title: Sodexo

text: In 2009, the Service Employees International Union (SEIU) launched a United States nationwide campaign against Sodexo with the stated objective of improving wage and job standards. In 2010, the SEIU recruited students at many U.S. colleges to support strikes and demonstrations in protest of Sodexo's alleged unfair labor practices including anti-union behavior and paying low wages. Although one series of strikes at the University of Pittsburgh led to the negotiation of higher wages and lower cost health insurance plans for the cafeteria workers, none of the Sodexo accounts targeted by the SEIU have unionized or requested an election vote. According to a statement from Sodexo, the SEIU engaged in a smear campaign in an effort to drive out rival labor unions that have traditionally operated in the foodservice industry as well as for general publicity.


title: Sodexo

text: Sodexo filed a lawsuit in March 2011 under the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act accusing the SEIU of "engaging in illegal tactics in its effort to unionize workers". During the trial, it was revealed that the SEIU had written and distributed a manual to its staff detailing how "outside pressure can involve jeopardizing relationships between the employer and lenders, investors, stockholders, customers, clients, patients, tenants, politicians, or others on whom the employer depends for funds." Tactics recommended include references to blackmail, extortion, accusations of racism and sexism, and targeting the homes and neighborhoods of business leaders for demonstrations. Following the court discovery of this document, the SEIU agreed to terminate their public campaign focused on Sodexo and the charges against SEIU were dropped.


title: Sodexo

text: In May 2011, 27 University of Washington students were arrested during a sit-in at the university's administrative offices for protesting the university's concessions contract with Sodexo. Later that same month, another 13 students were arrested under similar circumstances.


title: Sodexo

text: In April 2012, a Sodexo regional manager disrupted a student protest at the State University of New York at New Paltz by tearing up protesters' signs. Students there had organized a protest to highlight what they saw as the company's unethical treatment of workers and its lack of response to issues of sustainability.


title: Sodexo

text: On 22 February 2013, all of the frozen beef products used by Sodexo in the UK were withdrawn following the discovery of horse DNA in a sample. The company supplies 2,300 institutions, including schools, senior citizen homes, prisons and branches of the armed forces within the UK.


title: Sodexo

text: In August 2013, Sodexo Justice Services was criticised in an official report for subjecting a female prisoner to "cruel, inhumane and degrading treatment", which "appears to amount to torture" at HMP Bronzefield in Ashford, Surrey, UK. The woman was kept segregated from other prisoners in an "unkempt and squalid" prison cell for more than five years.


title: Sodexo

text: In February 2019, Sodexo was criticized by the United Kingdom Ministry of Justice for failing to prevent repeated and systemic breaches of the human rights of inmates at the Sodexo-operated HMP Peterborough. This stemmed from a series of illegal strip-searches of prisoners at the jail in 2017, including one inmate who was menstruating and another who was transitioning from female to male. Justice Julian Knowles described the illegal procedures as "humiliating and embarrassing."


title: Sodexo

text: HMP Bronzefield in Surrey, operated by Sodexo Justice Services, were investigated by police after allowing a woman to give birth alone in her cell without any kind of medical support. The baby was found dead in the early hours of 27 September 2019.


title: Sodexo

text: In December 2019, a dispute between the UNITE HERE Local 11 union and the Sodexo operation at Loyola Marymount University threatened to derail a planned Democratic Party presidential candidate debate at the university. The union alleged mistreatment of food service workers.


title: Sodexo

text: Starting in October 2019, Sodexo employees (mainly cleaners, porters and caterers) at St. Mary's Hospital, London, organised by the UVW union, protested at unfair pay and terms on their contract with the hospital and were asking to be brought in-house as full NHS employees and to be paid the London Living Wage of £10.85/hour. After being told that this wasn't possible and after Sodexo pay packets missing payments, employees did several days of industrial action, resulting in one of the longest strikes in NHS history. This resulted in all their demands being satisfied, and as there were 4 other hospitals administered by the same trust, all of their 1,200 Sodexo employees were brought in-house and became full NHS employees in January 2020. The employees were almost entirely black, latino and Asian people and/or migrants. The industrial action was co-ordinated by Loreta Younsi, a Lithuanian migrant, who had worked as a cleaner at the hospital for 12 years. A documentary called "Fight for your rights: the trade union for outsourced workers" was created afterwards and is on Youtube.


title: .22-250 Remington

text: The .22-250 Remington is a very high-velocity, short action, .22 caliber rifle cartridge primarily used for varmint hunting and small game hunting. It is capable of reaching over 4000 feet per second. It does find occasional use by women and young children for deer hunting because of its low recoil. Some jurisdictions prohibit the use of cartridges smaller than 6mm (e.g., .243 Winchester) for deer hunting. This cartridge is also sometimes known as the ".22 Varminter" or the ".22 Wotkyns Original Swift". Along with the .220 Swift, the .22-250 was one of the high-velocity .22 caliber cartridges that developed a reputation for remote wounding effects known as hydrostatic shock in the late 1930s and early 1940s.


title: .22-250 Remington

text: The .22-250 started life as a wildcat cartridge developed from the .250-3000 Savage case necked down to take a .224 caliber bullet. In the early days of the cartridge there were several different versions that varied only slightly from one to the next, including one developed in 1937 by Grosvenor Wotkyns, J. E. Gebby and J. B. Smith who named their version the 22 Varminter.


title: .22-250 Remington

text: The .22-250 is similar to, but was outperformed by the larger .220 Swift cartridge. However, it is in much wider use and has a larger variety of commercially available factory ammunition than the Swift. This makes it generally cheaper to shoot. The smaller powder load also contributes to more economical shooting for users who load their own ammunition. Due to its rimless case the 22-250 also feeds from a box magazine more reliably than the Swift, a semi-rimmed cartridge susceptible to rim lock.


title: .22-250 Remington

text: In 1937 Phil Sharpe, one of the first gunsmiths to build a rifle for the .22-250 and long time .220 Swift rifle builder, stated, "The Swift performed best when it was loaded to approximately full velocity," whereas, "The Varminter case permits the most flexible loading ever recorded with a single cartridge. It will handle all velocities from 1,500 ft/s up to 4,500 ft/s."


title: .22-250 Remington

text: Sharpe credited the steep 28-degree shoulder for this performance. He insisted that it kept the powder burning in the case rather than in the throat of the rifle, as well as prevented case stretching and neck thickening. "Shoulder angle ranks along with primer, powders, bullets, neck length, body taper, loading density and all those other features," he wrote. "The .22 Varminter seems to have a perfectly balanced combination of all desirable features and is not just an old cartridge pepped up with new powders."


title: .22-250 Remington

text: Accuracy was consistently excellent, with little need for either case trimming or neck reaming, and Sharpe pronounced it "my choice for the outstanding cartridge development of the past decade." He finished by saying he looked forward to the day when it would become a commercial cartridge.


title: .22-250 Remington

text: In 1963, the Browning Arms Company started to chamber its Browning High Power Rifle in the .22-250, at the time a wildcat cartridge. This was a historical move on Browning's part as there was no commercial production of the .22-250 at the time. John T. Amber, reporting on the development of the Browning rifle in the 1964 "Gun Digest", called the event "unprecedented". "As far as I know," he wrote, "this is the first time a first-line arms-maker has offered a rifle chambered for a cartridge that it—or some other production ammunition maker—cannot supply." Amber foresaw difficulties for the company but "applauded Browning's courage in taking this step". He said he had his order in for one of the first heavy-barrel models, expected in June 1963, and added, "I can hardly wait!"


title: .22-250 Remington

text: Two years later, in 1965, Remington Arms adopted the .22-250, added "Remington" to the name and chambered their Model 700 and 40 XB match rifles for the cartridge along with a line of commercial ammunition, thus establishing its commercial specification.


title: .22-250 Remington

text: Both the British Special Air Service and the Australian Special Air Service Regiment used Tikka M55 sniper rifles chambered in .22-250 for urban counter-terrorism duties in the 1980s, in an attempt to reduce excessive penetration and ricochets.


title: .22-250 Remington

text: Typical factory-loaded .22-250 Remington can propel a 55 grain (3.56 g) spitzer bullet at 3,680 ft/s (1122 m/s) with of energy. Many other loads with lighter bullets are used to achieve velocities of over 4,000 ft/s (1,219 m/s), while still having effective energy for use in hunting small game and medium-sized predators. CIP lists the performance as: Transducer Method Pressures (Energies): Max Average Pmax = 4050 bar, PE (Proof Pressure) = 5060 bar, EE (Min Proof Energy) = 2370 Joules


title: .22-250 Remington

text: The .22-250 is currently the second fastest production cartridge in the world, surpassing the .204 Ruger, at 4,450 feet per second. but still behind the 220 swift


title: .22-250 Remington

text: It is particularly popular in the western states of the USA, where high winds often hinder the effectiveness of other varmint rounds in prairie dog hunting. Many states in the USA have minimum caliber restrictions on larger game such as deer, although most states do allow the cartridge to be used for big game.


title: Herbal cigarette

text: Herbal cigarettes (also called tobacco-free cigarettes or nicotine-free cigarettes) are cigarettes that usually do not contain any tobacco or nicotine, instead being composed of a mixture of various herbs and/or other plant material. However, Chinese herbal cigarettes contain tobacco and nicotine with herbs added, unlike European and North American herbal cigarettes which have tobacco and nicotine omitted. Like herbal smokeless tobacco, they are often used as a substitute for standard tobacco products (primarily cigarettes). Herbal cigarettes are often advertised as a smoking cessation aid. They are also used in acting scenes by performers who are non-smokers, or where anti-smoking legislation prohibits the use of tobacco in public spaces. Herbal cigarettes can carry carcinogens.


title: Herbal cigarette

text: Herbal cigarettes are most often made using standard-issue rolling papers and cigarette filters, bundled together.


title: Herbal cigarette

text: A wide range of consumable products may be used as a filling, in lieu of tobacco. Corn silk and a number of flavorful herbs, such as mint, cinnamon or lemongrass, have been utilized by a wide number of herbal cigarette producers. Other manufacturers have included non-herbs like rose petals or clover leaves. Some use the flavorless bagasse and make the herbal cigarette depend on the flavoring; this is especially common in shisha. Some are made with dried lettuce leaves or shredded cabbage leaves.


title: Herbal cigarette

text: Research shows that herbal cigarettes compared with regular cigarettes can be just as harmful in terms of the carcinogens they carry. Dr. John Moore-Gillan, chairman of the British Lung Foundation, states the addictive qualities to herbal cigarettes may be taken out, however other harmful elements remain. A study on Chinese herbal cigarettes found they had about the same amount of carcinogens as regular cigarettes. There are toxic components of the smoke of herbal cigarettes which are similar to regular cigarettes. Aminobiphenyl can cause bladder cancer. CO can be fatal in "low concentration of approximately 667 μg/mL." CO can cause coronary artery disease as well. Short term symptoms of CO include headaches, dizziness, irritability and difficulty breathing.


title: Herbal cigarette

text: The Chinese tobacco industry markets herbal cigarettes as having health benefits, yet scientific studies show there is no difference to peoples' health between Chinese herbal cigarette brands and regular cigarette brands. Chinese cigarette brands are equally as addictive as regular cigarettes, although they are marketed as healthier. Chinese herbal cigarettes are sold in Philippines, Singapore, Indonesia, Malaysia, Cambodia, Myanmar, Canada, and Taiwan. People observed in a study showed they smoked more herbal cigarettes than regular cigarettes. Herbal cigarettes started in the 1970s and became popular in the 1990s. Two of the biggest herbal brands in China, Jinsheng and Wuyeshen, sold 1%, or 20 billion cigarettes, of all cigarettes sold in China in 2008.


title: Herbal cigarette

text: In South Korea regular cigarette prices have risen making herbal cigarettes a more popular smoking alternative. Evidence shows that South Koreans choose to use herbal cigarettes as a smoking cessation aid. Sales of herbal cigarettes increased by 118% in 2014.


title: Herbal cigarette

text: A study investigated smokers' perception on cigarette products thought of as "less harmful" than regular cigarettes. It found that there was 3.3% nicotine in some herbal cigarettes, which was higher than medical nicotine at 2.4%.


title: Herbal cigarette

text: Originating from the United Kingdom in 1947, the presumed oldest brand of herbal cigarettes are Honeyrose and Black Swan. They are currently sold worldwide.


title: Grey's Anatomy (season 11)

text: The eleventh season of the American television medical drama "Grey's Anatomy" premiered on September 25, 2014, in the United States on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) and consists of 25 episodes. The season was produced by ABC Studios, in association with Shondaland Production Company and The Mark Gordon Company; the showrunners being Stacy McKee and William Harper. The season commenced airing with the episode "I Must Have Lost It On The Wind" and concluded with the season finale "You're My Home" airing on May 14, 2015. The season was officially released on DVD as a 6-disc boxset under the title of "Grey's Anatomy: The Complete Eleventh Season – Life Changes" on August 18, 2015, by Buena Vista Home Entertainment.


title: Grey's Anatomy (season 11)

text: The season is the first in which Dr. Cristina Yang, portrayed by Sandra Oh, is not included in the main cast of characters following her departure in previous season's finale. The season's main storylines include Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo) dealing with "her person's" departure, her problematic love-life with her husband Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey), and the arrival of Dr. Maggie Pierce (Kelly McCreary), whom Meredith learns is her half-sister. The biggest storyline of the season was the death of Derek who is involved in a car accident in "How to Save a Life." Other story-arcs include Amelia Shepherd (Caterina Scorsone) moving to Seattle, learning the ropes at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital, Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez) and Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw) try to save their marriage by going to marriage counseling, April Kepner (Sarah Drew) and Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams) end up having a boy, named Samuel, who dies moments after birth having been diagnosed to have osteogenesis imperfecta, a lethal birth defect. The season also focuses on the deepening friendship between Meredith and Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) causing problems for him and girlfriend Jo Wilson (Camilla Luddington).


title: Grey's Anatomy (season 11)

text: The season ended with 11.08 million viewers ranking #36 overall in total viewers. This is much lower than the tenth season, which was ranked #15. In the 18–49 key demographic, "Grey's Anatomy" ranked #13 down 8 places from the previous season, it is the lowest ranking in the series' history. For the 2014-2015 Primetime TV schedule, it was the #5 drama in the 18–49 key demographic. The season was well received among television critics with several praising the writing and performances of the cast, with lead Ellen Pompeo's performance receiving high critical acclaim. In terms of awards and accolades the season garnered 6 nominations at the 41st People's Choice Awards winning 4 including Favorite Network TV Drama, Dempsey and Pompeo won Favorite Dramatic TV Actor and Actress respectively and Oh winning for Favorite TV Character We Miss Most. On May 7, 2015, ABC announced the renewal of "Grey's Anatomy" for a twelfth season as part of their 2015-16 TV lineup.


title: Grey's Anatomy (season 11)

text: The number in the "No. overall" column refers to the episode's number within the overall series, whereas the number in the "No. in season" column refers to the episode's number within this particular season. "U.S. viewers in millions" refers to the number of Americans in millions who watched the episodes live. Each episode of this season is named after a song.


title: Grey's Anatomy (season 11)

text: "Grey's Anatomy" was renewed for an eleventh season by ABC on May 8, 2014. On May 13, 2014, ABC announced their new schedule, as well as a new timeslot for "Grey's Anatomy". The show remained on Thursday night, but it was moved to 8:00 PM E.T. to make room for ShondaLand Production Company's new TV series, "How to Get Away with Murder". Even though Paul Lee, the president of ABC, moved "Grey's Anatomy" to a new timeslot, he announced at ABC's 2014-15 upfront that the eleventh season would air in the same order as the previous season with 2 batches consisting of 12 interrupted episodes.


title: Grey's Anatomy (season 11)

text: For the 2014-15 TV season, ABC programmed its entire Thursday primetime lineup with Shondaland dramas "Grey's Anatomy", "Scandal" and "How To Get Away With Murder", then branded the night as "Thank God It's Thursday" (or "TGIT"). This echoes ABC's former TGIF branding of its Friday night family sitcoms and even NBC's Must See TV promotion of formidable Thursday night television hits in the 1990s.


title: Grey's Anatomy (season 11)

text: The remaining fall schedule for ABC was announced on October 30, 2014, where it was announced that "Grey's Anatomy" would be split into 2 batches. However, instead of the 12 and 12, there will be 8 episodes in the fall which will end with a winter finale on November 20, 2014, like the rest of ABC's primetime lineup "TGIT" "Scandal" and "How To Get Away with Murder". The remaining 16 episodes will air after the winter break, beginning on January 29, 2015.


title: Grey's Anatomy (season 11)

text: During an interview, Shonda Rhimes stated that "Season 11 is really a Meredith-centric season. She lost her ‘person’, her half-sister has shown up, her husband is chafing to go someplace else..." She went on to reveal that she's been wanting to do the "familial grenade" storyline for a long time, and at the end of Season 10, she knew it was the time to do it. Rhimes also claimed that Season 11 will pick up right where Season 10 left us, so there won't be much that the audience won't see. In another interview, Rhimes revealed that she and the writers were thinking about doing flashback periods to the younger days of Dr. Ellis Grey and Dr. Richard Webber. Sarah Drew's character Dr. April Kepner became pregnant at the end of the tenth season, which coincided with Drew's real-life pregnancy.


title: Grey's Anatomy (season 11)

text: On August 13, 2013, Sandra Oh revealed that she would be leaving after Season 10 of "Grey's Anatomy", making the eleventh season the first season in which Dr. Cristina Yang did not appear. It was announced on March 25, 2014, that Gaius Charles and Tessa Ferrer did not receive a contract renewal for the eleventh season, and left at the end of the tenth season. Jerrika Hinton and Camilla Luddington however, returned as residents for the eleventh season. On January 23, 2014, it was reported that Ellen Pompeo and Patrick Dempsey had renewed their contracts for another 3 seasons, as Meredith Grey and Derek Shepherd, respectively, meaning their characters would be staying on the medical drama for seasons 11 and 12. On May 2, 2014, the rest of the 6 original cast mates, Justin Chambers, Chandra Wilson and James Pickens Jr., excluding Sandra Oh, renewed their contracts for another 2 seasons (11 and 12) as Drs. Alex Karev, Miranda Bailey, and Richard Webber, respectively. Sara Ramirez also renewed her contract for another 2 seasons as Dr. Callie Torres.


title: Grey's Anatomy (season 11)

text: "E! News" reported on June 23, 2014, that Caterina Scorsone was upgraded to a series-regular to continue her role as Dr. Amelia Shepherd, one of Dr. Derek Shepherd's 4 sisters. Scorsone had played the character since the seventh season as a recurring role, and played the character as a series-regular on the show's spin-off series, "Private Practice". After speculations about who would portray the character Ellis Grey, either Kate Burton or Sarah Paulson, it was announced that Sally Pressman would replace Paulson as Ellis in flashbacks with J. August Richards reprising his role as a young Richard Webber in the same episode. On August 6, 2014, it was confirmed that Burton would return to portray Ellis in flashbacks.


title: Grey's Anatomy (season 11)

text: Geena Davis was announced to appear in the season and would have a major guest arc as Dr. Nicole Herman, a fetal surgeon at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital. On September 2, 2014, Annet Mahendru of "The Americans" was announced to guest star for 1 episode, and she played Ana, an undocumented immigrant whose daughter had an 8-pound tumor. It was announced on September 23, 2014, that Connie Ray, known from "Space Jam" and "Stuart Little", would guest star as Dr. April Kepner's mother, Karen, and would appear in the sixth episode. On October 23, 2014, Kelly McCreary was promoted to a series-regular after being credited as guest-starring until the eleventh episode. On April 15, 2015, "Reign" alum Giacomo Gianniotti was announced to be cast on the show as a possible recurring role for Season 12. On April 28, 2015, it was announced that Joe Adler was cast for the show, and would appear in the final 2 episodes of the season.


title: Grey's Anatomy (season 11)

text: Despite signing on for 2 more years after the tenth season, Patrick Dempsey decided that the eleventh season would be his last. The announcement was made on April 23, 2015, just a few hours before his final episode, "How to Save a Life", premiered. Showrunner Shonda Rhimes spoke out about the departure as she said "Derek Shepherd is and will always be an incredibly important character—for Meredith, for me and for the fans. I absolutely never imagined saying goodbye to our ‘McDreamy.’"


title: Grey's Anatomy (season 11)

text: Not even a week after the Season 10 finale episode aired, the "Grey's Anatomy" team of writers began collaborating on ideas for Season 11 storylines. Shonda Rhimes tweeted that they were hard at work in the writing room, but would have the month of June off before coming back in full swing to write actual episodes. After the 4th of July weekend, Rhimes tweeted that the writers' room was once again buzzing, as the team had returned from vacation to start writing new episodes for Season 11. Camilla Luddington confirmed that the filming for the eleventh season would begin on July 25, 2014.


title: Grey's Anatomy (season 11)

text: "Grey's Anatomy's" eleventh season opened up to 10.14 million viewers with a 3.1/11 Nielsen rating/share in the 18–49 demographic. The premiere episode "I Must Have Lost it on the Wind", was the season's most-viewed episode. "When I Grow Up" was the season and series' least-viewed episode, with 6.64 million viewers and a 1.9/7 Nielsen rating/share in the 18–49 demographic. The season finale was the series lowest-watched season finale with 8.33 million viewers and 2.2/8 in the 18–49 rating demo.


title: Grey's Anatomy (season 11)

text: "Grey's Anatomy", in its eleventh season, ranked #36 overall in total viewers (11.08 million). This is much lower than Season 10, which was ranked #15. In the 18–49 key demographic, "Grey's Anatomy" ranked #13 (the lowest ranking in the series' history). The highest ranking for the 18–49 key demographic was #3 for seasons 3, 4, and 5. Last season, "Grey's Anatomy" was ranked #5. For the 2014-2015 primetime TV schedule, "Grey's Anatomy" was the ##1 drama in the 18–49 key demographic.


title: Grey's Anatomy (season 11)

text: The first half of the season opened to critical acclaim with many calling it the best season in the past few year;, the second-half, however, garnered mixed reviews. With Season 11 being the first in "Grey's Anatomy" history to be without Cristina Yang, "TV.com" wrote, "So, the question I had heading into "Grey's Anatomy"'s Season 11 premiere was just how much Cristina's absence would be felt. And at the end, I have to say-while the lack of Yang was definitely noticeable, I think the show will be just fine with out her."


title: Grey's Anatomy (season 11)

text: Perhaps the biggest storyline of Season 11 was the death of Derek Shepherd. After his last episode, "How to Save a Life" premiered, many fans were outraged with Shonda Rhimes for how the episode was written and vowed to never watch the show again. Samantha Highfill of "Entertainment Weekly" wrote: "Of all the ways he could’ve gone—dying while saving that family in a shocking but heroic moment, or dying at Grey Sloan and getting a chance to say goodbye to everyone—this felt cheap. And quite frankly, it felt a little rude to the man himself. He was called McDreamy for a reason, and he deserved better than this." Citing the storylines of Derek's death, Callie and Arizona splitting up, and April and Jackson losing their baby, "The Hollywood Reporter" wrote that Season 11 is one of the most depressing seasons of "Grey's Anatomy".


title: Grey's Anatomy (season 11)

text: Despite all that, the season garnered positive reviews. "Entertainment Weekly" wrote, "It's nice to see "Grey's" pull back on the throttle on its soap opera tendencies (and I hate using that word as pejorative) and aim for drama that feels a bit more grounded." "TV Fanatic" gave a hugely positive review stating, "The acting remains stellar, the drama is mixed with just the right amount of humor and darn it if I'm not now wrapped up in the future of MerDer." "TV Equals" stated that, "This season certainly had its strong points, the sad loss of April and Jackson's son was a tearjerker in all the right ways. It was great to see Amelia move past an uncomfortable incident with someone from her past and go on to save Dr. Herman’s life. Maggie Pierce was a great addition to the show and the writers managed to revisit this premise in a way that felt fresh. The storyline was also well-paced and it’s been great to watch Maggie become a larger part of Meredith’s life and to watch her get fully integrated into Grey Sloan."


title: Grey's Anatomy (season 11)

text: "BuddyTV" gave the finale a positive review, "'You're My Home' proved to be so bright and shiny. This is an episode that nearly could have served as a series finale, though we know that is not the case. Indeed, a few characters notwithstanding, most of our beloved surgeons are in a shockingly good place as season 11 draws to a close." adding, "I was very impressed tonight as Meredith, who can be very selfish but - in fairness - has suffered great personal loss in the death of Derek, stepped up to the plate on behalf of others. When one considers how this character has grown over 11 seasons, it really is amazing. Kudos to Ellen Pompeo for her fine work. She's actually done the impossible, because I actually care what happens to Meredith Grey in season 12." The episode "Only Mama Knows" received high critical acclaim with numerous critics calling it "one of the best of "Grey's"". "Spoilertv" lauded the episode and wrote, "Outstanding! It’s been a very long time since an episode came along which truly lived and breathed the very core of "Grey’s Anatomy". It was faithfully and beautifully written, directed, edited and acted." "Entertainment Weekly" called the show a "great drama series" stating, "It was also throwing us back to the type of episode we expected from this show in the early seasons, the type of episode that gave you chills and reminded you why this show is so good at drama."


title: Grey's Anatomy (season 11)

text: Ellen Pompeo garnered high critical acclaim towards the latter-half of the season for her portrayal of Meredith Grey. Rick Porter of "Zap2it" lauded Pompeo's performance in "How to Save a Life", may not be the ideal Emmy-submission episode for Ellen Pompeo, considering Meredith is off-screen for more than half of it. But it's among the best work she's ever done on the show." "USA Today" also lauded Pompeo's performance saying, " In some ways, the episode was even more of a showcase for Pompeo. She didn't play a prominent part until late in the hour, but she had some of the more memorable and well-played scenes, from her angry response to the doctor who tries to tell her what her choices are, to her resignation when she realizes she has to comfort and motivate the young doctor whose mistakes cost Derek his life." Reviewing the episode "She's Leaving Home", Matt Carter commended on the show's "shocking" longevity and that it "is still in a position where it makes sense." He also praised Pompeo's performance as "great throughout" and "overlooked."


title: Taysom Hill

text: Taysom Shawn Hill (born August 23, 1990) is an American football utility player officially designated as a tight end for the New Orleans Saints of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at BYU and joined the Saints in 2017 as an undrafted free agent. Hill was listed as a quarterback on the Saints depth chart during his first five seasons, although he took snaps at seven different positions. Hill was designated as a tight end beginning in 2022. He has maintained a similar role on offense and special teams since transitioning to tight end, including as the primary gunner. Hill's array of roles has earned him a reputation as one of the NFL's unique players. Due to his versatility, he is known as "The Human Swiss Army Knife" by Saints' media.


title: Taysom Hill

text: Hill was born and raised in Pocatello, Idaho, where he lettered in football, basketball, and track at Highland High School and graduated in 2009. As a senior, he threw for 2,269 yards and 18 touchdowns, and rushed for 1,491 yards and 24 touchdowns, earning the All-Idaho Player of the Year, Idaho Gatorade High School Player of the Year, First Team All-State selection, and All-Region and All-Conference Player of the Year accolades. He holds the school single-season and career records for total offense.


title: Taysom Hill

text: In track, Hill competed in the 200 meters and long jump. As a sophomore at the 2007 5A District IV/V/VI Regional Meet, he recorded a personal-best time of 22.5 seconds in the 200 m, placing third, and ran the fourth leg on the squad, helping the Rams to 1:31.41 and a first-place finish. As a senior, he won the long jump event at the 2009 5A Regional Meet, with a mark of .


title: Taysom Hill

text: Coming out of high school in 2009, Hill had multiple offers from programs in the West, including University of Arizona, Boise State University, Oregon State University, Washington State University, University of Utah, Stanford University, and Brigham Young University.


title: Taysom Hill

text: Heavily recruited by head coach Jim Harbaugh, Hill had originally committed to Stanford out of high school, but after returning from his LDS church mission, he enrolled in January at BYU after learning Stanford did not allow incoming freshmen to join the team until June.


title: Taysom Hill

text: In his freshman season of 2012, Hill was number two on the quarterback depth chart. He was initially brought in for special packages to utilize his athleticism in short-yardage situations. In his first pass as a college player, he threw an 18-yard touchdown pass against Washington State in the home opener. Hill played in 6 games in 2012, starting and winning two starts midseason before suffering a season-ending knee injury in the closing seconds of a victory over Utah State.


title: Taysom Hill

text: Hill resumed starting in the 2013 season. After a tough 19–16 loss in the season opener at Virginia, he bounced back the following week against Texas, with 259 yards rushing and three touchdowns in a 40–21 win. In 2014, Hill sustained a fractured leg against Utah State on October 3, ending his season. BYU lost their first game of the season that night.


title: Taysom Hill

text: Injury again struck Hill at the start of the 2015 season, when he suffered a lisfranc fracture during the opener against Nebraska on September 5. After the game, BYU head coach Bronco Mendenhall announced that the injury would cost Hill the rest of the season.


title: Taysom Hill

text: As a result, Hill was granted a medical redshirt for 2015, making him eligible to return for one final season in 2016. On February 16, he announced that he would be returning to BYU in 2016 rather than pursuing options to play at another school as a graduate transfer. On August 23, Hill was named the starting quarterback over sophomore Tanner Mangum, who had started after Hill's injury in 2015. Hill changed his jersey number from 4 to the number 7 that his late older brother Dexter had worn.


title: Taysom Hill

text: Late in 2016, Hill suffered a fourth season-ending injury. Against in-state rival Utah State on November 26, he went down with a hyper-extended elbow injury in the fourth quarter and was unable to finish the season.


title: Taysom Hill

text: Hill showed impressive athletic ability at BYU's pro day. His 40-yard dash of 4.44 seconds and 38.5-inch (0.98m) vertical jump would have finished first among all participating quarterbacks at the 2017 NFL Combine, beating Texas A&M's Trevor Knight's 4.54-second 40-yard dash and vertical.


title: Taysom Hill

text: Hill went undrafted in the 2017 NFL Draft, but signed with the Green Bay Packers as a free agent on May 5. He appeared in three preseason games with them, completing 14 of 20 passes, throwing for two touchdowns and rushing for another. He was released during the Packers final roster cut-down on September 2, 2017.


title: Taysom Hill

text: The following day, Hill was claimed off waivers by the New Orleans Saints. He was promoted to the active roster on December 3 and appeared in a total of twelve special teams plays against the Carolina Panthers. In his NFL debut, Hill recorded two special teams tackles on the Panthers' kick returner Fozzy Whittaker.


title: Taysom Hill

text: Hill was listed as the third-string quarterback to start 2018 season, but was used in a variety of positions throughout the Saints' season, including as their primary kick returner.


title: Taysom Hill

text: During Week 2 against the Cleveland Browns on September 16, he returned his first kick 47 yards as the Saints won 21–18. The next week against the Atlanta Falcons, he had his most versatile performance in his NFL career. On special teams, Hill returned three kicks for 64 yards and made a tackle on a punt. On offense, he rushed the ball three times for 39 yards and was often used as a tight end to block defenders. In the next game against the New York Giants, Hill completed his first NFL pass on a fake punt for 10 yards. He also rushed four times for 28 yards, continuing to line up at receiver on offense and still being the primary kick returner. Against the Washington Redskins, Hill rushed five times for 24 yards, including his first NFL touchdown run in a 43–19 victory. In a 30–20 "Sunday Night Football" road victory against the Minnesota Vikings on October 28, Hill set up the Saints' first touchdown of the game by completing a 44-yard pass to Michael Thomas, for his second pass completion of the year. During Week 14 against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, he blocked a punt from Bryan Anger, which led to a touchdown that propelled the Saints to a come from behind 28–14 road victory, enabling them to clinch the division title. He was named NFC Special Teams Player of the Week.


title: Taysom Hill

text: Hill finished the season with 37 carries for 196 rushing yards and two rushing touchdowns, three receptions for four yards, and passed for 64 yards and an interception. In addition, he had 14 kickoff returns for 348 net yards for a 24.86 average.


title: Taysom Hill

text: In the Divisional Round against the Philadelphia Eagles, Hill made a key play as a utility player, running for a first down on a fake punt to begin the Saints' comeback victory. In the NFC Championship, against the Los Angeles Rams, Hill recorded a touchdown reception in the 26–23 overtime loss.


title: Taysom Hill

text: In the season-opener against the Houston Texans, Hill rushed twice for eight yards and caught a nine-yard touchdown in the narrow 30–28 victory. In Week 7 against the Chicago Bears, Hill rushed twice for 21 yards and caught a screen pass for a four-yard touchdown in the 36–25 road victory. The next week, Hill saw his playing time increase as Drew Brees returned from injury and caught a career high three passes for 63 yards and a touchdown in the 31–9 win against the Arizona Cardinals. In Week 13 against the Atlanta Falcons on Thanksgiving, Hill blocked a punt, rushed for a 30-yard touchdown, and caught a three-yard touchdown pass in the 26–18 road victory. With his fourth touchdown reception of the year, Hill broke the record for most touchdown receptions by a quarterback in a single season. In Week 15 against the Indianapolis Colts on "Monday Night Football", Hill caught two passes for 42 yards, including the 541st career touchdown pass thrown by Drew Brees, during the 34–7 win. In the against the Minnesota Vikings, Hill had consecutive plays of 11-yard rushing for first down, 50-yard passing followed by a block that enabled a four-yard rushing touchdown by Alvin Kamara in a drive. Hill accumulated 50 yards rushing, 50 yards passing, and 25 yards receiving, including a touchdown late in the game. They ultimately fell to the Vikings 26–20 in overtime.


title: Taysom Hill

text: In March 2020, the Saints placed a first-round restricted free agent tender on Hill worth $4.641 million. On April 26, Hill re-signed with the Saints to a two-year deal worth $16.3 million, an extension to the first-round restricted free agent tender placed on Hill, to bring the total deal up to around $21 million.


title: Taysom Hill

text: On November 20, 2020, it was announced that Hill would make his first career start at quarterback for the Saints Week 11 matchup against the Atlanta Falcons due to Drew Brees’ injury. Hill threw 23 passes, completing 18 for 233 yards. He also ran for 51 yards and two touchdowns, helping the Saints beat the Falcons 24–9. In Week 12 against the Denver Broncos, he recorded another game with two rushing touchdowns in the 31–3 victory. In Week 13 against the Atlanta Falcons, he had 232 passing yards and his first two career passing touchdowns in the 21–16 victory. His last start of the season came in Week 14, where despite a two touchdown, 291 yard passing performance, the team would lose to the Eagles 24–21.


title: Taysom Hill

text: On March 14, 2021, the same day that starting quarterback Drew Brees announced his retirement, Hill signed a 4-year, $40 million extension with the Saints. The contract was structured in such a way as to free up salary cap space for New Orleans, saving them $7.75 million against the 2021 cap. He lost the 2021 Saints starting quarterback job to Jameis Winston. During the first half of the 2021 season, he spent the year as the third-string quarterback on the depth chart behind Jameis Winston and Trevor Siemian, though he continued in his role as a utility player, appearing in six of the first nine games as a runner, receiver, passer, and on special teams. After a four-game losing streak, Hill was named to the starting quarterback role prior to a Week 13 Thursday Night Football game against the Dallas Cowboys. Though he led the team in rushing with 101 yards on eleven carries, he threw four interceptions to only two touchdowns, and the team lost 27–17. He fared better the next week against the New York Jets, going 15-for-21 for 175 yards and a 96.3 passer rating, as well as rushing for 73 yards and two touchdowns in a 30-9 blowout win.


title: Taysom Hill

text: Hill signed an additional contract extension with the Saints on November 22, 2021. On January 9, 2022, Hill suffered a Lisfranc injury in a game against the Atlanta Falcons, an injury that later required surgery.


title: Taysom Hill

text: New head coach Dennis Allen changed Hill's primary position from quarterback to tight end in March 2022. After the team re-signed Jameis Winston and picked up veteran Andy Dalton, it was decided that better use could be made of Hill's skill set as a tight end. Hill is expected to play as a motion tight end, flexed back from the line of scrimmage.


title: Taysom Hill

text: Although Hill began the season listed as a tight end on the Saints depth chart, he primarily took snaps at quarterback in the wildcat formation to begin the season. Hill generated 81 yards and a touchdown on four rushes against the Atlanta Falcons in Week 1 from this position.


title: Taysom Hill

text: Hill sat out Week 3 with a rib injury and returned in Week 4 against the Minnesota Vikings. He took snaps at quarterback, rotating with Andy Dalton. From the quarterback position, Hill scored his second touchdown of the season on a goal line play out of a shotgun formation. Hill also took snaps while positioned at wide receiver.


title: Taysom Hill

text: On October 9, Hill had one of the best statistical games of his career against the Seattle Seahawks, scoring a career-high four touchdowns in a 39–32 win. In total, he recorded nine carries for 122 yards and three touchdowns (including a go-ahead 60-yard touchdown run), completed his only pass for a 22-yard score, and recovered a fumble on special teams. For his performance, he was named NFC Offensive Player of the Week.


title: Taysom Hill

text: Hill scored his first receiving touchdown of 2022 in Week 7 against the Arizona Cardinals and completed both of his pass attempts for 48 yards. On the broadcast, longtime NFL play-by-play announcer Al Michaels referred to Hill as “Slash+” in reference to former NFL quarterback Kordell Stewart, who performed a similar role as Hill early in his career with the Pittsburgh Steelers.


title: Taysom Hill

text: In Week 14 against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Hill recorded two pass receptions for 35 yards and a touchdown. He added 10 yards on three carries and completed his only pass attempt for 22 yards. Hill took snaps at four different positions on offense in addition to his snaps taken on special teams.


title: Taysom Hill

text: Hill is the youngest of four children of Doug and Natalie Hill. He was named after Taysom Construction Company, formerly located in his hometown of Pocatello, Idaho.


title: Taysom Hill

text: He is a member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and served as a missionary for the church in Sydney, Australia, from 2009 to 2011. He married Emily Nixon in 2014 in the Salt Lake Temple in Salt Lake City, Utah. Hill's brother-in-law is former BYU and NFL linebacker David Nixon.


title: Biofilm

text: A biofilm comprises any syntrophic consortium of microorganisms in which cells stick to each other and often also to a surface. These adherent cells become embedded within a slimy extracellular matrix that is composed of extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs). The cells within the biofilm produce the EPS components, which are typically a polymeric conglomeration of extracellular polysaccharides, proteins, lipids and DNA. Because they have three-dimensional structure and represent a community lifestyle for microorganisms, they have been metaphorically described as "cities for microbes".


title: Biofilm

text: Biofilms may form on living or non-living surfaces and can be prevalent in natural, industrial, and hospital settings. They may constitute a microbiome or be a portion of it. The microbial cells growing in a biofilm are physiologically distinct from planktonic cells of the same organism, which, by contrast, are single cells that may float or swim in a liquid medium. Biofilms can form on the teeth of most animals as dental plaque, where they may cause tooth decay and gum disease.


title: Biofilm

text: Microbes form a biofilm in response to a number of different factors, which may include cellular recognition of specific or non-specific attachment sites on a surface, nutritional cues, or in some cases, by exposure of planktonic cells to sub-inhibitory concentrations of antibiotics. A cell that switches to the biofilm mode of growth undergoes a phenotypic shift in behavior in which large suites of genes are differentially regulated.


title: Biofilm

text: A biofilm may also be considered a hydrogel, which is a complex polymer that contains many times its dry weight in water. Biofilms are not just bacterial slime layers but biological systems; the bacteria organize themselves into a coordinated functional community. Biofilms can attach to a surface such as a tooth or rock, and may include a single species or a diverse group of microorganisms. Subpopulations of cells within the biofilm differentiate to perform various activities for motility, matrix production, and sporulation, supporting the overall success of the biofilm. The biofilm bacteria can share nutrients and are sheltered from harmful factors in the environment, such as desiccation, antibiotics, and a host body's immune system. A biofilm usually begins to form when a free-swimming bacterium attaches to a surface.


title: Biofilm

text: Biofilms are thought to have arisen during primitive Earth as a defense mechanism for prokaryotes, as the conditions at that time were too harsh for their survival. They can be found very early in Earth's fossil records (about 3.25 billion years ago) as both Archaea and Bacteria, and commonly protect prokaryotic cells by providing them with homeostasis, encouraging the development of complex interactions between the cells in the biofilm.


title: Biofilm

text: The formation of a biofilm begins with the attachment of free-floating microorganisms to a surface. The first colonist bacteria of a biofilm may adhere to the surface initially by the weak van der Waals forces and hydrophobic effects. If the colonists are not immediately separated from the surface, they can anchor themselves more permanently using cell adhesion structures such as pili. A unique group of Archaea that inhabit anoxic groundwater have similar structures called hami. Each hamus is a long tube with three hook attachments that are used to attach to each other or to a surface, enabling a community to develop. Hyperthermophilic archaeon "Pyrobaculum calidifontis" produce bundling pili which are homologous to the bacterial TasA filaments, a major component of the extracellular matrix in bacterial biofilms, which contribute to biofilm stability. TasA homologs are encoded by many other archaea, suggesting mechanistic similarities and evolutionary connection between bacterial and archaeal biofilms.


title: Biofilm

text: Hydrophobicity can also affect the ability of bacteria to form biofilms. Bacteria with increased hydrophobicity have reduced repulsion between the substratum and the bacterium. Some bacteria species are not able to attach to a surface on their own successfully due to their limited motility but are instead able to anchor themselves to the matrix or directly to other, earlier bacteria colonists. Non-motile bacteria cannot recognize surfaces or aggregate together as easily as motile bacteria.


title: Biofilm

text: During surface colonization bacteria cells are able to communicate using quorum sensing (QS) products such as N-acyl homoserine lactone (AHL). Once colonization has begun, the biofilm grows by a combination of cell division and recruitment. Polysaccharide matrices typically enclose bacterial biofilms. The matrix exopolysaccharides can trap QS autoinducers within the biofilm to prevent predator detection and ensure bacterial survival. In addition to the polysaccharides, these matrices may also contain material from the surrounding environment, including but not limited to minerals, soil particles, and blood components, such as erythrocytes and fibrin. The final stage of biofilm formation is known as dispersion, and is the stage in which the biofilm is established and may only change in shape and size.


title: Biofilm

text: The development of a biofilm may allow for an aggregate cell colony (or colonies) to be increasingly tolerant or resistant to antibiotics. Cell-cell communication or quorum sensing has been shown to be involved in the formation of biofilm in several bacterial species.


title: Biofilm

text: Biofilms are the product of a microbial developmental process. The process is summarized by five major stages of biofilm development, as shown in the diagram below:


title: Biofilm

text: Dispersal of cells from the biofilm colony is an essential stage of the biofilm life cycle. Dispersal enables biofilms to spread and colonize new surfaces. Enzymes that degrade the biofilm extracellular matrix, such as dispersin B and deoxyribonuclease, may contribute to biofilm dispersal. Enzymes that degrade the biofilm matrix may be useful as anti-biofilm agents. Evidence has shown that a fatty acid messenger, "cis"-2-decenoic acid, is capable of inducing dispersion and inhibiting growth of biofilm colonies. Secreted by "Pseudomonas aeruginosa", this compound induces cyclo heteromorphic cells in several species of bacteria and the yeast "Candida albicans".


title: Biofilm

text: Nitric oxide has also been shown to trigger the dispersal of biofilms of several bacteria species at sub-toxic concentrations. Nitric oxide has potential as a treatment for patients that have chronic infections caused by biofilms.


title: Biofilm

text: It was generally assumed that cells dispersed from biofilms immediately go into the planktonic growth phase. However, studies have shown that the physiology of dispersed cells from "Pseudomonas aeruginosa" biofilms is highly different from those of planktonic and biofilm cells. Hence, the dispersal process is a unique stage during the transition from biofilm to planktonic lifestyle in bacteria. Dispersed cells are found to be highly virulent against macrophages and "Caenorhabditis elegans", but highly sensitive towards iron stress, as compared with planktonic cells.


title: Biofilm

text: Biofilms are usually found on solid substrates submerged in or exposed to an aqueous solution, although they can form as floating mats on liquid surfaces and also on the surface of leaves, particularly in high humidity climates. Given sufficient resources for growth, a biofilm will quickly grow to be macroscopic (visible to the naked eye). Biofilms can contain many different types of microorganism, e.g. bacteria, archaea, protozoa, fungi and algae; each group performs specialized metabolic functions. However, some organisms will form single-species films under certain conditions. The social structure (cooperation/competition) within a biofilm depends highly on the different species present.


title: Biofilm

text: The EPS matrix consists of exopolysaccharides, proteins and nucleic acids. A large proportion of the EPS is more or less strongly hydrated, however, hydrophobic EPS also occur; one example is cellulose which is produced by a range of microorganisms. This matrix encases the cells within it and facilitates communication among them through biochemical signals as well as gene exchange. The EPS matrix also traps extracellular enzymes and keeps them in close proximity to the cells. Thus, the matrix represents an external digestion system and allows for stable synergistic microconsortia of different species. Some biofilms have been found to contain water channels that help distribute nutrients and signalling molecules. This matrix is strong enough that under certain conditions, biofilms can become fossilized (stromatolites).


title: Biofilm

text: Bacteria living in a biofilm usually have significantly different properties from free-floating bacteria of the same species, as the dense and protected environment of the film allows them to cooperate and interact in various ways. One benefit of this environment is increased resistance to detergents and antibiotics, as the dense extracellular matrix and the outer layer of cells protect the interior of the community. In some cases antibiotic resistance can be increased up to 5,000 times. Lateral gene transfer is often facilitated within bacterial and archaeal biofilms and leads to a more stable biofilm structure. Extracellular DNA is a major structural component of many different microbial biofilms. Enzymatic degradation of extracellular DNA can weaken the biofilm structure and release microbial cells from the surface.


title: Biofilm

text: However, biofilms are not always less susceptible to antibiotics. For instance, the biofilm form of "Pseudomonas aeruginosa" has no greater resistance to antimicrobials than do stationary-phase planktonic cells, although when the biofilm is compared to logarithmic-phase planktonic cells, the biofilm does have greater resistance to antimicrobials. This resistance to antibiotics in both stationary-phase cells and biofilms may be due to the presence of persister cells.


title: Biofilm

text: Biofilms are ubiquitous in organic life. Nearly every species of microorganism have mechanisms by which they can adhere to surfaces and to each other. Biofilms will form on virtually every non-shedding surface in non-sterile aqueous or humid environments. Biofilms can grow in the most extreme environments: from, for example, the extremely hot, briny waters of hot springs ranging from very acidic to very alkaline, to frozen glaciers.


title: Biofilm

text: Biofilms can be found on rocks and pebbles at the bottoms of most streams or rivers and often form on the surfaces of stagnant pools of water. Biofilms are important components of food chains in rivers and streams and are grazed by the aquatic invertebrates upon which many fish feed. Biofilms are found on the surface of and inside plants. They can either contribute to crop disease or, as in the case of nitrogen-fixing rhizobia on root nodules, exist symbiotically with the plant. Examples of crop diseases related to biofilms include citrus canker, Pierce's disease of grapes, and bacterial spot of plants such as peppers and tomatoes.


title: Biofilm

text: Percolating filters in sewage treatment works are highly effective removers of pollutants from settled sewage liquor. They work by trickling the liquid over a bed of hard material which is designed to have a very large surface area. A complex biofilm develops on the surface of the medium which absorbs, adsorbs and metabolises the pollutants. The biofilm grows rapidly and when it becomes too thick to retain its grip on the media it washes off and is replaced by newly grown film. The washed off ("sloughed" off) film is settled out of the liquid stream to leave a highly purified effluent.


title: Biofilm

text: Slow sand filters are used in water purification for treating raw water to produce a potable product. They work through the formation of a biofilm called the hypogeal layer or "Schmutzdecke" in the top few millimetres of the fine sand layer. The "Schmutzdecke" is formed in the first 10–20 days of operation and consists of bacteria, fungi, protozoa, rotifera and a range of aquatic insect larvae. As an epigeal biofilm ages, more algae tend to develop and larger aquatic organisms may be present including some bryozoa, snails and annelid worms. The surface biofilm is the layer that provides the effective purification in potable water treatment, the underlying sand providing the support medium for this biological treatment layer. As water passes through the hypogeal layer, particles of foreign matter are trapped in the mucilaginous matrix and soluble organic material is adsorbed. The contaminants are metabolised by the bacteria, fungi and protozoa. The water produced from an exemplary slow sand filter is of excellent quality with 90–99% bacterial cell count reduction.


title: Biofilm

text: Plant-beneficial microbes can be categorized as plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria. These plant growth-promoters colonize the roots of plants, and provide a wide range of beneficial functions for their host including nitrogen fixation, pathogen suppression, anti-fungal properties, and the breakdown of organic materials. One of these functions is the defense against pathogenic, soil-borne bacteria and fungi by way of induced systemic resistance (ISR) or induced systemic responses triggered by pathogenic microbes (pathogen-induced systemic acquired resistance).  Plant exudates act as chemical signals for host specific bacteria to colonize. Rhizobacteria colonization steps include attractions, recognition, adherence, colonization, and growth. Bacteria that have been shown to be beneficial and form biofilms include "Bacillus, Pseudomonas," and "Azospirillum".  Biofilms in the rhizosphere often result in pathogen or plant induced systemic resistances.  Molecular properties on the surface of the bacterium cause an immune response in the plant host.  These microbe associated molecules interact with receptors on the surface of plant cells, and activate a biochemical response that is thought to include several different genes at a number of loci. Several other signaling molecules have been linked to both induced systemic responses and pathogen-induced systemic responses, such as jasmonic acid and ethylene.  Cell envelope components such as bacterial flagella and lipopolysaccharides, which are recognized by plant cells as components of pathogens.  Certain iron metabolites produced by "Pseudomonas" have also been shown to create an induced systemic response.  This function of the biofilm helps plants build stronger resistance to pathogens.


title: Biofilm

text: Plants that have been colonized by PGPR forming a biofilm have gained systemic resistances and are primed for defense against pathogens. This means that the genes necessary for the production of proteins that work towards defending the plant against pathogens have been expressed, and the plant has a "stockpile" of compounds to release to fight off pathogens.  A primed defense system is much faster in responding to pathogen induced infection, and may be able to deflect pathogens before they are able to establish themselves. Plants increase the production of lignin, reinforcing cell walls and making it difficult for pathogens to penetrate into the cell, while also cutting off nutrients to already infected cells, effectively halting the invasion.  They produce antimicrobial compounds such as phytoalexins, chitinases, and proteinase inhibitors, which prevent the growth of pathogens.  These functions of disease suppression and pathogen resistance ultimately lead to an increase in agricultural production and a decrease in the use of chemical pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides because there is a reduced amount of crop loss due to disease.  Induced systemic resistance and pathogen-induced systemic acquired resistance are both potential functions of biofilms in the rhizosphere, and should be taken into consideration when applied to new age agricultural practices because of their effect on disease suppression without the use of dangerous chemicals.


title: Biofilm

text: Studies in 2003 discovered that the immune system supports biofilm development in the large intestine. This was supported mainly with the fact that the two most abundantly produced molecules by the immune system also support biofilm production and are associated with the biofilms developed in the gut. This is especially important because the appendix holds a mass amount of these bacterial biofilms. This discovery helps to distinguish the possible function of the appendix and the idea that the appendix can help reinoculate the gut with good gut flora. However, modified or disrupted states of biofilms in the gut have been connected to diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease and colorectal cancer.


title: Biofilm

text: In the human environment, biofilms can grow in showers very easily since they provide a moist and warm environment for them to thrive. They can form inside water and sewage pipes and cause clogging and corrosion. On floors and counters, they can make sanitation difficult in food preparation areas. In soil, they can cause bioclogging. In cooling- or heating-water systems, they are known to reduce heat transfer. Biofilms in marine engineering systems, such as pipelines of the offshore oil and gas industry, can lead to substantial corrosion problems. Corrosion is mainly due to abiotic factors; however, at least 20% of corrosion is caused by microorganisms that are attached to the metal subsurface (i.e., microbially influenced corrosion).


title: Biofilm

text: Bacterial adhesion to boat hulls serves as the foundation for biofouling of seagoing vessels. Once a film of bacteria forms, it is easier for other marine organisms such as barnacles to attach. Such fouling can reduce maximum vessel speed by up to 20%, prolonging voyages and consuming fuel. Time in dry dock for refitting and repainting reduces the productivity of shipping assets, and the useful life of ships is also reduced due to corrosion and mechanical removal (scraping) of marine organisms from ships' hulls.


title: Biofilm

text: Stromatolites are layered accretionary structures formed in shallow water by the trapping, binding and cementation of sedimentary grains by microbial biofilms, especially of cyanobacteria. Stromatolites include some of the most ancient records of life on Earth, and are still forming today.


title: Biofilm

text: Within the human body, biofilms are present on the teeth as dental plaque, where they may cause tooth decay and gum disease. These biofilms can either be in an uncalcified state that can be removed by dental instruments, or a calcified state which is more difficult to remove. Removal techniques can also include antimicrobials.


title: Biofilm

text: Dental plaque is an oral biofilm that adheres to the teeth and consists of many species of both bacteria and fungi (such as "Streptococcus mutans" and "Candida albicans"), embedded in salivary polymers and microbial extracellular products. The accumulation of microorganisms subjects the teeth and gingival tissues to high concentrations of bacterial metabolites which results in dental disease. Biofilm on the surface of teeth is frequently subject to oxidative stress and acid stress. Dietary carbohydrates can cause a dramatic decrease in pH in oral biofilms to values of 4 and below (acid stress). A pH of 4 at body temperature of 37 °C causes depurination of DNA, leaving apurinic (AP) sites in DNA, especially loss of guanine.


title: Biofilm

text: The dental plaque biofilm can result in the disease dental caries if it is allowed to develop over time. An ecologic shift away from balanced populations within the dental biofilm is driven by certain (cariogenic) microbiological populations beginning to dominate when the environment favours them. The shift to an acidogenic, aciduric, and cariogenic microbiological population develops and is maintained by frequent consumption of fermentable dietary carbohydrate. The resulting activity shift in the biofilm (and resulting acid production within the biofilm, at the tooth surface) is associated with an imbalance between demineralization and remineralisation leading to net mineral loss within dental hard tissues (enamel and then dentin), the sign and symptom being a carious lesion. By preventing the dental plaque biofilm from maturing or by returning it back to a non-cariogenic state, dental caries can be prevented and arrested. This can be achieved through the behavioural step of reducing the supply of fermentable carbohydrates (i.e. sugar intake) and frequent removal of the biofilm (i.e. toothbrushing).


title: Biofilm

text: A peptide pheromone quorum sensing signaling system in "S. mutans" includes the competence stimulating peptide (CSP) that controls genetic competence. Genetic competence is the ability of a cell to take up DNA released by another cell. Competence can lead to genetic transformation, a form of sexual interaction, favored under conditions of high cell density and/or stress where there is maximal opportunity for interaction between the competent cell and the DNA released from nearby donor cells. This system is optimally expressed when "S. mutans" cells reside in an actively growing biofilm. Biofilm grown "S. mutans" cells are genetically transformed at a rate 10- to 600-fold higher than "S. mutans" growing as free-floating planktonic cells suspended in liquid.


title: Biofilm

text: When the biofilm, containing "S. mutans" and related oral streptococci, is subjected to acid stress, the competence regulon is induced, leading to resistance to being killed by acid. As pointed out by Michod et al., transformation in bacterial pathogens likely provides for effective and efficient recombinational repair of DNA damages. It appears that "S. mutans" can survive the frequent acid stress in oral biofilms, in part, through the recombinational repair provided by competence and transformation.


title: Biofilm

text: Predator-prey interactions between biofilms and bacterivores, such as the soil-dwelling nematode "Caenorhabditis elegans," had been extensively studied. Via the production of sticky matrix and formation of aggregates, "Yersinia pestis" biofilms can prevent feeding by obstructing the mouth of "C. elegans". Moreover, "Pseudomonas aeruginosa" biofilms can impede the slithering motility of "C. elegans", termed as 'quagmire phenotype', resulting in trapping of "C. elegans" within the biofilms and preventing the exploration of nematodes to feed on susceptible biofilms. This significantly reduced the ability of predator to feed and reproduce, thereby promoting the survival of biofilms.


title: Biofilm

text: Many different bacteria form biofilms, including gram-positive (e.g. "Bacillus" spp, "Listeria monocytogenes", "Staphylococcus" spp, and lactic acid bacteria, including "Lactobacillus plantarum" and "Lactococcus lactis") and gram-negative species (e.g. "Escherichia coli", or "Pseudomonas aeruginosa"). Cyanobacteria also form biofilms in aquatic environments.


title: Biofilm

text: Biofilms are formed by bacteria that colonize plants, e.g. "Pseudomonas putida", "Pseudomonas fluorescens", and related pseudomonads which are common plant-associated bacteria found on leaves, roots, and in the soil, and the majority of their natural isolates form biofilms. Several nitrogen-fixing symbionts of legumes such as "Rhizobium leguminosarum" and "Sinorhizobium meliloti" form biofilms on legume roots and other inert surfaces.


title: Biofilm

text: Along with bacteria, biofilms are also generated by archaea and by a range of eukaryotic organisms, including fungi e.g. "Cryptococcus laurentii" and microalgae. Among microalgae, one of the main progenitors of biofilms are diatoms, which colonise both fresh and marine environments worldwide.


title: Biofilm

text: Biofilms have been found to be involved in a wide variety of microbial infections in the body, by one estimate 80% of all infections. Infectious processes in which biofilms have been implicated include common problems such as bacterial vaginosis, urinary tract infections, catheter infections, middle-ear infections, formation of dental plaque, gingivitis, coating contact lenses, and less common but more lethal processes such as endocarditis, infections in cystic fibrosis, and infections of permanent indwelling devices such as joint prostheses, heart valves, and intervertebral disc. The first visual evidence of a biofilm was recorded after spine surgery. It was found that in the absence of clinical presentation of infection, impregnated bacteria could form a biofilm around an implant, and this biofilm can remain undetected via contemporary diagnostic methods, including swabbing. Implant biofilm is frequently present in "aseptic" pseudarthrosis cases. Furthermore, it has been noted that bacterial biofilms may impair cutaneous wound healing and reduce topical antibacterial efficiency in healing or treating infected skin wounds. The diversity of "P. aeruginosa" cells within a biofilm is thought to make it harder to treat the infected lungs of people with cystic fibrosis. Early detection of biofilms in wounds is crucial to successful chronic wound management. Although many techniques have developed to identify planktonic bacteria in viable wounds, few have been able to quickly and accurately identify bacterial biofilms. Future studies are needed to find means of identifying and monitoring biofilm colonization at the bedside to permit timely initiation of treatment.


title: Biofilm

text: It has been shown that biofilms are present on the removed tissue of 80% of patients undergoing surgery for chronic sinusitis. The patients with biofilms were shown to have been denuded of cilia and goblet cells, unlike the controls without biofilms who had normal cilia and goblet cell morphology. Biofilms were also found on samples from two of 10 healthy controls mentioned. The species of bacteria from intraoperative cultures did not correspond to the bacteria species in the biofilm on the respective patient's tissue. In other words, the cultures were negative though the bacteria were present. New staining techniques are being developed to differentiate bacterial cells growing in living animals, e.g. from tissues with allergy-inflammations.


title: Biofilm

text: Research has shown that sub-therapeutic levels of β-lactam antibiotics induce biofilm formation in "Staphylococcus aureus". This sub-therapeutic level of antibiotic may result from the use of antibiotics as growth promoters in agriculture, or during the normal course of antibiotic therapy. The biofilm formation induced by low-level methicillin was inhibited by DNase, suggesting that the sub-therapeutic levels of antibiotic also induce extracellular DNA release. Moreover, from an evolutionary point of view, the creation of the tragedy of the commons in pathogenic microbes may provide advanced therapeutic ways for chronic infections caused by biofilms via genetically engineered invasive cheaters who can invade wild-types 'cooperators' of pathogenic bacteria until cooperator populations go to extinction or overall population 'cooperators and cheaters ' go to extinction.


title: Biofilm

text: "P. aeruginosa" represents a commonly used biofilm model organism since it is involved in different types of biofilm-associated chronic infections. Examples of such infections include chronic wounds, chronic otitis media, chronic prostatitis and chronic lung infections in cystic fibrosis (CF) patients. About 80% of CF patients have chronic lung infection, caused mainly by "P. aeruginosa" growing in a non-surface attached biofilms surround by PMN. The infection remains present despite aggressive antibiotic therapy and is a common cause of death in CF patients due to constant inflammatory damage to the lungs. In patients with CF, one therapy for treating early biofilm development is to employ DNase to structurally weaken the biofilm.


title: Biofilm

text: Biofilm formation of "P. aeruginosa", along with other bacteria, is found in 90% of chronic wound infections, which leads to poor healing and high cost of treatment estimated at more than US$25 billion every year in the United States. In order to minimize the "P. aeruginosa" infection, host epithelial cells secrete antimicrobial peptides, such as lactoferrin, to prevent the formation of the biofilms.


title: Biofilm

text: "Streptococcus pneumoniae" is the main cause of community-acquired pneumonia and meningitis in children and the elderly, and of sepsis in HIV-infected persons. When "S. pneumoniae" grows in biofilms, genes are specifically expressed that respond to oxidative stress and induce competence. Formation of a biofilm depends on competence stimulating peptide (CSP). CSP also functions as a quorum-sensing peptide. It not only induces biofilm formation, but also increases virulence in pneumonia and meningitis.


title: Biofilm

text: It has been proposed that competence development and biofilm formation is an adaptation of "S. pneumoniae" to survive the defenses of the host. In particular, the host's polymorphonuclear leukocytes produce an oxidative burst to defend against the invading bacteria, and this response can kill bacteria by damaging their DNA. Competent "S. pneumoniae" in a biofilm have the survival advantage that they can more easily take up transforming DNA from nearby cells in the biofilm to use for recombinational repair of oxidative damages in their DNA. Competent "S. pneumoniae" can also secrete an enzyme (murein hydrolase) that destroys non-competent cells (fratricide) causing DNA to be released into the surrounding medium for potential use by the competent cells.


title: Biofilm

text: The insect antimicrobial peptide cecropin A can destroy planktonic and sessile biofilm-forming uropathogenic "E. coli" cells, either alone or when combined with the antibiotic nalidixic acid, synergistically clearing infection in vivo (in the insect host "Galleria mellonella") without off-target cytotoxicity. The multi-target mechanism of action involves outer membrane permeabilization followed by biofilm disruption triggered by the inhibition of efflux pump activity and interactions with extracellular and intracellular nucleic acids.


title: Biofilm

text: "Escherichia coli" biofilms are responsible for many intestinal infectious diseases. The Extraintestinal group of "E. coli" (ExPEC) is the dominant bacterial group that attacks the urinary system, which leads to urinary tract infections. The biofilm formation of these pathogenic "E. coli" is hard to eradicate due to the complexity of its aggregation structure, and it has a significant contribution to developing aggressive medical complications, increase in hospitalization rate, and cost of treatment. The development of "E. coli" biofilm is a common leading cause of urinary tract infections (UTI) in hospitals through its contribution to developing medical device-associated infections. Catheter-associated urinary tract infections (CAUTI) represent the most common hospital-acquired infection due to the formation of the pathogenic "E. coli biofilm" inside the catheters.


title: Biofilm

text: "Staphylococcus aureus" pathogen can attack skin and lungs, leading to skin infection and pneumonia. Moreover, the biofilm infections network of "S. aureus" plays a critical role in preventing immune cells, such as macrophages from eliminating and destroying bacterial cells. Furthermore, biofilm formation by bacteria, such as "S. aureus", not only develops resistance against antibiotic medication but also develop internal resistance toward antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), leading to preventing the inhibition of the pathogen and maintaining its survival.


title: Biofilm

text: It is suggested that around two-thirds of bacterial infections in humans involve biofilms. Infections associated with the biofilm growth usually are challenging to eradicate. This is mostly due to the fact that mature biofilms display antimicrobial tolerance, and immune response evasions. Biofilms often form on the inert surfaces of implanted devices such as catheters, prosthetic cardiac valves and intrauterine devices. Some of the most difficult infections to treat are those associated with the use of medical devices.


title: Biofilm

text: The rapidly expanding worldwide industry for biomedical devices and tissue engineering related products is already at $180 billion per year, yet this industry continues to suffer from microbial colonization. No matter the sophistication, microbial infections can develop on all medical devices and tissue engineering constructs. 60-70% of hospital-acquired infections are associated with the implantation of a biomedical device. This leads to 2 million cases annually in the U.S., costing the healthcare system over $5 billion in additional healthcare expenses.


title: Biofilm

text: The level of antibiotic resistance in a biofilm is much greater than that of non-biofilm bacteria, and can be as much as 5,000 times greater. The extracellular matrix of biofilm is considered one of the leading factors that can reduce the penetration of antibiotics into a biofilm structure and contributes to antibiotic resistance. Further, it has been demonstrated that the evolution of resistance to antibiotics may be affected by the biofilm lifestyle.


title: Biofilm

text: It has been shown that the introduction of a small current of electricity to the liquid surrounding a biofilm, together with small amounts of antibiotic can reduce the level of antibiotic resistance to levels of non-biofilm bacteria. This is termed the bioelectric effect. The application of a small DC current on its own can cause a biofilm to detach from its surface. A study showed that the type of current used made no difference to the bioelectric effect.


title: Biofilm

text: Biofilms can also be harnessed for constructive purposes. For example, many sewage treatment plants include a secondary treatment stage in which waste water passes over biofilms grown on filters, which extract and digest organic compounds. In such biofilms, bacteria are mainly responsible for removal of organic matter (BOD), while protozoa and rotifers are mainly responsible for removal of suspended solids (SS), including pathogens and other microorganisms. Slow sand filters rely on biofilm development in the same way to filter surface water from lake, spring or river sources for drinking purposes. What we regard as clean water is effectively a waste material to these microcellular organisms. Biofilms can help eliminate petroleum oil from contaminated oceans or marine systems. The oil is eliminated by the hydrocarbon-degrading activities of communities of hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria (HCB).


title: Biofilm

text: Biofilms are used in microbial fuel cells (MFCs) to generate electricity from a variety of starting materials, including complex organic waste and renewable biomass.


title: Biofilm

text: Biofilms are also relevant for the improvement of metal dissolution in bioleaching industry, and aggregation of microplastics pollutants for convenient removal from the environment.


title: Biofilm

text: Biofilms have become problematic in several food industries due to the ability to form on plants and during industrial processes. Bacteria can survive long periods of time in water, animal manure, and soil, causing biofilm formation on plants or in the processing equipment. The buildup of biofilms can affect the heat flow across a surface and increase surface corrosion and frictional resistance of fluids. These can lead to a loss of energy in a system and overall loss of products. Along with economic problems, biofilm formation on food poses a health risk to consumers due to the ability to make the food more resistant to disinfectants As a result, from 1996 to 2010 the Center for Disease Control and Prevention estimated 48 million foodborne illnesses per year. Biofilms have been connected to about 80% of bacterial infections in the United States.


title: Biofilm

text: In produce, microorganisms attach to the surfaces and biofilms develop internally. During the washing process, biofilms resist sanitization and allow bacteria to spread across the produce, especially via kitchen utensils. This problem is also found in ready-to-eat foods, because the foods go through limited cleaning procedures before consumption Due to the perishability of dairy products and limitations in cleaning procedures, resulting in the buildup of bacteria, dairy is susceptible to biofilm formation and contamination. The bacteria can spoil the products more readily and contaminated products pose a health risk to consumers. One species of bacteria that can be found in various industries and is a major cause of foodborne disease is "Salmonella". Large amounts of Salmonella contamination can be found in the poultry processing industry as about 50% of "Salmonella" strains can produce biofilms on poultry farms. "Salmonella" increases the risk of foodborne illnesses when the poultry products are not cleaned and cooked correctly. "Salmonella" is also found in the seafood industry where biofilms form from seafood borne pathogens on the seafood itself as well as in water. Shrimp products are commonly affected by "Salmonella" because of unhygienic processing and handling techniques The preparation practices of shrimp and other seafood products can allow for bacteria buildup on the products.


title: Biofilm

text: New forms of cleaning procedures are being tested to reduce biofilm formation in these processes which will lead to safer and more productive food processing industries. These new forms of cleaning procedures also have a profound effect on the environment, often releasing toxic gases into the groundwater reservoirs. As a response to the aggressive methods employed in controlling biofilm formation, there are a number of novel technologies and chemicals under investigation that can prevent either the proliferation or adhesion of biofilm-secreting microbes. Latest proposed biomolecules presenting marked anti-biofilm activity include a range of metabolites such as bacterial rhamnolipids and even plant- and animal-derived alkaloids.


title: Biofilm

text: In shellfish and algal aquaculture, biofouling microbial species tend to block nets and cages and ultimately outcompete the farmed species for space and food. Bacterial biofilms start the colonization process by creating microenvironments that are more favorable for biofouling species. In the marine environment, biofilms could reduce the hydrodynamic efficiency of ships and propellers, lead to pipeline blockage and sensor malfunction, and increase the weight of appliances deployed in seawater. Numerous studies have shown that biofilm can be a reservoir for potentially pathogenic bacteria in freshwater aquaculture. Moreover, biofilms are important in establishing infections on the fish. As mentioned previously, biofilms can be difficult to eliminate even when antibiotics or chemicals are used in high doses. The role that biofilm plays as reservoirs of bacterial fish pathogens has not been explored in detail but it certainly deserves to be studied.


title: Biofilm

text: Along with bacteria, biofilms are often initiated and produced by eukaryotic microbes. The biofilms produced by eukaryotes is usually occupied by bacteria and other eukaryotes alike, however the surface is cultivated and EPS is secreted initially by the eukaryote. Both fungi and microalgae are known to form biofilms in such a way. Biofilms of fungal origin are important aspects of human infection and fungal pathogenicity, as the fungal infection is more resistant to antifungals.


title: Biofilm

text: In the environment, fungal biofilms are an area of ongoing research. One key area of research is fungal biofilms on plants. For example, in the soil, plant associated fungi including mycorrhiza have been shown to decompose organic matter and protect plants from bacterial pathogens.


title: Biofilm

text: Biofilms in aquatic environments are often founded by diatoms. The exact purpose of these biofilms is unknown, however there is evidence that the EPS produced by diatoms facilitates both cold and salinity stress. These eukaryotes interact with a diverse range of other organisms within a region known as the phycosphere, but importantly are the bacteria associated with diatoms, as it has been shown that although diatoms excrete EPS, they only do so when interacting with certain bacteria species.


title: Biofilm

text: Horizontal gene transfer is the lateral transfer of genetic material between cellular organisms. It happens frequently in prokaryotes, and less frequently in eukaryotes. In bacteria, horizontal gene transfer can occur through transformation (uptake of free floating DNA in the environment), transduction (virus mediated DNA uptake), or conjugation (transfer of DNA between pili structures of two adjacent bacteria). Recent studies have also uncovered other mechanisms, such as membrane vesicle transmission or gene transfer agents. Biofilms promote horizontal gene transfer in a variety of ways.


title: Biofilm

text: Biofilms promote conjugation, often fostering cross-species transfer events due to the diverse heterogeneity of many biofilms. Additionally, biofilms are structurally confined by a polysaccharide matrix, providing the close spatial requirements for conjugation. Transformation is also frequently observed in biofilms. Bacterial autolysis is a key mechanism in biofilm structural regulation, providing an abundant source of competent DNA primed for transformative uptake. In some instances, inter-biofilm quorum sensing can enhance the competence of free floating eDNA, further promoting transformation. Stx gene transfer through bacteriophage carriers has been witnessed within biofilms, which suggests that biofilms are also a suitable environment for transduction. Membrane vesicles HGT occurs when released membrane vesicles (containing genetic information) fuse with a recipient bacteria, and release genetic material into the bacteria's cytoplasm. Recent research has revealed that membrane vesicle HGT can promote single-strain biofilm formation, yet the role membrane vesicle HGT plays in the formation of multistrain biofilms is still unknown. GTAs, or gene transfer agents, are phage-like particles produced by the host bacteria and contain random DNA fragments from the host bacteria genome. HGT within biofilms can confer antibiotic resistance or increased pathogenicity across the biofilms' population, promoting biofilm homeostasis.


title: Biofilm

text: Conjugative plasmids may encode biofilm-associated proteins, such as PtgA, PrgB, or PrgC which promote cell adhesion (required for early biofilm formation). Genes encoding type III fimbriae are found in pOLA52 ("Klebsiella pneumoniae" plasmid) which promote conjugative-pilus-dependent biofilm formation.


title: Biofilm

text: Transformation commonly occurs within biofilms. A phenomenon called fratricide can be seen among streptococcal species in which cell-wall degrading enzymes are released, lysing neighboring bacteria and releasing their DNA. This DNA can then be taken up by the surviving bacteria (transformation). Competence stimulating peptides may play an important role in biofilm formation among "S. pneumoniae" and "S. mutans" as well. Among "V. cholerae", the competence pilus itself promotes cell aggregation through pilus-pilus interactions at the beginning of biofilm formation.


title: Biofilm

text: Phage invasion may play a role in biofilm life cycles, lysing bacteria and releasing their eDNA, which strengthens biofilm structures and can be taken up by neighboring bacteria in transformation. Biofilm destruction caused by the "E. coli" phage Rac and the "P. aeruginosa" prophage Pf4 causes detachment of cells from the biofilm. Detachment is a biofilm phenomenon which requires more study, but is hypothesized to proliferate the bacterial species that comprise the biofilm.


title: Biofilm

text: Membrane vesicle HGT has been witnessed occurring in marine environments, among "Neisseria gonorrhoeae", "Pseudomonas aeruginosa", "Helicobacter pylori", and among many other bacterial species. Even though membrane vesicle HGT has been shown as a contributing factor in biofilm formation, research is still required to prove that membrane vesicle mediated HGT occurs within biofilms. Membrane vesicle HGT has also been shown to modulate phage-bacteria interactions in "Bacillus subtilis" SPP1 phage-resistant cells (lacking the SPP1 receptor protein). Upon exposure to vesicles containing receptors, transduction of pBT163 (a cat-encoding plasmid) occurs, resulting in the expression of the SPP1 receptor protein, opening the receptive bacteria to future phage infection.


title: Biofilm

text: Recent research has shown that the archaeal species "H. volcanii" has some biofilm phenotypes similar to bacterial biofilms such as differentiation and HGT, which required cell-cell contact and involved formation of cytosolic bridges and cellular fusion events.


title: Biofilm

text: There is a wide variety of biofilm cultivation devices to mimic natural or industrial environments. Although it is important to consider that the particular experimental platform for biofilm research determines what kind of biofilm is cultivated and the data that can be extracted. These devices can be grouped into the following:


title: Kiss Me, Kiss Me, Kiss Me

text: Kiss Me, Kiss Me, Kiss Me is the seventh studio album by English rock band the Cure, released on 26 May 1987 by Fiction Records.


title: Kiss Me, Kiss Me, Kiss Me

text: The album helped bring the Cure into the American mainstream, becoming the band's first album to reach the top 40 of the "Billboard" 200 chart and achieving platinum certification. Like its predecessor, "The Head on the Door", it was also a great international success, reaching the top 10 in numerous countries.


title: Kiss Me, Kiss Me, Kiss Me

text: "Kiss Me Kiss Me Kiss Me" is the last Cure studio album upon which Porl Thompson played keyboards; he played only guitar on all subsequent studio releases. Special guest Andrew Brennan played the saxophone on "Hey You!!!" and "Icing Sugar". The album was recorded at Studio Miraval in Correns, France.


title: Kiss Me, Kiss Me, Kiss Me

text: "Kiss Me Kiss Me Kiss Me" was released on 26 May 1987 by the Fiction label in the UK and by Elektra in the US and Canada. Though a double album, it was released as a single CD and single cassette. One track, "Hey You!!!", was omitted from the original CD release because of the 74:33 Red Book CD time restriction, but was included on all cassette releases. A limited vinyl edition came with an extra six-track 12" orange vinyl featuring the songs "Sugar Girl", "Snow in Summer", "Icing Sugar" (Weird Remix), "A Japanese Dream", "Breathe" and "A Chain of Flowers".


title: Kiss Me, Kiss Me, Kiss Me

text: The album was re-released in August 2006, including "Hey You!!!" on the first disc, a song that had been omitted from the original CD issue. The second disc is composed of demos and live versions of the songs on the first disc, including a recording of "Why Can't I Be You?" from the final show of the Kissing Tour at the Wembley Arena. It was released on 8 August 2006 in the U.S. and on 14 August 2006 in the UK. Robert Smith stated on his website that there were so many missing tracks that he made three discs, the third containing alternate tracks of the album's songs. However, after discussing with family and friends, he decided that the first two discs were better choices for release. Smith said that it was possible that the other disc may surface as a leak or in a future release.


title: Salary

text: A salary is a form of periodic payment from an employer to an employee, which may be specified in an employment contract. It is contrasted with piece wages, where each job, hour or other unit is paid separately, rather than on a periodic basis.


title: Salary

text: From the point of view of running a business, salary can also be viewed as the cost of acquiring and retaining human resources for running operations, and is then termed personnel expense or salary expense. In accounting, salaries are recorded in payroll accounts.


title: Salary

text: Salary is a fixed amount of money or compensation paid to an employee by an employer in return for work performed. Salary is commonly paid in fixed intervals, for example, monthly payments of one-twelfth of the annual salary.


title: Salary

text: Salary is typically determined by comparing market pay rates for people performing similar work in similar industries in the same region. Salary is also determined by leveling the pay rates and salary ranges established by an individual employer. Salary is also affected by the number of people available to perform the specific job in the employer's employment locale.


title: Salary

text: While there is no first pay stub for the first work-for-pay exchange, the first salaried work would have required a society advanced enough to have a barter system which allowed for the even exchange of goods or services between tradesmen. More significantly, it presupposes the existence of organized employers—perhaps a government or a religious body—that would facilitate work-for-hire exchanges on a regular enough basis to constitute salaried work. From this, most infer that the first salary would have been paid in a village or city during the Neolithic Revolution, sometime between 10,000 BCE and 6000 BCE.


title: Salary

text: A cuneiform inscribed clay tablet dated about 3100 BCE provides a record of the daily beer rations for workers in Mesopotamia. The beer is represented by an upright jar with a pointed base. The symbol for rations is a human head eating from a bowl. Round and semicircular impressions represent the measurements.


title: Salary

text: By the time of the Hebrew Book of Ezra (550 to 450 BCE), salt from a person was synonymous with drawing sustenance, taking pay, or being in that person's service. At that time, salt production was strictly controlled by the monarchy or ruling elite. Depending on the translation of Ezra 4:14, the servants of King Artaxerxes I of Persia explain their loyalty variously as "because we are salted with the salt of the palace" or "because we have maintenance from the king" or "because we are responsible to the king".


title: Salary

text: Similarly, the Latin word "salarium" linked employment, salt, and soldiers, but the exact link is not very clear. More modern sources maintain instead that although Roman soldiers were typically paid in coin, the word "salarium" is derived from the word "sal" (salt) because at some point a soldier's salary may have been an allowance for the purchase of salt or the price of having soldiers conquer salt supplies and guard the Salt Roads ("Via Salaria") that led to Rome. However, there is no ancient evidence for either of these hypotheses.


title: Salary

text: Some people even claim that the word soldier itself comes from the Latin "sal dare" (to give salt), but mainstream sources disagree, noting that the word "soldier" more likely derives from the gold solidus, with which soldiers were known to have been paid.


title: Salary

text: Regardless of the exact connection, the "salarium" paid to Roman soldiers has defined a form of work-for-hire ever since in the Western world, and gave rise to such expressions as "being worth one's salt".


title: Salary

text: Within the Roman Empire or (later) medieval and pre-industrial Europe and its mercantile colonies, salaried employment appears to have been relatively rare and mostly limited to servants and higher status roles, especially in government service. Such roles were largely remunerated by the provision of lodging, food, and livery clothes (i.e., "food, clothing, and shelter" in modern idiom). Many courtiers, such as valets de chambre, in late medieval courts were paid annual amounts, sometimes supplemented by large if unpredictable extra payments. At the other end of the social scale, those in many forms of employment either received no pay, as with slavery (although many slaves were paid some money at least), serfdom, and indentured servitude, or received only a fraction of what was produced, as with sharecropping. Other common alternative models of work included self- or co-operative employment, as with masters in artisan guilds, who often had salaried assistants, or corporate work and ownership, as with medieval universities and monasteries.


title: Salary

text: Even many of the jobs initially created by the Commercial Revolution in the years from 1520 to 1650 and later during Industrialisation in the 18th and 19th centuries would not have been salaried, but, to the extent they were paid as employees, probably paid an hourly or daily wage or paid per unit produced (also called piece work).


title: Salary

text: In corporations of this time, such as the several East India Companies, many managers would have been remunerated as owner-shareholders. Such a remuneration scheme is still common today in accounting, investment, and law firm partnerships where the leading professionals are equity partners, and do not technically receive a salary, but rather make a periodic "draw" against their share of annual earnings.


title: Salary

text: From 1870 to 1930, the Second Industrial Revolution gave rise to the modern business corporation powered by railroads, electricity and the telegraph and telephone. This era saw the widespread emergence of a class of salaried executives and administrators who served the new, large-scale enterprises being created.


title: Salary

text: New managerial jobs lent themselves to salaried employment, in part because the effort and output of "office work" were hard to measure hourly or piecewise, and in part because they did not necessarily draw remuneration from share ownership.


title: Salary

text: As Japan rapidly industrialized in the 20th century, the idea of office work was novel enough that a new Japanese word (salaryman) was coined to describe those who performed it, as well as referencing their remuneration.


title: Salary

text: In the 20th century, the rise of the service economy made salaried employment even more common in developed countries, where the relative share of industrial production jobs declined, and the share of executive, administrative, computer, marketing, and creative jobs—all of which tended to be salaried—increased.