title: Reddy

text: The Brahmins, on top of the hierarchical social order, viewed the ruling castes of the south like the Reddys, Nairs and Vellalars as sat-Shudras meaning shudras of "true being". Sat-shudras are also known as clean shudras, upper shudras, pure or high-caste shudras. This classification and the four-tier varna concept was never accepted by the ruling castes.


title: Reddy

text: During the Kakatiya period, "Reddi", together with its variant "Raddi", was used as a status title ("gaurava-vachakamu"). The title broadly represented the category of village headmen irrespective of their hereditary background.


title: Reddy

text: The Kakatiya prince Prola I (c. 1052 to 1076) was referred to as "Prola Reddi" in an inscription. After the Kakatiyas became independent rulers in their own right, various subordinate chiefs under their rule are known to have used the title Reddi. Reddy chiefs were appointed as generals and soldiers under the Kakatiyas. Some Reddys were among the feudatories of Kakatiya ruler Pratapa Rudra. During this time, some of the Reddys carved out feudal principalities for themselves. Prominent among them were the Munagala Reddy chiefs. Two inscriptions found in the Zamindari of Munagala at Tadavayi, two miles west of Munagala—one dated 1300 CE, and the other dated 1306 CE show that the Munagala Reddy chiefs were feudatories to the Kakatiya dynasty. The inscriptions proclaim Annaya Reddy of Munagala as a chieftain of Kakatiya ruler Pratapa Rudra.


title: Reddy

text: The Reddy feudatories fought against attacks from the Delhi sultanate and defended the region from coming under the Turkic rule. Eventually, the Sultanate invaded Warangal and captured Pratapa Rudra in 1323.


title: Reddy

text: After the death of Pratapa Rudra in 1323 CE and the subsequent fall of the Kakatiya empire, some Reddi chiefs became independent rulers. Prolaya Vema Reddi proclaimed independence, establishing a "Reddi dynasty" based in Addanki. He had been part of a coalition of Telugu rulers who overthrew the "foreign" ruler (Turkic rulers of the Delhi Sultanate).


title: Reddy

text: The post-Kakatiya period saw the emergence of Vijayanagara Empire as well as the Reddy dynasty. Initially, the two kingdoms were locked up in a territorial struggle for supremacy in the coastal region of Andhra. Later, they united and became allies against their common archrivals—the Bahmani sultans and the Recherla Velamas of Rachakonda who had formed an alliance. This political alliance between Vijayanagara and the Reddy kingdom was cemented further by a matrimonial alliance. Harihara II of Vijayanagara gave his daughter in marriage to Kataya Vema Reddy's son Kataya. The Reddy rulers exercised a policy of annexation and invasion of Kalinga (modern day Odisha). However, the suzerainty of Kalinga rulers was to be recognised. In 1443 CE, determined to put an end to the aggressions of the Reddy kingdom, the Gajapati ruler Kapilendra of Kalinga formed an alliance with the Velamas and launched an attack on the Reddy kingdom. Veerabhadra Reddy allied himself with Vijayanagara ruler Devaraya II and defeated Kapilendra. After the death of Devaraya II in 1446 CE, he was succeeded by his son, Mallikarjuna Raya. Overwhelmed by difficulties at home, Mallikarjuna Raya recalled the Vijayanagara forces from Rajahmundry. Veerabhadra Reddy died in 1448 CE. Seizing this opportunity, Kapilendra sent an army under the leadership of his son Hamvira into the Reddy kingdom, took Rajahmundry and gained control of the Reddy kingdom. The Gajapatis eventually lost control after the death of Kapilendra, and the territories of the former Reddy kingdom came under the control of the Vijayanagara Empire.


title: Reddy

text: Later, Reddys became the military chieftains of the Vijayanagara rulers. They along with their private armies accompanied and supported the Vijayanagara army in the conquest of new territories. These chieftains were known by the title of Poligars. The Reddy poligars were appointed to render military services in times of war, collect revenue from the populace and pay to the royal treasury. The chieftains exercised considerable autonomy in their respective provinces. The ancestors of the legendary Uyyalawada Narasimha Reddy – who led an armed rebellion against the British East India company, were poligars. Reddys were historically dominant in the Rayalaseema region.


title: Reddy

text: Once independent, the erstwhile chiefs of the Vijayanagara empire indulged in several internal squabbles for supremacy in their areas. This constant warring between powerful feudal warlords for fiefdoms and power manifests itself even in modern-day Rayalaseema in the form of a brutally violent phenomenon termed as “factionalism”, "factional violence" or simply "faction".


title: Reddy

text: During this period, Reddys ruled several "samsthanams" (tributary estates) in the Telangana area. They ruled as vassals of Golkonda sultans. Prominent among them were Ramakrishna Reddy, Pedda Venkata Reddy and Immadi Venkata Reddy. In the 16th century, the Pangal fort situated in Mahbubnagar district of Andhra Pradesh was ruled by Veera Krishna Reddy. Immadi Venkata Reddy was recognised by the Golkonda sultan Abdullah Qutb Shah as a regular provider of military forces to the Golkonda armies. The Gadwal samsthanam situated in Mahbubnagar includes a fort built in 1710 CE by Raja Somtadari. Reddys continued to be chieftains, village policemen and tax collectors in the Telangana region, throughout the Golkonda rule.


title: Reddy

text: One of most prominent figures from the community during the British period is Uyyalawada Narasimha Reddy. He challenged the British and led an armed rebellion against the British East India company in 1846. He was finally captured and hanged in 1847. His uprising was one of the earlier rebellions against the British rule in India, as it was 10 years before the famous Indian Rebellion of 1857.


title: Reddy

text: Reddys were the landed gentry known as the deshmukhs and part of the Nizam of Hyderabad's administration. The Reddy landlords styled themselves as "Desais", "Doras" and "Patel". Several Reddys were noblemen in the court of Nizam Nawabs and held many high positions in the Nizam's administrative set up. Raja Bahadur Venkatarama Reddy was made Kotwal of Hyderabad in 1920 CE during the reign of the seventh Nizam Osman Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VII. Raja Bahadur Venkatarama Reddy was the first Hindu to be made kotwal of Hyderabad as in the late 19th and early 20th century, during the Islamic rule of the Nizams, the powerful position of Kotwal was held only by Muslims. His tenure lasted almost 14 years and he commanded great respect among the public for his outstanding police administration.


title: Reddy

text: Several Reddys were at the forefront of the anti-Nizam movement. In 1941, communist leaders Raavi Narayana Reddy and Baddam Yella Reddy transformed the Andhra Mahasabha into an anti-Nizam united mass militant organisation and led an armed struggle against the Nizam's regime.


title: Reddy

text: During the medieval and later feudal/colonial periods, many parts of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana of the Indian subcontinent were ruled as sovereign or princely states by various dynasties of Reddy community.


title: Reddy

text: Kammas and Reddys are politically dominant castes prior to the formation of Andhra Pradesh in 1956 and after. Reddys are classified as a Forward Caste in modern India's positive discrimination system. They are a politically dominant community in Andhra Pradesh, their rise having dated from the formation of the state in 1956.


title: Casey Calvert

text: Casey Calvert is an American pornographic actress and film director. She has won several awards in the pornographic film industry, and has written about it in mainstream media publications. Calvert entered the adult media industry with early work as an art model and fetish model at age 21. She chose her stage name after one of her college professors, Clay Calvert.


title: Casey Calvert

text: She began working in adult film in 2012. She received an XRCO Award for her film work in 2015. This was followed by an AVN Award in 2017, and another XRCO Award in 2018. In 2015, Calvert began writing for publications including GameLink and "The Huffington Post". She was a contributor to the 2015 book, "Coming Out Like a Porn Star: Essays on Pornography, Protection, and Privacy".


title: Casey Calvert

text: Calvert expanded her film career, from acting to directing and producing. She was an actor, writer, and casting director on the Pure Taboo production, "The Starlet: A Casey Calvert Story". Erika Lust hired Calvert to direct a feature series "Primary". By 2020, she devoted half her career to her work as a film director.


title: Casey Calvert

text: Calvert was raised Conservative Jewish and attended synagogue every Shabbat (Saturday) morning until her Bat Mitzvah. Her family switched to a Reform synagogue and began attending only on Jewish holidays. She spent her early life in Gainesville, Florida. Calvert attended the University of Florida where she studied filmmaking. She chose her stage name in honor of Professor Clay Calvert after taking his class on Mass Media Law as a sophomore. She said, "It felt right because really if I hadn't taken his class, I wouldn't be where I am right now," referring to learning during his class that pornography was not illegal as she had initially thought. Pornography and legal case law related to the film industry were a focus of the media class. She also studied the First Amendment to the United States Constitution and learned that pornography is a form of protected freedom of speech in the United States. Calvert said that her first name, "Casey", is derived from the initials of her celebrity crush's children—K. and C.—but has not specified who they are.


title: Casey Calvert

text: Before appearing in adult films, Calvert worked as a nude model, doing fetish and art modelling in the spring of her junior year of college, at 21. She learned about the fetish scene from contacts in Orlando, Florida. Calvert features in "The Mammoth Book of Erotic Photography". She modeled for "Hustler's Taboo". She entered the adult film industry on November 5, 2012, with her first scene for SexArt studio. Calvert has described her career as: "just like having any other job, except you're naked on the Internet". Calvert launched her website in January 2014. She received a nomination for an XRCO Award (X-Rated Critics Association) for Best New Starlet in 2014, the first year she was eligible.


title: Casey Calvert

text: The XRCO recognized Calvert with an Unsung Siren Award in 2015 recognizing her as, "the female star who consistently demonstrates excellence without due recognition from the media". Sociologist and XRCO member, Chauntelle Tibbals, commented on Calvert's selection praising her "performance work in a variety of genres" and "her considerable contributions to the adult industry". Calvert made fetish and BDSM part of her niche as an actress in adult films, appearing in a featured performance "Jessica Drake's Guide to Wicked Sex: BDSM for Beginners" directed by Jessica Drake in 2015. Writing for "Bustle", Amanda Chatel observed, "Unlike adult performers of the past, Calvert is an educated woman who didn't stumble into porn, but headed there because that's what she wanted." Calvert worked with Bobbi Starr on BDSM film shoots and appreciated her respect for performers. Calvert contributed to virtual reality pornography, where her likeness was digitally scanned and uploaded to an avatar.


title: Casey Calvert

text: Calvert gained early experience directing by creating custom videos. She took requests from clients for selectively made films to make a profit in the face of online piracy. Priced at up to $10,000 per request, Calvert saw this as a way to interact directly with her fans and create her own content. She found billing them difficult because of restrictions by payment processors related to adult content. Calvert has tried to pursue a mainstream acting and modeling career, but potential employers have refused to hire her because of her work in porn. She says she has been recognized even while auditioning under her legal name.


title: Casey Calvert

text: The USC School of Cinematic Arts at the University of Southern California featured Calvert in 2015 on a panel discussion, "50 Shades of Erotica: The Blurring of the Line Between Hollywood and Adult Entertainment". In September 2015, GameLink hired Calvert to write a BDSM and fetish-themed column for their "The Naked Truth" blog, and to answer readers' questions on their website. She contributed to GameLink in 2016 as an expert on topics related to fetish and BDSM, and won their 2016 Porn Star Madness Competition against 16 other adult stars. Calvert wrote for GameLink once a month sharing her knowledge of fetish and BDSM gained from her experiences with readers. The company's vice president Jeff Dillon called Calvert a "great advocate for the BDSM/fetish lifestyle". She has written about pornography for "The Huffington Post", "Cosmpolitan", "UPROXX", "Mandatory.com", "Refinery 29", "CraveOnline" and "The Daily Beast". She contributed an essay in "Coming Out Like a Porn Star: Essays on Pornography, Protection, and Privacy", edited by Jiz Lee, about her early introduction to pornography and why she chose a career in the industry. "The Economist" included her essay in a 2015 discussion of Internet pornography, "Can porn be good for us?", featuring Calvert with advertising consultant Cindy Gallop and University of Texas at Austin journalism professor Robert Jensen. In January 2016, Calvert gave a sex education seminar, "BDSM: From Reel to Real", as part of the XBIZ events series. She taught the seminar to educate attendees about how BDSM and fetish scenes are filmed, and the film editing process.


title: Casey Calvert

text: Calvert also diversified her career by directing. In 2019, Gamma Entertainment hired Calvert and her husband Eli Cross to direct films for the Adult Time platform. Her directorial debut with Adult Time was the series "Maid for Each Other". Calvert worked with distributor Adult Time on a Pure Taboo production as actor, writer, and casting director, titled, "The Starlet: A Casey Calvert Story". Calvert and Gamma Entertainment's head of production, Bree Mills, worked on the script. Calvert wrote her character as an antihero, exploring how fame and money have the potential to impact an individual's view of ethics. Mills described Calvert as "incredibly versatile, creative and intelligent as a writer and performer", who brought "a wealth of experience in writing, directing and producing from her own independent adult and mainstream projects" to the project. Calvert directed actresses Riley Reid and Aidra Fox, in the 2019 Girlsway series, "Roleplay With Me", and actress Lauren Phillips in "Schooled!".


title: Casey Calvert

text: Erika Lust hired Calvert to direct a feature series for LustCinema called "Primary". Calvert also wrote the script. Inspired by the Netflix series, "Easy", Calvert wrote a script of about 20–30 pages for each episode. The storyline is about four people living in Los Angeles and dealing with open relationships. Calvert shot "Primary" as a six-episode series. She was part of LustCinema's foray into production work in the United States. Calvert also led the casting process, taking her potential cast members through auditions. She directed actors including Penny Pax and Derrick Pierce. For this production, Calvert decided to include women filmmakers from mainstream cinema on her crew who had never worked on a pornographic film set. She filmed "Primary" over an 11-day production schedule. Calvert found the most difficult part of the production process was selecting sites for location shooting. She appreciated the increased freedom she had transitioning from actress to director. Journalist Mackenzie Cummings-Grady wrote of her directorial work, "The story is rich in details, and the cinematography, courtesy of breakout director Casey Calvert, is lush and captivating. It's some of the most opulent pornography ever created."


title: Casey Calvert

text: Calvert consulted with Jordyn Woods and advised her on how to support sex workers. She was featured at the 2020 AVN Adult Entertainment Expo on a panel, "Stepping Up to the Director's Seat", with women who had transitioned from actress to director including: Joanna Angel, Kayden Kross, Lena Paul and Aiden Starr. By 2020, half her time was spent as a film director.


title: Casey Calvert

text: Calvert identifies as a feminist. "i-D" magazine called her a "committed feminist", and observed, "for Casey, porn isn't about objectifying women, [or] empowering the male gaze ... It's about exercising her right to choose what she does with her body." Calvert told Caitlin Stasey she wanted to debunk stereotypes about female sex workers, "What I can say is that not all sex workers are the stereotype people want to believe. Many of us are college educated, feminists, and absolutely love what we do." She explained her views on feminism to author Rich Moreland in the book, "Pornography Feminism: As Powerful as She Wants to Be", saying, "Feminism is all about the right to choice."


title: Casey Calvert

text: She is married to industry director Eli Cross. They have been together since 2013; he also acts as her cinematographer. They got to know each other through film production work together. Her family is supportive of her career and Calvert maintains a good relationship with her mother and father. Before the start of her career in adult film, Calvert moved from Florida to Los Angeles, where she works and resides.


title: Stuart Margolin

text: Stuart Margolin (January 31, 1940 – December 12, 2022) was an American film, theater, and television actor and director who won two Emmy Awards for playing Evelyn "Angel" Martin on the 1970s television series "The Rockford Files". In 1973, he played in "Gunsmoke" as an outlaw. The next year he played an important role, giving Charles Bronson his first gun in "Death Wish". In 1981, Margolin portrayed the character of Philo Sandeen in a recurring role as a Native American tracker in the 1981–1982 television series, "Bret Maverick".


title: Stuart Margolin

text: Margolin was born January 31, 1940 in Davenport, Iowa, to Morris and Gertrude Margolin but spent much of his childhood in Dallas, Texas, where he learned to golf.


title: Stuart Margolin

text: Margolin stated that he led a "hoodlum" childhood, was kicked out of Texas public schools, and was sent by his parents to a boarding school in Tennessee. While he attended that school, his family moved to Scottsdale, Arizona. When Margolin was released from reform school and moved back with his family, he decided to move back, on his own, to see his friends in Dallas. His parents made arrangements for him to attend a private school there.


title: Stuart Margolin

text: Margolin played the recurring character Evelyn "Angel" Martin, the shifty friend and former jailmate of Jim Rockford (James Garner) on "The Rockford Files", whose various cons and schemes usually got Rockford in hot water. Margolin was earlier paired with Garner in the Western series "Nichols" (1971–72), in which he played a character somewhat similar to the Angel character in "The Rockford Files". That show lasted for only one season.


title: Stuart Margolin

text: At times Rockford would pay Angel to "hit the streets" and discover information that would help solve a case. Margolin won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series for this role, in 1979 and 1980; he is one of only five actors to win this award twice for the same role.


title: Stuart Margolin

text: In 1969, Margolin wrote and co-produced "The Ballad of Andy Crocker", an ABC television movie that was one of the first films to deal with the subject matter of Vietnam veterans "coming home". He also co-wrote the title song and had an uncredited cameo in the film. Margolin had an uncredited role as the Station Wagon Driver in "Heroes", another story about Vietnam veterans dealing with what we now refer to as PTSD.


title: Stuart Margolin

text: Margolin played Rabbi David Small in the 1976 movie, "Lanigan's Rabbi", based on the series of mystery novels written by Harry Kemelman. Scheduling conflicts prevented him from continuing the role in the short-lived TV series of the same name that aired in 1977 as part of "The NBC Sunday Mystery Movie", in which the character was played by actor Bruce Solomon.


title: Stuart Margolin

text: Margolin appeared in episodes of the television series "M*A*S*H" ("Bananas, Crackers and Nuts" and "Operation Noselift"), "The Partridge Family" ("Go Directly to Jail" and "A Penny for His Thoughts"), "That Girl", "The Mary Tyler Moore Show", "Rhoda", "Land of the Giants", "Twelve O'Clock High", "The Monkees", "Love, American Style" (in which he was a member of the Love American Style Players; his brother Arnold Margolin was the executive producer of the series), "The Fall Guy", "Magnum, P.I.", "Hill Street Blues" (as bookmaker Andy Sedita in the consecutive episodes "Hacked to Pieces" and "Seoul on Ice"), and "Touched by an Angel". In May 2009, Margolin appeared on an episode of "30 Rock", opposite Alan Alda; it was the first time the two actors appeared together since Margolin's appearance on "M*A*S*H" in 1974.


title: Stuart Margolin

text: In Canada, Margolin appeared in the 2009 CTV/CBS police drama series "The Bridge". Margolin appeared as bail jumper Stanley Wescott in the episode "The Overpass" (Season 5 Episode 2; 2013) of the Canadian CBC Television series "Republic of Doyle", which itself was inspired by "The Rockford Files". While not a wholesale recreation of the Angel Martin character, the Stanley Wescott role sported many similar attributes. The episode also featured Margolin's stepson, Max Martini, in the role of Big Charlie Archer.


title: Stuart Margolin

text: Margolin appeared in such feature films including "Kelly's Heroes", "Death Wish", "Futureworld", "The Big Bus", and "S.O.B."


title: Stuart Margolin

text: Margolin directed TV shows since the early 1970s, including episodes of "The Mary Tyler Moore Show", "Sara", "The Love Boat"; "Magnum, P.I.", "Bret Maverick", "Quantum Leap", "Wonder Woman", and "Northern Exposure".


title: Stuart Margolin

text: In addition to acting in the original and 1990s TV movie versions of "The Rockford Files", Margolin also directed some episodes: "Dirty Money, Black Light" (1977), "Caledonia – It's Worth a Fortune!" (1974), "The Rockford Files: Friends and Foul Play" (1996), "The Rockford Files: If It Bleeds... It Leads" (1998).


title: Stuart Margolin

text: He won the 1996 DGA Award for children's programming for directing the film "Salt Water Moose", and he was nominated again for the same award for directing the 1998 film, "The Sweetest Gift". He was also nominated for a DGA Award for drama series direction for a 1991 episode of "Northern Exposure" entitled "". He directed, co-starred and scored "The Glitter Dome" (1984) for HBO Pictures.


title: Stuart Margolin

text: Margolin wrote several songs for and with longtime friend and singer-songwriter Jerry Riopelle that have appeared on Riopelle's albums since 1967. Margolin was first associated with Riopelle's late 1960s band the Parade, co-writing many of their songs and playing percussion on various tracks. He and Riopelle (along with Shango member Tommy Reynolds) co-wrote Shango's 1969 Caribbean-flavored novelty record "Day After Day (It's Slippin' Away)", which hit No. 57 on the U.S. charts and No. 39 in Canada.


title: Stuart Margolin

text: Margolin had tracks he co-wrote covered by R. B. Greaves and Gary Lewis and the Playboys in 1968–69. Margolin's frequent songwriting partner Jerry Riopelle established a long-running solo career beginning in 1971; Riopelle released 8 albums between 1971 and 1982, every one of which contained at least one song (often more) written or co-written by Margolin. In turn, Margolin released a solo album in 1980, "And the Angel Sings", which featured his interpretations of a number of Margolin and/or Riopelle compositions previously recorded by Riopelle.


title: Stuart Margolin

text: He married Patricia Dunne Martini in 1982. They had three stepchildren: actor Max Martini, costume designer Michelle Martini and editor/ producer/ director Christopher Martini.


title: Stuart Margolin

text: He was the younger brother of Emmy-winning director/producer/writer Arnold Margolin, both of them lived in Lewisburg, West Virginia, and acted together there in a professional community theater production of "Laughter on the 23rd Floor".


title: Stuart Margolin

text: Margolin had frequently been misidentified as the brother of actress Janet Margolin (1943–1993); the two were not related, although they appeared together as husband and wife in the pilot for the 1977 TV series "Lanigan's Rabbi".


title: Stuart Margolin

text: Margolin, his wife and stepchildren lived on Salt Spring Island in British Columbia, Canada for twenty two years.


title: Stuart Margolin

text: According to stepdaughter Michelle Martini, Margolin had been diagnosed with pancreatic cancer a decade earlier. He died in Staunton, Virginia, on December 12, 2022.


title: Lemon shark

text: The lemon shark (Negaprion brevirostris) is a species of shark from the family Carcharhinidae and is classified as a Vulnerable species by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. Lemon sharks can grow to in length. They are often found in shallow subtropical waters and are known to inhabit and return to specific nursery sites for breeding. Often feeding at night, these sharks use electroreceptors to find their main source of prey: fish. Lemon sharks enjoy the many benefits of group living such as enhanced communication, courtship, predatory behavior, and protection. This species of shark gives birth to live young, and the females are polyandrous and have a biennial reproductive cycle. Lemon sharks are not thought to be a large threat to humans; there have been 10 recorded bites, none of which were life-threatening. The lemon shark's life span is unknown, but the average shark is 25 to 30 years old.


title: Lemon shark

text: The lemon shark was first named and described in 1868 by Felipe Poey. He originally named it "Hypoprion brevirostris", but later renamed it "Negaprion brevirostris." The lemon shark has also appeared in literature as "Negaprion fronto" and "Carcharias fronto" (Jordan and Gilbert, 1882), "Carcharias brevirostris" (Gunther, 1870), and "Carcharhinus brevirostris" (Henshall, 1891).


title: Lemon shark

text: The shark's yellow colouring serves as an excellent camouflage when swimming over the sandy seafloor in its coastal habitat. The lemon shark commonly attains a length of and a weight up to by adulthood, although sexual maturity is attained at in males and in females. The maximum recorded length and weight is and , respectively. It has a flattened head with a short, broad snout, and the second dorsal fin is almost as large as the first. Lemon sharks, as any other species of shark, have electroreceptors concentrated in their heads, called the ampullae of Lorenzini. These receptors detect electrical pulses emitted by potential prey and allow these nocturnal feeders to sense their prey in the dark.


title: Lemon shark

text: Lemon sharks are found from New Jersey to southern Brazil in the tropical western Atlantic Ocean. They also live off the coast of west Africa in the southeastern Atlantic. In addition, lemon sharks have been found in the eastern Pacific, from southern Baja California to Ecuador and in Cape Verde in Sal Island. This species of shark often occupies the subtropical shallow waters of coral reefs, mangroves, enclosed bays, and river mouths; however, lemon sharks have also been found in the open ocean down to depths of 92 meters (301 feet.) Although lemon sharks do swim up rivers, they never seem to travel very far into fresh water. They are found in open water primarily during migrations, and tend to stay along the continental and insular shelves for most of their lives.


title: Lemon shark

text: Information about activity patterns and the use of space is important in understanding a species’ behavioral ecology. Animals often make decisions about habitat use by evaluating their environment's abiotic conditions that serve as valuable indicators of good foraging sites or predator-safe locations. Lemon sharks select habitats in warm and shallow water with a rocky or sandy bottom.


title: Lemon shark

text: The environmental temperature influences an individual's body temperature, which ultimately affects physiological processes such as growth and metabolism. Lemon sharks, therefore, select warm-water habitats to maintain optimal metabolic levels. They are believed to avoid areas with thick sea grasses because they make finding prey more difficult. Lemon sharks tend to live in or near shallow-water mangroves, which are often the nursery areas of several species of fish. The data gathered about the characteristics of shark nursery areas is mostly based on coastal species, this is due to their occurrence in bays, estuaries, river deltas, and shallow coastal waters. One theory is that lemon sharks select mangrove habitats due to the abundance of prey that resides there, while another theory posits that mangroves provide a safe haven from adult lemon sharks that occasionally feed on juvenile sharks and are unable to enter the shallow waters. Ontogenetic niche shifts, or changes in an animal's niche breadth or position, to deeper waters are known to occur in relation to a lemon shark's size. These changes occur due to the dramatic decrease in the risk of predation as body size increases. Habitat selection clearly depends on a variety of biological and environmental variables.


title: Lemon shark

text: The mangrove areas that lemon sharks inhabit are often referred to as their nursery sites. A nursery site is best defined as the most common area sharks are encountered, the location sharks tend to remain at after birth or frequently return to, and the habitat used by shark groups repeatedly for several years. The nursery ground concept has been known and studied for at least a century. In addition, fossil evidence from 320 million years ago suggests the use of shallow, coastal areas as pupping grounds is primitive.


title: Lemon shark

text: Lemon sharks have proven to be an ideal model species to challenge the belief that all sharks are asynchronous opportunistic predators due to their tendency to use nursery areas for an extended period of time. Lemon shark feeding behaviors are easy to determine because their well-defined home ranges are conducive to accurate calculations of both the amount and types of prey in the environment and diet of a lemon shark.


title: Lemon shark

text: Lemon sharks feed at night and are mainly piscivorous; however, they have been known to feed on crustaceans and benthic organisms. Intraspecific predation, or cannibalism, of juvenile lemon sharks by larger conspecifics has also been documented. Rather than feeding randomly, lemon sharks display a high degree of preference for certain species and size of prey when environmental conditions are favorable. They also tend to prefer a prey when it is more abundant and available. Lemon sharks feed selectively on species that are slower and more easily captured by using a stalking technique. For example, parrotfish and mojarras are common prey in the Bahamas because they use camouflage rather than an escape response and are vulnerable due to their stationary foraging behavior. Lemon sharks feed on prey that are intermediate in size compared to other available prey. This tendency can be explained by the tradeoff between the probability of capture and the profitability when it comes to prey size. The general trend in the foraging behavior of lemon sharks conforms to the optimal foraging theory, which suggests a positive relationship between prey selectivity and availability.


title: Lemon shark

text: Rather than rolling on their sides to rip off chunks of prey, lemon sharks approach their victim with speed only to brake suddenly using their pectoral fins upon contact. The animal then jabs forward multiple times until it has a good grasp of its prey in its jaw and proceeds to shake its head from side to side until it tears off a chunk of flesh. A feeding frenzy, or large swarm of other sharks, then forms as the individuals sense the blood and bodily fluids released from the prey. Sounds of struggling prey also attract groups of sharks, suggesting they use sound detection for predation. Group feeding behavior such as pack hunting or communal scavenging was observed in a study in which pieces of the same stingray were found in the stomachs of several lemon shark individuals that were caught and examined.


title: Lemon shark

text: Many species of sharks, including the lemon shark, are known to actively prefer to be social and live in groups or loose aggregations. A few benefits of group living are enhanced communication, courtship, predatory behavior, and protection. Group living and a preference for social interaction is thought to be important for the survival and success of juvenile lemon sharks. Group living, though, comes with its costs. A few include increased risk of disease, ease of parasite transmission, and competition for resources.


title: Lemon shark

text: Lemon sharks are found in groups based on similar size. Passive sorting mechanisms such as its ontogenetic habitat shift have been postulated to contribute to the formation of groups organized based on size or sex. One exception to this behavior is that sharks up to 1 year old show no preference for groups of matched or unmatched size. One hypothesis for this finding is that it is beneficial for the small young lemon sharks to associate with the larger individuals because they have an easier time gathering information about the habitat regarding elements such as predators and local prey. Lemon shark groups form due to an active desire to be social rather than a simple attraction to the same limited resources such as the mangrove habitat and prey associated with such a habitat.


title: Lemon shark

text: Many studies have related brain size with complex social behaviors in mammals and birds. The brain of a lemon shark, being comparable in relative mass to that of a mammal or bird, suggests they have the ability to learn from social interactions, cooperate with other individuals, and have the potential to establish dominance hierarchies and stable social bonds.


title: Lemon shark

text: Lemon sharks congregate for reproduction at special mating grounds. Females give birth to their young in shallow nursery waters to which they are philopatric. Lemon shark young are known as pups and they tend to remain in the nursery area for several years before venturing into deeper waters. Lemon sharks are viviparous, meaning that the mother directly transfers nutrients to her young via a yolk-sac placenta and the young are born alive. Fertilization is internal and occurs after a male lemon shark holds a female, bites her, and inserts his clasper into her cloaca. Female lemon sharks are polyandrous and sperm competition occurs due to their ability to store sperm in an oviducal gland for several months. Several studies suggest that polyandry in female lemon sharks has adapted out of convenience, rather than indirect genetic benefits to offspring. This type of polyandry is termed as convenience polyandry because females are believed to mate multiple times to avoid harassment by males. Females have a biennial reproductive cycle, requiring a year for gestation and another year for oogenesis and vitellogenesis after parturition. Lemon sharks reach sexual maturity around 12–16 years of age and have low fecundity. Males tend to mature earlier than females. The maximum number of pups recorded in a litter is 18.


title: Lemon shark

text: This species of shark is best known in its behavior and ecology, mainly due to the work of Samuel Gruber at the University of Miami, who studied the lemon shark both in the field and in the laboratory from 1967. The population around the Bimini Islands in the western Bahamas, where Gruber's Bimini Biological Field Station is situated, is probably the best known of all shark populations.


title: Lemon shark

text: The lemon shark is targeted by commercial and recreational fishers along the U.S. Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean, and in the eastern Pacific Ocean due to its prized meat, fins, and skin. Lemon shark skin may be used for leather and its meat can be consumed and is believed to be a delicacy in many cultures. Concern exists that over-fishing has led the lemon shark populations in the western north Atlantic and eastern Pacific Ocean to decline. It is considered vulnerable.


title: Lemon shark

text: Lemon sharks do not represent a large threat to humans. The International Shark Attack File lists 10 unprovoked lemon shark bites, none of which were fatal.


title: Kimberly Wyatt

text: Kimberly Kaye Wyatt (born February 4, 1982) is an American singer, dancer, choreographer, actress, and television personality. She is a former member of the pop/R&B girl group and dance ensemble The Pussycat Dolls. She is also a member of the dance duo Her Majesty & the Wolves, alongside Spencer Nezey.


title: Kimberly Wyatt

text: From 2009 to 2014, Wyatt was a judge on the Sky1 dance competition show "Got to Dance". She won BBC One's "Celebrity MasterChef" in 2015, and the following year, she became the ambassador for the Bloch Dance World Cup. Since 2019, she has starred in the CBBC series "Almost Never", and in 2022, Wyatt competed in the fourteenth series of "Dancing on Ice" with professional partner Mark Hanretty.


title: Kimberly Wyatt

text: Wyatt was born in Warrensburg, Missouri, a town near Kansas City, Missouri, and is of English, Scottish, German, and Swiss-German descent. She began dancing at the age of seven. At the age of 14, she earned a scholarship to study in New York's Joffrey Ballet and the Broadway Dance Center. At the age of seventeen, she graduated from high school and flew to Las Vegas to audition for cruise ship and casino shows. She worked in a revue on Royal Caribbean's Explorer of the Seas for two years.


title: Kimberly Wyatt

text: In 2001, Wyatt moved to Los Angeles despite getting an offer from Hubbard St. Dance Co. In 2002, Wyatt became one of the dancers on the comedy sketch show, "Cedric the Entertainer Presents" as a Cedsation. In 2003, she was a dancer in Nick Lachey's music video for the single "Shut Up." Robin Antin was the choreographer, and it was here that she asked Wyatt to join the Pussycat Dolls. Wyatt does the standing oversplit in most of Pussycat Dolls music video, which she called her trademark move.


title: Kimberly Wyatt

text: Wyatt's first vocal role in the Pussycat Dolls came when she recorded a cover of Jane Child's hit song "Don't Wanna Fall in Love" for the Deluxe Edition of their second album, "Doll Domination". After Jessica Sutta, Wyatt was the second member to announce her departure from the group. She confirmed her departure in "Loaded Magazine". She said the Dolls gave her more than she could ever have before, and gave her a great platform to help her in the industry. Since leaving, Wyatt has gone on to pursue a range of projects, including as a judge on the British reality show "Got To Dance."


title: Kimberly Wyatt

text: Wyatt became one of three judges of Sky1's dance show, "Got to Dance", alongside Ashley Banjo and Adam Garcia, in 2010. In September 2010, it was announced that "Got to Dance" would return for a second season. That year, she was also featured on Aggro Santos' track "Candy". "Candy" was the lead track for the film "StreetDance 3D". The song peaked at number five on the UK Singles Chart, becoming Wyatt's ninth top ten hit in the United Kingdom, including eight (with two number ones) as part of the Pussycat Dolls. In October 2010, it was announced that Wyatt along with Paula Abdul and Travis Payne would be judges on "Live to Dance", the US version of "Got to Dance". The show aired for one season on CBS and was not renewed. Taio Cruz performed "Higher" on ITV's "Daybreak" on and BBC One's "Let's Dance for Comic Relief" with Wyatt filling in for Kylie Minogue.


title: Kimberly Wyatt

text: In 2009, Wyatt told Digital Spy that she was recording her first solo album and confirmed that she has already worked with rappers Paul Wall and Baby Bash and producers from "The Cold Chamber" like Mickaël on the record. She said the album would be released within a year. Wyatt performed her brand new single "Derriere" for the first time on an episode of "Got to Dance" on February 24, 2013. As of July 2015, no album has been released.


title: Kimberly Wyatt

text: In 2010, Wyatt teamed up with former Jupiter Rising member Spencer Nezey, forming the group Her Majesty & the Wolves. Their album "111" was released in the UK on July 11, 2011.


title: Kimberly Wyatt

text: In March 2015, it was announced that Wyatt would take part in ITV's "Give a Pet a Home" show which works alongside the RSPCA in Birmingham. In July 2015, she won the final of "Celebrity MasterChef" on BBC One, beating Sam Nixon, Rylan Clark and Scott Maslen.


title: Kimberly Wyatt

text: In November 2015, Wyatt became a School Sport Ambassador in the UK for the Youth Sport Trust, promoting health and well-being for young women through dance.


title: Kimberly Wyatt

text: In 2019, Wyatt began starring in the CBBC series "Almost Never". On November 29, 2019, after months of speculation for a possible Pussycat Dolls reunion, Wyatt along with Bachar, Roberts, Scherzinger, and Sutta confirmed their reunion on Heart radio where they also announced a tour originally scheduled for 2020. A live performance on the finale of "" followed, which included a medley of previous singles and their new song, "React". British media regulator Ofcom received over 400 complaints from viewers who criticized the band's perceived provocative nature of their performance. "React" was released in February 2020 to moderate success.


title: Kimberly Wyatt

text: In 2011, she began a relationship with model Max Rogers and they became engaged in September 2013. The couple married in a private ceremony in February 2014. They have three children together, two daughters and a younger son. Wyatt revealed in October 2019 that she was sterilized after giving birth to her third child. Since 2010, she has established herself in the United Kingdom, and resides with Rogers in Surrey.


title: Kama

text: Kama (Sanskrit ) means "desire, wish, longing" in Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, and Sikh literature. Kama often connotes sensual pleasure, sexual desire, and longing both in religious and secular Hindu and Buddhist literature, as well as contemporary Indian literature, but the concept more broadly refers to any desire, wish, passion, longing, pleasure of the senses, desire for, longing to and after, the aesthetic enjoyment of life, affection, or love, enjoyment of love is particularly with or without enjoyment of sexual, sensual and erotic desire, and may be without sexual connotations.


title: Kama

text: Kama is one of the four goals of human life and is also contemplated as one of the primary needs to fulfill during the stages of life according to the Hindu tradition. It is considered an essential and healthy goal of human life when pursued without sacrificing the other three goals: Dharma (virtuous, proper, moral life), Artha (material prosperity, income security, means of life) and Moksha (liberation, release, self-actualization). Together, these four aims of life are called Puruṣārtha.


title: Kama

text: "Kama" means "desire, wish, or longing". In contemporary Indian literature, "kama" refers usually to sensual pleasure and sexual desire. However, the term also refers to any sensory enjoyment, emotional attraction and aesthetic pleasure such as from arts, dance, music, painting, sculpture, and nature.


title: Kama

text: The concept kama is found in some of the earliest known verses in the Vedas. For example, Book 10 of the Rig Veda describes the creation of the universe from nothing by the great heat. There in hymn 129, it states:


title: Kama

text: The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, one of the oldest Upanishads of Hinduism, uses the term kama, also in a broader sense, to refer to any desire:


title: Kama

text: Ancient Indian literature such as the Epics, which followed the Upanishads, develop and explain the concept of kama together with Artha and Dharma. The Mahabharata, for example, provides one of the expansive definitions of kama. The Epic claims kama to be any agreeable and desirable experience (pleasure) generated by the interaction of one or more of the five senses with anything congenial to that sense and while the mind is concurrently in harmony with the other goals of human life (dharma, artha and moksha).


title: Kama

text: Kama often implies the short form of the word kamana (desire, appetition or appetite). Kama, however, is more than kamana. Kama is an experience that includes the discovery of an object, learning about the object, emotional connection, the process of enjoyment and the resulting feeling of well-being before, during, and after the experience.


title: Kama

text: Vatsyayana, the author of the Kamasutra, describes kama as happiness that is a "manasa vyapara" (phenomenon of the mind). Just like the Mahabharata, Vatsyayana's "Kamasutra" defines kama as pleasure an individual experiences from the world, with one or more senses: hearing, seeing, tasting, smelling, and feeling—in harmony with one's mind and soul. Experiencing harmonious music is kama, as is being inspired by natural beauty, the aesthetic appreciation of a work of art, and admiring with joy something created by another human being. "Kama Sutra", in its discourse on kama, describes many forms of art, dance, and music, along with sex, as the means to pleasure and enjoyment. Pleasure enhances one's appreciation of incense, candles, music, scented oil, yoga stretching and meditation, and the experience of the heart chakra. Negativity, doubt and hesitation block the heart chakra, openness is impaired while attached to desires. Kamala in the heart chakra, is considered to be a seat of devotional worship. Opening the heart chakra is awareness of a divine communion and joy for communion with deities and the self (atman).


title: Kama

text: John Lochtefeld explains kama as desire, noting that it often refers to sexual desire in contemporary literature, but in ancient Indian literature kāma includes any kind of attraction and pleasure such as those deriving from the arts.


title: Kama

text: Karl Potter describes kama as an attitude and capacity. A little girl who hugs her teddy bear with a smile is experiencing kama, as are two lovers in embrace. During these experiences, the person connects and identifies the beloved as part of oneself and feels more complete, fulfilled, and whole by experiencing that connection and nearness. This, in the Indian perspective, is kāma.


title: Kama

text: Hindery notes the inconsistent and diverse expositions of kama in various ancient texts of India. Some texts, such as the Epic Ramayana, paint kama through the desire of Rama for Sita — a desire that transcends the physical and marital into a love that is spiritual, and something that gives Rama his meaning of life, his reason to live. Sita and Rama both frequently express their unwillingness and inability to live without the other. This romantic and spiritual view of kama in the Ramayana by Valmiki is quite different, claim Hindery and others, than the normative and dry description of kama in the law codes of smriti by Manu for example.


title: Kama

text: Gavin Flood explains kama as "love" without violating dharma (moral responsibility), artha (material prosperity) and one's journey towards moksha (spiritual liberation).


title: Kama

text: In Hinduism, kama is regarded as one of the four proper and necessary goals of human life (purusharthas), the others being Dharma (virtuous, proper, moral life), Artha (material prosperity, income security, means of life) and Moksha (liberation, release, self-actualization).


title: Kama

text: Ancient Indian literature emphasizes that dharma precedes and is essential. If dharma is ignored, artha and kama lead to social chaos.


title: Kama

text: Vatsyayana in "Kama Sutra" recognizes relative value of three goals as follows: artha precedes kama, while dharma precedes both kama and artha. Vatsyayana, in Chapter 2 of "Kama Sutra", presents a series of philosophical objections argued against kama and then offers his answers to refute those objections. For example, one objection to kama (pleasure, enjoyment), acknowledges Vatsyayana, is this concern that kāma is an obstacle to moral and ethical life, to religious pursuits, to hard work, and to productive pursuit of prosperity and wealth. The pursuit of pleasure, claim objectors, encourages individuals to commit unrighteous deeds, bring distress, carelessness, levity and suffering later in life. These objections were then answered by Vatsyayana, with the declaration that kama is as necessary to human beings as food, and kama is holistic with dharma and artha.


title: Kama

text: Just like good food is necessary for the well being of the body, good pleasure is necessary for the healthy existence of a human being, suggests Vatsyayana. A life devoid of pleasure and enjoyment—sexual, artistic, of nature—is hollow and empty. Just like no one should stop farming crops even though everyone knows herds of deer exist and will try to eat the crop as it grows up, in the same way claims Vatsyayana, one should not stop one's pursuit of kama because dangers exist. Kama should be followed with thought, care, caution and enthusiasm, just like farming or any other life pursuit.


title: Kama

text: Vatsyayana's book the "Kama Sutra", in parts of the world, is presumed or depicted as a synonym for creative sexual positions; in reality, only 20% of "Kama Sutra" is about sexual positions. The majority of the book, notes Jacob Levy, is about the philosophy and theory of love, what triggers desire, what sustains it, how and when it is good or bad. "Kama Sutra" presents kama as an essential and joyful aspect of human existence.


title: Kama

text: Vatsyayana claims kama is never in conflict with dharma or artha, rather all three coexist and kama results from the other two.


title: Kama

text: In Hindu philosophy, pleasure in general, and sexual pleasure in particular, is neither shameful nor dirty. It is necessary for human life, essential for well being of every individual, and wholesome when pursued with due consideration of dharma and artha. Unlike the precepts of some religions, kama is celebrated in Hinduism, as a value in its own right. Together with artha and dharma, it is an aspect of a holistic life. All three "purusharthas"—Dharma, Artha and Kama—are equally and simultaneously important.


title: Kama

text: Some ancient Indian literature observe that the relative precedence of artha, kama and dharma are naturally different for different people and different age groups. In a baby or child, education and kāma (artistic desires) take precedence; in youth kāma and artha take precedence; while in old age dharma takes precedence.


title: Kama

text: Kama is deified as Kamadeva and his consort Rati. Deity Kama is comparable to the Greek deity Eros—they both trigger human sexual attraction and sensual desire. Kama rides a parrot, and the deity is armed with bow and arrows to pierce hearts. The bow is made of sugarcane stalk, the bowstring is a line of bees, and the arrows are tipped with five flowers representing five emotions-driven love states. The five flowers on Kama arrows are lotus flower (infatuation), ashoka flower (intoxication with thoughts about the other person), mango flower (exhaustion and emptiness in absence of the other), jasmine flower (pining for the other) and blue lotus flower (paralysis with confusion and feelings). These five arrows also have names, the last and most dangerous of which is "Sammohanam", infatuation.


title: Kama

text: Kama is also known as "Ananga" (literally "one without body") because desire strikes formlessly, through feelings in unseen ways. The other names for deity Kama include Madan (he who intoxicates with love), Manmatha (he who agitates the mind), Pradyumna (he who conquers all) and Kushumesu (he whose arrows are flowers).


title: Kama

text: In the Buddhist Pali Canon, Gautama Buddha renounced (Pali: "nekkhamma") sensuality ("kama") as a route to Enlightenment. Some Buddhist lay practitioners recite daily the Five Precepts, a commitment to abstain from "sexual misconduct" ("kāmesu micchacara" กาเมสุ มิจฺฉาจารา). Typical of Pali Canon discourses, the Dhammika Sutta (Sn 2.14) includes a more explicit correlate to this precept when the Buddha enjoins a follower to "observe celibacy or at least do not have sex with another's wife."


title: Kama

text: In the Theosophy of Blavatsky, Kama is the fourth principle of the septenary, associated with emotions and desires, attachment to existence, volition, and lust.


title: Kama

text: Kamaloka is a "semi"-material plane, subjective and invisible to humans, where disembodied "personalities", the astral forms, called Kama-rupa remain until they fade out from it by the complete exhaustion of the effects of the mental impulses that created these eidolons of human and animal passions and desires. It is associated with Hades of ancient Greeks and the Amenti of the Egyptians, the land of Silent Shadows; a division of the first group of the "Trailokya".


title: Zermatt

text: Zermatt () is a municipality in the district of Visp in the German-speaking section of the canton of Valais in Switzerland. It has a year-round population of about 5,800 and is classified as a town by the Swiss Federal Statistical Office (FSO).


title: Zermatt

text: It lies at the upper end of Mattertal at an elevation of , at the foot of Switzerland's highest peaks. It lies about from the over high Theodul Pass bordering Italy. Zermatt is the southernmost commune of the German "Sprachraum".


title: Zermatt

text: Zermatt is famed as a mountaineering and ski resort of the Swiss Alps. Until the mid-19th century, it was predominantly an agricultural community; the first and tragic ascent of the Matterhorn in 1865 was followed by a rush on the mountains surrounding the village, leading to the construction of many tourist facilities. The year-round population () is , though there may be several times as many tourists in Zermatt at any one time. Much of the local economy is based on tourism, with about half of the jobs in town in hotels or restaurants and just under half of all apartments are vacation apartments. Just over one-third of the permanent population was born in the town, while another third moved to Zermatt from outside Switzerland.


title: Zermatt

text: The name of "Zermatt", as well as that of the Matterhorn itself, derives from the alpine meadows, or "matten" (in German), in the valley. The name appeared first as "Zur Matte" ("at the meadow") and became later Zermatt. It does not appear until 1495 on a map or 1546 in a text, but may have been employed long before.


title: Zermatt

text: "Praborno" or "Prato Borno" ("Prato" also means meadow) are the older names of Zermatt; they appear in the ancient maps as early as the thirteenth century. The Romand-speaking people from the Aosta Valley and from the Romand-speaking part of canton Wallis (Valais) used this name until about 1860 in the form of "Praborne", or "Praborgne". The reason of this change from "Praborno" to "Zermatt" is attributed to the gradual replacement of the Romance-speaking people by German-speaking colony.


title: Zermatt

text: The town of Zermatt lies at the southern end of the Matter Valley (German: "Mattertal"), which is one of the lateral branches of the grand Valley of the Rhône. Zermatt is almost completely surrounded by the high mountains of the Pennine Alps including Monte Rosa (specifically its tallest peak, named Dufourspitze), Switzerland's highest peak at above sea level. It is followed by the Dom (), Liskamm (), Weisshorn () and the Matterhorn (). Most of the Alpine four-thousanders are located around Zermatt or in the neighbouring valleys.


title: Zermatt

text: Zermatt is traversed by the main river of the valley: the Matter Vispa, which rises at the glaciers at the feet of the highest peaks: the Gorner Glacier on the east side near Monte Rosa and the Zmutt Glacier on the west side between Dent d'Hérens and Dent Blanche.


title: Zermatt

text: The town of Zermatt, while dense, is geographically small. There are three main streets which run along the banks of the Matter Vispa, and numerous cross-streets, especially around the station and the church which forms the centre of Zermatt. In general anything is at most a thirty-minute walk away. There are several "suburbs" within Zermatt. Winkelmatten/Moos, which was once a separate hamlet, lies on a hill () on the southern side. Steinmatten is located on the eastern bank of the main river.


title: Zermatt

text: Many hamlets are located in the valleys above Zermatt, however they are not usually inhabited all year round. Zum See () lies south of Zermatt on the west bank of the Gorner gorge, near Furi where a cable car station is located (). On the side of Zmutt valley (west of Zermatt) lies the hamlet of Zmutt (), north of the creek Zmuttbach. Findeln () is located in the eastern valley above the creek Findelbach. It lies below the Sunnegga station (). Located near a train station of the Gornergratbahn, Riffelalp () is one of the highest hamlets with a chapel.


title: Zermatt

text: Zermatt had an area, (as of the 2004/09 survey) of . Of this area, about 9.4% is used for agricultural purposes, while 4.6% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 0.8% is settled (buildings or roads) and 85.2% is unproductive land. Over the past two decades (1979/85-2004/09) the amount of land that is settled has increased by and the agricultural land has decreased by .


title: Zermatt

text: Zermatt has a subarctic climate (Köppen climate classification: Dfc). Summertime is cool in Zermatt, with mild days and cool nights, while winter is cold and snowy, with highs around freezing and annual snowfall averaging .


title: Zermatt

text: The village was "discovered" by mid-nineteenth-century British mountaineers, most notably Edward Whymper, whose summit of the Matterhorn made the village famous. The Matterhorn was one of the last alpine mountains to be summitted (in 1865), and the first expedition that reached the top ended dramatically with only 3 of the 7 climbers surviving the descent. The story is related in the Matterhorn Museum.


title: Zermatt

text: Zermatt is a starting point for hikes into the mountains, including the Haute Route that leads to Chamonix in France and the Patrouille des Glaciers. Cable cars and chair lifts carry skiers in the winter and hikers in the summer; the highest of them leads to the Klein Matterhorn at , a peak on the ridge between Breithorn and Matterhorn that offers extensive views in all directions. It is possible to cross into Italy via the Cervinia cable car station. A rack railway line (the Gornergratbahn, the highest open-air railway in Europe) runs up to the summit of the Gornergrat at . Zermatt is also the western terminus for the Glacier Express rail service connecting to St. Moritz and the MGB (Matterhorn Gotthard Bahn).


title: Zermatt

text: To prevent air pollution that could obscure the town's view of the Matterhorn, the entire town is a combustion-engine car-free zone. Almost all vehicles in Zermatt are battery driven and almost completely silent. Electric vehicles are allowed for local commerces. The Cantonal police can issue a permit which allows residents to drive and park at the northern outskirts and for the permission to bring combustion-engine vehicles in to the town such as construction vehicles. Emergency and municipal vehicles, (fire trucks, ambulances, police etc.) generally use combustion engines, although even some of these are non-combustion, (garbage trucks, etc.).


title: Zermatt

text: Passenger vehicles operating within Zermatt include tiny electric shuttles provided by hotels to carry visitors from the main train station (or the taxi transfer point just outside town) to the hotel properties, "electro" taxis operated by four major Zermatt families, and "electro" buses, which serve two routes: one between the major hotel areas and the stations of the various ski-lifts, and the other following a similar route but also serving the more rural "suburb" of Winkelmatten. Horse-drawn carriages can also be found; some are operated by hotels and others are available for hire.


title: Zermatt

text: Most visitors reach Zermatt by the rack-assisted railway train from the nearby town of Täsch (Zermatt shuttle). Trains also depart for Zermatt from farther down the valley at Visp and Brig, which are on the main Swiss rail network. The town also has a heliport (ICAO: LSEZ) and a local helicopter operator, "Air Zermatt", which also provides alpine rescue services.


title: Zermatt

text: In 2007, a project group was formed to evaluate options for development of the local transportation network (as the "electro" buses do not have enough capacity). The results of this study are published in the December 2007 edition of "Zermatt Inside". The six options explored are a coaster, a funicular, a metro, moving sidewalks, a gondola and more "electro" buses.


title: Zermatt

text: In 2019 work started to improve access on the Kirchbrücke – one of the most popular places to photograph the Matterhorn. The viewing area will be widened to keep tourists off the road and away from electric vehicles. The project should be complete by autumn 2019.


title: Zermatt

text: Zermatt is known throughout the world for its skiing, especially Triftji for its moguls. The high altitude results in consistent skiing continuously throughout the summer.


title: Zermatt

text: Skiing in Zermatt is split up into four areas: Sunnegga, Gornergrat, Klein Matterhorn and Schwarzsee. There is also a connection to Cervinia and Valtournenche in Italy through the Plateau Rosa glacier.


title: Zermatt

text: In 2008, Zermatt hosted an "Infinity Downhill Race". The race took place on 13 and 14 December and comprised a course descending from the Matterhorn Glacier Paradise () and finished in Zermatt itself (). The course was long and featured a descent.


title: Zermatt

text: The Sunnegga Paradise is accessed via the SunneggaExpress funicular railway, followed by a gondola to Blauherd and finally a cable car onwards to the Rothorn (3,103 m) above. The topography of the mountain and the valley tends to keep the Rothorn clear and sunny, even when Zermatt is submerged in cloud.


title: Zermatt

text: From Blauherd there is a gondola down to Gant, and from there a connecting cablecar goes to Hohtälli. This cable car and the newer 4-seat chairlift Sunnegga-Findeln-Breitboden provide connections between Sunnegga and Gornergrat. With few steep slopes, this mountain is often used to train younger skiers.


title: Zermatt

text: The Gornergrat is served by the Gornergrat railway, a 29-minute ride to the Gornergrat peak (3,089 m), via Riffelalp, Rotenboden and Riffelberg, (with limited stops at Findelbach and Landtunnel just above Zermatt). At the summit, the hotel and restaurant have been refurbished and accommodate a shopping centre. Riffelalp station is linked to Riffelalp Resort by a short tramway line named Riffelalptram.


title: Zermatt

text: A cable car heads up from Hohtälli to the Rote Nase (3,247 m). This final lift serves a freeride area but can be unreliable as this mountainside requires good snow cover to be skiable. The lifts in this area generally open for the season in late February or early March – cablecar is now permanently closed, with no replacement lift planned. A new slope leading back from Hohtälli to Kellensee just under the Gornergrat replaced this lift to maintain the link from the Rothorn to Gornergrat.


title: Zermatt

text: Near the southern end of Zermatt, the Matterhorn Express gondola transports passengers up to the interchange station at Furi. From here there is access to Schwarzsee via a gondola to the right, a cable car that leads on to the Trockener Steg midstation (and then on to the Klein Matterhorn); and a new gondola, opened on 18 December 2006, links Furi to Riffelberg on the Gornergrat mountain. This lift addresses one of the most persistent criticisms of Zermatt: that it is very difficult to ski the two sides of the valley without a tiresome trek through Zermatt between the Gornergratbahn and the Matterhorn Express at opposite ends of the town.


title: Zermatt

text: Testa Grigia at the top of the Theodul Pass serves as a connection to the Italian ski-resorts of Cervinia and Valtournenche. From the Swiss side it is reachable by skilift only, but from the Italian side by a chairlift and by a cablecar. In March 2019 it was announced that a new lift – the 'Alpine Crossing' – will connect Testa Grigia and Klein Matterhorn from spring 2021. There are customs offices here as well as a small alpine museum.


title: Zermatt

text: Zermatt is marketed as an all-year skiing resort, with summer skiing limited to the Theodul Glacier behind the Klein Matterhorn. Whilst strictly true, during the off season in May and June there will tend to be only one or two runs open, and the main glacier area does not open until July.


title: Zermatt

text: In operation since 25 October 2003, the Furggsattel six-seater chairlift has twelve (of eighteen) masts that stand directly on the glacial ice of the Theodul Glacier – a first for Switzerland.


title: Zermatt

text: The new CHF52 million 3S Glacier Ride Cable Car from the resort to Klein Matterhorn was opened on 29 September 2018. It has an uplift capacity of 2000 people per hour and takes just 9 minutes to reach the top using 25 cabins, each with 28 seats.


title: Zermatt

text: The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is "Gules a lion rampant Or langued of the first on a trimount Vert between two mullets of five Argent in chief."


title: Zermatt

text: Zermatt has a population () of . , 39.0% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 3 years (2010-2013) the population has changed at a rate of 0.54%. The birth rate in the municipality, in 2013, was 9.5 while the death rate was 4.9 per thousand residents.


title: Zermatt

text: Most of the population () speaks German (4,093 or 68.4%) as their first language, Portuguese is the second most common (719 or 12.0%) and Italian is the third (474 or 7.9%). There are 226 people who speak French and 1 person who speaks Romansh.


title: Zermatt

text: , the population was 51.6% male and 48.4% female. The population was made up of 1,840 Swiss men (31.6% of the population) and 1,166 (20.0%) non-Swiss men. There were 1,837 Swiss women (31.5%) and 985 (16.9%) non-Swiss women. Of the population in the municipality, 2,214 or about 37.0% were born in Zermatt and lived there in 2000. There were 720 or 12.0% who were born in the same canton, while 774 or 12.9% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 2,039 or 34.1% were born outside of Switzerland.


title: Zermatt

text: , children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 18.5% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) are 69.5% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 12.0%.


title: Zermatt

text: , there were 2,763 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 2,830 married individuals, 207 widows or widowers and 188 individuals who are divorced.


title: Zermatt

text: , there were 2,441 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2.2 persons per household. There were 921 households that consist of only one person and 128 households with five or more people. , a total of 2,167 apartments (52.1% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 1,890 apartments (45.4%) were seasonally occupied and 103 apartments (2.5%) were empty. Of the 977 inhabited buildings in the municipality, in 2000, about 22.8% were single family homes and 45.5% were multiple family buildings. Additionally, about 10.8% of the buildings were built before 1919, while 14.4% were built between 1991 and 2000. In 2012 the rate of construction of new housing units per 1000 residents was 13.65. The vacancy rate for the municipality, , was 0.28%.


title: Zermatt

text: The petroglyphs and prehistoric grinding stone at Hubelwäng is listed as a Swiss heritage site of national significance.


title: Zermatt

text: In the 2011 federal election the most popular party was the CVP with 43.7% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SVP (33.3%), the FDP (14.1%) and the SP (4.1%). In the federal election, a total of 1378 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 48.1%.


title: Zermatt

text: In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the CVP which received 68.98% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SVP (19.61%), the SP (6.3%) and the FDP (3.51%). In the federal election, a total of 1,326 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 46.0%.


title: Zermatt

text: In the 2009 Conseil d'État/Staatsrat election a total of 1,009 votes were cast, of which 66 or about 6.5% were invalid. The voter participation was 34.4%, which is much less than the cantonal average of 54.67%. In the 2007 Swiss Council of States election a total of 1,289 votes were cast, of which 105 or about 8.1% were invalid. The voter participation was 45.4%, which is much less than the cantonal average of 59.88%.


title: Zermatt

text: , there were a total of 6,370 people employed in the municipality. Of these, a total of 42 people worked in 19 businesses in the primary economic sector. The secondary sector employed 521 workers in 68 separate businesses. Finally, the tertiary sector provided 5,807 jobs in 736 businesses. In 2013 a total of 13.7% of the population received social assistance.


title: Zermatt

text: , there were 744 workers who commuted into the municipality and 89 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net importer of workers, with about 8.4 workers entering the municipality for every one leaving. Of the working population, 7.1% used public transportation to get to work, and 2.6% used a private car.


title: Zermatt

text: From the , 4,458 or 74.4% were Roman Catholic, while 458 or 7.6% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 131 members of an Orthodox church (or about 2.19% of the population), there were 2 individuals (or about 0.03% of the population) who belonged to the Christian Catholic Church, and there were 59 individuals (or about 0.99% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There were 4 individuals (or about 0.07% of the population) who were Jewish, and 82 (or about 1.37% of the population) who were Muslim. There were 6 individuals who were Buddhist and 4 individuals who belonged to another church. 205 (or about 3.42% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostics or atheists, and 602 individuals (or about 10.05% of the population) did not answer the question. There is an English Church in Zermatt that was founded in 1870. The Intercontinental Church Society (ICS) provide Anglican chaplains for the English Church for English speakers who work, study or travel overseas.


title: Zermatt

text: In Zermatt about 1,988 or (33.2%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 470 or (7.8%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a "Fachhochschule"). Of the 470 who completed tertiary schooling, 51.1% were Swiss men, 21.1% were Swiss women, 14.0% were non-Swiss men and 13.8% were non-Swiss women.


title: Zermatt

text: During the 2010-2011 school year there were a total of 677 students in the Zermatt school system. The education system in the Canton of Valais allows young children to attend one year of non-obligatory Kindergarten. During that school year, there 6 kindergarten classes (KG1 or KG2) and 106 kindergarten students. The canton's school system requires students to attend six years of primary school. In Zermatt there were a total of 24 classes and 458 students in the primary school. The secondary school program consists of three lower, obligatory years of schooling (orientation classes), followed by three to five years of optional, advanced schools. There were 219 lower secondary students who attended school in Zermatt. All the upper secondary students attended school in another municipality.


title: Zermatt

text: , there were 98 students in Zermatt who came from another municipality, while 23 residents attended schools outside the municipality.


title: Zermatt

text: In 2014 the crime rate, of the over 200 crimes listed in the Swiss Criminal Code (running from murder, robbery and assault to accepting bribes and election fraud), in Zermatt was 56.3 per thousand residents. This rate is only 68.7% of the cantonal rate. During the same period, the rate of drug crimes was 7 per thousand residents. This rate is about one and a half times greater than the rate in the district, but is only 68.0% of the rate in the canton and is only 70.7% of the national rate. The rate of violations of immigration, visa and work permit laws was 0.5 per thousand residents. This rate is lower than average, only 71.4% of the low rate in the district and is only 14.3% of the rate in the canton and 10.2% of the rate for the entire country.


title: Papier-mâché

text: Papier-mâché (, ; , literally "chewed paper") is a composite material consisting of paper pieces or pulp, sometimes reinforced with textiles, bound with an adhesive, such as glue, starch, or wallpaper paste.


title: Papier-mâché

text: Papier-mâché sculptures are used as an economical building material for a variety of traditional and ceremonial activities, as well as in arts and crafts.


title: Papier-mâché

text: There are two methods to prepare papier-mâché. The first method makes use of paper strips glued together with adhesive, and the other uses paper pulp obtained by soaking or boiling paper to which glue is then added.


title: Papier-mâché

text: With the first method, a form for support is needed on which to glue the paper strips. With the second method, it is possible to shape the pulp directly inside the desired form. In both methods, reinforcements with wire, chicken wire, lightweight shapes, balloons or textiles may be needed.


title: Papier-mâché

text: The traditional method of making papier-mâché adhesive is to use a mixture of water and flour or other starch, mixed to the consistency of heavy cream. Other adhesives can be used if thinned to a similar texture, such as polyvinyl acetate (PVA) based glues (often sold as wood glue or craft glue). Adding oil of cloves or other preservatives, such as salt, to the mixture reduces the chances of the product developing mold.


title: Papier-mâché

text: For the paper strips method, the paper is cut or torn into strips, and soaked in the paste until saturated. The saturated pieces are then placed onto the surface and allowed to dry slowly. The strips may be placed on an "armature", or skeleton, often of wire mesh over a structural frame, or they can be placed on an object to create a cast. Oil or grease can be used as a release agent if needed. Once dried, the resulting material can be cut, sanded and/or painted, and waterproofed by painting with a suitable water-repelling paint. Before painting any product of papier-mâché, the glue must be fully dried, otherwise mold will form and the product will rot from the inside out.


title: Papier-mâché

text: For the pulp method, the paper is left in water at least overnight to soak, or boiled in abundant water until the paper breaks down to a pulp. The excess water is drained, an adhesive is added and the papier-mâché applied to a form or, especially for smaller or simpler objects, sculpted to shape.


title: Papier-mâché

text: The Chinese during the Han dynasty appeared to be the first to use papier-mâché around 200 AD, not long after they learned how to make paper. They employed the technique to make items such as warrior helmets, mirror cases, snuff boxes, or ceremonial masks.


title: Papier-mâché

text: In ancient Egypt, coffins and death masks were often made from cartonnage—layers of papyrus or linen covered with plaster.


title: Papier-mâché

text: In Persia, papier-mâché has been used to manufacture small painted boxes, trays, étagères and cases. Japan and China also produced laminated paper articles using papier-mâché. In Japan and India, papier-mâché was used to add decorative elements to armor and shields.


title: Papier-mâché

text: In Kashmir India, papier-mâché has been used to manufacture small painted boxes, bowls lined with metals, trays, étagères and cases. It remains highly marketed in India and Pakistan and is a part of the luxury ornamental handicraft market.


title: Papier-mâché

text: Starting around 1725 in Europe, gilded papier-mâché began to appear as a low-cost alternative to similarly treated plaster or carved wood in architecture. Henry Clay of Birmingham, England, patented a process for treating laminated sheets of paper with linseed oil to produce waterproof panels in 1772. These sheets were used for building coach-door panels as well as for other structural uses. Theodore Jennens patented a process in 1847 for steaming and pressing these laminated sheets into various shapes, which were then used to manufacture trays, chair backs, and structural panels, usually laid over a wood or metal armature for strength. The papier-mâché was smoothed and lacquered, or given a pearl-shell finish. The industry lasted through the 19th century. Russia had a thriving industry in ornamental papier-mâché. A large assortment of painted Russian papier-mâché items appear in a Tiffany & Co. catalog from 1893.


title: Papier-mâché

text: Martin Travers, the English ecclesiastical designer, made much use of papier-mâché for his church furnishings in the 1930s.


title: Papier-mâché

text: Papier-mâché has been used for doll heads, starting as early as 1540, molded in two parts from a mixture of paper pulp, clay, and plaster, and then glued together, with the head then smoothed, painted and varnished.


title: Papier-mâché

text: Cartonería or papier-mâché sculpture is a traditional handcraft in Mexico. The papier-mâché works are also called "carton piedra" (rock cardboard) for the rigidness of the final product. These sculptures today are generally made for certain yearly celebrations, especially for the Burning of Judas during Holy Week and various decorative items for Day of the Dead. However, they also include piñatas, mojigangas, masks, dolls and more made for various other occasions. There is also a significant market for collectors as well. Papier-mâché was introduced into Mexico during the colonial period, originally to make items for church. Since then, the craft has developed, especially in central Mexico. In the 20th century, the creation of works by Mexico City artisans Pedro Linares and Carmen Caballo Sevilla were recognized as works of art with patrons such as Diego Rivera. The craft has become less popular with more recent generations, but various government and cultural institutions work to preserve it.


title: Papier-mâché

text: One common item made in the 19th century in America was the paper canoe, most famously made by Waters & Sons of Troy, New York. The invention of the continuous sheet paper machine allows paper sheets to be made of any length, and this made an ideal material for building a seamless boat hull. The paper of the time was significantly stretchier than modern paper, especially when damp, and this was used to good effect in the manufacture of paper boats. A layer of thick, dampened paper was placed over a hull mold and tacked down at the edges. A layer of glue was added, allowed to dry, and sanded down. Additional layers of paper and glue could be added to achieve the desired thickness, and cloth could be added as well to provide additional strength and stiffness. The final product was trimmed, reinforced with wooden strips at the keel and gunwales to provide stiffness, and waterproofed. Paper racing shells were highly competitive during the late 19th century. Few examples of paper boats survived. One of the best known paper boats was the canoe, the "Maria Theresa", used by Nathaniel Holmes Bishop to travel from New York to Florida in 1874–75. An account of his travels was published in the book "Voyage of the Paper Canoe".


title: Papier-mâché

text: Papier-mâché panels were used in the late 19th century and early 20th century to produce lightweight domes, used primarily for observatories. The domes were constructed over a wooden or iron framework, and the first ones were made by the same manufacturer that made the early paper boats, Waters & Sons. The domes used in observatories had to be light in weight so that they could easily be rotated to position the telescope opening in any direction, and large enough so that it could cover the large refractor telescopes in use at the time.


title: Papier-mâché

text: With modern plastics and composites taking over the decorative and structural roles that papier-mâché played in the past, papier-mâché has become less of a commercial product. There are exceptions, such as Micarta, a modern paper composite, and traditional applications such as the piñata. It is still used in cases where the ease of construction and low cost are important, such as in arts and crafts.


title: Papier-mâché

text: Papier-mâché is commonly used for large, temporary sculptures such as Carnival floats. A basic structure of wood, metal and metal wire mesh, such as poultry netting, is covered in papier-mâché. Once dried, details are added. The papier-mâché is then sanded and painted. Carnival floats can be very large and comprise a number of characters, props and scenic elements, all organized around a chosen theme. They can also accommodate several dozen people, including the operators of the mechanisms. The floats can have movable parts, like the facial features of a character, or its limbs. It is not unusual for local professional architects, engineers, painters, sculptors and ceramists to take part in the design and construction of the floats. New Orleans Mardi Gras float maker Blaine Kern, operator of the Mardi Gras World float museum, brings Carnival float artists from Italy to work on his floats.


title: Papier-mâché

text: Creating papier-mâché masks is common among elementary school children and craft lovers. Either one's own face or a balloon can be used as a mold. This is common during Halloween time as a facial mask complements the costume.


title: Papier-mâché

text: Papier-mâché is an economical building material for both sets and costume elements. It is also employed in puppetry.


title: Papier-mâché

text: Papier-mâché was used in a number of firearms as a material to form sabots. Despite the extremely high pressures and temperatures in the bore of a firearm, papier-mâché proved strong enough to contain the pressure, and push a sub-caliber projectile out of the barrel with a high degree of accuracy. Papier-mâché sabots were used in everything from small arms, such as the Dreyse needle gun, up to artillery, such as the Schenkl projectile.


title: Papier-mâché

text: During World War II, military aircraft fuel tanks were constructed out of plastic-impregnated paper and used to extend the range or loiter time of aircraft. These tanks were plumbed to the regular fuel system via detachable fittings and dropped from the aircraft when the fuel was expended, allowing short-range aircraft such as fighters to accompany long-range aircraft such as bombers on longer missions as protection forces. Two types of paper tanks were used, a 200-gallon (758 L) conformal fuel tank made by the United States for the Republic P-47 Thunderbolt, and a 108-gallon (409 L) cylindrical drop tank made by the British and used by the P-47 and the North American P-51 Mustang.


title: Papier-mâché

text: From about 1915 in World War I, the British were beginning to counter the highly effective sniping of the Germans. Among the techniques the British developed was to employ papier-mâché figures resembling soldiers to draw sniper fire. Some were equipped with an apparatus that produced smoke from a cigarette, to increase the realism of the effect. Bullet holes in the decoys were used to determine the position of enemy snipers who had fired the shots. Very high success rates were claimed for this experiment.


title: Yammer

text: Yammer () is an enterprise social networking service that is part of the Microsoft 365 family of products. It is used mainly for private communication within organizations but is also used for networks spanning various organizations. Access to a Yammer network is determined by a user's Internet domain so that only individuals with approved email addresses may join their respective networks.


title: Yammer

text: The service began as an internal communication system for the genealogy website Geni.com, and was launched as an independent product in 2008. Microsoft later acquired Yammer in 2012 for US$1.2 billion. Currently Yammer is included in all enterprise plans of Microsoft 365.


title: Yammer

text: In 2008, Yammer was built as an internal feature for Geni by David O. Sacks. After 6 months of use at Geni, Sacks brought Yammer to TechCrunch50 to showcase its abilities and launch the product as an independent service away from Geni. Yammer won top prize at TechCrunch50, which allowed them to seed more money into the project. It was determined early on that a corporate email address would be required to use Yammer.


title: Yammer

text: In 2009, Yammer went through its first redesign. The main feature set included profiles, profile photos for groups, following suggestions, and a product called 'YammerFox', which was an extension for Firefox that popped up an alert to the end user when a message was received.


title: Yammer

text: In 2010, new integrations were launched in the application, such as polls, chat, events, links, topics, Q&A, and ideas. Yammer also launched their own app store which included Crocodoc and Zendesk. By this time, Yammer had grown to over 1 million total users on the platform.


title: Yammer

text: In 2011, Yammer made the move from Scala back to Java for their real-time work due to the complexity of rolling out Scala. Yammer Notifications was released as a replacement to YammerFox. During this period, Yammer grew its userbase to 4 million total users.


title: Yammer

text: In 2012, Yammer purchased OneDrum. This acquisition allowed Yammer to implement real-time document editing, as well as document edit history. Yammer was then purchased by Microsoft for US$1.2 billion. Microsoft announced that the Yammer team would be incorporated into the Microsoft Office division, but would continue to report to Sacks.


title: Yammer

text: In 2013, Microsoft integrated Yammer into Dynamics CRM and pushed the Yammer subscription into their Office 365 enterprise plans. In 2014, Microsoft announced that Yammer development was being moved into the Office 365 development team, and Sacks announced that he was leaving Microsoft and Yammer. Yammer also allowed login through Office 365, as well as plans to have Yammer show up in the Office 365 header for selection by end users.


title: Yammer

text: In 2015, Yammer removed several features related to how it worked with SharePoint, including support for SharePoint Server 2013. There was renewed focus on the Yammer Embed Feed.


title: Yammer

text: In 2016, Yammer removed the Yammer Enterprise Plan, due to a shift in using the more general Office 365 subscription structure. They also announced that Yammer would integrate with Office 365 Groups as well as allow end users the ability to create and edit Word, PowerPoint, and Excel documents using Office Online.


title: Yammer

text: In 2019, Microsoft announced "the new Yammer", which featured a redesign based on Microsoft's Fluent Design System.


title: Yammer

text: In November, they announced full integration into Microsoft Teams, Microsoft's competitor product to Slack.


title: Exploratory data analysis

text: In statistics, exploratory data analysis (EDA) is an approach of analyzing data sets to summarize their main characteristics, often using statistical graphics and other data visualization methods. A statistical model can be used or not, but primarily EDA is for seeing what the data can tell us beyond the formal modeling and thereby contrasts traditional hypothesis testing. Exploratory data analysis has been promoted by John Tukey since 1970 to encourage statisticians to explore the data, and possibly formulate hypotheses that could lead to new data collection and experiments. EDA is different from initial data analysis (IDA), which focuses more narrowly on checking assumptions required for model fitting and hypothesis testing, and handling missing values and making transformations of variables as needed. EDA encompasses IDA.


title: Exploratory data analysis

text: Tukey defined data analysis in 1961 as: "Procedures for analyzing data, techniques for interpreting the results of such procedures, ways of planning the gathering of data to make its analysis easier, more precise or more accurate, and all the machinery and results of (mathematical) statistics which apply to analyzing data."


title: Exploratory data analysis

text: Tukey's championing of EDA encouraged the development of statistical computing packages, especially S at Bell Labs. The S programming language inspired the systems S-PLUS and R. This family of statistical-computing environments featured vastly improved dynamic visualization capabilities, which allowed statisticians to identify outliers, trends and patterns in data that merited further study.


title: Exploratory data analysis

text: Tukey's EDA was related to two other developments in statistical theory: robust statistics and nonparametric statistics, both of which tried to reduce the sensitivity of statistical inferences to errors in formulating statistical models. Tukey promoted the use of five number summary of numerical data—the two extremes (maximum and minimum), the median, and the quartiles—because these median and quartiles, being functions of the empirical distribution are defined for all distributions, unlike the mean and standard deviation; moreover, the quartiles and median are more robust to skewed or heavy-tailed distributions than traditional summaries (the mean and standard deviation). The packages S, S-PLUS, and R included routines using resampling statistics, such as Quenouille and Tukey's jackknife and Efron bootstrap, which are nonparametric and robust (for many problems).


title: Exploratory data analysis

text: Exploratory data analysis, robust statistics, nonparametric statistics, and the development of statistical programming languages facilitated statisticians' work on scientific and engineering problems. Such problems included the fabrication of semiconductors and the understanding of communications networks, which concerned Bell Labs. These statistical developments, all championed by Tukey, were designed to complement the analytic theory of testing statistical hypotheses, particularly the Laplacian tradition's emphasis on exponential families.


title: Exploratory data analysis

text: John W. Tukey wrote the book "Exploratory Data Analysis" in 1977. Tukey held that too much emphasis in statistics was placed on statistical hypothesis testing (confirmatory data analysis); more emphasis needed to be placed on using data to suggest hypotheses to test. In particular, he held that confusing the two types of analyses and employing them on the same set of data can lead to systematic bias owing to the issues inherent in testing hypotheses suggested by the data.


title: Exploratory data analysis

text: Many EDA techniques have been adopted into data mining. They are also being taught to young students as a way to introduce them to statistical thinking.


title: Exploratory data analysis

text: There are a number of tools that are useful for EDA, but EDA is characterized more by the attitude taken than by particular techniques.


title: Exploratory data analysis

text: The Open University course "Statistics in Society" (MDST 242), took the above ideas and merged them with Gottfried Noether's work, which introduced statistical inference via coin-tossing and the median test.


title: Exploratory data analysis

text: Findings from EDA are orthogonal to the primary analysis task. To illustrate, consider an example from Cook et al. where the analysis task is to find the variables which best predict the tip that a dining party will give to the waiter. The variables available in the data collected for this task are: the tip amount, total bill, payer gender, smoking/non-smoking section, time of day, day of the week, and size of the party. The primary analysis task is approached by fitting a regression model where the tip rate is the response variable. The fitted model is


title: Exploratory data analysis

text: which says that as the size of the dining party increases by one person (leading to a higher bill), the tip rate will decrease by 1%, on average.


title: Exploratory data analysis

text: What is learned from the plots is different from what is illustrated by the regression model, even though the experiment was not designed to investigate any of these other trends. The patterns found by exploring the data suggest hypotheses about tipping that may not have been anticipated in advance, and which could lead to interesting follow-up experiments where the hypotheses are formally stated and tested by collecting new data.


title: Exploratory data analysis

text: Cook, D. and Swayne, D.F. (with A. Buja, D. Temple Lang, H. Hofmann, H. Wickham, M. Lawrence) (2007-12-12). Interactive and Dynamic Graphics for Data Analysis: With R and GGobi. Springer. ISBN 9780387717616.


title: Exploratory data analysis

text: Andrienko, N & Andrienko, G (2005) Exploratory Analysis of Spatial and Temporal Data. A Systematic Approach. Springer. ISBN 3-540-25994-5


title: Exploratory data analysis

text: Hoaglin, D C; Mosteller, F & Tukey, John Wilder (Eds) (1985). Exploring Data Tables, Trends and Shapes. ISBN 978-0-471-09776-1.


title: Exploratory data analysis

text: Hoaglin, D C; Mosteller, F & Tukey, John Wilder (Eds) (1983). Understanding Robust and Exploratory Data Analysis. ISBN 978-0-471-09777-8.


title: Exploratory data analysis

text: Young, F. W. Valero-Mora, P. and Friendly M. (2006) Visual Statistics: Seeing your data with Dynamic Interactive Graphics. Wiley ISBN 978-0-471-68160-1 Jambu M. (1991) Exploratory and Multivariate Data Analysis. Academic Press ISBN 0123800900 S. H. C. DuToit, A. G. W. Steyn, R. H. Stumpf (1986) Graphical Exploratory Data Analysis. Springer ISBN 978-1-4612-9371-2


title: Melanie Shatner

text: Shatner was born on August 1, 1964 in Los Angeles, California. She is the youngest daughter of actors William Shatner and Gloria Rand.


title: Melanie Shatner

text: Shatner had the major role in the "Subspecies" film series as Becky Morgan, sister of the protagonist, Michelle Morgan.


title: Melanie Shatner

text: She has been married to actor Joel Gretsch since September 5, 1999. They have two daughters, Kaya (born 2002) and Willow (born 2005).


title: Emergency (2022 film)

text: Emergency is a 2022 American comedy-drama thriller film directed by Carey Williams from a screenplay by KD Dávila. It is a feature-length adaptation of Williams and Dávila's 2018 short film of the same name. It premiered at the 2022 Sundance Film Festival. Distributed by Amazon Studios, it had a limited release on May 20, 2022, followed by an Amazon Prime release on May 27, 2022.


title: Emergency (2022 film)

text: Best friends and college students Sean and Kunle prepare to become the first black men to complete the "Legendary Tour", a practice of visiting seven frat parties in one night. Along with their Latino friend and roommate Carlos, they discover the unconscious body of Emma, an underaged white woman, in their living room. Sean argues that if they call the police, the color of their skin would be enough to raise suspicion. Kunle convinces the group to take Emma to a hospital ten minutes away. Meanwhile, Emma's sister Maddy and her friends Alice and Rafael start to look for her.


title: Emergency (2022 film)

text: The three friends first try an alternate option: dumping Emma's body off outside of one of the parties. As Kunle leaves them to be the lookout, an incident leads several students to chase him off the property and throw objects at their car, shattering a tail light. Maddy uses a phone tracker app to find Emma's location. Carlos accidentally gives Emma a bottle of alcoholic "Death Punch", mistaking it for a sports drink. Sean is unable to convince his relative to lend him his car. Emma regains consciousness and begins to scream at the sight of being inside a stranger's vehicle. She breaks Carlos's nose and kicks Kunle in the face, causing them to crash the car. Emma then runs off into the woods and the three of then chase after her. They find her passed out in a tree and bring her back into their vehicle as Maddy, Alice, and Rafael find them.


title: Emergency (2022 film)

text: Maddy attacks Sean and Kunle with a branch and accidentally pepper-sprays herself. Carlos and Rafael, who reveal they are cousins, calm the rest of the group down and explain the situation, though Maddy remains skeptical, asking Emma if any of them assaulted her. Carlos asks how they were able to track Emma, and Maddy reveals that her phone was tucked into her bra, convincing the group that they were truly trying to help her. A scared Sean abandons the group and goes to the "Underground", the last frat party of the "Legendary Tour". Emma begins to overdose as Carlos drives everyone to the hospital. As Kunle performs CPR to save Emma's life, the group is chased by the police, who believe they have kidnapped Emma. They are stopped by the police just as they make it to the ER. The police point a gun at Kunle, the only black man in the car. Alice later explains the situation to the police. Kunle and Carlos are allowed to leave. A white police officer tells Kunle that they should have just called the police in the first place. Sean and Kunle reunite and make up.