title: Transmission line

text: The model consists of an "infinite series" of the elements shown in the figure, and the values of the components are specified "per unit length" so the picture of the component can be misleading. formula_3, formula_4, formula_5, and formula_6 may also be functions of frequency. An alternative notation is to use formula_11, formula_12, formula_13 and formula_14 to emphasize that the values are derivatives with respect to length. These quantities can also be known as the primary line constants to distinguish from the secondary line constants derived from them, these being the propagation constant, attenuation constant and phase constant.


title: Transmission line

text: When the elements formula_3 and formula_6 are negligibly small the transmission line is considered as a lossless structure. In this hypothetical case, the model depends only on the formula_4 and formula_5 elements which greatly simplifies the analysis. For a lossless transmission line, the second order steady-state Telegrapher's equations are:


title: Transmission line

text: These are wave equations which have plane waves with equal propagation speed in the forward and reverse directions as solutions. The physical significance of this is that electromagnetic waves propagate down transmission lines and in general, there is a reflected component that interferes with the original signal. These equations are fundamental to transmission line theory.


title: Transmission line

text: In the general case the loss terms, formula_3 and formula_6, are both included, and the full form of the Telegrapher's equations become:


title: Transmission line

text: where formula_29 is the (complex) propagation constant. These equations are fundamental to transmission line theory. They are also wave equations, and have solutions similar to the special case, but which are a mixture of sines and cosines with exponential decay factors. Solving for the propagation constant formula_29 in terms of the primary parameters formula_3, formula_4, formula_6, and formula_5 gives:


title: Transmission line

text: The constants formula_41 must be determined from boundary conditions. For a voltage pulse formula_42, starting at formula_43 and moving in the positive formula_44 direction, then the transmitted pulse formula_45 at position formula_44 can be obtained by computing the Fourier Transform, formula_47, of formula_42, attenuating each frequency component by formula_49, advancing its phase by formula_50, and taking the inverse Fourier Transform. The real and imaginary parts of formula_29 can be computed as


title: Transmission line

text: the right-hand expressions holding when neither formula_4, nor formula_5, nor formula_58 is zero, and with


title: Transmission line

text: where atan2 is the everywhere-defined form of two-parameter arctangent function, with arbitrary value zero when both arguments are zero.


title: Transmission line

text: with the plus or minus signs chosen opposite to the direction of the wave's motion through the conducting medium. (Note that is usually negative, since formula_6 and formula_3 are typically much smaller than formula_64 and formula_65, respectively, so is usually positive. is always positive.)


title: Transmission line

text: For small losses and high frequencies, the general equations can be simplified: If formula_66 and formula_67 then


title: Transmission line

text: Since an advance in phase by formula_70 is equivalent to a time delay by formula_71, formula_72 can be simply computed as


title: Transmission line

text: The Heaviside condition is a special case where the wave travels down the line without any dispersion distortion. The condition for this to take place is


title: Transmission line

text: The characteristic impedance formula_75 of a transmission line is the ratio of the amplitude of a "single" voltage wave to its current wave. Since most transmission lines also have a reflected wave, the characteristic impedance is generally not the impedance that is measured on the line.


title: Transmission line

text: The impedance measured at a given distance formula_76 from the load impedance formula_77 may be expressed as


title: Transmission line

text: where formula_29 is the propagation constant and formula_80 is the voltage reflection coefficient measured at the load end of the transmission line. Alternatively, the above formula can be rearranged to express the input impedance in terms of the load impedance rather than the load voltage reflection coefficient:


title: Transmission line

text: For a lossless transmission line, the propagation constant is purely imaginary, formula_82, so the above formulas can be rewritten as


title: Transmission line

text: In calculating formula_85 the wavelength is generally different "inside" the transmission line to what it would be in free-space. Consequently, the velocity factor of the material the transmission line is made of needs to be taken into account when doing such a calculation.


title: Transmission line

text: For the special case where formula_86 where n is an integer (meaning that the length of the line is a multiple of half a wavelength), the expression reduces to the load impedance so that


title: Transmission line

text: for all formula_88 This includes the case when formula_89, meaning that the length of the transmission line is negligibly small compared to the wavelength. The physical significance of this is that the transmission line can be ignored (i.e. treated as a wire) in either case.


title: Transmission line

text: For the case where the length of the line is one quarter wavelength long, or an odd multiple of a quarter wavelength long, the input impedance becomes


title: Transmission line

text: Another special case is when the load impedance is equal to the characteristic impedance of the line (i.e. the line is "matched"), in which case the impedance reduces to the characteristic impedance of the line so that


title: Transmission line

text: For the case of a shorted load (i.e. formula_94), the input impedance is purely imaginary and a periodic function of position and wavelength (frequency)


title: Transmission line

text: For the case of an open load (i.e. formula_96), the input impedance is once again imaginary and periodic


title: Transmission line

text: Coaxial lines confine virtually all of the electromagnetic wave to the area inside the cable. Coaxial lines can therefore be bent and twisted (subject to limits) without negative effects, and they can be strapped to conductive supports without inducing unwanted currents in them.


title: Transmission line

text: In radio-frequency applications up to a few gigahertz, the wave propagates in the transverse electric and magnetic mode (TEM) only, which means that the electric and magnetic fields are both perpendicular to the direction of propagation (the electric field is radial, and the magnetic field is circumferential). However, at frequencies for which the wavelength (in the dielectric) is significantly shorter than the circumference of the cable other transverse modes can propagate. These modes are classified into two groups, transverse electric (TE) and transverse magnetic (TM) waveguide modes. When more than one mode can exist, bends and other irregularities in the cable geometry can cause power to be transferred from one mode to another.


title: Transmission line

text: The most common use for coaxial cables is for television and other signals with bandwidth of multiple megahertz. In the middle 20th century they carried long distance telephone connections.


title: Transmission line

text: Planar transmission lines are transmission lines with conductors, or in some cases dielectric strips, that are flat, ribbon-shaped lines. They are used to interconnect components on printed circuits and integrated circuits working at microwave frequencies because the planar type fits in well with the manufacturing methods for these components. Several forms of planar transmission lines exist.


title: Transmission line

text: A microstrip circuit uses a thin flat conductor which is parallel to a ground plane. Microstrip can be made by having a strip of copper on one side of a printed circuit board (PCB) or ceramic substrate while the other side is a continuous ground plane. The width of the strip, the thickness of the insulating layer (PCB or ceramic) and the dielectric constant of the insulating layer determine the characteristic impedance. Microstrip is an open structure whereas coaxial cable is a closed structure.


title: Transmission line

text: A stripline circuit uses a flat strip of metal which is sandwiched between two parallel ground planes. The insulating material of the substrate forms a dielectric. The width of the strip, the thickness of the substrate and the relative permittivity of the substrate determine the characteristic impedance of the strip which is a transmission line.


title: Transmission line

text: A coplanar waveguide consists of a center strip and two adjacent outer conductors, all three of them flat structures that are deposited onto the same insulating substrate and thus are located in the same plane ("coplanar"). The width of the center conductor, the distance between inner and outer conductors, and the relative permittivity of the substrate determine the characteristic impedance of the coplanar transmission line.


title: Transmission line

text: A balanced line is a transmission line consisting of two conductors of the same type, and equal impedance to ground and other circuits. There are many formats of balanced lines, amongst the most common are twisted pair, star quad and twin-lead.


title: Transmission line

text: Twisted pairs are commonly used for terrestrial telephone communications. In such cables, many pairs are grouped together in a single cable, from two to several thousand. The format is also used for data network distribution inside buildings, but the cable is more expensive because the transmission line parameters are tightly controlled.


title: Transmission line

text: Star quad is a four-conductor cable in which all four conductors are twisted together around the cable axis. It is sometimes used for two circuits, such as 4-wire telephony and other telecommunications applications. In this configuration each pair uses two non-adjacent conductors. Other times it is used for a single, balanced line, such as audio applications and 2-wire telephony. In this configuration two non-adjacent conductors are terminated together at both ends of the cable, and the other two conductors are also terminated together.


title: Transmission line

text: When used for a single, balanced line, magnetic interference picked up by the cable arrives as a virtually perfect common mode signal, which is easily removed by coupling transformers.


title: Transmission line

text: The combined benefits of twisting, balanced signalling, and quadrupole pattern give outstanding noise immunity, especially advantageous for low signal level applications such as microphone cables, even when installed very close to a power cable. The disadvantage is that star quad, in combining two conductors, typically has double the capacitance of similar two-conductor twisted and shielded audio cable. High capacitance causes increasing distortion and greater loss of high frequencies as distance increases.


title: Transmission line

text: Twin-lead consists of a pair of conductors held apart by a continuous insulator. By holding the conductors a known distance apart, the geometry is fixed and the line characteristics are reliably consistent. It is lower loss than coaxial cable because the characteristic impedance of twin-lead is generally higher than coaxial cable, leading to lower resistive losses due to the reduced current. However, it is more susceptible to interference.


title: Transmission line

text: Lecher lines are a form of parallel conductor that can be used at UHF for creating resonant circuits. They are a convenient practical format that fills the gap between lumped components (used at HF/VHF) and resonant cavities (used at UHF/SHF).


title: Transmission line

text: Unbalanced lines were formerly much used for telegraph transmission, but this form of communication has now fallen into disuse. Cables are similar to twisted pair in that many cores are bundled into the same cable but only one conductor is provided per circuit and there is no twisting. All the circuits on the same route use a common path for the return current (earth return). There is a power transmission version of single-wire earth return in use in many locations.


title: Transmission line

text: Electrical transmission lines are very widely used to transmit high frequency signals over long or short distances with minimum power loss. One familiar example is the down lead from a TV or radio aerial to the receiver.


title: Transmission line

text: A large variety of circuits can also be constructed with transmission lines including impedance matching circuits, filters, power dividers and directional couplers.


title: Transmission line

text: A stepped transmission line is used for broad range impedance matching. It can be considered as multiple transmission line segments connected in series, with the characteristic impedance of each individual element to be formula_98. The input impedance can be obtained from the successive application of the chain relation


title: Transmission line

text: where formula_100 is the wave number of the formula_101-th transmission line segment and formula_102 is the length of this segment, and formula_103 is the front-end impedance that loads the formula_101-th segment.


title: Transmission line

text: Because the characteristic impedance of each transmission line segment formula_98 is often different from the impedance formula_75 of the fourth, input cable (only shown as an arrow marked formula_75 on the left side of the diagram above), the impedance transformation circle is off-centred along the formula_44 axis of the Smith Chart whose impedance representation is usually normalized against formula_75.


title: Transmission line

text: If a short-circuited or open-circuited transmission line is wired in parallel with a line used to transfer signals from point A to point B, then it will function as a filter. The method for making stubs is similar to the method for using Lecher lines for crude frequency measurement, but it is 'working backwards'. One method recommended in the RSGB's radiocommunication handbook is to take an open-circuited length of transmission line wired in parallel with the feeder delivering signals from an aerial. By cutting the free end of the transmission line, a minimum in the strength of the signal observed at a receiver can be found. At this stage the stub filter will reject this frequency and the odd harmonics, but if the free end of the stub is shorted then the stub will become a filter rejecting the even harmonics.


title: Transmission line

text: Wideband filters can be achieved using multiple stubs. However, this is a somewhat dated technique. Much more compact filters can be made with other methods such as parallel-line resonators.


title: Transmission line

text: Transmission lines are used as pulse generators. By charging the transmission line and then discharging it into a resistive load, a rectangular pulse equal in length to twice the electrical length of the line can be obtained, although with half the voltage. A Blumlein transmission line is a related pulse forming device that overcomes this limitation. These are sometimes used as the pulsed power sources for radar transmitters and other devices.


title: Transmission line

text: The theory of sound wave propagation is very similar mathematically to that of electromagnetic waves, so techniques from transmission line theory are also used to build structures to conduct acoustic waves; and these are called acoustic transmission lines.


title: QRS complex

text: The QRS complex is the combination of three of the graphical deflections seen on a typical electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG). It is usually the central and most visually obvious part of the tracing. It corresponds to the depolarization of the right and left ventricles of the heart and contraction of the large ventricular muscles.


title: QRS complex

text: In adults, the QRS complex normally lasts ; in children it may be shorter. The Q, R, and S waves occur in rapid succession, do not all appear in all leads, and reflect a single event and thus are usually considered together. A Q wave is any downward deflection immediately following the P wave. An R wave follows as an upward deflection, and the S wave is any downward deflection after the R wave. The T wave follows the S wave, and in some cases, an additional U wave follows the T wave.


title: QRS complex

text: To measure the QRS interval start at the end of the PR interval (or beginning of the Q wave) to the end of the S wave. Normally this interval is 0.08 to 0.10 seconds. When the duration is longer it is considered a wide QRS complex.


title: QRS complex

text: Depolarization of the heart ventricles occurs almost simultaneously, via the bundle of His and Purkinje fibers. If they are working efficiently, the QRS complex duration in adults is .


title: QRS complex

text: Any abnormality of conduction takes longer and causes "widened" QRS complexes. In bundle branch block, there can be an abnormal second upward deflection within the QRS complex. In this case, such a second upward deflection is referred to as R′ (pronounced "R prime"). This would be described as an RSR′ pattern.


title: QRS complex

text: Ventricles contain more muscle mass than the atria. Therefore, the QRS complex is considerably larger than the P wave. The QRS complex is often used to determine the axis of the electrocardiogram, although it is also possible to determine a separate P wave axis.


title: QRS complex

text: The duration, amplitude, and morphology of the QRS complex are useful in diagnosing cardiac arrhythmias, conduction abnormalities, ventricular hypertrophy, myocardial infarction, electrolyte derangements, and other disease states.


title: QRS complex

text: High frequency analysis of the QRS complex may be useful for detection of coronary artery disease during an exercise stress test.


title: QRS complex

text: Normal Q waves, when present, represent depolarization of the interventricular septum. For this reason, they are referred to as septal Q waves and can be appreciated in the lateral leads I, aVL, V5 and V6.


title: QRS complex

text: Pathologic Q waves occur when the electrical signal passes through stunned or scarred heart muscle; as such, they are usually markers of previous myocardial infarctions, with subsequent fibrosis. A pathologic Q wave is defined as having a deflection amplitude of 25% or more of the subsequent R wave, or being (40 ms) in width and in amplitude. However, diagnosis requires the presence of this pattern in more than one corresponding lead.


title: QRS complex

text: Looking at the precordial leads, the R wave usually progresses from showing an rS-type complex in V with an increasing R and a decreasing S wave when moving toward the left side. There is usually a qR-type of complex in V and V with the R-wave amplitude usually taller in V than in V. It is normal to have a narrow QS and rSr' patterns in V, and this is also the case for qRs and R patterns in V and V. The "transition zone" is where the QRS complex changes from predominantly negative to predominantly positive (R/S ratio becoming >1), and this usually occurs at V or V. It is normal to have the transition zone at V (called "early transition") and at V (called "delayed transition"). In biomedical engineering, the maximum amplitude in the R wave is usually called "R peak amplitude", or just "R peak". Accurate R peak detection is essential in signal processing equipment for heart rate measurement and it is the main feature used for arrhythmia detection.


title: QRS complex

text: The definition of "poor R wave progression" (PRWP) varies in the literature. It may be defined, for example, as R wave of less than 2–4 mm in leads V or V and/or presence of a reversed R wave progression, which is defined as R in V < R in V or R in V < R in V or R in V < R in V, or any combination of these. "Poor R wave progression" is commonly attributed to anterior myocardial infarction, but it may also be caused by left bundle branch block, Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome, right and left ventricular hypertrophy, or a faulty ECG recording technique.


title: QRS complex

text: R wave peak time (RWPT) represents the time from the onset of QRS complex to the peak of R wave, which is usually measured in aVL and V5 or V6 leads.


title: QRS complex

text: R-peak time for right ventricle is measured from leads V1 or V2, where upper range of normal is 35 ms. R wave peak time for left ventricle is measured from lead V5 or V6 and 45 ms is the upper range of normal. R wave peak time is considered to be prolonged if it's more than 45 ms.


title: QRS complex

text: The point where the QRS complex meets the ST segment is the J-point. The J-point is easy to identify when the ST segment is horizontal and forms a sharp angle with the last part of the QRS complex. However, when the ST segment is sloped or the QRS complex is wide, the two features do not form a sharp angle and the location of the J-point is less clear. There is no consensus on the precise location of the J-point in these circumstances. Two possible definitions are:


title: QRS complex

text: Not every QRS complex contains a Q wave, an R wave, and an S wave. By convention, any combination of these waves can be referred to as a QRS complex. However, correct interpretation of difficult ECGs requires exact labeling of the various waves. Some authors use lowercase and capital letters, depending on the relative size of each wave. For example, an Rs complex would be positively deflected, while an rS complex would be negatively deflected. If both complexes were labeled RS, it would be impossible to appreciate this distinction without viewing the actual ECG.


title: QRS complex

text: Monomorphic refers to all QRS waves in a single lead being similar in shape. Polymorphic means that the QRS change from complex to complex. These terms are used in the description of ventricular tachycardia.


title: QRS complex

text: A common algorithm used for QRS complex detection is the Pan-Tompkins algorithm (or method); another is based on the Hilbert transform. Numerous other algorithms have been proposed and investigated.


title: BRAT diet

text: The BRAT diet is a restrictive diet that was once recommended for people, particularly children, with gastrointestinal distress like vomiting, diarrhea, or gastroenteritis. Evidence, however, does not support a benefit. It is no longer generally recommended as it is unnecessarily restrictive. The diet was first discussed in 1926.


title: BRAT diet

text: An acronym, BRAT stands for bananas, rice, apple sauce, and toast, the four food components of the diet. Additionally, it is recommended that all people, regardless of age, drink plenty of fluids to prevent dehydration, along with oral rehydration solutions to replace the depleted electrolytes and avoid salt imbalance. Severe, untreated salt imbalance can result in "extreme weakness, confusion, coma, or death."


title: BRAT diet

text: The BRAT diet is no longer generally recommended. The American Academy of Pediatrics states that most children should continue a normal, age appropriate diet. The foods from the BRAT diet may be added, but should not replace normal, tolerated foods. Sugary drinks and carbonated beverages should be avoided. The BRAT diet is no longer routinely recommended to those who have had stem cell transplants and have diarrhea due to graft-versus-host disease, as long-term use can lead to nutritional deficiencies.


title: BRAT diet

text: Adding rice, bananas, or pectin to the diet while suffering from diarrhea may be beneficial, but physicians Debora Duro and Christopher Duggan point out that the diet is not nutritionally complete and may be deficient in energy, fat, protein, fiber, vitamin A, vitamin B, and calcium. Duro and Duggan also say that food restriction does not alleviate diarrhea and actually causes individuals to have diarrhea for longer periods, according to randomized clinical trials.


title: BRAT diet

text: Medical attention is required when on the BRAT diet if any blood or mucus is present in the diarrhea, if the diarrhea is severe, or if it lasts longer than 3 days.


title: BRAT diet

text: Additionally, other medical professionals advise first aid treatment for gastroenteritis by briefly limiting the diet to bland, easy-to-digest foods (similar to the BRAT diet) and plenty of liquids (including oral rehydration therapy, e.g. oral pediatric electrolyte solutions sold at retail).


title: Miko Hughes

text: Miko John Hughes (born February 22, 1986) is an American actor known for his film roles as a child, such as Gage Creed in "Pet Sematary" (1989), "Kindergarten Cop" (1990), "Apollo 13" (1995), "Spawn" (1997), "Mercury Rising" (1998), "Wes Craven's New Nightmare" (1994), as well as his recurring role as Aaron on "Full House" from 1990 to 1995.


title: Miko Hughes

text: Hughes was born in Apple Valley, California, the son of Mary (née Phelps) and John Hughes, a special effects technician (not to be confused with late "Breakfast Club" director John Hughes). He has three older half-siblings: Mike, Mitch and Molly. He has English and Chickasaw Native American ancestry.


title: Miko Hughes

text: Hughes started his acting career in a public service announcement when he was 22 months old, and followed that up by appearing in his first feature film five months later. From his years as a child actor, Hughes was consistently one of the busiest young actors in Hollywood. One of his first films was "Jack the Bear", opposite Danny DeVito; in addition, he has starred on film in "Pet Sematary" (1989), "Kindergarten Cop" (1990), "Wes Craven's New Nightmare" (1994), "Apollo 13" (1995), "Spawn" (1997), "Zeus and Roxanne" (1997), and "Mercury Rising" (1998) alongside Bruce Willis.


title: Miko Hughes

text: Hughes has also appeared in numerous television films. He has been a series regular, recurring character or guest star on many television series. He played Aaron Bailey on "Full House" from 1990 to 1995. Other appearances have been in "Baywatch" (1998), "Sister Kate" (1989–90), "Beverly Hills, 90210" (1991), "Melrose Place" (1992), "Touched by an Angel" (1994), and "The Nanny" (1994). Hughes received an Emmy Award certificate for his participation as the voice of Tommy in the number-one-rated Fox animated television series "Life with Louie" (1995). His other voice-over credits include twin babies, Sly and Witt, in the feature film "Baby Geniuses" (1999).


title: Miko Hughes

text: After a break in his career, Hughes re-emerged as a teen in the science-fiction series "Roswell". He played a villain who was part of a renegade group of aliens. As a musician, Hughes released two albums in 1995, at the age of nine. One is self-titled and the other is called "Halloween Haunts". He wrote songs for both albums. They were recorded and released by his own company, Little Chief Inc. In 2013, Hughes directed the segment "See" in the horror anthology film "".


title: PFA Players' Player of the Year

text: The Professional Footballers' Association Men's Players' Player of the Year (often called the PFA Men's Players' Player of the Year, the Players' Player of the Year, or simply the Player of the Year) is an annual award given to the player who is adjudged to have been the best of the year in English football. The award has been presented since the 1973–74 season and the winner is chosen by a vote amongst the members of the players' trade union, the Professional Footballers' Association (PFA). The current holder is Mohamed Salah of Liverpool, who won the award for a second time on 9 June 2022.


title: PFA Players' Player of the Year

text: The first winner of the award was Leeds United defender Norman Hunter. As of 2022, only Mark Hughes, Alan Shearer, Thierry Henry, Cristiano Ronaldo, Gareth Bale, Kevin De Bruyne and Mohamed Salah have won the award on two occasions, and only Henry, Ronaldo and De Bruyne have won the award in consecutive seasons. Of the seven, only Shearer won his two awards playing for different teams. Although there is a separate PFA Young Player of the Year award, young players remain eligible to win the senior award, and on three occasions the same player has won both awards for a season, Andy Gray in 1976–77, Ronaldo in 2006–07 and Bale in 2012–13. Only three non-European players have won the award: Luis Suárez (Uruguay) in 2013–14, Riyad Mahrez (Algeria) in 2015–16, and Mohamed Salah (Egypt) in 2017–18 and 2021–22.


title: PFA Players' Player of the Year

text: Every spring, each member of the association votes for two players. A shortlist of nominees is published in April and the winner of the award, along with the winners of the PFA's other annual awards, is announced at a gala event in London. The award is regarded by the players themselves as extremely prestigious, with Teddy Sheringham describing it in 2001 as "the biggest personal award you can get in the game", and John Terry stating in 2005 that he considered it "the ultimate accolade to be voted for by your fellow professionals whom you play against week-in and week-out".


title: PFA Players' Player of the Year

text: The award has been presented on 49 occasions as of 2022, with 42 different winners. The table also indicates where the winning player also won one or more of the other major "player of the year" awards in English football, namely the Football Writers' Association's Footballer of the Year award (FWA), the PFA Fans' Player of the Year award (FPY), the PFA Young Player of the Year award (YPY), the Premier League Player of the Season award (PPS), and the Football Supporters’ Federation Player of the Year award (FSF).


title: Processor register

text: A processor register is a quickly accessible location available to a computer's processor. Registers usually consist of a small amount of fast storage, although some registers have specific hardware functions, and may be read-only or write-only. In computer architecture, registers are typically addressed by mechanisms other than main memory, but may in some cases be assigned a memory address e.g. DEC PDP-10, ICT 1900.


title: Processor register

text: Almost all computers, whether load/store architecture or not, load data from a larger memory into registers where it is used for arithmetic operations and is manipulated or tested by machine instructions. Manipulated data is then often stored back to main memory, either by the same instruction or by a subsequent one. Modern processors use either static or dynamic RAM as main memory, with the latter usually accessed via one or more cache levels.


title: Processor register

text: Processor registers are normally at the top of the memory hierarchy, and provide the fastest way to access data. The term normally refers only to the group of registers that are directly encoded as part of an instruction, as defined by the instruction set. However, modern high-performance CPUs often have duplicates of these "architectural registers" in order to improve performance via register renaming, allowing parallel and speculative execution. Modern x86 design acquired these techniques around 1995 with the releases of Pentium Pro, Cyrix 6x86, Nx586, and AMD K5.


title: Processor register

text: When a computer program accesses the same data repeatedly, this is called locality of reference. Holding frequently used values in registers can be critical to a program's performance. Register allocation is performed either by a compiler in the code generation phase, or manually by an assembly language programmer.


title: Processor register

text: Registers are normally measured by the number of bits they can hold, for example, an "8-bit register", "32-bit register", "64-bit register", or even more. In some instruction sets, the registers can operate in various modes, breaking down their storage memory into smaller parts (32-bit into four 8-bit ones, for instance) to which multiple data (vector, or one-dimensional array of data) can be loaded and operated upon at the same time. Typically it is implemented by adding extra registers that map their memory into a larger register. Processors that have the ability to execute single instructions on multiple data are called vector processors.


title: Processor register

text: A processor often contains several kinds of registers, which can be classified according to the types of values they can store or the instructions that operate on them:


title: Processor register

text: In some architectures (such as SPARC and MIPS), the first or last register in the integer register file is a "pseudo-register" in that it is hardwired to always return zero when read (mostly to simplify indexing modes), and it cannot be overwritten. In Alpha, this is also done for the floating-point register file. As a result of this, register files are commonly quoted as having one register more than how many of them are actually usable; for example, 32 registers are quoted when only 31 of them fit within the above definition of a register.


title: Processor register

text: The following table shows the number of registers in several mainstream CPU architectures. Note that in x86-compatible processors, the stack pointer (codice_1) is counted as an integer register, even though there are a limited number of instructions that may be used to operate on its contents. Similar caveats apply to most architectures.


title: Processor register

text: Although all of the above-listed architectures are different, almost all are in a basic arrangement known as the von Neumann architecture, first proposed by the Hungarian-American mathematician John von Neumann. It is also noteworthy that the number of registers on GPUs is much higher than that on CPUs.


title: Processor register

text: The number of registers available on a processor and the operations that can be performed using those registers has a significant impact on the efficiency of code generated by optimizing compilers. The Strahler number of an expression tree gives the minimum number of registers required to evaluate that expression tree.


title: Mark Twain Prize for American Humor

text: The Mark Twain Prize for American Humor is an American award presented by the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts annually since 1998, excepting the years 2020 and 2021. Named after the 19th-century humorist Mark Twain, it is presented to individuals who have "had an impact on American society in ways similar to" Twain. The JFK Center chose Twain due to his status as a controversial social commentator and his "uncompromising perspective of social injustice and personal folly." A copy of Karl Gerhardt's 1884 bust of Twain is presented in an autumn ceremony at the Kennedy Center Concert Hall in Washington, D.C., during which the honoree is celebrated by his or her peers. The event is a significant fundraiser to benefit the Kennedy Center, which sells tickets as well as access to dinners and after-parties featuring the celebrities.


title: Mark Twain Prize for American Humor

text: , 23 individuals have been awarded the honor: six women and 17 men. One award was rescinded by the Kennedy Center in 2018. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, there were no awards in 2020 or 2021.


title: Mark Twain Prize for American Humor

text: In 1997, Murray Horwitz brought the idea of a dedicated comedy award, on par with the Oscars, Grammy Awards or Tony Awards, to John Schreiber and Mark Krantz, partners in an entertainment firm. The original conceptualization was an award which would celebrate one comedian, unlike the Kennedy Center Honors which was more all-encompassing, and the venue would be the White House. They took the idea to Ann Stock, then the White House social secretary. With the White House being an inappropriate venue at the time, Kennedy Center was suggested. Bob Kaminsky, Peter Kaminsky and Cappy McGarr were brought onboard and Comedy Central would coproduce and broadcast the show. At this stage it was decided to name the prize after Mark Twain.


title: Mark Twain Prize for American Humor

text: The inaugural recipient of the award was Richard Pryor. The first two years of the prize honoring Pryor and Jonathan Winters were taped and broadcast on Comedy Central. Since then, the award presentations have been taped for broadcast on PBS. In 2013 Carol Burnett was awarded, at age 80, while the youngest recipient has been actress and comedian Tina Fey, at age 40 in 2010. The Kennedy Center's intent is to give the award to living persons, but one recipient, George Carlin, died in 2008 before receiving his award. Carlin died five days after the official press release that he would be awarded the prize. Bill Cosby accepted his award at the Kennedy Center in 2009. He had twice refused the honor, stating that he was disappointed with the profanity used in the inaugural ceremony honoring Richard Pryor. After Cosby was convicted of sexual assault in 2018, the center stripped Cosby of his award and his 1998 Kennedy Center Honors. Mel Brooks has refused the award thrice. Robin Williams has also refused the award.


title: Mark Twain Prize for American Humor

text: Cappy McGarr, Kennedy Center board member who is the co-founder and co-executive producer of the Twain Prize, writes in his book that the mission of the prize is "to honor the greatest contributors to American comedy of our time". Each awardee has a background in humor which has been a source of joy for many, showcased extensively on more than one occasion in more than one form, and as a part of the American comedic tradition having influenced industry and culture, is a legacy for American humorists to take inspiration from. Honorees have included a writer, an actor, a producer, a stand-up comedian and a media proprietor among others. In awarding the prize to Lorne Michaels in 2004, a Canadian-American, McGarr explains that "the Mark Twain Prize honors American humor, not necessarily American humorists".


title: Mark Twain Prize for American Humor

text: According to a 2013 article in "The Washington Post", little is known about the selection process to receive the award. A Kennedy Center spokeswoman stated, "A short list is compiled by the executive producers [of the ceremony] and presented to a group representatives from the Kennedy Center board of trustees, as well as the Kennedy Center senior management and programming staff". However Cappy McGarr, stated in 2013, "there's really no committee... It's really a consensus decision. There's not any single person who decides." He also added the award's executive producers — McGarr, Mark Krantz and Peter and Bob Kaminsky — have always decided in consultation with the Kennedy Center's chairman and president, David Rubenstein and Michael Kaiser. He also stated, that the primary criteria is that "We try to choose people who've had a full lifetime of making us laugh and who've had a great influence on the people who've followed them".


title: Kevin Stitt

text: John Kevin Stitt (born December 28, 1972) is an American businessman and politician serving as the 28th governor of Oklahoma. A member of the Republican Party, he began his first term as governor in January 2019 and was reelected to a second term in 2022. As a member of the Cherokee Nation, Stitt is the second governor of Native descent after former Oklahoma governor Johnston Murray.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: Stitt grew up in Norman, Oklahoma, and graduated from Oklahoma State University with a degree in accounting. He is the founder and former chairman and CEO of Gateway Mortgage Group.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: Kevin Stitt was born in Milton, Florida, on December 28, 1972. His family moved to Skiatook, Oklahoma, when he was five. They later moved to Norman, Oklahoma, where his father was the pastor of Riverside Church. He graduated from Norman High School and from Oklahoma State University with a degree in accounting. Stitt helped pay his way through college by selling educational products door-to-door for Southwestern Advantage. He was the first person in the company's 115-year history to achieve the top sales as a first-year salesperson. Stitt is a member of the Beta Theta Pi fraternity.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: Stitt worked in the financial services sector before starting Gateway in 2000. He founded the company and was president and CEO until January 2014, when he became chairman-CEO. Stitt has said he started Gateway in 2000 with "$1,000 and a computer." His first obstacle was to get approved as a Federal Housing Administration (FHA) lender, for which the company needed a net worth of $50,000. To achieve that, Stitt put forward the equity in his home. In 2002, Gateway secured its first warehouse line, began obtaining licensing in states other than Oklahoma, and started recruiting loan officers. By 2006, it had over 400 employees.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: In August 2018, Stitt stepped down as CEO and hired Stephen Curry as his replacement. Legal Counsel Scott Gesell became CEO in 2020 and Stitt remained chairman. Gateway is a midsize company based in Jenks, Oklahoma. It employs more than 1,500 people and originates mortgages in 42 states.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: After a decade of rapid growth, a few Gateway employees were fired for making non-compliant loans. In 2009, Gateway was listed in a "Business Insider" article as one of the 15 shadiest lenders in the government-backed mortgage industry. The article said Gateway originated nearly twice as many bad mortgages as its competitors. An August 19, 2018, "Oklahoman" newspaper article highlighted the "Business Insider" article's inaccuracies, reporting that "in the Illinois case, a consent order states that the Illinois banking agency investigated a Gateway loan originator for an 'alleged real estate, appraisal, and mortgage fraud scheme.' Gateway fired the employee, asked for a hearing and then agreed to what investigators found. Gateway agreed to a $10,000 fine. The Stitt campaign responded with a press release that said, "the license in Illinois was never revoked. The state agreed after the appeal not to revoke the license."


title: Kevin Stitt

text: NEWS9 also said that according to Georgia's Department of Banking and Finance, Stitt was banned for five years and the company was banned for life from origination mortgages in Georgia. According to the "Oklahoman", a Gateway corporate attorney said there were misrepresentations and insufficient background checks by employees in the Georgia office but Stitt was not involved. The employees were fired and Gateway paid a $2,000 fine. The state overturned the lifetime ban on Gateway, effective November 2017. Gateway is able to do business in all 50 states.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: During Stitt's gubernatorial campaign, Oklahoma Watch reported that Wisconsin regulators fined Gateway for a "clerical error" regarding its history with regulators from other states. Gateway corrected the application and was issued a license in 2009. It remains in good standing in Wisconsin.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: In July 2017, Stitt announced his candidacy for the Republican nomination for governor in 2018. Facing nine other candidates in the primary election, he ran a statewide campaign with stops in nearly every city and town in all 77 counties. He finished second, defeating, among others, Lieutenant Governor Todd Lamb. In the August 28 primary runoff, Stitt defeated Mick Cornett, a former mayor of Oklahoma City. In the November general election, Stitt defeated the Democratic nominee, former Attorney General Drew Edmondson, and Libertarian Chris Powell.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: In the GOP runoff, political newcomer Stitt received crucial support from a trio of conservative leaders such as U.S. Senator Ted Cruz and former U.S. Senators Rick Santorum and Tom Coburn all of whom endorsed him. In the general election, Stitt was endorsed by former primary rival Mick Cornett, the incumbent governor of Oklahoma, Mary Fallin, and President Donald Trump. The Stitt campaign promptly rejected Fallin's endorsement with a press release: "We did not seek [Fallin's endorsement], and Kevin Stitt has run on a campaign message that he will do things a lot differently. He is focused on changing the structure of state government and cleaning up the mess we are currently in at the Capitol."


title: Kevin Stitt

text: During his campaign, Stitt called himself "the only job creator with proven business experience" running for governor and emphasized his business background. He called on the state to become "top 10 in job growth, top 10 in education and top 10 in infrastructure."


title: Kevin Stitt

text: During the general election, the close race drew increased attention from national media and political figures. Vice President Mike Pence campaigned for Stitt.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: Stitt filed to run for reelection in January 2021. He won the Republican primary in June 2022 and was reelected to a second term in November.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: Stitt was inaugurated on January 14, 2019, at the Oklahoma State Capitol. Chief Justice of Oklahoma Noma Gurich swore him and Lieutenant Governor Matt Pinnell into office. Stitt then gave a 15-minute inaugural address.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: Before taking office, Stitt nominated former state Representative Michael Rogers as his Secretary of State and Tulsa Deputy Mayor Michael Junk (a former advisor to U.S. Senators Jim Inhofe and Tom Coburn) as his chief of staff.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: On December 23, 2019, citing disagreements with Stitt over his handling of negotiations with the state's various Indian tribes about gambling compacts, Lisa Johnson Billy became the first member of the Stitt's cabinet to resign. A member of the Chickasaw Nation and former Republican state representative, Billy viewed Stitt's negotiation position as one of "unnecessary conflict." Stitt tapped his Secretary of State Mike Rogers to assume those duties and temporarily combined the two positions.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: In April 2022, Stitt supported, and signed into law, SB 612, which makes performing an abortion a crime punishable by 10 years in prison or a $100,000 fine, with exceptions for medical emergencies but none for rape or incest. The law will come into effect in summer 2022 unless blocked by a court ruling. Later in May, Stitt signed into law an even more restrictive bill, House Bill 4327, "banning abortions from the stage of 'fertilization' and allowing private citizens to sue abortion providers who 'knowingly' perform or induce an abortion 'on a pregnant woman.'" Abortion in cases of rape, incest, or high-risk pregnancies will continue to be permitted. It is the most restrictive ban on elective abortion in the United States. The ACLU announced that it would fight the ban in court.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: Oklahoma has a long history with capital punishment, having conducted the second-most executions since the death penalty was reinstated in "Gregg v. Georgia" (1976). But in 2015, a moratorium was placed on all state executions following the botched execution of Clayton Lockett in April 2014 and the execution of Charles Warner by unauthorized methods in January 2015. On February 13, 2020, Stitt announced that the moratorium would be lifted and executions resumed under his tenure. On November 18, 2021, he commuted the death sentence of Julius Jones to life without the possibility of parole.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: Three of the five Oklahoma Pardon and Parole Board members are appointed by the governor. They serve four year terms that run concurrent with the governor's. Before Adam Luck and Kelley Doyle were pressured to resign from the Board in 2022, Stitt had expressed full confidence in the board over criticisms from District Attorneys like Steve Kunzweiler who want the board to be more conservative in their considerations for parole and commutation. The "Tulsa World" reported that the District Attorneys were taking an increasingly more political role that has "to some degree weakened" the board's influence. This came at the same time that dark money conservative advertisements targeting Stitt as not tough enough on crime began to air. All of this plays out despite Oklahoma incarcerating a "higher percentage of its people than any democracy on earth." According to Prison Policy Initiative, Oklahoma had the third-highest incarceration rate in 2021, and in 2018, it incarcerated the most women per capita.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: In 2022, Stitt at first agreed to grant parole to Jimmie Stohler after a recommendation from the Oklahoma Pardon and Parole Board, the Crossbow Killer, but later rescinded his decision.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: Findings in a 2022 grand jury report filed by David Prater criticized Stitt for being grossly improper, claimed that he pressured the Oklahoma Pardon and Parole Board, and that his private meetings seem to have violated the Open Meetings Act. DAs have the ability to bring grand juries. When the report came out, Stitt's office issued a statement saying, "This is the latest in a string of unfounded hit jobs by the Oklahoma County District Attorney and other political insiders." A spokesman for Stitt said, "Oklahoma law explicitly prohibits grand juries from making allegations that public officials have engaged in misconduct, and it is clear the outgoing prosecutor took advantage of the citizens who served on this grand jury to unwittingly carry out his partisan feud against Governor Stitt and the Pardon and Parole Board." The report noted that the jury "had no legal authority to accuse the governor of official misconduct, which can only be done in impeachment proceedings." Later, Stitt "asked a judge to strike from a grand jury report a finding that he placed 'improper political pressure' on his appointees to the Oklahoma Pardon and Parole Board."


title: Kevin Stitt

text: Stitt attempted to address the state's overincarceration crisis. Beginning with the adoption of State Question 780 by Oklahoma voters in 2016, advocates for criminal justice reform sought additional measures. SQ780, which changed the classification of simple drug possession crimes from felony to misdemeanor and increased the cap for property crimes to be considered felonies, had already reduced the rate of felony prosecution statewide by 26% by 2018. In May 2019, Stitt proposed several ideas, including making SQ780's sentencing standards retroactive, prohibiting criminal records from being considered for professional licensing, and restructuring the funding scheme for the various district attorney offices. The legislature made SQ780 retroactive by allowing parole for those convicted before SQ780 became effective and reforming professional licensing, but did not approve bills to reform Oklahoma's cash bail system. In response to legislative defeats, Stitt issued an executive order to form a study group to make recommendations for future criminal justice reform for consideration during the 2020 legislative session, with particular emphasis on reducing Oklahoma's incarceration rate.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: In mid-2018, Oklahoma voters approved State Question 788, which legalized the licensed use, sale, and growth of marijuana for medical purposes. As a candidate, Stitt cited a need to implement the results of the election by enacting a comprehensive regulatory scheme. After months of negotiation with legislative leaders, Stitt signed HB2612, the Oklahoma Medical Marijuana and Patient Protection Act. Also known as the "Marijuana Unity Bill", HB2612 provided an extensive medical marijuana framework, including licensing requirements and rights for patients.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: On May 7, 2021, Stitt signed a bill prohibiting the teaching of critical race theory or its gender equivalent in public schools. "The Oklahoman" wrote that it was unclear whether critical race theory was taught at any Oklahoma public schools. Opponents of the bill said it was intended to discourage nuanced discussions about race and whitewash the United States' history on race. Stitt invoked Martin Luther King Jr. when he signed the bill.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: In November, Stitt issued an executive order that prohibited transgender individuals from changing the gender on their birth certificates. In 2022, Stitt signed a bill into law that prohibited nonbinary gender markers on birth certificates. Stitt said that "people are created by God to be male or female. There is no such thing as nonbinary sex." Transgender people criticized Stitt's actions, saying it was difficult for trans individuals to navigate life when their official documents do not match their gender identity. According to the American Medical Association, "empirical evidence has demonstrated that trans and nonbinary gender identities are normal variations of human identity and expression."


title: Kevin Stitt

text: On May 25, 2022, Stitt signed a bill into law that will require students at public charter schools and public schools to use locker rooms and bathrooms that match the sex listed on their birth certificate.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: In his first state of the state address, Stitt called for increased appointment power over major state agencies. The legislature granted his request by adopting five new laws, giving him direct control over the Oklahoma Department of Corrections, the Oklahoma Health Care Authority, the Oklahoma Department of Transportation, the Oklahoma Office of Juvenile Affairs, and the Oklahoma Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse Services. These agencies were previously under the control of multi-member boards or commissions that acted independently of the governor.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: In exchange for additional appointment powers and at legislative leaders' request, Stitt signed into law SB1, which established the Oklahoma Legislative Office of Fiscal Transparency in the legislative branch. Under the direction of an oversight committee composed of members of the State Senate and House of Representatives, the office will provide auditing, evaluation, and investigative services for the legislature relating to the governor's proposed budget and expenditures by the executive branch.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: The first law Stitt signed after taking office permitted anyone 21 or older, or 18 if a member or veteran of the United States Armed Forces, to carry a firearm without obtaining a permit or completing training. Stitt also signed HB2010, which expands the places a firearm may be carried to include municipal zoos and parks, regardless of size, as long as it is concealed.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: Stitt opposes Medicaid expansion in Oklahoma. His refusal to expand the program resulted in the filing of an citizens' initiative petition, State Question 802, to enact the expansion into the state constitution notwithstanding Stitt's opposition.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: Under the authority of the federal Indian Gaming Regulatory Act, in 2004 Oklahoma voters approved State Question 712, which adopted the Oklahoma State-Tribal Gaming Act. Under the Act, the State of Oklahoma offers each federally recognized Indian tribe the right to conduct commercial gambling within its territory upon accepting the terms of a uniform state-tribal gaming compact. The compact allowed the compacting tribes to conduct gaming in return for "exclusivity fees" to the state treasury averaging 6% of gaming revenues. The compact was scheduled to automatically renew on January 1, 2020.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: In a July 2019 op-ed in the "Tulsa World" followed by a letter to the chiefs of 35 Oklahoma tribes, Stitt called on tribal leaders to renegotiate the terms of the compact before its expiration date. In particular, he called for increasing the exclusivity fees to between 13% and 25%. Stitt's office maintained the compact is not subject to automatic renewal, a claim the tribes rejected, believing it will continue indefinitely unless changes are mutually agreed upon. In either event, the Oklahoma Legislature would presumably have to be involved in any renegotiation, since the state's compact offer is defined and controlled by state statute, and federal law requires that the United States Department of the Interior approve any new compact terms.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: In August 2019, the various tribes refused to meet with Stitt to negotiate the amount of the exclusivity fees unless he conceded that the compact would otherwise automatically renew. Stitt had proposed a September 3 date to begin discussions but the tribes rejected it.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: At the end of December 2019, the Choctaw, Cherokee, and Chickasaw tribes filed suit in the United States District Court for the Western District of Oklahoma to end the dispute over the compact. On December 31, Stitt signed an extension to the hunting and fishing license compact with the Choctaw Nation, a previous point of contention.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: On July 28, 2020, U.S. District Judge Timothy D. DeGiusti ruled in the tribes' favor, holding that their compacts with the state automatically renewed for an additional 15-year term on January 1, 2020. A week earlier, on July 21, the Oklahoma Supreme Court ruled that the new gaming compacts signed by the state and the Comanche Nation and the Otoe-Missouria Tribe are invalid under state law. The Court ruled that Stitt "exceeded his authorities" in entering into the compacts because they would have allowed gaming that is illegal in Oklahoma, like sports betting.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: On July 9, 2020, the United States Supreme Court decided in "McGirt v. Oklahoma" that half of the land of the state of Oklahoma made up of tribal nations like the Cherokee are officially Native American tribal land jurisdictions. Stitt, a Cherokee Nation citizen, sought to reverse the Supreme Court decision, but in 2021 Oklahoma could not block the federal action to grant the Cherokee Nation along with the Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muscogee (Creek) and Seminole Nations reservation status.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: In March 2020, Stitt went out to restaurants amid the coronavirus pandemic and posted a photo on Twitter of him doing so with two of his children. He later deleted the tweet, and his spokesperson said, "the governor will continue to take his family out to dinner and to the grocery store without living in fear and encourages Oklahomans to do the same." President Trump said he did not advocate going out to eat but did not criticize Stitt. In the tweet, Stitt wrote, "Eating with my kids and all my fellow Oklahomans ... It's packed tonight!" The photograph he posted with his kids showed them smiling while surrounded by restaurant patrons. On June 20, Stitt attended the Trump rally in Tulsa, and was seen without wearing a mask. On July 15, Stitt announced that he had tested positive for COVID-19. He was the first United States governor diagnosed with COVID-19.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: In April 2020, Stitt ordered a massive purchase of hydroxychloroquine, a drug of unproven efficacy as a treatment against the coronavirus but which had been heavily promoted by Donald Trump and his allies. By January 2021, Oklahoma had a $2 million stockpile of hydroxychloroquine which it sought to offload.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: On July 30, 2021, "Oklahoma Watch" released a review of Stitt's Twitter since he received the COVID-19 vaccine and found he posted the least on social media to encourage vaccination of all the governors of states surrounding Oklahoma, including Colorado, Kansas, Missouri, Arkansas, Texas, and New Mexico. Only 1.53%, or 3 out of 193, of Stitt's tweets encouraged COVID-19 vaccination. It also found that Stitt had not used his Facebook account to encourage vaccination in months and that none of his last 45 press releases were about vaccination, at a time when Oklahoma had one of the highest COVID-19 test positivity rates in the country.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: Stitt sent U.S. Defense Secretary Lloyd Austin a letter requesting that COVID-19 vaccine requirements for the Oklahoma National Guard be suspended. Stitt subsequently fired the commander of the Oklahoma National Guard because the commander had advocated for his troops to be vaccinated. Stitt's new appointee refused to implement the COVID-19 vaccine requirements.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: Stitt signed legislation reorganizing the Oklahoma Supreme Court and the Oklahoma Court of Civil Appeals. Before the reforms, Supreme Court justices were appointed from nine separate districts representing various collections of counties. Under the legislation, as of 2020 the Court's nine judicial districts were redrawn such that five were made coequal with the state's five congressional districts and the other four are at large with the state as whole. Similarly, the five judicial districts used to appoint judges to the Court of Criminal Appeals were made coequal with the congressional districts. The legislation left the method for appointing appellate judges via the Oklahoma Judicial Nominating Commission unchanged. The reform's ostensible purpose was to increase the pool of applicants to the appellate courts.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: The governor of Oklahoma is responsible for making appointments to Oklahoma state courts upon a vacancy. Candidates for appointment are reviewed by the Oklahoma Judicial Nominating Commission, which forwards three names to the governor. The governor appoints one of the three without further confirmation. As of 2020, there are 29 appellate court judges (nine Supreme Court justices, five Court of Criminal Appeals judge, 12 Court of Civil Appeals judges, and three Court of Military Appeals judges) and 156 trial judges (75 district judges, 77 associate district judges, and four Workers Compensation Court judges) subject to the gubernatorial appointment process.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: Stitt is a citizen of the Cherokee Nation through his great-grandfather, Robert Benton Dawson. Dawson was given land in the Skiatook area because of his tribal citizenship, and the land is still in the family, now owned by an uncle of Stitt's. The legitimacy of his Cherokee ancestry has been questioned due to the Cherokee Nation's failed attempt to remove Robert Benton Dawson from the Dawes Rolls around 1900 for allegedly bribing an official to be included in the roll, but the current Cherokee Nation does not dispute Stitt's citizenship. Stitt's maternal grandparents were dairy farmers in Skiatook. His paternal grandfather was the head veterinarian at the Oklahoma City Stockyards.


title: Kevin Stitt

text: Stitt married Sarah Hazen in 1998 and they have six children. The Stitts are active with the Woodlake Church in Tulsa. On October 31, 2022, Stitt's 20-year-old son was found intoxicated in a parking lot in Guthrie, Oklahoma, in possession of firearms, including a gun belonging to his father. No charges were filed, though the Logan County Sheriff's Office recommended filing charges.


title: Escape from the Planet of the Apes

text: Escape from the Planet of the Apes is a 1971 American science fiction film directed by Don Taylor and written by Paul Dehn. It stars Roddy McDowall, Kim Hunter, Bradford Dillman and Ricardo Montalbán. It is the third of five films in the original "Planet of the Apes" series produced by Arthur P. Jacobs, the second being "Beneath the Planet of the Apes" (1970). Its plot centers on many social issues of the day including scientific experimentation on animals, nuclear war and government intrusion. The film was well received by critics, getting the best reviews of the four "Planet of the Apes" sequels. It was followed by "Conquest of the Planet of the Apes".


title: Escape from the Planet of the Apes

text: Escaping Earth prior to its destruction, the chimpanzees Cornelius, Zira and Dr. Milo salvage and repair Taylor's spaceship. The shock wave of Earth's destruction sends the ship through a time warp that brings the apes to 1973 Earth. Most specifically, the Pacific coast of the United States.


title: Escape from the Planet of the Apes

text: The apes are transported to the Los Angeles Zoo, under the observation of two friendly scientists, Dr. Stephanie Branton and Dr. Lewis Dixon. During their stay there, Dr. Milo is killed by a zoo gorilla.


title: Escape from the Planet of the Apes

text: A Presidential Commission is formed to investigate the return of Taylor's spaceship and its inhabitants. During their interrogation, Cornelius and Zira deny knowing Taylor. They reveal, however, that they came from the future and escaped Earth when a war broke out. They are welcomed as guests of the government. The apes secretly explain to Stephanie and Lewis how humans are treated in the future, and tell them about Earth's destruction. The scientists are shocked but still sympathetic, and advise the couple to keep this information secret until they can gauge the potential reaction of their hosts.


title: Escape from the Planet of the Apes

text: Lavished with gifts and media attention, the apes become celebrities. They come to the attention of the President's Science Advisor Dr. Otto Hasslein, who discovers Zira is pregnant. Fearing for the future of the human race, Hasslein insists that he simply wants to know how apes became dominant over men. Cornelius reveals that the human race will cause its own downfall and that Earth's destruction is caused by a weapon made by humans. Zira explains that the gorillas started the war, but the chimpanzees had nothing to do with it. Hasslein suspects that the apes are not speaking the whole truth.


title: Escape from the Planet of the Apes

text: During the original hearing, Zira accidentally reveals that she used to dissect humans. Hasslein orders Lewis to administer a truth serum to her while Cornelius is confined elsewhere. As a result of the serum, Hasslein learns details about Zira's experimentation on humans along with her knowledge of Taylor.


title: Escape from the Planet of the Apes

text: Zira joins Cornelius in confinement while Hasslein takes his findings to the President, who reluctantly abides by the council's ruling to have her pregnancy be terminated and that both apes be sterilized. In their chambers, Zira and Cornelius fear for their lives. When an orderly arrives to offer the apes food, his jokes about their unborn child make Cornelius lose his temper. He knocks the orderly to the floor, before escaping with Zira. They assume the orderly is merely knocked out, but he is actually dead. Hasslein uses the tragedy in support of his claim that the apes are a threat. He calls for their execution, but is ordered by the President to bring them in alive, unwilling to endorse capital punishment until due process has been served.


title: Escape from the Planet of the Apes

text: Branton and Dixon help the apes escape, taking them to a circus run by Señor Armando, where an ape named Heloise has just given birth. Zira gives birth to a son and names him Milo, in honor of their deceased friend. Knowing that Zira's labor was imminent, Hasslein orders a search of all circuses and zoos, and Armando insists the apes leave for their safety. Lewis arranges for the apes to hide out the Los Angeles harbor's shipyard for a while. He gives Cornelius a pistol as the couple does not want to be taken alive.


title: Escape from the Planet of the Apes

text: Tracking the apes to the shipping yard, Hasslein mortally wounds Zira and kills the infant she is holding. Cornelius shoots down Hasslein, and then dies at the hands of a sniper. Zira tosses the dead baby over the side and crawls to die with her husband, witnessed by a grieving Lewis and Stephanie.


title: Escape from the Planet of the Apes

text: It is revealed that Zira switched babies with Heloise before leaving the circus. Armando is aware of this and prepares to leave for Florida. Milo then begins to talk.


title: Escape from the Planet of the Apes

text: In this film, actor Roddy McDowall returns to the character of Cornelius which he played in the first film but not in the second. A new ape character of Dr. Milo is introduced played by actor Sal Mineo. Charlton Heston, star of the first film and supporting actor in the second, appears in this third installment only in two brief flashback sequences.


title: Escape from the Planet of the Apes

text: Despite "Beneath the Planet of the Apes" ending in a way that seemed to prevent the series from continuing, 20th Century Fox still wanted a sequel. Roddy McDowall, in the franchise documentary "Behind the Planet of the Apes", stated that Arthur P. Jacobs sent "Beneath" screenwriter Paul Dehn a telegram concerning the sequel that read "Apes exist, Sequel required." and Dehn decided to create an out from the destructive ending of "Beneath" by having Cornelius and Zira going back in time with a Leonardo da Vinci-like ape after fixing Taylor's spaceship before the Earth was destroyed. Dehn also consulted Pierre Boulle, writer of the "Planet of the Apes" novel, to imbue his script with similar satirical elements. The screenplay, originally titled "Secret of the Planet of the Apes", accommodated the smaller budget by having fewer people in ape make-up, and attracted director Don Taylor by its humor and focus on the chimpanzee couple.


title: Escape from the Planet of the Apes

text: Dehn also added to the latter part of the film regarding the chase for Cornelius, Zira and their son references to racial conflicts and a few religious overtones to the story of Jesus - a line of dialogue even has the President comparing the plan to kill an unborn child to the Massacre of the Innocents. While Kim Hunter had to be convinced by the studio to make "Beneath", she liked the script for "Escape from the Planet of the Apes" and accepted the job, though Hunter also stated that "I was very glad I was killed off" and Zira was not required anymore after that film. Hunter stated that despite the friendly atmosphere on the set, she and Roddy McDowall felt a sense of isolation for being the only people dressed as chimpanzees. Production was rushed due to the low budget, being filmed in only six weeks, from November 30, 1970 to January 19, 1971.


title: Escape from the Planet of the Apes

text: The film holds a 77% score on Rotten Tomatoes based on 30 reviews. The critical consensus reads: "One of the better "Planet of the Apes" sequels, "Escape" is more character-driven than the previous films, and more touching as a result."


title: Escape from the Planet of the Apes

text: Roger Greenspun of "The New York Times" was positive, finding the premise "quite beautiful" with the theme of human guilt "richly ambivalent, because the monsters are scarcely monstrous and the guilt is a function of unassailable strategic intelligence." Gene Siskel of the "Chicago Tribune" gave the film three stars out of four and wrote, "Comparatively, it is much better than the second, which was awful, but not as good as the first, which was quite good." Arthur D. Murphy of "Variety" called it "an excellent film. Far better than last year's followup and almost as good as the original 'Planet of the Apes.'" Kevin Thomas of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote that the film "works largely because Miss Hunter and McDowall, working under Don Taylor's deft direction, are such gifted actors and because John Chambers' chimpanzee makeup is so convincing, as it was in the other pictures." David Pirie of "The Monthly Film Bulletin" wrote, "Infuriatingly, "Escape from the Planet of the Apes" continues the downward trend of a science-fiction series that started out with much ingenuity and promise ... the film is painfully sentimental in its attitude to the chimps, with Kim Hunter and Roddy McDowall overplaying and vulgarising their former roles to the point where it's hard to feel much concern about their final destruction."


title: Escape from the Planet of the Apes

text: A comic book miniseries, a crossover with "" serving to bridge the events of the second and third films and titled "", was published from December 2014 to April 2015.


title: Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom

text: The United Kingdom is an ethnically diverse society. The largest ethnic group in the United Kingdom is White British, followed by Asian British. Ethnicity in the United Kingdom is formally recorded at the national level through a census. The 2011 United Kingdom census recorded a reduced share of White British people in the United Kingdom from the previous 2001 United Kingdom census. Factors that are contributing to the growth of minority populations are varied in nature, including differing birth rates and Immigration.


title: Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom

text: According to the Office for National Statistics (ONS) based on population survey figures from 2019, people from ethnic minority backgrounds make up 14.4% of the United Kingdom (16.1% for England, 5.9% for Wales, 5.4% for Scotland and 2.2% for Northern Ireland).


title: Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom

text: A variety of ethnic groups have settled on the British Isles, dating back from the last ice age up until the 11th century. These populations included the Celts, Picts, Romans, Anglo-Saxons, Norse and the Normans. Recent genetic studies have suggested that the prehistoric Bell Beaker influx and the Anglo-Saxon migrations had particularly significant effects on the genetic makeup of modern Britons.


title: Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom

text: King William the Conqueror, introduced the first Jewish settlers in England in 1070, and later on, in the 16th century, the first Romani's were introduced in Britain. The UK has a history of small-scale non-European immigration, with Liverpool having the oldest Black British community dating back to at least the 1730s, during the period of the African slave trade. The oldest Chinese community in Europe, dates back to the arrival of Chinese seamen in the 19th century. In the 19th century, there was an increase of Jewish and Irish people living in Great Britain, with many settling in Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham and in The East End Of London, where the ethnic dialects contributed to the formation of the Cockney dialect.


title: Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom

text: Since 1948, immigration from the West Indies and the Indian Subcontinent occurred in substantial numbers due to labour shortages in Britain after World War II. Immigration started to increase in the 1950s and 1960s and the large influx of different cultures created different ethnic communities. However, instances of documented and perceived racism, and heavy-handed policing by the native English population, has led to a number of riots, most notably in 1958, 1981, 1985 and 2011. When Britain joined the EEC in 1973, the level of migration from Western European nations increased and migration from newer EU member states in Central, and Eastern Europe, have resulted in a large Eastern European population over the past 2 decades. However, after the Brexit Referendum in 2016, numbers began to decline once again.


title: Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom

text: Sociologist Steven Vertovec presents the idea of superdiversity in Britain, a notion that states that the increasing population of ethnic groups and communities are creating new, and smaller, ethnic minorities in Britain. The dynamics of superdiversity influence the social and economic patterns of the United Kingdom and have created complex social frameworks.


title: Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom

text: The definition of ethnicity has been defined as "the social group a person belongs to, and either identifies with or is identified with by others, as a result of a mix of cultural and other factors including language, diet, religion, ancestry and physical features traditionally associated with race".


title: Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom

text: The 1991 UK census was the first to include a question on ethnicity. The 2001 UK Census classified ethnicity into several groups: White, Black, Asian, Mixed, Chinese and Other. These categories formed the basis for all National Ethnicity statistics until the 2011 Census results were issued. A number of academics have pointed out that since 1991, the ethnicity classification employed in the census, alongside other official statistics in the UK have high levels of confusion regarding the concepts of ethnicity and race. David I. Kertzer and Dominique Arel argue that this is the case in many censuses, and the definition of ethnicity should first be illuminated. User consultation undertaken for the purpose of planning the 2011 census revealed that some participants thought the "use of colour (White and Black) to define ethnicity is confusing or unacceptable".


title: Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom

text: The population of the United Kingdom and its constituent countries are a ethnically diverse place today. From the beginning of modern migration to the country, the White population has been in proportional decline, however the question of ethnicity was only first asked in the 1991 census. In the four pie charts below shows the ethnic make up of each country of the United Kingdom and as a whole over time.


title: Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom

text: The British government recognises the Scottish, Welsh, Irish and Cornish peoples as national minorities under the Council of Europe's Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, which the UK signed in 1995 and ratified in 1998.


title: Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom

text: A proposal for Longitudinal Study of Ethnic Minorities (LSEM) was suggested by sociologist James Nazroo to create designated ethnic groups under Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi, Caribbean and Black African. The LSEM understood the constraints of the oversampling of groups and refined the methods of categorising the ethnic minorities.


title: Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom

text: It is estimated that in 1950 there were no more than 20,000 non-white residents in the United Kingdom, almost all having been born outside the UK and now mainly residing in England.


title: Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom

text: However, the considerable migration after World War II increased the ethnic and racial diversity of UK, especially in London. The race relations policies that have been developed broadly reflect the principles of multiculturalism, although there is no official national commitment to multiculturalism.


title: Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom

text: The national identity of 'being British' is to respect the laws and parliamentary structures, as well as all maintaining the right to equality, however, this does not cover the concept of multiculturalism. This concept of 'being British' faces criticism on the grounds that it has failed to sufficiently promote social integration. Some commentators have questioned the dichotomy between diversity and integration. and since 2001 it has been argued that the UK government has moved away from policy characterised by multiculturalism, and towards the assimilation of minority communities.


title: Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom

text: In 2016, the British government held a European Union membership referendum. The result of the referendum showed that 51.9% of British voters wanted to leave the EU and on 31 January 2020, the deal was reached for the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland to leave the EU on 1 January 2021, also known as Brexit, with terms being agreed to on 24 December 2020. Some have said that Brexit limits multiculturalism and encourages exclusive nationalism and nativism, however some feel that Brexit supports traditional British identity.


title: Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom

text: A poll conducted by MORI for the BBC in 2005 found that 62 per cent of respondents agreed that multiculturalism made the UK a better place to live, compared to 32 percent who saw it as a threat. In contrast, Ipsos MORI data from 2008 showed that only 30 per cent saw multiculturalism as making the UK a better place to live, with 38 per cent seeing it as a threat. 41 per cent of respondents to the 2008 poll favoured the development of a shared identity over the celebration of diverse values and cultures, with 27 per cent favouring the latter and 30 per cent undecided.


title: Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom

text: A study conducted for the Commission for Racial Equality (CRE) in 2005, found that in England, the majority of ethnic minority participants called themselves British, whereas white English participants said English first and British second. In Wales and Scotland the majority of white and ethnic minority participants identified with Welsh or Scottish first and British second. Research suggests that on average ethnic minorities are twice as likely to say their ethnicity is important to them than white British participants, although the extent of this difference also interacted with political beliefs.


title: Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom

text: Other research conducted for the CRE found that white participants felt that there was a threat to Britishness from large-scale immigration, claiming that they perceived ethnic minorities made a rise in moral pluralism and political correctness. Much of this frustration was directed at Muslims rather than minorities in general. Muslim participants in the study reported feeling victimised and stated that they felt the pressure of choosing between Muslim and British identities, whereas they saw it possible to be both.


title: Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom

text: Ethnic minorities have been under-represented in comparison with their white counterparts in the United Kingdom's political system, particularly in the British Parliament. In 1981, the Home Affairs Select Committee report stated that an ""increase in ethnic minority involvement in politics will create ... special representation for ethnic minoritie"s". However, in 2017 Theresa May has stated ethnic minorities are still under-represented. In 2019, 65 members of parliament (MPs) or 10% of all MPs were from an ethnic minority background in the House of Commons.


title: Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom

text: Representation of ethnic minorities in Parliament began in 1987, seeing four ethnic minorities being elected into parliament. Among them was Diane Abbott, Britain's first black female Member of Parliament, who began as a member of the shadow cabinet and is now a prominent figure of the Labour Party.


title: Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom

text: Prior to the 2010 elections, the Conservatives had 2 MPs who were minorities and this increased to 11 after the 2010 General Election. After the 2017 General Elections, 52 minority MPs were elected, shared between Labour (32) and the Conservative (19) and one from the Liberal Democrats. The 2019 general elections showed an increase in these numbers with Labour having 41, the Conservatives having 22 and the Liberal Democrats having 2 ethnic-minority MPs.


title: Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom

text: In 2018, 3.7% of all local government officials had an ethnic minority background. London councils had the highest percentage for representation in their local councils in late 2017, 10.5%; this increased from 5.6% previously in the year. Outside London, councils have an average of 3% minority representation. In Scotland, 3.2% of local government officials are ethnic minorities, almost proportionately representing the 3.32% ethnic minority.


title: Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom

text: Since the 1980s, the number of minority councillors has been increasing over time, however, the main parties of minorities involved were the Labour party, with 94.4% of minority councillors affiliated with the Labour Party.


title: Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom

text: There were 35 minority councillors in London local councils in 1978 and this had increased to 193 by 1990. This was 10% of the 1,915 councillors representing 20% of London's population. According to a Census of Local Authority Councillors in 2013, there was 3.7% representation for minorities across all councils, compared to a representation of 13% nationally. Labour continues to have the largest proportion of ethnic minority councillors with 9.2%, followed by the Conservatives with 1.5%.


title: Noise music

text: Noise music is a genre of music that is characterised by the expressive use of noise within a musical context. This type of music tends to challenge the distinction that is made in conventional musical practices between musical and non-musical sound. Noise music includes a wide range of musical styles and sound-based creative practices that feature noise as a primary aspect.


title: Noise music

text: Noise music can feature acoustically or electronically generated noise, and both traditional and unconventional musical instruments. It may incorporate live machine sounds, non-musical vocal techniques, physically manipulated audio media, processed sound recordings, field recording, computer-generated noise, stochastic process, and other randomly produced electronic signals such as distortion, feedback, static, hiss and hum. There may also be emphasis on high volume levels and lengthy, continuous pieces. More generally noise music may contain aspects such as improvisation, extended technique, cacophony and indeterminacy. In many instances, conventional use of melody, harmony, rhythm or pulse is dispensed with.


title: Noise music

text: The Futurist art movement (with most notably Luigi Russolo's Intonarumori and "L'Arte dei Rumori" ("The Art of Noises") manifesto) was important for the development of the noise aesthetic, as was the Dada art movement (a prime example being the "Antisymphony" concert performed on April 30, 1919, in Berlin). In the 1920s, the French composer Edgard Varèse, when New York Dada associated via Marcel Duchamp and Francis Picabia's magazine "391", conceived of the elements of his music in terms of sound-masses; writing in the first half of the 1920s, "Offrandes", "Hyperprism", "Octandre", and "Intégrales". Varèse thought that "to stubbornly conditioned ears, anything new in music has always been called noise", and he posed the question: "what is music but organized noises?"


title: Noise music

text: Pierre Schaeffer's "musique concrète" 1948 compositions "Cinq études de bruits" ("Five Noise Studies"), that began with "Etude aux Chemins de Fer" ("Railway Study") are key to this history. "Etude aux Chemins de Fer" consisted of a set of recordings made at the train station Gare des Batignolles in Paris that included six steam locomotives whistling and trains accelerating and moving over the tracks. The piece was derived entirely from recorded noise sounds that were not musical, thus a realization of Russolo's conviction that noise could be an acceptable source of music. "Cinq études de bruits" premiered via a radio broadcast on October 5, 1948, called "Concert de bruits" ("Noise Concert").


title: Noise music

text: Later in the 1960s, the Fluxus art movement played an important role, specifically the Fluxus artists Joe Jones, Yasunao Tone, George Brecht, Robert Watts, Wolf Vostell, Dieter Roth, Yoko Ono, Nam June Paik, Walter De Maria's "Ocean Music", Milan Knížák's "Broken Music Composition", early La Monte Young, Takehisa Kosugi, and the "Analog #1 (Noise Study)" (1961) by Fluxus-related composer James Tenney.


title: Noise music

text: Contemporary noise music is often associated with extreme volume and distortion. Notable genres that exploit such techniques include noise rock and no wave, industrial music, Japanoise, and postdigital music such as glitch. In the domain of experimental rock, examples include Lou Reed's "Metal Machine Music" and Sonic Youth. Other notable examples of composers and bands that feature noise based materials include works by Iannis Xenakis, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Helmut Lachenmann, Cornelius Cardew, Theatre of Eternal Music, Glenn Branca, Rhys Chatham, Ryoji Ikeda, Survival Research Laboratories, Whitehouse, Coil, Merzbow, Cabaret Voltaire, Psychic TV, Jean Tinguely's recordings of his sound sculpture (specifically "Bascule VII"), the music of Hermann Nitsch's "Orgien Mysterien Theater", and La Monte Young's bowed gong works from the late 1960s.


title: Noise music

text: According to Danish noise and music theorist Torben Sangild, one single definition of noise in music is not possible. Sangild instead provides three basic definitions of noise: a musical acoustics definition, a second communicative definition based on distortion or disturbance of a communicative signal, and a third definition based in subjectivity (what is noise to one person can be meaningful to another; what was considered unpleasant sound yesterday is not today).


title: Noise music

text: According to Murray Schafer there are four types of noise: unwanted noise, unmusical sound, any loud sound, and a disturbance in any signaling system (such as static on a telephone). Definitions regarding what is considered noise, relative to music, have changed over time. Ben Watson, in his article "Noise as Permanent Revolution", points out that Ludwig van Beethoven's "Grosse Fuge" (1825) "sounded like noise" to his audience at the time. Indeed, Beethoven's publishers persuaded him to remove it from its original setting as the last movement of a string quartet. He did so, replacing it with a sparkling "Allegro". They subsequently published it separately.


title: Noise music

text: In attempting to define noise music and its value, Paul Hegarty (2007) cites the work of noted cultural critics Jean Baudrillard, Georges Bataille and Theodor Adorno and through their work traces the history of "noise". He defines noise at different times as "intrusive, unwanted", "lacking skill, not being appropriate" and "a threatening emptiness". He traces these trends starting with 18th-century concert hall music. Hegarty contends that it is John Cage's composition "4'33"", in which an audience sits through four and a half minutes of "silence" (Cage 1973), that represents the beginning of noise music proper. For Hegarty, "noise music", as with "4'33"", is that music made up of incidental sounds that represent perfectly the tension between "desirable" sound (properly played musical notes) and undesirable "noise" that make up all noise music from Erik Satie to NON to Glenn Branca. Writing about Japanese noise music, Hegarty suggests that "it is not a genre, but it is also a genre that is multiple, and characterized by this very multiplicity ... Japanese noise music can come in all styles, referring to all other genres ... but crucially asks the question of genre—what does it mean to be categorized, categorizable, definable?" (Hegarty 2007:133).


title: Noise music

text: Writer Douglas Kahn, in his work "Noise, Water, Meat: A History of Sound in the Arts" (1999), discusses the use of noise as a medium and explores the ideas of Antonin Artaud, George Brecht, William Burroughs, Sergei Eisenstein, Fluxus, Allan Kaprow, Michael McClure, Yoko Ono, Jackson Pollock, Luigi Russolo, and Dziga Vertov.


title: Noise music

text: In "" (1985), Jacques Attali explores the relationship between noise music and the future of society by considering noise music as not merely reflective of, but importantly prefigurative of social transformations. He indicates that noise in music is a predictor of social change and demonstrates how noise acts as the subconscious of society—validating and testing new social and political realities. His disruption of the standard history of music and his inclusion of noise in an attempt to theorize culture cleared the way for many noise music theoretical studies.


title: Noise music

text: Like much of modern and contemporary art, noise music takes characteristics of the perceived negative traits of noise mentioned below and uses them in aesthetic and imaginative ways.


title: Noise music

text: In electronics noise can refer to the electronic signal corresponding to acoustic noise (in an audio system) or the electronic signal corresponding to the (visual) noise commonly seen as 'snow' on a degraded television or video image. In signal processing or computing it can be considered data without meaning; that is, data that is not being used to transmit a signal, but is simply produced as an unwanted by-product of other activities. Noise can block, distort, or change the meaning of a message in both human and electronic communication.


title: Noise music

text: White noise is a random signal (or process) with a flat power spectral density. In other words, the signal contains equal power within a fixed bandwidth at any center frequency. White noise is considered analogous to white light which contains all frequencies.


title: Noise music

text: In much the same way the early modernists were inspired by naïve art, some contemporary digital art noise musicians are excited by the archaic audio technologies such as wire-recorders, the 8-track cartridge, and vinyl records. Many artists not only build their own noise-generating devices, but even their own specialized recording equipment and custom software (for example, the C++ software used in creating the "viral symphOny" by Joseph Nechvatal).


title: Noise music

text: In "Futurism and Musical Notes", Daniele Lombardi discussed the French composer Carol-Bérard; a pupil of Isaac Albéniz, who composed a "Symphony of Mechanical Force"s in 1910, wrote on the problems of the instrumentation of noise music. and developed a notation system.


title: Noise music

text: In 1913 Futurist artist Luigi Russolo wrote his manifesto, "L'Arte dei Rumori", translated as "The Art of Noises", stating that the industrial revolution had given modern men a greater capacity to appreciate more complex sounds. Russolo found traditional melodic music confining and envisioned noise music as its future replacement. He designed and constructed a number of noise-generating devices called "intonarumori" and assembled a noise orchestra to perform with them. Works entitled "Risveglio di una città" (Awakening of a City) and "Convegno d'aeroplani e d'automobili" (The Meeting of Aeroplanes and Automobiles) were both performed for the first time in 1914.


title: Noise music

text: A performance of his "Gran Concerto Futuristico" (1917) was met with strong disapproval and violence from the audience, as Russolo himself had predicted. None of his intoning devices have survived, though recently some have been reconstructed and used in performances. Although Russolo's works bear little resemblance to contemporary noise music such as Japanoise, his efforts helped to introduce noise as a musical aesthetic and broaden the perception of sound as an artistic medium.


title: Noise music

text: Antonio Russolo, Luigi's brother and fellow Italian Futurist composer, produced a recording of two works featuring the original "intonarumori". The 1921 made phonograph with works entitled "Corale" and "Serenata", combined conventional orchestral music set against the famous noise machines and is the only surviving sound recording.


title: Noise music

text: An early Dada-related work from 1916 by Marcel Duchamp also worked with noise, but in an almost silent way. One of the found object Readymades of Marcel Duchamp, "A Bruit Secret" (With Hidden Noise), was a collaborative work that created a noise instrument that Duchamp accomplished with Walter Arensberg. What rattles inside when "A Bruit Secret" is shaken remains a mystery.


title: Noise music

text: In the same period the utilisation of found sound as a musical resource was starting to be explored. An early example is "Parade", a performance produced at the Chatelet Theatre, Paris, on May 18, 1917, that was conceived by Jean Cocteau, with design by Pablo Picasso, choreography by Leonid Massine, and music by Eric Satie. The extra-musical materials used in the production were referred to as "trompe l'oreille" sounds by Cocteau and included a dynamo, Morse code machine, sirens, steam engine, airplane motor, and typewriters. Arseny Avraamov's composition "Symphony of Factory Sirens" involved navy ship sirens and whistles, bus and car horns, factory sirens, cannons, foghorns, artillery guns, machine guns, hydro-airplanes, a specially designed steam-whistle machine creating noisy renderings of "Internationale" and "Marseillaise" for a piece conducted by a team using flags and pistols when performed in the city of Baku in 1922. In 1923, Arthur Honegger created "Pacific 231", a modernist musical composition that imitates the sound of a steam locomotive. Another example is Ottorino Respighi's 1924 orchestral piece "Pines of Rome", which included the phonographic playback of a nightingale recording. Also in 1924, George Antheil created a work titled Ballet Mécanique with instrumentation that included 16 pianos, 3 airplane propellers, and 7 electric bells. The work was originally conceived as music for the Dada film of the same name, by Dudley Murphy and Fernand Léger, but in 1926 it premiered independently as a concert piece.


title: Noise music

text: In 1930 Paul Hindemith and Ernst Toch recycled records to create sound montages and in 1936 Edgard Varèse experimented with records, playing them backwards, and at varying speeds. Varese had earlier used sirens to create what he called a "continuous flowing curve" of sound that he could not achieve with acoustic instruments. In 1931, Varese's "Ionisation" for 13 players featured 2 sirens, a lion's roar, and used 37 percussion instruments to create a repertoire of unpitched sounds making it the first musical work to be organized solely on the basis of noise. In remarking on Varese's contributions the American composer John Cage stated that Varese had "established the present nature of music" and that he had "moved into the field of sound itself while others were still discriminating 'musical tones' from noises".


title: Noise music

text: In an essay written in 1937, Cage expressed an interest in using extra-musical materials and came to distinguish between found sounds, which he called noise, and musical sounds, examples of which included: rain, static between radio channels, and "a truck at fifty miles per hour". Essentially, Cage made no distinction, in his view all sounds have the potential to be used creatively. His aim was to capture and control elements of the sonic environment and employ a method of sound organisation, a term borrowed from Varese, to bring meaning to the sound materials. Cage began in 1939 to create a series of works that explored his stated aims, the first being "Imaginary Landscape #1" for instruments including two variable speed turntables with frequency recordings.