title: Geelong

text: Government housing was constructed in the suburbs of East Geelong, Norlane, North Shore, and Corio from the 1950s. The banks of the Barwon River burst in 1952, inundating nearby Belmont Common.


title: Geelong

text: Geelong continued to expand with Corio, Highton, and Belmont growing at such a rate that in February 1967, Geelong accounted for 21% of private home development in Greater Melbourne. Private vehicles became the city's major mode of transport. The first parking meters in the city were introduced in 1961, new petrol stations were constructed and the city's first supermarket, operated by Woolworths, opened in 1965. Later, support came for Cycling in Geelong with Australia's first bike plan in 1977..


title: Geelong

text: Industrial growth continued with a second cement works operating at Waurn Ponds by 1964 and the Alcoa Point Henry aluminium smelter constructed in 1962.


title: Geelong

text: Federal government policy changes on tariff protection led to the closure of many Geelong industrial businesses from the 1970s. Most woollen mills closed in 1974 and hectares of warehouse space in the city centre were left empty after wool-handling practices changed. The Target head office opened in North Geelong, Deakin University was established at Waurn Ponds in 1974, and the Geelong Performing Arts Centre opened in 1981. Later, the Australian Animal Health Laboratory was opened in 1985, and the National Wool Museum in 1988.


title: Geelong

text: Market Square, the first enclosed shopping centre in the city, was opened in 1985, with neighbouring Bay City Plaza opened in 1988. The Pyramid Building Society, founded in Geelong in 1959, collapsed in 1990, leaving debts of AU$1.3 billion to over 200,000 depositors, and causing the Geelong economy to stagnate. On 18 May 1993, the City of Greater Geelong was formed by the amalgamation of a number of smaller municipalities with the former City of Geelong. The Waterfront Geelong redevelopment, started in 1994, was designed to enhance use and appreciation of Corio Bay and in 1995 the Barwon River overflowed in the worst flood since 1952.


title: Geelong

text: In 2004, Avalon Airport was upgraded to accommodate interstate passenger travel, providing a base for the low-cost airline Jetstar to serve the Melbourne and Geelong urban areas. Geelong is planned to expand towards the south coast, with 2,500 hectares of land to become a major suburban development for 55,000 to 65,000 people, known as Armstrong Creek. In 2006, construction began on the Geelong Ring Road, designed to replace the Princes Highway through Geelong from Corio to Waurn Ponds. It opened in 2009.


title: Geelong

text: More than AU$500-million-worth of major construction was under way in 2007. Major projects include the $150-million Westfield Geelong expansion works, involving a flyover of Yarra Street, the city's first Big W store, and an additional 70 new speciality stores; the $37-million Deakin Waterfront campus redevelopment, and the $23-million Deakin Medical School; the $50-million Edgewater apartment development on the waterfront; a number of multimillion-dollar office developments in the CBD; and a new $30-million aquatic centre in Waurn Ponds.


title: Geelong

text: Major developments within Geelong are advocated by influential, non-government group the Committee for Geelong and the region's local government alliance, G21 Geelong Region Alliance.


title: Geelong

text: The City of Greater Geelong and four other local municipalities form part of the alliance which identifies the Geelong region's priorities, and advocates all levels of government for funding and implement the projects. G21 developed 'The Geelong Region Plan - a sustainable growth strategy' which was launched by Premier Brumby in 2007. It was the approved strategic plan for the Geelong region. In addition, major projects such as the Geelong Ring Road Connections and duplication of the Princes Highway West obtained funding due to the combined efforts of the region's municipalities. As at May 2017, a further 13 Priority Projects are planned for the Geelong region.


title: Geelong

text: The Victoria Government announced the relocation of the Transport Accident Commission headquarters from Melbourne to Geelong in October 2006, which created 850 jobs and an annual economic benefit over $59 million to the Geelong region. The construction of the $80-million Brougham Street headquarters was completed in late 2008. In November 2008, Ford Australia announced that its Australian-designed I6 engine would be re-engineered to meet the latest emissions regulations, and that consequently the engine manufacturing plant would be upgraded (however, all manufacturing of motor vehicles in Geelong and elsewhere throughout Australia ceased by 2017).


title: Geelong

text: A change to the city skyline is occurring with a number of modern apartment buildings on the Waterfront and central business district planned or under construction. On 10 July 2008, approval was given for a $100-million twin-tower apartment complex of 16 and 12 floors to be built on Mercer St in the city's western edge. The towers will become the tallest buildings in the city, taking the title from the Mercure Hotel. Further highrise developments are planned as part of the City of Greater Geelong's Geelong Western Edge strategic plan. A$17-million 11-story apartment tower has also recently been proposed to be built next to the Deakin Waterfront Campus.


title: Geelong

text: In 2012, a design competition for a "city icon" was run for the City of Geelong by Deakin University and Senia Lawyers. The recipient of the prize and winning design entry was JOH Architects and their design titled "The Sea Dragon".


title: Geelong

text: Geelong's new Library and Heritage Centre opened to the public in November 2015. The new addition to Geelong offers new research facilities, display areas and hosts Geelong's extensive heritage, modern and Indigenous. The new library was awarded the Sir Zelman Cowen Award for Public Architecture in 2016.


title: Geelong

text: Currently Geelong is undergoing a major revival effort, the Green Spine Project. The Green Spine project will connect Johnstone Park to the Botanic Gardens by a continuous line of trees via Malop Street. The redevelopment of Malop street will see the installation of separated bike lanes from both pedestrians and local traffic by greenery, the design is an Australian first. This project includes the installation of art sculptures and street art throughout the city centre. Major redevelopments are also occurring at Johnstone Park, with a new raingarden installation, and Lt Malop Street is seeing more upgrades.


title: Geelong

text: In the suburbs Geelong West's Pakington Street is seeing major upgrades to its street appeal, with new plantings and upgrades to many of the shops. Manifold Heights' Shannon Avenue will see redevelopment to make it more pedestrian friendly. To Geelong's north, Rippleside is undergoing major changes, with the ongoing development of Balmoral Quay which will see Rippleside Park and nearby St Helens Park connected via a waterfront footpath as well as beach restoration and a boat dock expansion.


title: Geelong

text: Recently new high rise buildings are being built giving Geelong more jobs and housing. Worksafe Victoria opened up a new 14-storey building on Malop Dt. It opened in mid-2018 and was the tallest building until it was announced that two residential high rises would be built and completed in late 2019. They are called The Mercer and Miramar Apartments.


title: Geelong

text: Geelong is located on the shores of the western tip of Corio Bay, a southwestern inlet of Port Phillip Bay. During clear weather, the distant Melbourne skyline is visible from higher areas of Geelong when viewed across the waters of Port Phillip. The Barwon River flows through the southern fringe of the Geelong city centre before entering Lake Connewarre and the estuary at Barwon Heads before draining into the Bass Strait. The city is situated just east of the gap between the Otway Ranges and Brisbane Ranges, and commands the only lowland passage between the Werribee Plain and Western Volcanic Plains.


title: Geelong

text: Geologically, the oldest rocks in the area date back to the Cambrian period 500 million years ago, with volcanic activities occurring in the Devonian period 350 million years ago. In prehistoric times water covered much of the lowlands that are now Geelong, with the Barwon River estuary located at Belmont Common, the course of the river being changed when Mount Moriac erupted and lava was sent eastwards towards Geelong.


title: Geelong

text: To the east of the city are the Bellarine Hills and the undulating plains of the Bellarine Peninsula. To the west are the sandstone-derived Barrabool Hills and basalt Mount Duneed, and the volcanic plains to the north of Geelong extend to the Brisbane Ranges and the You Yangs. Soils vary from sandy loam, basalt plains, and river loam to rich volcanic soils, suitable for intensive farming, grazing, forestry, and viticulture.


title: Geelong

text: Many materials used to construct buildings were quarried from Geelong, such as bluestone from the You Yangs and sandstone from the Brisbane Ranges. A small number of brown coal deposits exist in the Geelong region, most notably at Anglesea, where it has been mined to fuel Alcoa's Anglesea Power Station since 1969. Limestone has also been quarried for cement production at Fyansford since 1888, and Waurn Ponds since 1964.


title: Geelong

text: Development in Geelong started on the shores of Corio Bay in what is now the inner city. Development later spread to the south towards the Barwon River, and the hill of Newtown and Geelong West. Major development south of the river in Belmont did not start until the 1920s, stimulated by the construction of a new bridge over the river in 1926, and the extension of the Geelong tramway system in 1927. Industrial areas were traditionally located on the Corio Bay for port access, or the Barwon River for waste disposal.


title: Geelong

text: In the interwar and post-World War II years, heavy industry continued to establish itself in the flatter northern suburbs, where today industries such as the Shell oil refinery and Ford Motor Company engine plant reside. Residential development also spread to Corio and Norlane in the north, with new Housing Commission of Victoria estates built to cater for employees of the new industries. From the 1960s, residential growth spread to the Highton hills in the south and North Geelong following prosperous industries like the gasworks, followed by Grovedale in the 1970s. A number of light industrial areas were also established in Breakwater, Moolap, and South Geelong.


title: Geelong

text: Changing cargo-handling methods at the Port of Geelong left woolstores in inner Geelong unused, redevelopment beginning in the 1980s with the expansion of Westfield Geelong towards Corio Bay, and culminating in the Waterfront Geelong development. Gentrification of former working-class inner suburbs such as Geelong West, North Geelong, and South Geelong has also occurred. Today, the major residential growth corridors are north towards Lara, east towards Leopold, and south towards Mount Duneed as the Armstrong Creek Growth Area.


title: Geelong

text: Geelong has stable weather, yet still offers four distinct seasons. It has a temperate oceanic climate ("Cfb" in the Köppen climate classification) with dominant westerly winds, variable clouds, moderate precipitation, warm summers, and mild to cool winters. February is the hottest month and July is the coldest. The highest temperature recorded was on 7 February 2009 during a two-week-long heat wave, with the lowest of recorded on 5 August 1997. The average annual rainfall is around , which makes Geelong the driest sizeable city in Australia, owing to the pronounced rain shadow of the Otway Ranges to the southwest. Within the city, rainfall shows a strong gradient from south to north, so that the southernmost suburbs can receive around whilst more northerly Lara receives as little as , which is the lowest rainfall in southern Victoria.


title: Geelong

text: More than 10,000 businesses employ over 80,000 people in the Geelong region, with manufacturing and processing industries providing around 15,000 jobs, followed by 13,000 in retail, and 8,000 in health and community services.


title: Geelong

text: Geelong's major employers were the Ford Motor Company engine plant in Norlane (closed in 2016), aircraft maintenance at Avalon Airport, the head office of retail chain Target Australia (until 2018), the Bartter (Steggles) chicken processing plant and the Shell oil refinery at Corio. GMHBA Limited, a health insurance company, is headquartered in Geelong.


title: Geelong

text: The Geelong region attracted over 6 million tourists during 2001. Major tourist attractions include the Waterfront Geelong precinct and Eastern Beach on the shores of Corio Bay, and the National Wool Museum in the city, and more than 30 historical buildings listed on the Victorian Heritage Register. The Geelong area hosts regular international events which are also tourist drawcards, including the Australian International Airshow.


title: Geelong

text: Geelong has a number of shopping precincts in the CBD and surrounding suburbs. The two main shopping centres are located in the CBD - Westfield Geelong and Market Square, with smaller centres in the suburbs including Belmont Village and Waurn Ponds Shopping Centre in the south, Bellarine Village in Newcomb in the east, and Corio Shopping Centre in the north. The opening of the major shopping centres has caused a decline in strip shopping on Moorabool Street, with many empty shops and few customers. Geelong is also home to Mitre 10's largest franchisees - Fagg's - operating five stores across the town and employing over 160 people.


title: Geelong

text: These major research laboratories are located in the Geelong area: the CSIRO Australian Animal Health Laboratory in East Geelong, CSIRO Division of Textiles and Fibres Technology in Belmont, and the Marine and Freshwater Resources Institute at Queenscliff.


title: Geelong

text: The scheduled closure of Ford's Australian manufacturing base in 2016 was confirmed in late May 2013. Headquartered in the Victorian suburb of Broadmeadows, the company had registered losses of AU$600 million over the five years prior to the announcement. It was noted that the corporate fleet and government sales that accounted for two-thirds of large, local car sales in Australia were insufficient to keep Ford's products profitable and viable in Australia.


title: Geelong

text: Following the decision by the Royal Dutch Shell fuel corporation to close its Geelong refinery in April 2013, a third consecutive annual loss was recorded for Shell's Australian refining and fuel marketing assets. Revealed in June 2013, the writedown is worth AU$203 million, and was preceded by a $638-million writedown in 2012 and a $407-million writedown in 2011 after the closure of the Clyde refinery in Sydney.


title: Geelong

text: In April 2016 Target announced that it would be moving its headquarters out of North Geelong to Williams Landing in Melbourne's west.


title: Geelong

text: As of the 2006 census, 160,000 people resided in 68,000 households. The median age of persons in Geelong was 37 years. About 19.4% of the population of Geelong were children aged between 0–14 years, and 26.6% were persons aged 55 years and over. Each dwelling is on average occupied by 2.59 persons, slightly lower than the state and national averages. The median household income was $901 per week, $121 less than the state average, partly due to higher reliance on manufacturing for employment. The population of Geelong is growing by 2500 people each year, and the City of Greater Geelong had the highest rate of building activity in Victoria outside metropolitan Melbourne.


title: Geelong

text: About 78.4% of people from Geelong are Australian-born, with the most common overseas birthplaces being: England (3.6%), Italy (1.1%), Croatia (1.0%), the Netherlands (0.9%), and Scotland (0.8%). Around 14.2% of households speak a language other than English in the home. Notable ethnic groups in the city are the Croatian community, who first came to the city in the 1850s and with migration since World War II are now the largest Croatian community in Australia, and the German settlers who founded Germantown (now Grovedale) in 1849 to escape repression in Prussia for their Lutheran faith.


title: Geelong

text: The 2006 census found the most common religious affiliation in Geelong was Catholicism at 29.4%. St. Mary of the Angels Basilica is the largest congregation in the city. Other affiliations of resident of Geelong include no religion 20.5%, Anglican 14.6%, Uniting Church 7.9%, and Presbyterian and Reformed at 4.3%. The city has a large number of traditional Christian churches, as well as Orthodox Christian churches in the northern suburbs.


title: Geelong

text: In local government, the Geelong region is covered by the City of Greater Geelong. The council was created in 1993 as an amalgamation of a number of other municipalities in the region, with the council chambers located at the Geelong Town Hall in central Geelong. The City is made up of four wards - Brownbill (central Geelong and inner suburbs), Bellarine, Kardinia (southern Geelong, south of the Barwon River) and Windermere (northern suburbs). Brownbill, Kardinia and Bellarine are each represented by three councillors, whereas Windermere is represented by two.


title: Geelong

text: From 2012 to 2016, the Mayor of Geelong was directly elected by the public to a four-year term. Entrepreneur and former paparazzo Darryn Lyons held this position from 2013 to 2016.


title: Geelong

text: On 16 April 2016, the Victorian Government dismissed the Mayor and Councillors of the Greater Geelong City Council, following a Commission of Inquiry which found that the council is riven with conflict, unable to manage Geelong's economic challenges, has dysfunctional leadership and has a culture of bullying. The government appointed administrators to run the council until council elections are held in 2017.


title: Geelong

text: In state politics, the Legislative Assembly districts of Geelong, South Barwon, Lara, and Bellarine cover the Geelong area. Lara is a safe Labor seat. Geelong and Bellarine are generally more marginal, though lean more towards Labor whereas South Barwon is a marginal seat that tends to lean towards the Liberal Party. As of the 2018 Victorian State Election, all four of these electorates are held by the Australian Labor Party. On 12 February 2020, Minister for Planning Richard Wynn established Geelong Authority to advise on strategies to attract investment to central Geelong and on major planning applications to help create jobs and drive growth in Geelong. The committee is chaired by Diana Taylor (lawyer) and consists of Mark Edmonds (Chairman of Geelong Chamber of Commerce), Aamir Qutub (CEO of Enterprise Monkey), Jill Smith (former General Manager of Geelong Arts Centre) and Rory Costelloe (Executive Director of Villawood Properties) and Dr Sarah Leach.


title: Geelong

text: In federal politics, the House of Representatives seats - the Division of Corio and Division of Corangamite cover the Geelong region. Corio roughly covers the northern half of Geelong and has been a safe Australian Labor Party since the 1970s, but was previously the seat of Richard Casey, a leading conservative Cabinet member in the 1930s and later Governor-General, as well as Hubert Opperman, a former cycling champion and a prominent minister in the 1960s. It was also the seat of Gordon Scholes, who was Speaker during the Whitlam government. Corio is currently held by Deputy Prime Minister Richard Marles.


title: Geelong

text: Corangamite, which roughly includes the southern half of Geelong as well as the Bellarine Peninsula, has traditionally been safe for the Liberal Party, but has become more marginal in recent years due to demographic changes. Corangamite had been a safe seat for the Liberal Party and its predecessors from the 1930s through the 2000s. Future Prime Minister of Australia James Scullin served one term in this seat in the 1910s. It was won by the Australian Labor Party at the 2019 federal election and again in 2022 by Libby Coker.


title: Geelong

text: The Royal Geelong Show is held each year at the Geelong Showgrounds. Other events include Pako Festa (held annually in February), Gala Day Parade (annual event that celebrated its 96th year in 2012) and Family Fun Day (held annually as part of the Gala Day celebrations), and the Geelong Heritage Festival that is run by the local branch of the National Trust.


title: Geelong

text: Geelong hosts Victoria's only international photographic salon 'VIGEX' every two years. VIGEX is an acronym for "VIctoria Geelong EXhibition" and the inaugural event was held in 1980. The Australian Photographic Society, the world governing body of exhibition photography the International Federation of Photographic Art and the Victorian Association of Photographic Societies are patrons of the biennial photographic salon.


title: Geelong

text: Geelong's History is preserved through both the Geelong Historical Society, and the associated Geelong Heritage Centre for which a substantial new building construction of which commenced in 2015.


title: Geelong

text: Now defunct, Geelong hosted a digital conference Pivot Summit which was headlined by Apple Co-founder Steve Wozniak in 2017.


title: Geelong

text: Recognising a long history in design excellence, Geelong was designated as a UNESCO Creative City of Design in 2017.


title: Geelong

text: Geelong is home to a number of pubs, nightclubs, and live-music venues. The city is also the birthplace or starting point for a number of notable Australian bands and musicians, such as Barry Crocker, Gyan Evans, Magic Dirt, Jeff Lang, Denis Walter, Chrissy Amphlett, and Helen Garner.


title: Geelong

text: Geelong also hosts music festivals such as the Meredith Music Festival, Offshore Festival, Poppykettle Festival, and National Celtic Festival.


title: Geelong

text: The city's prominent cultural venues are the Geelong Performing Arts Centre (commonly known as "GPAC"), the 1500-seat Costa Hall auditorium and the Geelong Art Gallery.


title: Geelong

text: Based in Geelong, Back to Back Theatre is a globally renown, contemporary Australian theatre companies engaging with disability on stage. With work produced by the company, Back to Back Theatre explores questions about politics, ethics and philosophy in humanity and tours nationally and globally. In 2022, Back to Back Theatre was awarded the $300,000 International Ibsen Award.


title: Geelong

text: Local community-led, not for profit Creative Geelong Inc was established in 2015 to support local creatives and highlight the opportunities for creative industries practitioners in the region. In 2017, Creative Geelong partnered with Deakin University to crowdfund and produce three documentaries about Geelong's transformation from a heavy manufacturing hub to a creative destination. Hubcaps to Creative Hubs series showcase three locations in Geelong including the Federal Woollen Mills, RS&S Woollen Mills and the Fyansford Paper Mills and tells the story of their industrial past and new purpose as creative hot spots.


title: Geelong

text: The "Geelong Advertiser", the oldest newspaper title in Victoria and the second-oldest in Australia, was established in 1840. The free "Geelong Independent" and "Geelong News" are the city's other major newspapers.


title: Geelong

text: Geelong is part of the Melbourne television licence area, and receives all of the free-to-air stations from Melbourne, including ABC, SBS, Seven, Nine, Ten, and the community channel C31. The Geelong region also receives cable and satellite television services through operators Foxtel and Neighbourhood Cable.


title: Geelong

text: The local radio stations are K-Rock (rock and pop music), Rhema FM (Christian community station), Hot Country Radio (country music station), The Pulse (community station), 3GPH (radio reading service), and Bay FM (adult contemporary). The transmitters for K-Rock, The Pulse, Rhema FM, and Bay FM are located at a shared transmitter site on Mount Bellarine, near Drysdale. Most Melbourne-based radio stations can also be received clearly in the Geelong region.


title: Geelong

text: Australian rules football is the most popular sport in Geelong. Established in 1859, the Geelong Football Club is the second-second oldest club in the Australian Football League (AFL) and one of the world's oldest football clubs. Until South Melbourne relocated to Sydney in 1981, it was the only VFL/AFL club based outside of the greater Melbourne metropolitan area. Its home ground is Kardinia Park stadium. It also fields a reserves side in the Victorian Football League, and three independent football leagues run in the area: the Geelong Football League, the Geelong & District Football League, and the Bellarine Football League.


title: Geelong

text: The Arena stadium in North Geelong is the home of the Geelong Supercats basketball team, and was also used during the 2006 Commonwealth Games for basketball games. Geelong's Basketball/Netball Centre is home to another basketball team from the region, the Corio Bay Stingrays.


title: Geelong

text: The city co-hosted the 2003 FIBA Oceania Championship where Australia's national basketball team won the gold medal.


title: Geelong

text: North Geelong Warriors FC are the region's primary soccer club, playing in the National Premier Leagues Victoria competition. The club played in the Victorian Premier League from 1992 to 1997 and in the top tier of the NPL in 2015. Other soccer clubs include Northern based Geelong Rangers FC, Geelong SC, Corio SC, Lara United FC and Southern based Surf Coast SC. Western United play a few home games every year in GMHBA stadium, Geelong is included in the marketing for the club in western victoria.


title: Geelong

text: Geelong has a horse-racing club, the Geelong Racing Club, which schedules around 22 race meetings a year, including the Geelong Cup meeting in October. The Geelong Cup was first run in 1872, and is considered one of the most reliable guides to the result of the Melbourne Cup. It also has a picnic horse-racing club, Geelong St Patricks Racing Club, which holds its one race meeting a year in February.


title: Geelong

text: Geelong Harness Racing Club conducts regular meetings at its racetrack at Corio, and the Geelong Greyhound Racing Club holds regular meetings.


title: Geelong

text: Founded in 1882, the Geelong Lawn Tennis Club has 27 tennis courts and plays host to a number of tennis tournaments including the Davis Cup tie between Australia and China in 2012.


title: Geelong

text: The Eastern Beach foreshore and nearby Eastern Gardens regularly host internationally televised triathlons, and annual sports car and racing car events such as the Geelong Speed Trials.


title: Geelong

text: Corio Bay is also host to many sailing and yachting events. Geelong also has many golf courses, sporting and recreation ovals, and playing fields, as well as facilities for water skiing, rowing, fishing, hiking, and greyhound and harness racing.


title: Geelong

text: Geelong Athletics holds competitions during both the summer and winter, including high-profile events such as Victorian and sometimes national and international track and field meets.


title: Geelong

text: Geelong is home to Australia's largest indoor skate park, and has "more skate parks per capita than any other municipality in Australia."


title: Geelong

text: Geelong is also the birthplace of Bev Francis, an IFBB professional Australian female bodybuilder, powerlifter, and national shot put champion.


title: Geelong

text: The Cadel Evans Great Ocean Road Race, named in honor of the Tour de France winner and 2009 World Champion starts in the city. It then goes through Barwon Heads on the Bellarine Peninsula, passing by the famous surf beach of Bells Beach in Surf Coast Shire and continuing along the Great Ocean Road. The race then heads via rolling hills back to Geelong for three circuits of the city before a waterfront finish. The race generally suits "puncheurs" who are capable of getting into breakaways and can easily climb short, steep hills.


title: Geelong

text: The city's GMHBA Stadium hosted the first match of the 2022 Men's T20 cricket World Cup. Along with other cities in regional Victoria, Geelong will host the 2026 Commonwealth Games.


title: Geelong

text: Geelong is served by a number of public and private schools that cater to local and overseas students. Over 40,000 primary and secondary students are enrolled in schools in Geelong, with another 27,000 students enrolled in tertiary and further education programs. The first schools in Geelong were established when the town was settled from the 1850s, among them were the historic private schools The Geelong College and Geelong Grammar School, where HRH Charles, Prince of Wales spent two terms in 1966.


title: Geelong

text: Geelong is also home to the oldest state secondary school in Victoria, Geelong High School, which has been serving the community since 1905, for over 100 years.


title: Geelong

text: The Gordon Memorial Technical College opened in 1888, and is known today as the Gordon Institute of TAFE. In 1976, the Gordon Institute was divided into two parts, with academic courses becoming part of the newly formed Deakin University based at the Waurn Ponds campus. Deakin University enrolled its first students at its Waurn Ponds campus in 1977. Today, the university is located on a 365-ha site at Waurn Ponds and has over 1,000 staff and over 4,000 on-campus students. The university also has a campus located on the waterfront of Corio Bay in the Geelong CBD, a campus in Burwood, Melbourne, and a campus in Warrnambool, in Western Victoria. From 2008 the campus at Waurn Ponds also has been home to Victoria's first regional medical school.


title: Geelong

text: The major public health service is Barwon Health, which operates 21 separate health sites including University Hospital Geelong on Ryrie Street, and the McKellar Centre on Ballarat Road. Barwon Health services the entire region. The largest private hospital is the nearby St John of God Health Care centre on Myers Street. Prominent healthcare services include the Epworth Hospital located at 1 Epworth Place, Waurn Ponds VIC 3216., and Geelong Health (Geelong West).


title: Geelong

text: Water storage and supply in Geelong is managed by Barwon Water, a Victoria government-owned urban water corporation. Geelong is supplied with water from three river systems: the Barwon, the East Moorabool, and the West Moorabool Rivers. The catchment areas are the Brisbane Ranges to Geelong's north-west, and the Otway Ranges to the south-west. The first water supplies to Geelong were from the Stony Creek reservoirs near Steiglitz, but, as of 2010, Geelong, together with Ballarat, consumes about 70% of the Moorabool River's water flow. Sewage from Geelong and district is treated at the Black Rock Treatment Plant at Breamlea and then discharged into Bass Strait.


title: Geelong

text: Geelong was first supplied with electricity in 1902 when the Geelong power station opened on the corner of Yarra and Brougham Streets. Later known as Geelong A, the power station was rebuilt in 1920 to increase the capacity, with the station continued operating until 1961. In 1936, Geelong was connected to the state electrical grid. The Geelong B power station at North Geelong opened in 1954, and was closed in 1970 due to the much higher efficiency of the power stations in the Latrobe Valley. The supply of piped coal gas in Geelong started in 1860 by the Geelong Gas Company. The gasworks were located in North Geelong next to the North Geelong railway station. Geelong was converted to natural gas in 1971, with the Geelong Gas Company being taken over by the Gas and Fuel Corporation of Victoria on 30 June 1971.


title: Geelong

text: The main form of transportation in Geelong is the automobile. Geelong is well-connected by roads to all of south-west Victoria, to Melbourne by a major-arterial the Princes Freeway (M1) with three or four lanes in each direction, to Warrnambool by the Princes Highway (A1), the Bellarine Peninsula by the Bellarine Highway (B110), Ballarat by the Midland Highway (A300), and to Hamilton by the Hamilton Highway (B140). The $380-million Geelong Ring Road (an extension of the Princes Freeway) bypasses the greater Geelong urban area exiting the Princes Highway near Corio to rejoin the highway at Waurn Ponds. The Lewis Bandt Bridge, named in honour of the Ford Australia engineer who is credited as the inventor of the ute (1934), in Geelong is a feature of the new road.


title: Geelong

text: Avalon Airport is located about to the north-east of the city of Geelong in the suburb of Avalon. It was established in 1953 for the production of military aircraft. It was also used for the repair of commercial aircraft, and for pilot training. Avalon Airport has also been home to low-cost airline Jetstar since 2004. Flights to Sydney use the airport and in June 2015, Jetstar announced it would fly to the Gold Coast daily from Avalon Airport commencing October 2015. Avalon Airport is the venue for 'Thunder Down Under' Australian International Airshow every other year.


title: Geelong

text: Avalon Airport now has international flights with AirAsia X to and from Kuala Lumpur and Citilink to Denpasar


title: Geelong

text: Geelong is a major hub for rail transport in Victoria, having frequent services to and from Melbourne, and being at the junction of the Port Fairy, Western standard gauge and the Geelong-Ballarat lines. Eight passenger railway stations are in the urban area, all along the Warrnambool line and served by V/Line trains. The Geelong line provides passenger services to Melbourne in the off-peak with trains departing Geelong every 20 minutes on weekdays, with more frequent services at peak times. According to V/Line, the Geelong line carries more passengers than any other regional rail line in Australia. None of the lines are electrified and all trains servicing Geelong are diesel powered.


title: Geelong

text: Geelong's currently operating stations include Little River, Lara, Corio, North Shore, North Geelong, Geelong, South Geelong, Marshall and Waurn Ponds.


title: Geelong

text: In the past, a rail line connected Geelong city to the Bellarine Peninsula through to Queenscliff, ceasing to operate as a regular passenger service in 1976. The Bellarine Railway operates a section of the line between Drysdale and Queenscliff as a tourist attraction.


title: Geelong

text: Passenger services run to Warrnambool three times daily, connecting Geelong with Colac, Terang, and Camperdown. Journey Beyond's "The Overland" service between Melbourne and Adelaide stops at the standard-gauge platform provided at North Shore station. It runs six days a week, with three services to Adelaide and three to Melbourne. Freight trains also operate from Melbourne to Geelong serving local industries, as well as to Warrnambool and other western Victorian towns. The main Melbourne-Adelaide standard-gauge line is a heavily used interstate freight route.


title: Geelong

text: Victoria's electronic ticketing system, Myki, was implemented on rail services between Marshall and Melbourne on 29 July 2013.


title: Geelong

text: The Victorian government is currently in process of land acquisition and inspection for a potential Torquay rail line which would service both Torquay and the Armstrong Creek growth corridor.


title: Geelong

text: The Port of Geelong is located on the shores of Corio Bay, and is the sixth-largest seaport in Australia by tonnage. Major commodities include crude oil and petroleum products, export grain, woodchips, alumina imports, and fertiliser. The Bellarine Peninsula has been linked to the Mornington Peninsula since 1987 by the Searoad ferry, which runs every hour using two roll-on/roll-off ferries between Queenscliff and Sorrento


title: Geelong

text: Port Phillip Ferries began operating twice daily services between Portarlington and Melbourne Docklands in November 2016. Three years later overcrowding on trains led to a similar service being introduced from Geelong to Docklands. The services are popular with both tourists and commuters, providing an alternative access for Geelong and the Bellarine Peninsula to Melbourne. The 36-metre-long catamaran ferries seat over 400 passengers, provide a comfortable vantage point to enjoy the sights of Port Phillip. The introduction of the Portarlington service led to a major revamp of the local pier, with pier extensions and a protective rock wall installed.


title: Geelong

text: From 23 October 2022 the Tasmanian ferry service, the Spirit of Tasmania, will operate from a new terminal in North Geelong rather than from Port Melbourne.


title: Geelong

text: A bus network covering the city centre and most surrounding suburbs provides public transport. Until June 2015 they were operated under the umbrella of the Geelong Transit System. Public Transport Victoria contracts CDC Geelong and McHarry's Buslines to provide Geelong's bus services and bus services to Torquay and the Bellarine Peninsula. V/Line services link Geelong with Ballarat, Daylesford, Bendigo, Apollo Bay, the Great Ocean Road, the Twelve Apostles and Warrnambool.


title: Geelong

text: Taxi services in Geelong are provided by Geelong Taxi Network, a newly formed depot following the effective merger of Bay City Cabs and Geelong Radio Cabs in July 2007.


title: Geelong

text: The majority of the network covers the city and suburban areas of the city, with "urban" classification for the vehicles in use. The Bellarine Peninsula, and Torquay areas, although part of Geelong Taxi Network, are both covered by separate "country" classification taxis. Often, disputes occur in regards to different taxis from one licence area, picking up work from either of the other two licence areas, which is illegal in most circumstances under current taxi regulations in Victoria. Call centre and radio dispatch services for the new combined network are provided by Silver Top Taxis in Melbourne.


title: Will Grigg

text: William Donald Grigg (born 3 July 1991) is a professional footballer who plays as a striker for EFL League One club Milton Keynes Dons and the Northern Ireland national team.


title: Will Grigg

text: Grigg began his professional career at Walsall and came to prominence during the 2012–13 season, winning the club's Player of the Season and Players' Player of the Season awards.


title: Will Grigg

text: Grigg was born in Solihull, West Midlands. He was educated at Solihull School and was signed by Birmingham City at the age of seven. He progressed through the club's youth teams, but suffered a broken leg at age 15. After his release by Birmingham in 2007, Grigg became a student at Solihull College of Technology and turned out for Solihull Moors' youth team.


title: Will Grigg

text: In September 2007, Grigg signed non-contract terms with Midland Alliance side Stratford Town and made his first team debut in a 0–0 FA Cup qualifying draw versus Hednesford Town on 15 September. He started the replay and was substituted after 58 minutes for Steven Ruck. Grigg scored in a league match versus Biddulph Victoria on 29 September and again versus Racing Club Warwick on 7 October.


title: Will Grigg

text: Having courted interest from West Bromwich Albion, Grigg signed a scholarship at League One side Walsall in the summer of 2008. Assigned the number 24 shirt, he made his league debut as an 89th-minute substitute for Dwayne Mattis in a 0–0 draw with Cheltenham Town on 20 December 2008. Grigg was an unused substitute for a 2–1 defeat away to Tranmere Rovers on 28 December 2008 and made no further appearances in the first team squad during the 2008–09 season. Grigg made no appearances during the 2009–10 season, but was an unused substitute on 20 occasions. Grigg featured regularly as a second-half substitute during the 2010–11 season and made his first start for Walsall in a 1–0 FA Cup second round defeat at Torquay United on 27 November 2010. He made his first league start in a 1–0 away win against Charlton Athletic on 12 December 2010. He scored his first senior goal in a 2–2 league draw against Bristol Rovers on 11 January 2011. Grigg finished the 2010–11 season having made 30 appearances and scored four goals. Grigg made 32 appearances and scored four goals during the 2011–12 season.


title: Will Grigg

text: Grigg became a regular starter during the 2012–13 season and scored seven goals before the New Year, including a brace in a 4–2 away victory over Milton Keynes Dons on Boxing Day. Grigg started 2013 in style with a goal, an assist and his first professional Man of the Match award in Walsall's televised league match against Portsmouth on 4 January. His impressive form continued as he scored his first hat-trick in a 3–0 victory at Carlisle United on 26 February, bringing his season tally up to 14 goals. He finished the 2012–13 season with a run of 10 goals in 11 matches, as Walsall mounted an unsuccessful challenge to qualify for the League One playoffs. Grigg's form led to interest from Championship side Derby County and Premier League sides Aston Villa, Southampton and Norwich City. Grigg won the Walsall Player of the Season and Players' Player of the Season awards for the 2012–13 season, having made 45 appearances and finished as the club's top scorer with 20 goals. Grigg's contract expired at the end of the season and he left the club after turning down a new four-year deal. He finished his Walsall career having made 109 appearances and scored 28 goals.


title: Will Grigg

text: On 1 July 2013, Grigg signed for fellow League One side Brentford on a three-year deal. As Grigg was under 24 at the time of the transfer, the deal went to a Football League tribunal and Brentford were ordered to pay an initial £325,000, plus add-ons. By July 2014, the fee had risen to £405,000. Grigg made his debut for the club in the first match of the 2013–14 season, a 1–1 away draw at Port Vale on 3 August 2013. On his next appearance, he scored his first Brentford goals, a brace in a 3–1 home victory over Sheffield United on 10 August. Injury, international call ups and being played out of position by manager Uwe Rösler led to Grigg enduring a stuttering start to his Brentford career and he admitted suffering a dip in confidence. He went 10 matches without a goal, until he was retrospectively credited with Brentford's second in a 3–2 win over Peterborough United on 26 November. In the following match, he scored the winner in a 1–0 league victory over Notts County. Grigg scored his fifth Brentford goal against Port Vale on 11 January 2014, scoring late in the second half after coming on for Sam Saunders. In March and still behind Clayton Donaldson and Marcello Trotta in the pecking order, Grigg told the "Hounslow Chronicle" "I haven't become a bad striker overnight. I've been training well, I'm confident and keep believing. If I get a run of games, I think I will always score goals". Grigg made regular appearances in the latter stages of a successful season in which Brentford secured automatic promotion to the Championship, but he was unable to find the net and finished the campaign with 36 appearances and 4 goals. Grigg departed Griffin Park on loan for the duration of the 2014–15 season and left the club on 14 July 2015.


title: Will Grigg

text: On 18 July 2014, it was announced that Grigg had joined League One side Milton Keynes Dons from Brentford on a season long loan. Manager Karl Robinson stated that Grigg is "a goalscorer at this level and he's a Northern Ireland international too. He's got the pedigree to come in and do well". Grigg scored on his debut for the club, levelling the score at 2–2 in an eventual 4–2 win over Gillingham on the opening day of the 2014–15 season. After three further appearances without scoring, Grigg put on a man of the match performance in a League Cup second round match versus Manchester United on 26 August, scoring a brace in a shock 4–0 victory. The match kick-started Grigg's season and he went on to score three goals in his next six matches, to take his tally to five goals in seven matches. Grigg hit his next patch of regular goalscoring form in mid-March 2015, scoring nine goals in eight matches to help consolidate the Dons' third place in the table. His four goals in two matches over the Easter Weekend saw him named in the Football League Team of the Week. On 28 April, Grigg was presented with the Dons' Goal of the Season and Top Goalscorer awards. He finished the season with a goal in a 5–1 rout of Yeovil Town, which confirmed a second-place finish for the Dons and automatic promotion to the Championship, ahead of fellow contenders Preston North End. Grigg scored 22 goals in 50 appearances during the 2014–15 season.


title: Will Grigg

text: On 14 July 2015, Grigg signed for newly relegated League One club Wigan Athletic on a three-year contract for an undisclosed fee, reported to be "around £1 million". Grigg scored his first goal from the penalty spot in a 2–1 defeat to Bury in the League Cup first round. Grigg scored his first hat-trick for Wigan in a 3–0 victory over Port Vale on 30 January 2016.


title: Will Grigg

text: Grigg scored 25 League goals during the 2015–16 season, finishing as League One's top goalscorer, to help Wigan earn automatic promotion. His performances earned him a tied 25th place in the initial voting process for the UEFA Best Player in Europe Award after the 2015–16 campaign.


title: Will Grigg

text: On 19 February 2018, Grigg scored the only goal in Wigan's 1–0 home win against Manchester City in the FA Cup fifth round. This brought his total FA Cup goals for the season to seven, including four goals against top-flight opposition, making him the leading scorer in the season's FA Cup (from the first round onwards).


title: Will Grigg

text: Grigg signed for Sunderland on transfer deadline day, 31 January 2019 for a fee of £3,000,000, which remains the highest fee paid by a league one club. Grigg made his debut for the Wearside club on 9 February where they drew 1–1 away to Oxford United in the league. On the 19th Grigg scored his first goal for his new club in his 4th appearance slotting in a penalty to take Sunderland into a 3–2 lead over Gillingham. The match eventually finished 4–2. Grigg's goal put Sunderland 1–0 ahead of home side Bristol Rovers in the EFL Trophy semi final on 5 March. Sunderland travelled to Wembley for the final after winning 2–0. The other goal coming from Lewis Morgan. On 31 March Grigg started in the 2019 EFL Trophy Final against Portsmouth, he was substituted off in the 77th minute with Sunderland 1–0 up through an Aiden McGeady goal. However, the match finished 1–1, (2–2 AET) and Portsmouth won 5–4 on penalties.


title: Will Grigg

text: Grigg struggled for form during the 2019–20 season, making 20 league appearances and scoring just one goal as Sunderland finished 8th and failed to qualify for the playoffs, after the League One season was ended due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In an interview with "Wigan Today" in June 2020, Grigg hinted that he regretted leaving Wigan to join Sunderland, stating "I absolutely loved my time at Wigan and, in hindsight, I probably should not have moved".


title: Will Grigg

text: On 1 February 2021, Grigg returned to Milton Keynes Dons on loan for the remainder of the 2020–21 season. On 20 February 2021, he scored the first goal of his second spell at the club (and his first in over a year), in a 4–3 home win over Northampton Town. On 24 April 2021, Grigg scored four goals in a single match during a 5–0 home win over Swindon Town, becoming the first MK Dons player to score four goals in a single game in the club's history.


title: Will Grigg

text: On 14 July 2022, Grigg joined League One club Milton Keynes Dons on a free transfer, returning on a permanent basis to a club he'd spent two previous spells with on loan. He made his third debut for the club on 30 July 2022 in a 1–0 defeat away to Cambridge United. On 27 August 2022, Grigg scored his first goals in his third spell with the club, scoring a brace in a 4–0 away win over Morecambe.


title: Will Grigg

text: Grigg was born in England but was eligible to play for Northern Ireland through a grandparent. He has represented Northern Ireland at U19, U21 and senior level. He scored on his U21 debut after coming on as a substitute against San Marino in a UEFA U21 European Championship Qualifier on 3 September 2010 and earned his first senior cap in a 6–0 defeat to the Netherlands in a friendly on 2 June 2012, playing the full 90 minutes. After a further five friendly and 2014 World Cup qualifying appearances, Grigg failed to win a cap between October 2013 and March 2015, but his good form for Milton Keynes Dons earned him a start in a friendly versus Scotland. He played 58 minutes of the 1–0 defeat, before being substituted by Paddy McCourt.


title: Will Grigg

text: On 18 May 2016, Grigg was selected as part of the provisional 27-man squad to represent Northern Ireland in the UEFA Euro 2016 competition. On 28 May, he was named in the final 23-man squad, but ended up not playing a single minute throughout the tournament.


title: Will Grigg

text: Grigg was born into an Aston Villa-supporting family and supported the club up until the age of seven, when he joined Birmingham City and changed his allegiances.


title: Will Grigg

text: In May 2016, Wigan Athletic supporter Sean Kennedy uploaded a video to YouTube titled "Will Grigg's on fire", which featured a song written in recognition of the recent goal-scoring feats of Grigg with the chorus to "Will Grigg's on fire, your defence is terrified" sung to the tune of "Freed from Desire" by Italian singer Gala. Since it was uploaded, the song has become a very popular football chant and a national sensation. Kennedy received a free Wigan season ticket from the Wigan chairman David Sharpe for the 2016–17 season as a result of success of the chant.


title: Will Grigg

text: On 31 May 2016, Electro duo Blonde released a version of the song and it entered the iTunes charts at number seven, as well as reaching number 76 on the Official UK Singles Chart.


title: Will Grigg

text: On 25 June 2016, DJ/Producer DJ B3LFAST reached number 17 on the iTunes Germany Top 100 chart with his own parody song "Will Grigg's On Fire" featuring new original lyrics


title: Will Grigg

text: In 2021, Grigg spoke on the topic, noting that while "the song itself never annoyed me", he disliked how "some people only connected me with it and not with my goals".


title: Firestorm

text: A firestorm is a conflagration which attains such intensity that it creates and sustains its own wind system. It is most commonly a natural phenomenon, created during some of the largest bushfires and wildfires. Although the term has been used to describe certain large fires, the phenomenon's determining characteristic is a fire with its own storm-force winds from every point of the compass towards the storm's center, where the air is heated and then ascends.


title: Firestorm

text: The Black Saturday bushfires and the Great Peshtigo Fire are possible examples of forest fires with some portion of combustion due to a firestorm, as is the Great Hinckley Fire. Firestorms have also occurred in cities, usually due to targeted explosives, such as in the aerial firebombings of Hamburg, Dresden, and Tokyo, and the atomic bombing of Hiroshima.


title: Firestorm

text: A firestorm is created as a result of the stack effect as the heat of the original fire draws in more and more of the surrounding air. This draft can be quickly increased if a low-level jet stream exists over or near the fire. As the updraft mushrooms, strong inwardly-directed gusty winds develop around the fire, supplying it with additional air. This would seem to prevent the firestorm from spreading on the wind, but the tremendous turbulence created may also cause the strong surface inflow winds to change direction erratically. Firestorms resulting from the bombardment of urban areas in the Second World War were generally confined to the areas initially seeded with incendiary devices, and the firestorm did not appreciably spread outward.


title: Firestorm

text: A firestorm may also develop into a mesocyclone and induce true tornadoes/fire whirls. This occurred with the 2002 Durango fire, and probably with the much greater Peshtigo Fire. The greater draft of a firestorm draws in greater quantities of oxygen, which significantly increases combustion, thereby also substantially increasing the production of heat. The intense heat of a firestorm manifests largely as radiated heat (infrared radiation), which may ignite flammable material at a distance ahead of the fire itself. This also serves to expand the area and the intensity of the firestorm. Violent, erratic wind drafts suck movables into the fire and as is observed with all intense conflagrations, radiated heat from the fire can melt asphalt, some metals, and glass, and turn street tarmac into flammable hot liquid. The very high temperatures ignite anything that might possibly burn, until the firestorm runs low on fuel.


title: Firestorm

text: A firestorm does not appreciably ignite material at a distance ahead of itself; more accurately, the heat desiccates those materials and makes them more vulnerable to ignition by embers or firebrands, increasing the rate of fire spotting. During the formation of a firestorm many fires merge to form a single convective column of hot gases rising from the burning area and strong, fire-induced, radial (inwardly directed) winds are associated with the convective column. Thus the fire front is essentially stationary and the outward spread of fire is prevented by the in-rushing wind.


title: Firestorm

text: A firestorm is characterized by strong to gale-force winds blowing toward the fire, everywhere around the fire perimeter, an effect which is caused by the buoyancy of the rising column of hot gases over the intense mass fire, drawing in cool air from the periphery. These winds from the perimeter blow the fire brands into the burning area and tend to cool the unignited fuel outside the fire area so that ignition of material outside the periphery by radiated heat and fire embers is more difficult, thus limiting fire spread. At Hiroshima, this inrushing to feed the fire is said to have prevented the firestorm perimeter from expanding, and thus the firestorm was confined to the area of the city damaged by the blast.


title: Firestorm

text: Large wildfire conflagrations are distinct from firestorms if they have moving fire fronts which are driven by the ambient wind and do not develop their own wind system like true firestorms. (This does not mean that a firestorm "must" be stationary; as with any other convective storm, the circulation may follow surrounding pressure gradients and winds, if those lead it onto fresh fuel sources.) Furthermore, non-firestorm conflagrations can develop from a single ignition, whereas firestorms have only been observed where large numbers of fires are burning simultaneously over a relatively large area, with the important caveat that the density of simultaneously burning fires needs to be above a critical threshold for a firestorm to form (a notable example of large numbers of fires burning simultaneously over a large area without a firestorm developing was the Kuwaiti oil fires of 1991, where the distance between individual fires was too large).


title: Firestorm

text: The high temperatures within the firestorm zone ignite most everything that might possibly burn, until a tipping point is reached, that is, upon running low on fuel, which occurs after the firestorm has consumed so much of the available fuel within the firestorm zone that the necessary fuel density required to keep the firestorm's wind system active drops below the threshold level, at which time the firestorm breaks up into isolated conflagrations.


title: Firestorm

text: In Australia, the prevalence of eucalyptus trees that have oil in their leaves results in forest fires that are noted for their extremely tall and intense flame front. Hence the bush fires appear more as a firestorm than a simple forest fire. Sometimes, emission of combustible gases from swamps (e.g., methane) has a similar effect. For instance, methane explosions enforced the Peshtigo Fire.


title: Firestorm

text: Firestorms will produce hot buoyant smoke clouds of primarily water vapor that will form condensation clouds as it enters the cooler upper atmosphere, generating what is known as pyrocumulus clouds ("fire clouds") or, if large enough, pyrocumulonimbus ("fire storm") clouds. For example, the black rain that began to fall approximately 20 minutes after the atomic bombing of Hiroshima produced in total 5–10 cm of black soot-filled rain in a 1–3 hour period. Moreover, if the conditions are right, a large pyrocumulus can grow into a pyrocumulonimbus and produce lightning, which could potentially set off further fires. Apart from city and forest fires, pyrocumulus clouds can also be produced by volcanic eruptions due to the comparable amounts of hot buoyant material formed.


title: Firestorm

text: On a more continental and global extent, away from the direct vicinity of the fire, wildfire firestorms that produce pyrocumulonimbus cloud events have been found to "surprisingly frequently" generate minor "nuclear winter" effects. These are analogous to minor volcanic winters, with each mass addition of volcanic gases additive in increasing the depth of the "winter" cooling, from near-imperceptible to "year without a summer" levels.


title: Firestorm

text: A very important but poorly understood aspect of wildfire behavior are pyrocumulonimbus (pyroCb) firestorm dynamics and their atmospheric impact. These are well illustrated in the Black Saturday case study below. The "pyroCb" is a fire-started or fire-augmented thunderstorm that in its most extreme manifestation injects huge abundances of smoke and other biomass-burning emissions into the lower stratosphere. The observed hemispheric spread of smoke and other biomass-burning emissions has known important climate consequences. Direct attribution of the stratospheric aerosols to pyroCbs only occurred in the last decade.


title: Firestorm

text: Such an extreme injection by thunderstorms was previously judged to be unlikely because the extratropical tropopause is considered to be a strong barrier to convection. Two recurring themes have developed as pyroCb research unfolds. First, puzzling stratospheric aerosol-layer observations—and other layers reported as volcanic aerosol can now be explained in terms of pyroconvection. Second, pyroCb events occur surprisingly frequently, and they are likely a relevant aspect of several historic wildfires.


title: Firestorm

text: On an intraseasonal level it is established that pyroCbs occur with surprising frequency. In 2002, at least 17 pyroCbs erupted in North America alone. Still to be determined is how often this process occurred in the boreal forests of Asia in 2002. However, it is now established that this most extreme form of pyroconvection, along with more frequent pyrocumulus convection, was widespread and persisted for at least two months. The characteristic injection height of pyroCb emissions is the upper troposphere, and a subset of these storms pollutes the lower stratosphere. Thus, a new appreciation for the role of extreme wildfire behavior and its atmospheric ramifications is now coming into focus.


title: Firestorm

text: The Black Saturday bushfires are some of Australia's most destructive and deadly fires that fall under the category of a "firestorm" due to the extreme fire behavior and relationship with atmospheric responses that occurred during the fires. This major wildfire event led to a number of distinct electrified pyrocumulonimbus plume clusters ranging roughly 15 km high. These plumes were proven susceptible to striking new spot fires ahead of the main fire front. The newly ignited fires by this pyrogenic lightning, further highlights the feedback loops of influence between the atmosphere and fire behavior on Black Saturday associated with these pyroconvective processes.


title: Firestorm

text: The examinations presented here for Black Saturday demonstrate that fires ignited by lightning generated within the fire plume can occur at much larger distances ahead of the main fire front"—"of up to 100 km. In comparison to fires ignited by burning debris transported by the fire plume, these only go ahead of the fire front up to about 33 km, noting that this also has implications in relation to understanding the maximum rate of spread of a wildfire. This finding is important for the understanding and modeling of future firestorms and the large scale areas that can be affected by this phenomenon.


title: Firestorm

text: As the individual spot fires grow together, they will begin to interact. This interaction will increase the burning rates, heat release rates, and flame height until the distance between them reaches a critical level. At the critical separation distance, the flames will begin to merge and burn with the maximum rate and flame height. As these spot fires continue to grow together, the burning and heat release rates will finally start to decrease but remain at a much elevated level compared to the independent spot fire. The flame height is not expected to change significantly. The more spot fires, the bigger the increase in burning rate and flame height.


title: Firestorm

text: Black Saturday is just one of many varieties of firestorms with these pyroconvective processes and they are still being widely studied and compared. In addition to indicating this strong coupling on Black Saturday between the atmosphere and the fire activity, the lightning observations also suggest considerable differences in pyroCb characteristics between Black Saturday and the Canberra fire event. Differences between pyroCb events, such as for the Black Saturday and Canberra cases, indicate considerable potential for improved understanding of pyroconvection based on combining different data sets as presented in the research of the Black Saturday pyroCb's (including in relation to lightning, radar, precipitation, and satellite observations).


title: Firestorm

text: A greater understanding of pyroCb activity is important, given that fire-atmosphere feedback processes can exacerbate the conditions associated with dangerous fire behavior. Additionally, understanding the combined effects of heat, moisture, and aerosols on cloud microphysics is important for a range of weather and climate processes, including in relation to improved modeling and prediction capabilities. It is essential to fully explore events such as these to properly characterize the fire behavior, pyroCb dynamics, and resultant influence on conditions in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere (UTLS). It is also important to accurately characterize this transport process so that cloud, chemistry, and climate models have a firm basis on which to evaluate the pyrogenic source term, pathway from the boundary layer through cumulus cloud, and exhaust from the convective column.


title: Firestorm

text: Since the discovery of smoke in the stratosphere and the pyroCb, only a small number of individual case studies and modeling experiments have been performed. Hence, there is still much to be learned about the pyroCb and its importance. With this work scientists have attempted to reduce the unknowns by revealing several additional occasions when pyroCbs were either a significant or sole cause for the type of stratospheric pollution usually attributed to volcanic injections.


title: Firestorm

text: The same underlying combustion physics can also apply to man-made structures such as cities during war or natural disaster.


title: Firestorm

text: Firestorms are thought to have been part of the mechanism of large urban fires, such as accompanied the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake. Genuine firestorms are occurring more frequently in California wildfires, such as the 1991 wildfire disaster in Oakland, California, and the October 2017 Tubbs Fire in Santa Rosa, California.


title: Firestorm

text: During the July–August 2018 Carr Fire, a deadly fire vortex equivalent in size and strength to an EF-3 tornado spawned during the firestorm in Redding, California and caused tornado-like wind damage. Another wildfire which may be characterized as a firestorm was the Camp Fire, which at one point travelled at a speed of up to 76 acres per minute, completely destroying the town of Paradise, California within 24 hours on November 8, 2018.


title: Firestorm

text: Firestorms were also created by the firebombing raids of World War II in cities like Hamburg and Dresden. Of the two nuclear weapons used in combat, only Hiroshima resulted in a firestorm. In contrast, experts suggest that due to the nature of modern U.S. city design and construction, a firestorm is unlikely after a nuclear detonation.


title: Firestorm

text: Firebombing is a technique designed to damage a target, generally an urban area, through the use of fire, caused by incendiary devices, rather than from the blast effect of large bombs. Such raids often employ both incendiary devices and high explosives. The high explosive destroys roofs, making it easier for the incendiary devices to penetrate the structures and cause fires. The high explosives also disrupt the ability of firefighters to douse the fires.


title: Firestorm

text: Although incendiary bombs have been used to destroy buildings since the start of gunpowder warfare, World War II saw the first use of strategic bombing from the air to destroy the ability of the enemy to wage war. London, Coventry, and many other British cities were firebombed during the Blitz. Most large German cities were extensively firebombed starting in 1942, and almost all large Japanese cities were firebombed during the last six months of World War II. As Sir Arthur Harris, the officer commanding RAF Bomber Command from 1942 through to the end of the war in Europe, pointed out in his post-war analysis, although many attempts were made to create deliberate man-made firestorms during World War II, few attempts succeeded:


title: Firestorm

text: According to physicist David Hafemeister, firestorms occurred after about 5% of all fire-bombing raids during World War II (but he does not explain if this is a percentage based on both Allied and Axis raids, or combined Allied raids, or U.S. raids alone). In 2005, the American National Fire Protection Association stated in a report that three "major" firestorms resulted from Allied conventional bombing campaigns during World War II: Hamburg, Dresden, and Tokyo. They do not include the comparatively minor firestorms at Kassel, Darmstadt or even Ube into their "major" firestorm category. Despite later quoting and corroborating Glasstone and Dolan and data collected from these smaller firestorms:


title: Firestorm

text: Unlike the highly combustible World War II cities that firestormed from conventional and nuclear weapons, a FEMA report suggests that due to the nature of modern U.S. city design and construction, a firestorm is unlikely to occur even after a nuclear detonation because highrise buildings do not lend themselves to the formation of firestorms because of the baffle effect of the structures, and firestorms are unlikely in areas whose modern buildings have totally collapsed, with the exceptions of Tokyo and Hiroshima, because of the nature of their densely-packed "flimsy" wooden buildings in World War II.


title: Firestorm

text: There is also a sizable difference between the fuel loading of World War II cities that firestormed and that of modern cities, where the quantity of combustibles per square meter in the fire area in the latter is below the necessary requirement for a firestorm to form (40 kg/m). Therefore, firestorms are not to be expected in modern North American cities after a nuclear detonation, and are expected to be unlikely in modern European cities.


title: Firestorm

text: Similarly, one reason for the lack of success in creating a true firestorm in the bombing of Berlin in World War II was that the building density, or builtupness factor, in Berlin was too low to support easy fire spread from building to building. Another reason was that much of the building construction was newer and better than in most of the old German city centers. Modern building practices in the Berlin of World War II led to more effective firewalls and fire-resistant construction. Mass firestorms never proved to be possible in Berlin. No matter how heavy the raid or what kinds of firebombs were dropped, no true firestorm ever developed.


title: Firestorm

text: The incendiary effects of a nuclear explosion do not present any especially characteristic features. In principle, the same overall result with respect to destruction of life and property can be achieved by the use of conventional incendiary and high-explosive bombs. It has been estimated, for example, that the same fire ferocity and damage produced at Hiroshima by one 16-kiloton nuclear bomb from a single B-29 could have instead been produced by about 1,200 tons/1.2 kilotons of incendiary bombs from 220 B-29s distributed over the city; for Nagasaki, a single 21 kiloton nuclear bomb dropped on the city could have been estimated to be caused by 1,200 tons of incendiary bombs from 125 B-29s.


title: Firestorm

text: It may seem counterintuitive that the same amount of fire damage caused by a nuclear weapon could have instead been produced by smaller total yield of thousands of incendiary bombs; however, World War II experience supports this assertion. For example, although not a perfect clone of the city of Hiroshima in 1945, in the conventional bombing of Dresden, the combined Royal Air Force (RAF) and United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) dropped a total of 3441.3 tons (approximately 3.4 kilotons) of ordnance (about half of which was incendiary bombs) on the night of 13–14 February 1945, and this resulted in "more than" of the city being destroyed by fire and firestorm effects according to one authoritative source, or approximately by another.


title: Firestorm

text: In total about 4.5 kilotons of conventional ordnance was dropped on the city over a number of months during 1945 and this resulted in approximately of the city being destroyed by blast and fire effects. During the "Operation MeetingHouse" firebombing of Tokyo on 9–10 March 1945, 279 of the 334 B-29s dropped 1,665 tons of incendiary and high-explosive bombs on the city, resulting in the destruction of over 10,000 acres of buildings—, a quarter of the city.


title: Firestorm

text: In contrast to these raids, when a single 16-kiloton nuclear bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, of the city was destroyed by blast, fire, and firestorm effects. Similarly, Major Cortez F. Enloe, a surgeon in the USAAF who worked with the United States Strategic Bombing Survey (USSBS), said that the 21-kiloton nuclear bomb dropped on Nagasaki did not do as much fire damage as the extended conventional airstrikes on Hamburg.


title: Firestorm

text: This break from the linear expectation of more fire damage to occur after greater explosive yield is dropped can be easily explained by two major factors. First, the order of blast and thermal events during a nuclear explosion is not ideal for the creation of fires. In an incendiary bombing raid, incendiary weapons followed after high-explosive blast weapons were dropped, in a manner designed to create the greatest probability of fires from a limited quantity of explosive and incendiary weapons. The so-called two-ton "cookies", also known as "blockbusters", were dropped first and were intended to rupture water mains, as well as to blow off roofs, doors, and windows, creating an air flow that would feed the fires caused by the incendiaries that would then follow and be dropped, ideally, into holes created by the prior blast weapons, such into attic and roof spaces.


title: Firestorm

text: On the other hand, nuclear weapons produce effects that are in the reverse order, with thermal effects and "flash" occurring first, which are then followed by the slower blast wave. It is for this reason that conventional incendiary bombing raids are considered to be a great deal more efficient at causing mass fires than nuclear weapons of comparable yield. It is likely this led the nuclear weapon effects experts Franklin D'Olier, Samuel Glasstone and Philip J. Dolan to state that the same fire damage suffered at Hiroshima could have instead been produced by about 1 kiloton/1,000 tons of incendiary bombs.


title: Firestorm

text: The second factor explaining the non-intuitive break in the expected results of greater explosive yield producing greater city fire damage is that city fire damage is largely dependent not on the yield of the weapons used, but on the conditions in and around the city itself, with the fuel loading per square meter value of the city being one of the major factors. A few hundred strategically placed incendiary devices would be sufficient to start a firestorm in a city if the conditions for a firestorm, namely high fuel loading, are already inherent to the city (see Bat bomb).


title: Firestorm

text: The Great Fire of London in 1666, although not forming a firestorm due to the single point of ignition, serves as an example that, given a densely packed and predominately wooden and thatch building construction in the urban area, a mass fire is conceivable from the mere incendiary power of no more than a domestic fireplace. On the other hand, the largest nuclear weapon conceivable will be incapable of igniting a city into a firestorm if the city's properties, namely its fuel density, are not conducive to one developing.


title: Firestorm

text: Despite the disadvantage of nuclear weapons when compared to conventional weapons of lower or comparable yield in terms of effectiveness at starting fires, for the reasons discussed above, nuclear weapons also do not add any fuel to a city, and fires are entirely dependent on what was contained in the city prior to bombing, in direct contrast to the incendiary device effect of conventional raids. One undeniable advantage of nuclear weapons over conventional weapons when it comes to creating fires is that nuclear weapons undoubtedly produce all their thermal and explosive effects in a very short period of time. That is, to use Arthur Harris's terminology, they are the epitome of an air raid guaranteed to be concentrated in "point in time".


title: Firestorm

text: In contrast, early in World War II, the ability to achieve conventional air raids concentrated in "point of time" depended largely upon the skill of pilots to remain in formation, and their ability to hit the target whilst at times also being under heavy fire from anti-aircraft fire from the cities below. Nuclear weapons largely remove these uncertain variables. Therefore, nuclear weapons reduce the question of whether a city will firestorm or not to a smaller number of variables, to the point of becoming entirely reliant on the intrinsic properties of the city, such as fuel loading, and predictable atmospheric conditions, such as wind speed, in and around the city, and less reliant on the unpredictable possibility of hundreds of bomber crews acting together successfully as a single unit.


title: Firestorm

text: Portions of the following fires are often described as firestorms, but that has not been corroborated by any reliable references:


title: Grimsby

text: Grimsby or Great Grimsby is a port town and the administrative centre of North East Lincolnshire, Lincolnshire, England. Grimsby adjoins the town of Cleethorpes directly to the south-east forming a conurbation. Grimsby is north-east of Lincoln, (via the Humber Bridge) south-south-east of Hull, south-east of Scunthorpe, east of Doncaster and south-east of Leeds. Grimsby is also home to notable landmarks such as Grimsby Minster, Port of Grimsby, Cleethorpes Beach and Grimsby Fishing Heritage Museum. Grimsby was once the home port for the world's largest fishing fleet around the mid-20th century, but fishing then fell sharply. The Cod Wars denied UK access to Icelandic fishing grounds and the European Union used its Common Fisheries Policy to parcel out fishing quotas to other European countries in waters within of the UK coast.


title: Grimsby

text: Grimsby suffered post-industrial decline like most other post-industrial towns and cities. However, food production has been on the rise


title: Grimsby

text: in the town since the 1990s. The Grimsby–Cleethorpes conurbation acts as a cultural and economic centre for much of north and east Lincolnshire. Grimsby people are called Grimbarians; the term "" is also used jokingly, often for football supporters. Great Grimsby Day is 22 January. Grimsby is also the second largest settlement by population in Lincolnshire after Lincoln, with Scunthorpe being the third largest.


title: Grimsby

text: The town was named "Great Grimsby" to distinguish it from Little Grimsby, a village about to the south, near Louth. It had a population of 88,243 in the 2011 census and an estimated population of 88,323 in 2019. It forms a conurbation with adjoining Cleethorpes and the villages of Humberston, Scartho, Brigsley and Waltham. The 2011 census gave the conurbation a population of 134,160, making it the second largest built-up area in Lincolnshire.


title: Grimsby

text: There is archaeological evidence of a small town of Roman workers in the area in the 2nd century CE of Roman occupation. Located on the River Haven, which flowed into the Humber, the site long provided a location for ships to shelter from approaching storms. It was well placed to exploit the rich fishing grounds in the North Sea.


title: Grimsby

text: Sometime in the 9th century CE, Grimsby was settled by Danes. Legend has it that the name Grimsby derives from "Grim," a Danish fisherman. The suffix "-by" is derived from the Old Norse word for village (compare with , and ). The legendary founding of Grimsby features in a medieval romance, the "Lay of Havelock the Dane," but historians see this account as a myth.


title: Grimsby

text: In Norse mythology, "Grim" (Mask) and "Grimnir" (Masked One) are names adopted by the deity Odin (Anglo-Saxon "Woden") when travelling incognito amongst mortals, as in the short poem known as "Grimnir's Sayings" ("Grimnismal") in the "Poetic Edda". The intended audience of the Havelock tale (recorded much later as the "Lay of Havelock the Dane") may have taken the fisherman Grim to be Odin in disguise.


title: Grimsby

text: The Odinic name "Grimr/Grim" occurs in many English place names in the historical Danelaw and elsewhere in Britain. Examples are numerous earthworks named "Grimsdyke". Other British place names with the element "Grim" are explained as referring to Woden/Odin (e.g. Grimsbury, Grimspound, Grime's Graves, Grimsditch, Grimsworne), and Grimsby is likely to have the same derivation.


title: Grimsby

text: Grimsby is listed in the Domesday Book of 1086 as having a population of around 200, a priest, a mill, and a ferry.


title: Grimsby

text: Grimsby grew in the 12th century into a fishing and trading port, at one time ranking twelfth in importance to the Crown for tax revenue. The town gained its charter from King John in 1201; the first mayor was installed in 1202.


title: Grimsby

text: Grimsby had no town walls. It was too small and felt to be protected by the marshland around it. However, the town dug a defensive ditch.


title: Grimsby

text: Grimsby in medieval times had two parish churches, St Mary's and St James. Only St James, now Grimsby Minster, remains. It is associated with a folk tale of an imp who played tricks in the church and was turned into stone by an angel. (A similar tale is told of Lincoln Cathedral – See Lincoln Imp).


title: Grimsby

text: In the mid-14th century, the town benefited from the generosity of Edmund de Grimsby, a local man who became a senior Crown official and judge in Ireland.


title: Grimsby

text: In the 15th century, The Haven began to silt up, preventing ships in the Humber from docking. As a result, Grimsby entered a long period of decline until the late 18th century. By 1801, the population of Grimsby numbered 1,524, around the size it had been in the Middle Ages.


title: Grimsby

text: The Grimsby Haven Company was formed by Act of Parliament in May 1796 (the Grimsby Haven Act) for the purpose of "widening, deepening, enlarging, altering and improving the Haven of the Town and Port of Great Grimsby". After the dredging of The Haven and related improvement in the early 19th century, the town grew rapidly as the port boomed, importing iron, timber, wheat, hemp, and flax. New docks were needed to cope with the expansion. The necessary works were allowed under the Grimsby Docks Act of 1845.


title: Grimsby

text: The arrival of the railway in 1848 eased the transport of goods to and from the port to markets and farms. Coal mined in the South Yorkshire coalfields was brought by rail and exported through Grimsby. Rail links direct to London and the Billingsgate Fish Market allowed fresh "Grimsby fish" to gain nationwide renown. The first true fish dock opened in Grimsby in 1856, and the town became central to the development of the commercial fishing industry.


title: Grimsby

text: The Dock Tower was completed in 1851, followed by the Royal Dock in 1852. No.1 Fish Dock was completed in 1856, followed by No.2 Fish Dock in 1877. Alexandra Dock and Union Dock were completed in 1879. During this period, the fishing fleet was much expanded. In a rare reversal of usual trends, large numbers of fishermen from the south-east and Devon travelled north to join the Grimsby fleet. Over 40 per cent of the newcomers came from Barking in East London and other Thames-side towns.


title: Grimsby

text: In 1857 there were 22 vessels in Grimsby. Six years later there were 112. The first two legitimate steam trawlers built in Britain were based in Grimsby. By 1900, a tenth of the fish consumed in the United Kingdom was landed there, although there were also many smaller coastal fishing ports and villages involved.


title: Grimsby

text: The demand for fish in Grimsby meant that at its peak in the 1950s it claimed to be the largest fishing port in the world. The population grew from 75,000 in 1901 to 92,000 by 1931.


title: Grimsby

text: The Great Depression and restructured fishing caused a sharp decline in employment. After that the population was fairly stable for the rest of the 20th century.


title: Grimsby

text: The Royal Dock became the UK's largest base for minesweepers patrolling the North Sea. The Admiralty requisitioned numerous trawlers to serve the purpose of the Royal Naval Patrol Service. Often the crew was ex-trawlermen, alongside Royal Naval Reserve and Royal Navy volunteers. Trawlers used the winches and warps from fishing operations to tow a paravane with a cutting jaw through the water in what was known as a "sweep" to bring mines to the surface and allow for their removal.


title: Grimsby

text: This hazardous work lost the Patrol Service more vessels than any other Royal Navy branch in the Second World War; 2,385 men died. Grimsby's Royal Naval Patrol Service veterans financed a memorial beside the Dock Tower to ensure that the bravery and sacrifice of their comrades were not forgotten.


title: Grimsby

text: On 14 June 1943, an early-morning air raid by the Luftwaffe dropped several 1,000-kg bombs, 6,000 incendiary bombs and over 3,000 Butterfly Bombs in the Grimsby area, killing 99 people. In total, Second World War bombing raids in Grimsby and Cleethorpes killed 196, while another 184 were seriously injured. The Butterfly Bombs that littered the area hampered fire-fighting crews trying to reach locations damaged by incendiary bombs. The search for bodies continued for a month after the raid.


title: Grimsby

text: After the pressures placed on the industry during the Cod Wars and the European Union's Common Fisheries Policy, which redistributed fishing quotas to other EU nations, many Grimsby firms decided to cease trawling operations there. The sudden demise of the industry brought an end to a way of life and community that had lasted for generations. The loss of the fishing industry brought severe economic and social problems for the town. Huge numbers became redundant, highly skilled in jobs that no longer existed, and struggled to find work ashore. As with the Ross Group, some firms concentrated on expanding industries within the town, such as food processing.


title: Grimsby

text: Grimsby's trawling days are remembered through artefacts and permanent exhibits at the town's Fishing Heritage Centre. A preserved 1950s trawler, "Ross Tiger," is located here. Few fishing vessels still operate from Grimsby's docks, but the town maintains a substantial fish market important in Europe.


title: Grimsby

text: Grimsby was struck by an F1/T3 tornado on 23 November 1981, as part of a record-breaking nationwide tornado outbreak that day. From the mid-1980s, the former Humber ferry PS "Lincoln Castle" has been moored in Alexandra Dock. She was used during this time as a pub\restaurant, but despite her design and status as Britain's last coal-fired paddle steamer, the catering no longer yielded a profit. The ship was broken up in 2010. Berthed in Alexandra Dock is the "Ross Tiger", the last survivor of what was once the world's largest fleet of sidewinder trawlers.


title: Grimsby

text: The town was described in "The Daily Telegraph" in 2001 as one "subjected to... many crude developments over the past 30-odd years" and a town which "seemingly shuns the notion of heritage." Redevelopment was planned as part of Yorkshire Forward's Renaissance Towns Programme, but the scheme was abandoned in 2012.


title: Grimsby

text: In the early 21st century, the town faced the challenges of a post-industrial economy on top of the decline in its fishing industry. The East Marsh ward of the town is the second most deprived in the country, according to government statistics.


title: Grimsby

text: Since the December 2019 general election, Lia Nici (Conservative) has been the Member of Parliament for the Great Grimsby constituency, having won the seat from the former MP, Melanie Onn (Labour), who had served since 2015. This lost the seat to the Labour Party for the first time in 74 years, not least under Austin Mitchell (Labour), who held it from 1977 to 2015


title: Grimsby

text: Great Grimsby formed an ancient Borough in the North Riding of Lindsey. It was reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 and became a Municipal Borough in that year. In 1889 a County Council was created for Lindsey, but Great Grimsby was outside its area of control and formed an independent County Borough in 1891. The Borough expanded to absorb the adjacent hamlet of Wellow (1889), also the neighbouring parishes of Clee-with-Weelsby (1889), Little Coates (1928), Scartho (1928), Weelsby (1928) and Great Coates (1968). It had its own police force until 1967 when it was merged into the Lincolnshire force.


title: Grimsby

text: In 1974, the County Borough was abolished and Great Grimsby was reconstituted with the same boundaries as "Grimsby" non-metropolitan district in the new county of Humberside, under the Local Government Act 1972. The district was renamed "Great Grimsby" in 1979.


title: Grimsby

text: In the early 1990s, area local government came under review from the Local Government Commission for England; Humberside was abolished in 1996. The former Great Grimsby district merged with that of Cleethorpes to form the unitary authority of North East Lincolnshire. The town does not have its own town council, instead just a board of Charter Trustees. In 2007, in the struggle for identity, it was suggested that the district be renamed "Great Grimsby and Cleethorpes", but this did not meet with favour among local residents, and the Council Leader dropped the idea a year later.


title: Grimsby

text: The main sectors of the economy are ports and logistics, food processing, specifically frozen foods and fish processing, chemicals and process industries and digital media. Cleethorpes to the east has a tourist industry. To the west along the Humber bank to Immingham, there has been large-scale industrial activity since the 1950s, around chemicals and from the 1990s gas-powered electricity generation.


title: Grimsby

text: Grimsby is strongly linked with the sea fishing industry that once generated wealth for the town. At its peak in the 1950s, it was the largest and busiest fishing port in the world. The Cod Wars with Iceland, and the European Union's Common Fisheries Policy sent this industry into decline for many years. In 1970 around 400 trawlers were based in the port, but by 2013 only five remained, while 15 vessels were being used to maintain offshore wind farms in the North Sea. The town still has the largest fish market in the UK, but most of what is sold is brought overland from other ports or from Iceland by containerisation. Of the 18,000 tonnes of fresh fish sold in Grimsby fish market in 2012, almost 13,000 tonnes, mainly cod and haddock, came from Iceland.


title: Grimsby

text: Grimsby houses some 500 food-related companies, as one of the largest concentrations of such firms in Europe. The local council has promoted Grimsby as "Europe's Food Town" for nearly 20 years. In 1999, the BBC reported that more pizzas were produced than anywhere else in Europe, including Italy.


title: Grimsby

text: Grimsby is recognised as the main centre of the UK fish-processing industry; 70 per cent of the UK's fish-processing industry is located there. In recent years, this expertise has led to diversification into all forms of frozen and chilled foods. It is one of the largest centres of fish processing in Europe. More than 100 local companies are involved in fresh and frozen fish production, the largest being the Findus Group (see Lion Capital LLP), comprising Young's Seafood and Findus, with its corporate headquarters in the town. Young's is a major employer, with some 2,500 people based at its headquarters. From this base, Young's has a global sourcing operation supplying 60 species from 30 countries.


title: Grimsby

text: Traditional Grimsby smoked fish was awarded a Protected Geographical Indication (PGI) in 2009 by the European Union. The traditional process uses overnight cold smoking from sawdust in tall chimneys, roughly square and 10m high.


title: Grimsby

text: Other major seafood companies include the Icelandic-owned "Coldwater Seafood", employing more than 700 across its sites in Grimsby; and "Five Star Fish", a supplier of fish products to the UK food market.


title: Grimsby

text: The £5.6 million Humber Seafood Institute, the first of its kind in the UK, opened in 2008. Backed by Yorkshire Forward, North East Lincolnshire Council and the European Regional Development Fund, it is managed by the local council. Tenants include the Seafish Industry Authority and Grimsby Institute and University Centre. Greater Grimsby is a European centre of excellence in producing chilled prepared meals, and the area has Europe's largest concentration of cold-storage facilities.


title: Grimsby

text: The Port of Grimsby has been in use since the medieval period. The first enclosed dock, later known as the Old Dock, was built in the 1790s by the Grimsby Haven Company. Major expansion came with the railways and construction of the Royal Dock, Grimsby in the 1840s. A Fish Dock was added in 1857, and the fish docks expanded over the next 80 years. The Old Dock was expanded to form Alexandra Dock in the 1880s. The Kasbah is a historic area between the Royal Dock and Fish Dock marked by a network of streets that remains home to many artisan fish-processing businesses.


title: Grimsby

text: Fishing activities were reduced to a fraction of former levels in the second half of the 20th century. The current port has become a centre for car imports and exports, and since 1975 for general cargo. In the early 21st century, it has developed as a wind-farm maintenance base.


title: Grimsby

text: High-street shopping is grouped in central Grimsby between the railway and River Freshney, where Victoria Street acts as a central pedestrianised shopping street with an undercover Freshney Place centre to the north. Freshney Place is visited by 14 million shoppers a year and employs over 2,000 staff. The centre houses over 100 stores, including Marks and Spencer and House of Fraser. Constructed between 1967 and 1971 in a joint venture between the old "Grimsby Borough Council" and developers Hammerson's UK Ltd., it was known as the "Riverhead Centre" (so named as the development was adjacent to where the two local rivers, the Freshney and the Haven, meet). Hammerson's UK Ltd began a £100 million redevelopment of the retail centre, doubling it in size. The expanded centre was covered in a glass roof. Two multi-storey car parks were constructed at each end of the centre; with this development, the old "Top Town" area of Grimsby was effectively privatised and roofed over. Stores are serviced at the first floor by ramps at the western end, which can accommodate even large vehicles. The ramp also provides access to the car park on the roof of the indoor market, which is operated by the local council. Freshney Place won a design commendation in the Refurbishment Category of the 1993 BCSC awards.


title: Grimsby

text: In the town centre Bethlehem and Osborne Street are also mixed in use, hosting retail, legal and service functions to the south of Victoria Street. Many local independent stores operate, several at the "Abbeygate Centre" off Bethlehem Street. Once the head office of local brewers "Hewitt Brothers", the building was renovated in the mid-1980s and now houses restaurants and designer clothing stores.


title: Grimsby

text: The town has two markets, one next to Freshney Place and the other in "Freeman Street" (B1213). This was a dominant shopping area with close ties to the docks, but industry and demographic changes have led it to struggle since the late 1970s. Previously the town centre area was rivalled by the Freeman Street shopping area, located closer to the docks. Freeman Street retains its covered market. Grimsby town centre has re-emerged in prominence as the docks declined and shops such as Marks and Spencer relocated to central Grimsby.


title: Grimsby

text: Other developments near the town centre since the 1980s include the Alexandra Retail Park and Sainsbury's to the west of Alexandra Dock, an Asda store between the town centre and Freeman Street, and the Victoria Mills Retail Park off the Peaks Parkway A16, which has several chain stores, including Next and close to a Tesco Extra (the second in the area. B&Q opened a large store off the Peaks Parkway to the east of the town centre. Unlike many towns where shopping has been built on the outskirts, these and similar developments were placed around Grimsby's town centre. This keeps shopping in a compact area, easier on pedestrians and public transport users.


title: Grimsby

text: Some out-of-town development has taken place, with Morrisons building a store just outside the town in the parish of Laceby. It is known as Morrisons Cleethorpes. This name derives from a period when the area was part of the now defunct Cleethorpes Borough. Most major supermarkets have expanded in the early 21st century, including Asda, and Tesco at Hewitts Circus, which is technically in adjoining Cleethorpes.


title: Grimsby

text: Such is the quality of shopping in the area that bus services bring shoppers from across Lincolnshire, especially smaller towns such as Louth, Brigg, and Scunthorpe.


title: Grimsby

text: Grimsby is beginning to develop as an energy centre. It already generates more electricity from renewable solar, wind, biomass and landfill gas than anywhere else in England. The town gains 28 per cent of the electricity it uses from green sources. Its proximity to the biggest cluster of offshore wind farms in Europe has brought around 1,500 jobs to the area, most of them in turbine maintenance.


title: Grimsby

text: The numerous primary schools in Grimsby and coupled with secondary school which include Havelock Academy, Oasis Academy Wintringham and Ormiston Maritime Academy. Many Grimsby pupils attend secondary education in Cleethorpes, Healing, Humberston and Waltham, and further afield at Caistor Grammar. Independent schools in Grimsby include St James' School and St Martin's Preparatory School.


title: Grimsby

text: Franklin College is a sixth form college. The Grimsby Institute offers further and higher education courses mostly for vocational purposes. Its business courses have attracted a sizeable number of Chinese students in recent years.


title: Grimsby

text: Grimsby lies from the nearest motorway, the M180, which continues as A180 into the town and acts as a link with the national motorway network. The town is skirted by the A18, with the A46 passing through to provide a connection towards Lincoln, while the A16 links it to Louth and south and eastern Lincolnshire. The transport infrastructure was described in a report by the European Commission as strong and as a help to Grimsby's transition to a food-processing centre. It was once derided as being "on the road to nowhere" by the writer and critic A. A. Gill.


title: Grimsby

text: Grimsby's bus services are provided by Stagecoach in Lincolnshire, which took over from "Grimsby-Cleethorpes Transport" (CGT) in 1993. This had been formed in 1957 by a merger of separate Grimsby and Cleethorpes transport undertakings. Stagecoach had all the buses resprayed to their standard livery to replace the color scheme of orange and white introduced in 1987. GCT ran a mixture of crewed and one-person operated services, but in 1982 the job of the conductor was abolished.


title: Grimsby

text: In 2005, Stagecoach bought out "Lincolnshire Road Car", which served South Killingholme, Louth, Barton-upon-Humber and the Willows Estate. The company is now known as Stagecoach in Lincolnshire. Joint ticketing began with "Stagecoach Grimsby-Cleethorpes" in May 2006. From September 2006, a new fleet of low-floor single-deckers was introduced, making the fleet an unprecedented 85 per cent low-floor.