputation as a tenacious investigator. In 1934, he chaired the committee that looked into the contracts awarded to air mail carriers under Postmaster General Walter Folger Brown, an inquiry which led to the Air Mail scandal. To correct what he termed abuses of "fraud and collusion" resulting from the Air Mail Act of 1930, he introduced the Black-McKellar Bill, later the Air Mail Act of 1934. The following year he participated in a Senate committee's investigation of lobbying practices. He publicly denounced the "highpowered, deceptive, telegram-fixing, letterframing, Washington-visiting" lobbyists, and advocated legislation requiring them to publicly register their names and salaries.


title: Hugo Black

text: In 1935, during the Great Depression, Black became chairman of the Senate Committee on Education and Labor, a position he would hold for the remainder of his Senate career. On August 8, 1935, Black, who was chairman of the senate committee investigating lobbying activities, went on NBC's "National Radio Forum". The national audience was shocked to hear Black speak of a $5million electric industry lobbying campaign attempt to defeat the Wheeler-Rayburn bill, known as the Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935 that had passed in July. The act directed the Securities and Exchange Commission to close down the country's corrupt electric holding companies. Black gave a dramatic speech on this four-decade-long political battle.


title: Hugo Black

text: In 1937 he sponsored the Black-Connery Bill, which sought to establish a national minimum wage and a maximum workweek of thirty hours. Although the bill was initially rejected in the House of Representatives, an amended version of it, which extended Black's original maximum workweek proposal to forty-four hours, was passed in 1938 (after Black left the Senate), becoming known as the Fair Labor Standards Act.


title: Hugo Black

text: Black was an ardent supporter of President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal. In particular, he was an outspoken advocate of the Judiciary Reorganization Bill of 1937, popularly known as the court-packing bill, FDR's unsuccessful plan to expand the number of seats on the Supreme Court.


title: Hugo Black

text: Throughout his career as a senator, Black gave speeches based on his belief in the ultimate power of the Constitution. He came to see the actions of the anti-New Deal Supreme Court as judicial excess; in his view, the court was improperly overturning legislation that had been passed by large majorities in Congress.


title: Hugo Black

text: During his Senate career, Black consistently opposed the passage of anti-lynching legislation, as did all of the white Democrats of the Solid South. In 1935 Black led a filibuster of the Wagner-Costigan anti-lynching bill. The "Pittsburgh Post Gazette" reported that when a motion to end the filibuster was defeated, "[t]he southerners—headed by Tom Connally of Texas and Hugo Black of Alabama—grinned at each other and shook hands."


title: Hugo Black

text: Soon after the failure of the court-packing plan, President Roosevelt obtained his first opportunity to appoint a Supreme Court justice when conservative Willis Van Devanter retired. Roosevelt wanted the replacement to be a "thumping, evangelical New Dealer" who was reasonably young, confirmable by the Senate, and from a region of the country unrepresented on the court. The three final candidates were Solicitor General Stanley Reed, Sherman Minton, and Hugo Black. Roosevelt said Reed "had no fire", and Minton did not want the appointment at the time. The position would go to Black, a candidate from the South, who, as a senator, had voted for all 24 of Roosevelt's major New Deal programs. Roosevelt admired Black's use of the investigative role of the Senate to shape the American mind on reforms, his strong voting record, and his early support, which dated back to 1933. Both Reed and Minton were later appointed to the Supreme Court; Reed was the next Justice appointed by Roosevelt, while Minton was appointed by Harry Truman in 1949.


title: Hugo Black

text: On August 12, 1937, Roosevelt nominated Black to fill the vacancy. By tradition, a senator nominated for an executive or judicial office was confirmed immediately and without debate. However, on this occasion, the nomination was referred to the Judiciary Committee. Black was criticized for his presumed bigotry, his cultural roots, and his Klan membership, when that became public. But Black was a close friend of Walter Francis White, the black executive secretary of the NAACP, who helped assuage critics of the appointment. "Chambers v. Florida" (1940), an early case where Black ruled in favor of African-American criminal defendants who experienced due process violations, later helped put these concerns to rest.


title: Hugo Black

text: The Judiciary Committee recommended Black for confirmation by a vote of 13–4 on August 16, and the full Senate took up the nomination the next day. Rumors of Black's involvement in the Ku Klux Klan surfaced, and two Democratic senators tried defeating the nomination; no conclusive evidence was presented tying Black to the klan. After rejecting 15–66 a motion to recommit the nomination to the Judiciary Committee for further review, the Senate voted 63–16 to confirm on August 17, 1937; ten Republicans and six Democrats voted against. He was sworn into office on August 19, 1937. Shortly after, Black's KKK membership became known and there was widespread outrage; nonetheless Black went on to become a prominent champion of civil liberties and civil rights.


title: Hugo Black

text: Alabama Governor Bibb Graves appointed his own wife, Dixie B. Graves, to fill Black's vacated Senate seat. On Black's first day on the bench, three lawyers contested Black's appointment on the basis of the Ineligibility Clause. The court dismissed this concern in the same year in "Ex parte Levitt".


title: Hugo Black

text: As soon as Black started on the court, he advocated judicial restraint and worked to move the court away from interposing itself in social and economic matters. Black vigorously defended the "plain meaning" of the Constitution, rooted in the ideas of its era, and emphasized the supremacy of the legislature; for Black, the role of the Supreme Court was limited and constitutionally prescribed.


title: Hugo Black

text: During his early years on the Supreme Court, Black helped reverse several earlier court decisions that were based on a narrow interpretation of federal power. Many New Deal laws that would have been struck down under earlier precedents were thus upheld. In 1939 Black was joined on the Supreme Court by Felix Frankfurter and William O. Douglas. Douglas voted alongside Black in several cases, especially those involving the First Amendment, while Frankfurter soon became one of Black's ideological foes. From 1945 until 1971, Black was the Senior Associate Justice of the Supreme Court.


title: Hugo Black

text: In the mid-1940s, Justice Black became involved in a bitter dispute with Justice Robert H. Jackson as a result of "Jewell Ridge Coal Corp. v. Local 6167, United Mine Workers" (1945). In this case the court ruled 5–4 in favor of the UMW; Black voted with the majority, while Jackson dissented. However, the coal company requested the court rehear the case on the grounds that Justice Black should have recused himself, as the mine workers were represented by Black's law partner of 20 years earlier. Under the Supreme Court's rules, each Justice was entitled to determine the propriety of disqualifying himself. Jackson agreed that the petition for rehearing should be denied, but refused to give approval to Black's participation in the case. Ultimately, when the court unanimously denied the petition for rehearing, Justice Jackson released a short statement, in which Justice Frankfurter joined. The concurrence indicated that Jackson voted to deny the petition not because he approved of Black's participation in the case, but on the "limited grounds" that each Justice was entitled to determine for himself the propriety of recusal. At first the case attracted little public comment. However, after Chief Justice Harlan Stone died in 1946, rumors that President Harry S. Truman would appoint Jackson as Stone's successor led several newspapers to investigate and report the "Jewell Ridge" controversy. Black and Douglas allegedly leaked to newspapers that they would resign if Jackson were appointed Chief. Truman ultimately chose Fred M. Vinson for the position.


title: Hugo Black

text: In 1948, Justice Black approved an order solicited by Abe Fortas that barred a federal district court in Texas from further investigation of significant voter fraud and irregularities in the 1948 Democratic primary election runoff for United States Senator from Texas. The order effectively confirmed future President Lyndon Johnson's apparent victory over former Texas Governor Coke Stevenson.


title: Hugo Black

text: In the 1960s, Black clashed with Fortas, who by that time had been appointed as an associate justice. In 1968, a Warren clerk called their feud "one of the most basic animosities of the Court".


title: Hugo Black

text: Vinson's tenure as Chief Justice coincided with the Second Red Scare, a period of intense anti-communism in the United States. In several cases the Supreme Court considered, and upheld, the validity of anticommunist laws passed during this era. For example, in "American Communications Association v. Douds" (1950), the court upheld a law that required labor union officials to forswear membership in the Communist Party. Black dissented, claiming that the law violated the First Amendment's free speech clause. Similarly, in "Dennis v. United States", , the court upheld the Smith Act, which made it a crime to "advocate, abet, advise, or teach the duty, necessity, desirability, or propriety of overthrowing the Government of the United States". The law was often used to prosecute individuals for joining the Communist Party. Black again dissented, writing:


title: Hugo Black

text: Public opinion being what it now is, few will protest the conviction of these Communist petitioners. There is hope, however, that, in calmer times, when present pressures, passions and fears subside, this or some later Court will restore the First Amendment liberties to the high preferred place where they belong in a free society.


title: Hugo Black

text: Beginning in the late 1940s, Black wrote decisions relating to the Establishment Clause, where he insisted on the strict separation of church and state. The most notable of these was "Engel v. Vitale" (1962), which declared state-sanctioned prayer in public schools unconstitutional. This provoked considerable opposition, especially in conservative circles. Efforts to restore school prayer by constitutional amendment failed.


title: Hugo Black

text: In 1953 Vinson died and was replaced by Earl Warren. While all members of the court were New Deal liberals, Black was part of the most liberal wing of the court, together with Warren, Douglas, William Brennan, and Arthur Goldberg. They said the court had a role beyond that of Congress. Yet while he often voted with them on the Warren Court, he occasionally took his own line on some key cases, most notably "Griswold v. Connecticut" (1965), which established that the Constitution protected a right to privacy. In not finding such a right implicit in the Constitution, Black wrote in his dissent that "Many good and able men have eloquently spoken and written... about the duty of this Court to keep the Constitution in tune with the times... For myself, I must with all deference reject that philosophy."


title: Hugo Black

text: Black's most prominent ideological opponent on the Warren Court was John Marshall Harlan II, who replaced Justice Jackson in 1955. They disagreed on several issues, including the applicability of the Bill of Rights to the states, the scope of the due process clause, and the one man, one vote principle.


title: Hugo Black

text: Black had a number of law clerks who became notable in their own right, including Judges Louis F. Oberdorfer, Truman McGill Hobbs, Guido Calabresi, and Drayton Nabers Jr., Professors John K. McNulty, Stephen Schulhofer, and Walter E. Dellinger III, Mayor David Vann, FCC Commissioner Nicholas Johnson, US Solicitor General Lawrence G. Wallace, and trial lawyer Stephen Susman.


title: Hugo Black

text: Black's jurisprudence is among the most distinctive of any members of the Supreme Court in history and has been influential on justices as diverse as Earl Warren, and Antonin Scalia.


title: Hugo Black

text: Black's jurisprudence had three essential components: history, literalism, and absolutism. Black's love of history was rooted in a lifelong love of books, which led him to the belief that historical study was necessary for one to prevent repeating society's past mistakes. Black wrote in 1968 that "power corrupts, and unrestricted power will tempt Supreme Court justices just as history tells us it has tempted other judges."


title: Hugo Black

text: Second, Black's commitment to literalism involved using the words of the Constitution to restrict the roles of the judiciary—Black would have justices validate the supremacy of the country's legislature, unless the legislature itself was denying people their freedoms. Black wrote: "The Constitution is not deathless; it provides for changing or repealing by the amending process, not by judges but by the people and their chosen representatives." Black would often lecture his colleagues, liberal or conservative, on the Supreme Court about the importance of acting within the limits of the Constitution.


title: Hugo Black

text: Third, Black's absolutism led him to enforce the rights of the Constitution, rather than attempting to define a meaning, scope, or extent to each right. Black expressed his view on the Bill of Rights in his opinion in "Adamson v. California" (1947), which he saw as his "most significant opinion written":


title: Hugo Black

text: I cannot consider the Bill of Rights to be an outworn 18th century 'strait jacket'... Its provisions may be thought outdated abstractions by some. And it is true that they were designed to meet ancient evils. But they are the same kind of human evils that have emerged from century to century wherever excessive power is sought by the few at the expense of the many. In my judgment the people of no nation can lose their liberty so long as a Bill of Rights like ours survives and its basic purposes are conscientiously interpreted, enforced, and respected... I would follow what I believe was the original intention of the Fourteenth Amendment—to extend to all the people the complete protection of the Bill of Rights. To hold that this Court can determine what, if any, provisions of the Bill of Rights will be enforced, and if so to what degree, is to frustrate the great design of a written Constitution.


title: Hugo Black

text: In a 1968 public interview, reflecting on his most important contributions, Black put his dissent from "Adamson" "at the top of the list, but then spoke with great eloquence from one of his earliest opinions in "Chambers v. Florida" (1940).


title: Hugo Black

text: Black intensely believed in judicial restraint and reserved the power of making laws to the legislatures, often scolding his more liberal colleagues for what he saw as judicially created legislation. Conservative justice John M. Harlan II would say of Black: "No Justice has worn his judicial robes with a keener sense of the limitations that go with them." Conservative Judge Robert Bork wrote, "Justice Black came to have significantly more respect for the limits of the Constitution than Justice Douglas and the other leading members of the Warren majorities ever showed." One scholar wrote, "No Justice of the Court conscientiously and persistently endeavored, as much as Justice Black did, to establish consistent standards of objectivity for adjudicating constitutional questions." Black advocated a narrow role of interpretation for justices, opposing a view of justices as social engineers or rewriters of the Constitution. Black opposed enlarging constitutional liberties beyond their literal or historic "plain" meaning, as he saw his more liberal colleagues do. However, he also condemned the actions of those to his right, such as the conservative Four Horsemen of the 1920s and 1930s, who struck down much of the New Deal's legislation.


title: Hugo Black

text: Black forged the 5–4 majority in the 1967 decision "Fortson v. Morris", which cleared the path for the Georgia State Legislature to choose the governor in the deadlocked 1966 race between Democrat Lester Maddox and Republican Howard Callaway. Whereas Black voted with the majority under strict construction to uphold the state constitutional provision, his colleagues Douglas (joined by Warren, Brennan, and Fortas) and Fortas (joined by Warren and Douglas) dissented. According to Douglas, Georgia tradition would guarantee a Maddox victory though he had trailed Callaway by some three thousand votes in the general election returns. Douglas also saw the issue as a continuation of the earlier decision "Gray v. Sanders", which had struck down Georgia's County Unit System, a kind of electoral college formerly used to choose the governor. Black argued that the U.S. Constitution does not dictate how a state must choose its governor. "Our business is not to write laws to fit the day. Our task is to interpret the Constitution", Black explained.


title: Hugo Black

text: Black was noted for his advocacy of a textualist approach to constitutional interpretation. He took a "literal" or absolutist reading of the provisions of the Bill of Rights and believed that the text of the Constitution is absolutely determinative on any question calling for judicial interpretation, leading to his reputation as a "textualist" and as a "strict constructionist". While the text of the Constitution was an absolute limitation on the authority of judges in constitutional matters, within the confines of the text judges had a broad and unqualified mandate to enforce constitutional provisions, regardless of current public sentiment, or the feelings of the justices themselves.


title: Hugo Black

text: Thus, Black refused to join in the efforts of the justices on the court who sought to abolish capital punishment in the United States, whose efforts succeeded (temporarily) in the term immediately following Black's death. He claimed that the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendment's reference to takings of "life", and to "capital" crimes, meant approval of the death penalty was implicit in the Bill of Rights. He also was not persuaded that a right of privacy was implicit in the Ninth or Fourteenth amendments, and dissented from the court's 1965 "Griswold" decision which invalidated a conviction for the use of contraceptives. Black said "It belittles that [Fourth] Amendment to talk about it as though it protects nothing but 'privacy'... 'privacy' is a broad, abstract, and ambiguous concept... The constitutional right of privacy is not found in the Constitution."


title: Hugo Black

text: Justice Black rejected reliance on what he called the "mysterious and uncertain" concept of natural law. According to Black that theory was vague and arbitrary, and merely allowed judges to impose their personal views on the nation. Instead, he argued that courts should limit themselves to a strict analysis of the actual text of the Constitution. Black was, in addition, an opponent of the "Living Constitution" theory. In his dissent to "Griswold" (1965), he wrote:


title: Hugo Black

text: I realize that many good and able men have eloquently spoken and written, sometimes in rhapsodical strains, about the duty of this Court to keep the Constitution in tune with the times. The idea is that the Constitution must be changed from time to time, and that this Court is charged with a duty to make those changes. For myself, I must, with all deference, reject that philosophy. The Constitution makers knew the need for change, and provided for it. Amendments suggested by the people's elected representatives can be submitted to the people or their selected agents for ratification. That method of change was good for our Fathers, and, being somewhat old-fashioned, I must add it is good enough for me.


title: Hugo Black

text: Thus, some have seen Black as an originalist. David Strauss, for example, hails him as "[t]he most influential originalist judge of the last hundred years". Black insisted that judges rely on the intent of the Framers as well as the "plain meaning" of the Constitution's words and phrases (drawing on the history of the period) when deciding a case.


title: Hugo Black

text: Black additionally called for judicial restraint not usually seen in court decision-making. The justices of the court would validate the supremacy of the legislature in public policy-making, unless the legislature was denying people constitutional freedoms. Black stated that the legislature "was fully clothed with the power to govern and to maintain order".


title: Hugo Black

text: Black's support of "Bolling" seemingly violated his own principles: the Fifth Amendment does not contain, nor can it be read to incorporate, the Fourteenth Amendment's equal protection clause. When a clerk later asked how Black could justify this, he replied: 'A wise judge chooses, among plausible constitutional philosophies, one that will generally allow him to reach results he can believe in – a judge who does not to some extent tailor his judicial philosophy to his beliefs inevitably becomes badly frustrated and angry... A judge who does not decide some cases, from time to time, differently from the way he would wish, because the philosophy he has adopted requires it, is not a judge. But a judge who refuses ever to stray from his judicial philosophy, and be subject to criticism for doing so, no matter how important the issue involved, is a fool.' (Guido Calabresi, "Forward: Antidiscrimination and Constitutional Accountability (What the Bork-Brennan Debate Ignores)", 105 "Harvard Law Review". 80, 132 [1991]).</ref>


title: Hugo Black

text: Black also joined Douglas's dissent in "Breithaupt v. Abram" which argued that substantive due process prevented police from making an involuntary intrusion into a person's body, in this case a blood sample taken while the suspect was unconscious.


title: Hugo Black

text: Black held an expansive view of legislative power, whether that be state or federal, and would often vote against judicial review of state laws that could be struck down under the Commerce Clause. Previously, during the 1920s and 1930s, the court had interpreted the commerce clause narrowly, often striking down laws on the grounds that Congress had overstepped its authority. After 1937, however, the Supreme Court overturned several precedents and affirmed a broader interpretation of the Commerce Clause. Black consistently voted with the majority in these decisions; for example, he joined "Mulford v. Smith", , "United States v. Darby Lumber Co.", , "Wickard v. Filburn", , "Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States", , and "Katzenbach v. McClung", .


title: Hugo Black

text: In several other federalism cases, however, Black ruled against the federal government. For instance, he partially dissented from "South Carolina v. Katzenbach", , in which the court upheld the validity of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. In an attempt to protect the voting rights of African Americans, the act required any state with a history of discrimination to obtain federal approval before changing its voting laws. Black wrote that the law,


title: Hugo Black

text: by providing that some of the States cannot pass state laws or adopt state constitutional amendments without first being compelled to beg federal authorities to approve their policies, so distorts our constitutional structure of government as to render any distinction drawn in the Constitution between state and federal power almost meaningless.


title: Hugo Black

text: Similarly, in "Oregon v. Mitchell" (1970), he delivered the opinion of the court holding that the federal government was not entitled to set the voting age for state elections.


title: Hugo Black

text: In the law of federal jurisdiction, Black made a large contribution by authoring the majority opinion in "Younger v. Harris". This case, decided during Black's last year on the court, has given rise to what is now known as "Younger" abstention. According to this doctrine, an important principle of federalism called "comity"—that is, respect by federal courts for state courts—dictates that federal courts abstain from intervening in ongoing state proceedings, absent the most compelling circumstances. The case is also famous for its discussion of what Black calls "Our Federalism", a discussion in which Black expatiates on


title: Hugo Black

text: proper respect for state functions, a recognition of the fact that the entire country is made up of a Union of separate state governments, and a continuance of the belief that the National Government will fare best if the States and their institutions are left free to perform their separate functions in their separate ways.


title: Hugo Black

text: Black was an early supporter of the "one man, one vote" standard for apportionment set by "Baker v. Carr". He had previously dissented in support of this view in "Baker" predecessor case, "Colegrove v. Green".


title: Hugo Black

text: As a senator, Black filibustered an anti-lynching bill. However, during his tenure on the bench, Black established a record more sympathetic to the civil rights movement. He joined the majority in "Shelley v. Kraemer" (1948), which invalidated the judicial enforcement of racially restrictive covenants. Similarly, he was part of the unanimous "Brown v. Board of Education" (1954) court that struck down racial segregation in public schools. Black remained determined to desegregate the South and would call for the Supreme Court to adopt a position of "immediate desegregation" in 1969's "Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education".


title: Hugo Black

text: Black authored the court's majority opinion in "Korematsu v. United States", which validated Roosevelt's decision to intern Japanese Americans on the West Coast during World War II. The decision is an example of Black's belief in the limited role of the judiciary; he validated the legislative and executive actions that led to internment, saying "it is unnecessary for us to appraise the possible reasons which might have prompted the order to be used in the form it was."


title: Hugo Black

text: Black also tended to favor law and order over civil rights activism. This led him to read the Civil Rights Act narrowly. For example, he dissented in multiple cases reversing convictions of sit-in protesters, arguing to limit the scope of the Civil Rights Act. In 1968 he said, "Unfortunately there are some who think that Negroes should have special privileges under the law." Black felt that actions like protesting, singing, or marching for "good causes" one day could lead to supporting evil causes later on; his sister-in-law explained that Black was "mortally afraid" of protesters. Black opposed the actions of some civil rights and Vietnam War protesters and believed that legislatures first, and courts second, should be responsible for alleviating social wrongs. Black once said he was "vigorously opposed to efforts to extend the First Amendment's freedom of speech beyond speech", to conduct.


title: Hugo Black

text: Black took an absolutist approach to First Amendment jurisprudence, believing the first words of the Amendment that said "Congress shall make no law..." Black rejected the creation of judicial tests for free speech standards, such as the tests for "clear and present danger", "bad tendency", "gravity of the evil", "reasonableness", or "balancing". Black would write that the First Amendment is "wholly 'beyond the reach' of federal power to abridge... I do not believe that any federal agencies, including Congress and the court, have power or authority to subordinate speech and press to what they think are 'more important interests.


title: Hugo Black

text: He believed that the First Amendment erected a metaphorical wall of separation between church and state. During his career Black wrote several important opinions relating to church-state separation. He delivered the opinion of the court in "Everson v. Board of Education" (1947), which held that the establishment clause was applicable not only to the federal government, but also to the states.


title: Hugo Black

text: In four bar applicant appeals to the Supreme Court, Black advanced the argument that a person's political affiliation or beliefs, without action, was not enough to establish evidence of bad moral character. Black argued in "Schware v. Board of Bar Examiners" (1957) that New Mexico could not bar Schware from becoming a lawyer because he might have, at one time, consorted with Communist causes. Schware was, in fact, a decorated veteran who fought in World War II. Black reaffirmed this position in "Konigsberg v. State Bar of California" (1957), where a majority of the court sided with Black. However, in both "Konigsberg v. State Bar of California II" (1961), and "In re Anastaplo" (1961), the majority of justices, over Black's vigorous dissent, determined that a person who refused to answer whether they had been a member of an organization on the Attorney General's Subversive Organizations List could be denied admission to the bar on the basis of bad character. Black wrote, in his "Anastaplo" dissent:


title: Hugo Black

text: Black's majority opinion in "McCollum v. Board of Education" (1948) held that the government could not provide religious instruction in public schools. In "Torcaso v. Watkins" (1961), he delivered an opinion which affirmed that the states could not use religious tests as qualifications for public office. Similarly, he authored the majority opinion in "Engel v. Vitale" (1962), which declared it unconstitutional for states to require the recitation of official prayers in public schools.


title: Hugo Black

text: Justice Black is often regarded as a leading defender of First Amendment rights such as the freedom of speech and of the press. He refused to accept the doctrine that the freedom of speech could be curtailed on national security grounds. Thus, in "New York Times Co. v. United States" (1971), he voted to allow newspapers to publish the Pentagon Papers despite the Nixon Administration's contention that publication would have security implications. In his concurring opinion, Black stated,


title: Hugo Black

text: He rejected the idea that the government was entitled to punish "obscene" speech. Likewise, he argued that defamation laws abridged the freedom of speech and were therefore unconstitutional. Most members of the Supreme Court rejected both of these views; Black's interpretation did attract the support of Justice Douglas.


title: Hugo Black

text: However, he did not believe that individuals had the right to speak wherever they pleased. He delivered the majority opinion in "Adderley v. Florida" (1966), controversially upholding a trespassing conviction for protesters who demonstrated on government property. He also dissented from "Tinker v. Des Moines" (1969), in which the Supreme Court ruled that students had the right to wear armbands (as a form of protest) in schools, writing,


title: Hugo Black

text: While I have always believed that under the First and Fourteenth Amendments neither the State nor the Federal Government has any authority to regulate or censor the content of speech, I have never believed that any person has a right to give speeches or engage in demonstrations where he pleases and when he pleases.


title: Hugo Black

text: Moreover, Black took a narrow view of what constituted "speech" under the First Amendment; for him, "conduct" did not deserve the same protections that "speech" did. For example, he did not believe that flag burning was speech; in "Street v. New York" (1969), he wrote: "It passes my belief that anything in the Federal Constitution bars a State from making the deliberate burning of the American flag an offense." Similarly, he dissented from "Cohen v. California" (1971), in which the court held that wearing a jacket emblazoned with the words "Fuck the Draft" was speech protected by the First Amendment. He asserted that this activity "was mainly conduct, and little speech".


title: Hugo Black

text: As a Justice, Black held the view that the court should literally enforce constitutional guarantees, especially the First Amendment free speech clause. He was often labeled an 'activist' because of his willingness to review legislation that arguably violated constitutional provisions. Black maintained that literalism was necessary to cabin judicial power, which informed his dissent in "Anastaplo".


title: Hugo Black

text: Black adopted a narrower interpretation of the Fourth Amendment than many of his colleagues on the Warren Court. He dissented from "Katz v. United States" (1967), in which the court held that warrantless wiretapping violated the Fourth Amendment's guarantee against unreasonable search and seizure. He argued that the Fourth Amendment only protected tangible items from physical searches or seizures. Thus, he concluded that telephone conversations were not within the scope of the amendment, and that warrantless wiretapping was consequently permissible.


title: Hugo Black

text: Justice Black originally believed that the Constitution did not require the exclusion of illegally seized evidence at trials. In his concurrence to "Wolf v. Colorado" (1949), he claimed that the exclusionary rule was "not a command of the Fourth Amendment but... a judicially created rule of evidence". But he later changed his mind and joined the majority in "Mapp v. Ohio" (1961), which applied it to state as well as federal criminal investigations. In his concurrence, he indicated that his support was based on the Fifth Amendment's guarantee of the right against self-incrimination, not on the Fourth Amendment's guarantee against unreasonable searches and seizures. He wrote, "I am still not persuaded that the Fourth Amendment, standing alone, would be enough to bar the introduction into evidence... seized... in violation of its commands."