title: Right to die

text: The right to die movement in the United States began with the case of Karen Quinlan in 1975 and continues to raise bioethical questions of one's quality of life and the legal process of death. Karen Quinlan, 21, lost consciousness after consuming alcohol and tranquilizers at a party. She soon began to experience respiratory problems, which then prevented oxygen from flowing to her brain. That led her to slip into a comatose state in which a respirator and a feeding tube were used to keep her alive and breathing. Quinlan did not have a proxy or living will and had not expressed her wishes if something ever happened to her to those around her, which made it difficult to decide what the next step should be.


title: Right to die

text: Karen Quinlan's parents understood that their daughter would never wake up and that prolonging her life may be more damaging and it would not be of quality life. Her father sought out the right to be Karen's legal guardian and petitioned for the removal of the respirator that was keeping her alive. The court, however, argued that the removal of the ventilator, which would lead to Karen's death, would be considered unlawful, unnatural, and unethical. Quinlan's lawyer made the counterargument that the removal of the respirator would allow Karen to have a natural death, which is natural and ethical. The Quinlans won the court case and were appointed as the legal guardians of their daughter. The respirator was removed in 1976, but Karen continued to live without the ventilator until 1985. The case continues to raise bioethical questions of one's quality of life and the legal process of death. It also brings up many important issues that are still being addressed to this day. One of the critical points that the Quinlan case brings up is the patient's right to deny or withdraw treatment. Cases in which the patient rejected or withdrew treatment were then unheard of and went against medical ethics in preserving one's life. Debates on allowing patients the right to self-determination were controversial, and they would be evaluated for the next couple of decades from state to state. The case also brought up whether family members and those who are close to the patient are allowed in the decision-making process. Since Karen had no written documentation, voiced no decision, and appointed no proxy, a lengthy legal battle was caused between the Quinlan family and the state in determining Karen's best interest and determining if she would want to live or die. That had a significant influence on the use and establishment of advance directives, oral directives, proxies, and living wills.


title: Right to die

text: Another major case that further propagated the right to die movement and the use of living wills, advance directives and use of a proxy was "Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Department of Health". In 1983, Nancy Cruzan had a car accident, which left her permanently in a vegetative state. Her status as an adult and lack of an advance directive, living will, or proxy led to a long legal battle for Cruzan's family in petitioning for the removal of her feeding tube, which was keeping her alive since the accident. Nancy had mentioned to a friend that under no circumstances would she want to continue to live if she were ever in a vegetative state, but this was not a strong enough statement to remove the feeding tube. Eventually, the Cruzan family won the case and had their daughter's tube removed. The case brought great debate if the right to die should be approved from state to state or as a whole nation.


title: Right to die

text: The Terri Schiavo case occurred between 1990 and 2005. This case was controversial due to a disagreement between Terri's immediate family members and her husband. In the Quinlan and Cruzan cases, the family was able to make a unanimous decision on the state of their daughters. Schiavo suffered from a cardiac arrest which led to her collapse and soon after began to have trouble breathing. The lack of oxygen to her brain caused irreversible brain damage, leaving her in a vegetative state and required a feeding tube and ventilator to keep her alive. Terri left no advance directive or had a discussion with her parents or husband about what she may have wanted if something were to happen to her. Soon after, her husband was appointed as her legal guardian.


title: Right to die

text: Years later, her husband decided to remove Terri's feeding tube since the chances of her waking up were slim to none. Terri's family, however, argued against this decision and brought this case to court. The case was very turbulent and occurred over some years and involved the state and its legislators before a decision was made. This brought up bioethical debates on discontinuation of Schiavo's life vs. allowing her to continue living in a permanent vegetative state. Those who were for preserving Terri's life stated that removing the tube would be ethically immoral since they do not know what she would have wanted. They challenged her physical and mental state and stated that she might have some consciousness; thus she deserved to continue living. Those for removing the tube argued for self-determination and that her quality of life was diminished. The Schiavo case is the most recent and significant right to die case that propagates the thought of having an advance directive or living will. It also further looks into other complications that can arise, such as family disagreements, which should have been accounted for when dealing with a right to die case.


title: Right to die

text: As the health of citizens is considered a police power left for individual states to regulate, it was not until 1997 that the US Supreme Court made a ruling on the issue of assisted suicide and one's right to die. That year, the Supreme Court heard two appeals arguing that New York ("Vacco v. Quill") and Washington ("Washington v. Glucksberg") statutes that made physician-assisted suicide a felony violated the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. In a unanimous vote, the Court held that there was no constitutional right to physician-assisted suicide and upheld state bans on assisted suicide. While in New York this has maintained statutes banning physician-assisted suicide, the Court's decision also left it open for other states to decide whether they would allow physician-assisted suicide or not.


title: Right to die

text: Since 1994, the following states in the US have passed assisted suicide laws: Oregon (Death with Dignity Act, 1994), Washington (Death with Dignity Act, 2008), Vermont (Patient Choice and Control at the End of Life Act, 2013), California (End of Life Option Act, 2015), Colorado (End of Life Options Act, 2016), District of Columbia (D.C. Death with Dignity Act, 2016), Hawaii (Our Care Our Choice Act, 2018), Maine (Death with Dignity Act, 2019), New Jersey (Aid in Dying for the Terminally Ill Act, 2019), and New Mexico (Elizabeth Whitefield End of Life Options Act, 2021) passed legislation that provides a protocol for the practice of physician-assisted suicide. The law in these states allows terminally ill adult patients to seek lethal medication from their physicians. In 2009, the Montana Supreme Court ruled that nothing in state law prohibits physician-assisted suicide and provides legal protection for physicians in the case that they prescribe lethal medication upon patient request. In California, the governor signed a controversial physician-assisted-suicide bill, the California End of Life Option Act, in October 2015 that passed during a special legislative session intended to address Medi-Cal funding, after it had been defeated during the regular legislative session.


title: Right to die

text: In early 2014, New Mexico Second District Judge Nan Nash ruled that terminally ill patients have the right to aid in dying under the state constitution, i.e., making it legal for a doctor to prescribe a lethal dose of medication to a terminally ill patient. The ultimate decision will be made with the outcome of New Mexico's Attorney General's appeal to the ruling. Organizations have been continuously pushing for the legalization of self-determination in terminally ill patients in states where the right to ending one's life is prohibited.


title: Right to die

text: The American Medical Association (AMA) is the national association that advocates for physicians and provides guidance for the best practices for delivering health care. The AMA is responsible for maintaining the Code of Ethics, which consists of two parts: the Principles of Medical Ethics and Opinions of the AMA's Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs. The role of physicians in patient's right to die is debated within the medical community, however the AMA provided an opinion statement on the matter.


title: Right to die

text: Patients who are terminally ill or suffering from debilitating illness may decide that they prefer to die rather than continue suffering. Physicians commit themselves to "do no harm" and by participating in assisted suicide physicians would inherently be causing harm to their patients. Rather than participating in assisted suicide, physicians should provide palliative care to minimize patient suffering. These are recommendations for physicians from the Code of Medical Ethics Opinion 5.7 regarding end of life care:


title: Right to die

text: Hinduism accepts the right to die for those who are tormented by terminal diseases or those who have no desire, no ambition, and no responsibilities remaining. Death, however, is allowed by non-violent means such as fasting to the point of starvation (Prayopavesa). Jainism has a similar practice named "Santhara". Other religious views on suicide vary in their tolerance and include denial of the right as well as condemnation of the act. In the Catholic faith, suicide is considered a grave sin.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: The Palazzo Vecchio ( "Old Palace") is the town hall of Florence, Italy. It overlooks the Piazza della Signoria, which holds a copy of Michelangelo's "David" statue, and the gallery of statues in the adjacent Loggia dei Lanzi.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: Originally called the "Palazzo della Signoria", after the Signoria of Florence, the ruling body of the Republic of Florence, this building was also known by several other names: "Palazzo del Popolo", "Palazzo dei Priori", and "Palazzo Ducale", in accordance with the varying use of the palace during its long history. The building acquired its current name when the Medici duke's residence was moved across the Arno River to the Palazzo Pitti.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: In 1299, the commune and people of Florence decided to build a palace that would be worthy of the city's importance, and that would be more secure and defensible in times of turbulence for the magistrates of the commune. Arnolfo di Cambio, the architect of the Duomo and the Santa Croce church, began construction upon the ruins of "Palazzo dei Fanti" and "Palazzo dell'Esecutore di Giustizia", once owned by the Uberti family. Giovanni Villani (1276–1348) wrote in his "Nuova Cronica" that the Uberti were "rebels of Florence and Ghibellines", stating that the palazzo was built to ensure that the Uberti family homes would never be rebuilt on the same location.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: The cubical building is made of solid rusticated stonework, with two rows of two-lighted Gothic windows, each with a trefoil arch. In the 15th century, Michelozzo di Bartolomeo Michelozzi added decorative bas-reliefs of the cross and the Florentine lily in the spandrels between the trefoils. The building is crowned with projecting crenellated battlement, supported by small arches and corbels. Under the arches are a repeated series of nine painted coats of arms of the Florentine republic. Some of these arches can be used as embrasures ("spiombati") for dropping heated liquids or rocks on invaders.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: The solid, massive building is enhanced by the simple tower with its clock. Giovanni Villani wrote that Arnolfo di Cambio incorporated the ancient tower of the Foraboschi family (the tower then known as "La Vacca" or "The Cow") into the new tower's facade as its substructure; this is why the rectangular tower (height 94 m) is not directly centered in the building. This tower contains two small cells, that, at different times, imprisoned Cosimo de' Medici (the Elder) (1435) and Girolamo Savonarola (1498). The tower is named after its designer "Torre d'Arnolfo". The tower's large, one-handed clock was originally constructed in 1353 by the Florentine Nicolò Bernardo, but was replaced in 1667 with a replica made by Georg Lederle from the German town of Augsburg (Italians refer to him as Giorgio Lederle of Augusta) and installed by Vincenzo Viviani.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: Duke Cosimo I de' Medici (later to become grand duke) moved his official seat from the Medici palazzo in via Larga to the Palazzo della Signoria in May 1540, signalling the security of Medici power in Florence. When Cosimo later removed to Palazzo Pitti, he officially renamed his former palace to the "Palazzo Vecchio", the "Old Palace", although the adjacent town square, the "Piazza della Signoria", still bears the original name. Cosimo commissioned Giorgio Vasari to build an above-ground walkway, the Vasari corridor, from the Palazzo Vecchio, through the Uffizi, over the Ponte Vecchio to the Palazzo Pitti. Cosimo I also moved the seat of government to the Uffizi.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: The palace gained new importance as the seat of united Italy's provisional government from 1865 to 1871, at a moment when Florence had become the temporary capital of the Kingdom of Italy. Although most of the Palazzo Vecchio is now a museum, it remains as the symbol and center of local government; since 1872 it has housed the office of the mayor of Florence, and it is the seat of the City Council. The tower currently has three bells; the oldest was cast in the 13th century.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: Above the front entrance door, there is a notable ornamental marble frontispiece, dating from 1528. In the middle, flanked by two gilded lions, is the Monogram of Christ, surrounded by a glory, above the text ("in Latin"): "Rex Regum et Dominus Dominantium" (translation: "King of Kings and Lord of Lords". This text dates from 1851 and does not replace an earlier text by Savonarola as mentioned in guidebooks. Between 1529 and 1851 they were concealed behind a large shield with the grand-ducal coat of arms.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: Michelangelo's David also stood at the entrance from its completion in 1504 to 1873, when it was moved to the accademia Gallery. A replica erected in 1910 now stands in its place, flanked by Baccio Bandinelli's Hercules and Cacus.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: The first courtyard was designed in 1453 by Michelozzo. In the lunettes, high around the courtyard, are crests of the church and city guilds. In the center, the porphyry fountain is by Battista del Tadda. The "Putto with Dolphin" on top of the basin is a copy of the original by Andrea del Verrocchio (1476), now on display on the second floor of the palace. This small statue was originally placed in the garden of the Villa Medici at Careggi. The water, flowing through the nose of the dolphin, is brought here by pipes from the Boboli Gardens.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: The frescoes on the walls are vedute of the cities of the Austrian Habsburg monarchy, painted in 1565 by Giorgio Vasari for the wedding celebration of Francesco I de' Medici, the eldest son of Cosimo I de' Medici, to Archduchess Johanna of Austria, sister of the Emperor Maximilian II. Amongst the cities depicted are Graz, Innsbruck, Linz, Vienna, Bratislava (Pozsony), Prague, Hall in Tirol, Freiburg im Breisgau and Konstanz. Some were damaged over the course of time.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: The harmoniously proportioned columns, at one time smooth, and untouched, were at the same time richly decorated with gilt stuccoes.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: The second courtyard, also called "The Customs", contains the massive pillars built in 1494 by Cronaca that sustains the great ""Salone dei Cinquecento"" on the second floor.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: The third courtyard was used mainly for offices of the city. Between the first and second courtyard the massive and monumental stairs by Vasari lead up to the ""Salone dei Cinquecento"".


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: The "Salone dei Cinquecento" ('Hall of the Five Hundred') is the most imposing chamber, with a length of 52 m (170 ft) and width of 23 m (75 ft). It was built in 1494 by Simone del Pollaiolo, on commission of Savonarola who, replacing the Medici after their exile as the spiritual leader of the Republic, wanted it as a seat of the Grand Council ("Consiglio Maggiore") consisting of 500 members.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: Later the hall was enlarged by Giorgio Vasari so that Grand Duke Cosimo I could hold his court in this chamber. During this transformation, famous (but unfinished) works were lost, including the "Battle of Cascina" by Michelangelo, and the "Battle of Anghiari" by Leonardo da Vinci. Leonardo was commissioned in 1503 to paint one long wall with a battle scene celebrating a famous Florentine victory. He was always trying new methods and materials and decided to mix wax into his pigments. Da Vinci had finished painting part of the wall, but it was not drying fast enough, so he brought in braziers stoked with hot coals to try to hurry the process. As others watched in horror, the wax in the fresco melted under the intense heat and the colors ran down the walls to puddle on the floor. A legend exists that Giorgio Vasari, wanting to preserve Da Vinci's work, had a false wall built over the top of "The Battle of Anghiari" before painting his fresco. Attempts made to find Da Vinci's original work behind the Vasari fresco have so far been inconclusive.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: Michelangelo never proceeded beyond the preparatory drawings for the fresco he was commissioned to paint on the opposite wall. Pope Julius II called him to Rome to paint the Sistine Chapel, and the master's sketches were destroyed by eager young artists who came to study them and took away scraps. The surviving decorations in this hall were made between 1555 and 1572 by Giorgio Vasari and his helpers, among them Livio Agresti from Forlì. They mark the culmination of mannerism and make this hall the showpiece of the palace.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: On the walls are large and expansive frescoes that depict battles and military victories by Florence over Pisa and Siena:


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: The ceiling consists of 39 panels constructed and painted by Vasari and his assistants, representing "Great Episodes from the life of Cosimo I", the quarters of the city, and the city itself. Toward the center is the apotheosis: "Scene of His Glorification as Grand Duke of Florence and Tuscany".


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: On the north side of the hall, illuminated by enormous windows, is the raised stage called the "Udienza", built by Bartolommeo Bandinelli for Cosimo I as a place to receive citizens and ambassadors. Above are frescoes of historical events; among these, that of Boniface VIII receiving the ambassadors of foreign States and, seeing that were all Florentines, saying: "You Florentines are the quintessence."


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: In the niches are sculptures by Bandinelli: in the center the statue of the seated "Leo X" (sculpted assisted by his student Vincenzo de'Rossi), and on the right a statue of "Charles V crowned by Clement VII". The six statues along the walls that represent the "Labors of Hercules" are by de' Rossi.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: In the central niche at the south of the Hall is Michelangelo's noted marble group "The Genius of Victory" (1533–1534), originally intended for the tomb of Julius II. The statue was placed in this hall by Vasari. In 1868 it was removed to the Bargello Museum, but was returned in 1921 by officials.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: At the end of the hall is a small side room without windows. The studiolo was a small secret study designed by Vasari in a manneristic style (1570–1575). The walls and the barrel vault are filled with paintings, stucco and sculptures. Most paintings are by the School of Vasari and represent the four elements: fire, water, earth, and air. The portrait of Cosimo I and his wife Eleonora of Toledo was painted by Bronzino. The delicate bronze sculptures were made by Giambologna and Bartolomeo Ammanati. From a peep-hole, Francesco spied on his ministers and officers during meetings in the Salone dei Cinquecento. Dismantled within decades of its construction, it was re-assembled in the 20th century.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: The other rooms on the first floor are the "Quartieri monumentali". These rooms, the Residence of the Priors and the Quarters of Leo X, are used by the mayor as offices and reception rooms. They are not accessible to the public.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: A staircase designed by Vasari leads to the second floor. This floor contains the Apartments of the Elements, Priori, and Eleonora of Toledo.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: These apartments ("Sala degli Elementi") consist of five rooms (such as the Room of Ceres) and two loggias. The commission for these rooms was originally given by Cosimo I to Giovanni Battista del Tasso. But on his death, the decorations were continued by Vasari and his helpers, working for the first time for the Medicis. These rooms were the private quarters of Cosimo I.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: The walls in the Room of the Elements are filled with allegorical frescoes "Allegories of Water, Fire and Earth" and, on the ceiling, represents "Saturn".


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: The original statue "Boy with a Fish" by Verrocchio is on exhibit in one of the smaller rooms (the copy stands on the fountain in the first courtyard).


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: Named for the fresco on the ceiling. Has a fabulous view of Florence. There is a southeastern view to Piazzale Michelangelo and the Fortress Belvedere. Also visible are the remains of the Church of San Piero Scheraggio.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: This room (the Sala di Ercole) gets its name from the subject of the paintings on the ceiling. Also the tapestries show stories of Hercules. The room contains a "Madonna and Child" and an ebony cabinet called a "stipo" inlaid with semi-precious stones.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: Cosimo the Elder kept a menagerie of lions in a dedicated lion house in the palazzo. He often fought them or baited them against other animals in large festivals for visiting Popes or dignitaries.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: The room is named for the fresco on the ceiling. On the walls are Florentine tapestries made from cartoons by Stradanus (16th century).


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: On the ceiling, the "Triumph of Cybele" and the "Four Seasons". Against the walls are cabinets in tortoise shell and bronze. The floor was made in 1556. From the window one can see the third courtyard.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: The room gets its name from the motif on the ceiling, by Doceno, a pupil of Vasari. On the walls are Florentine tapestries with hunting scenes, from cartoons by Stradanus.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: Beginning in 1540 when Cosimo moved the seat of government here, these rooms were refurbished and richly decorated to be the living quarters of Eleonora.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: This room served as Eleonora's bedchamber and was called the Green Room because of the color of the walls. The decorations on the ceiling are by Ridolfo del Ghirlandaio. A small door in the room indicates the beginning of the Vasari corridor, a passageway to the Palazzo Pitti built by Vasari for Cosimo I.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: The small, richly decorated chapel adjoining the Sala Verde is painted in fresco by the mannerist Angelo Bronzino and includes some of his masterpieces including the Crossing the Red Sea. It was built by Tasso to be Eleonora's private chapel.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: It was named because of the ceiling decoration. At one time it was used for the Ladies-in-waiting at the court of Eleonora di Toledo. It contains "Portraits of Medici Princes" by Sustermans, statues by a Florentine art school and a tapestry by Fevère.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: On the ceiling is the "Coronation of Esther" decorated by Stradanus, with an inscription in honor of Eleonora di Toledo. The room contains a lavabo and two tapestries by


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: On the ceiling "Penelope at the loom", in the frieze, "episodes from the Odyssey". On the walls: "Madonna and Child" and a "Madonna and Child with St. John" by Botticelli.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: This room is dedicated to Virtue as personified by Gualdrada. The ceiling painting of Gualdrado is by the Flemish painter Stradanus, better known under his Italian name Stradanus. Against the wall is a cabinet with Florentine mosaic designs.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: The Audience Chamber or Hall of Justice used to house the meetings of the priors. It contains the oldest decorations in the palace.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: The carved coffer ceiling, laminated with pure gold, is by Giuliano da Maiano (1470–1476). On the portal to the Chapel of the Signoria is an inscription in honor of Christ (1529). The doorway to the Hall of Lilies has marble mouldings sculpted by the brothers Giuliano and Benedetto da Maiano. The inlaid woodwork (intarsia) on the doors was carved by Del Francione and depicts portraits of Dante and Petrarch.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: The large frescoes on the walls portraying the "Stories of Furius Camillus" by Francesco Salviati were made in the middle of the 16th century. Since Salviati had his schooling in the circle around Raphael in Rome, these frescoes are based on Roman models and not typical of Florentine art. Marcus Furius Camillus was a Roman general mentioned in the writings of Plutarch.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: A small doorway leads into the adjoining small chapel dedicated to St. Bernard, containing a reliquary of the Saint. Here the priors used to supply divine aid in the execution of their duties. In this chapel, Girolamo Savonarola said his last prayers before he was hanged on the Piazza della Signoria and his body burned.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: The frescoes on the walls and ceiling, on a background imitating gold mosaic, are by Ridolfo Ghirlandaio. Of particular interest are "The Holy Trinity" on the ceiling and "The Annunciation" on the wall facing the altar. On the altar was a painting representing the "Holy Family" by Mariano Graziadei da Pescia, a pupil of Ridolfo Ghirlandaio. It is now on exhibition in the corridor of the Uffizi Gallery. Instead, there is a good painting of St. Bernard by an unknown artist.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: The carved ceiling of the Hall of the Lilies, as this room is usually called, decorated with "fleur-de-lys", and the "Statue of St. John the Baptist and Putti" are all by Benedetto da Maiano and his brother Giuliano. The golden fleur-de-lys decorations on blue background on the ceiling and three walls refer to the (short-lived) good relations between Florence and the French Crown.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: On the wall are frescoes by Domenico Ghirlandaio, painted in 1482. The apotheosis of St. Zenobius, first patron saint of Florence, was painted with a perspectival illusion of the background. In this background one can see the cathedral, with Giotto's original facade and bell tower. In the lunette above is a bas-relief of the Madonna and Child. This fresco is flanked on both sides by frescoes of famed Romans: on the left "Brutus, Gaius Mucius Scaevola and Camillus", and on the right "Decius, Scipio and Cicero". Medaillons of Roman emperors fill the spandrils between the sections.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: After its lengthy restoration, the (original) statue "Judith and Holofernes" by Donatello was given a prominent place in this room in 1988.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: A door in the east wall leads to the "Stanza della Guardaroba" (Hall of Geographical Maps). This door is flanked by two dark marble pillars, originally from a Roman temple.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: The Hall of Geographical Maps or "Guardaroba" was an ambitious room that set out to represent the known world of the 16th century through the display of a collection of artifacts and murals of cartography, all seen in relation to scientific instruments of time and astronomy. For various reasons, it was not seen to completion, yet the accounts of Giorgio Vasari, the room's designer, detail the proposed purpose and visualisation of the space. The Guardaroba was commissioned by Cosimo I de’ Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany during his major reconstruction of the interior of the Palazzo. Construction of the "guardaroba" began in 1563.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: The idea behind the guardaroba is similar to that of late medieval studioli, which were small private study spaces, containing precious collected artifacts. Many courtly residences possessed similar spaces to the "guardaroba", yet the guardaroba of Palazzo della Signoria is one of the earliest examples that integrates cartography into its decorative elements.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: "Guardaroba" best translates to a type of storage space, or ‘wardrobe’ and its purpose was to house a collection; an early "wunderkammer" of sorts. Evidently, collections of artifacts and precious items existed before the Renaissance, yet it is not until the Renaissance that there consistently appeared collections which were preserved and interpreted, known as wunderkammen. Vasari's account of the program for the guardaroba highlights Cosimo I's instructions to create a space for some of the more precious items in the Medici collection. He had also instructed Vasari to design the space so it was fit for visitors, ultimately becoming a semi-public gallery space.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: Master carpenter Dionigi di Matteo Nigetti (active Florence 1565–79) constructed the finely crafted and carved walnut cabinets and ceiling panels that can still all be found in the room today. Each of the doors was to be decorated with an up-to-date map of a particular region. Vasari called the map murals, Tables of Ptolemy, recognising Claudius Ptolemaeus (AD b.127-d.145) significant contributions to the history and progress of cartography. The responsibility of painting the Tables of Ptolemy was entrusted to renowned cosmographer Egnazio Danti, who was later responsible for the maps in the Vatican Galleria, Hall of Maps. Each map mural, of which there were to be 57 in total, was painted directly onto the cabinet doors, 53 of these Murals remain today. The regions depicted in the map would correspond to a collection of objects and artifacts within that cabinet. The map murals were arranged across the cabinet doors in two horizontal rows representing the hemispheres and navigated most of the perimeter of the room, only interrupted at the doorway and window. A layout of maps in this fashion came to be known as a ‘map cycle’, a term Cosimo I's guardaroba likely initiated. The may cycle is divided into sections of the then known four continents, Europe, Asia, Africa and the Americas. The "guardaroba" was one of the more unusual projects commissioned by Cosimo I and therefore, Vasari wrote concisely on its programme and its progress.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: “"Over the doors of those cupboards within their ornaments, Fra Egnazio has distributed fifty seven pictures about two braccia high and wide in proportion, in which are painted in oils on the wood with the greatest diligence, after the manner of miniatures, the Tables of Ptolemy, all measured with perfect accuracy and corrected after the most recent authorities, with exact charts of navigation and their scales for measuring and degrees, done with supreme diligence; and with these are all the names both ancient and modern...The images of plants and animals are exactly in line with the maps...The terrestrial globe is marked distinctly and it is possible to use it for all the operations of the astrolabe perfectly"” - Giorgio Vasari - Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: As well as the maps on the cabinets, other images adorned the room. Up to 300 portraits of famous people of the day hung around highest perimeters of the walls and would be revealed from beneath green cloth curtains. In between the cabinets doors, were to be mounted natural history drawings of flora and fauna that, as Vasari indicated above, would have been in line with its corresponding regions on the maps in a similar fashion to the objects that are revealed from beneath their corresponding region. The collected artifacts were arranged and maintained by curators and conservators known as guardarobiere, in a similar manner to the role of the contemporary museum.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: The rarer an item, the more attractive it was to the collector and desired for the collection. Objects from the Americas or New World as it was then referred to, were particularly valuable at this time as Italians were not allowed to travel there without permission from Spain or Portugal. Instead, they explored this region vicariously through objects and the Medici possessed a significant collection of artifacts from the Americas, largely collecting featherwork.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: Vasari intended the worldly representation in the "guardaroba" to be seen in relation to the larger cosmos, represented by a celestial sphere in the centre of the room and painted constellations on the ceiling. He also had grand visions of two large globes, a terrestrial and celestial hidden behind a false ceiling that could be lowered impressively via a pulley system into the room below. The room was also to display a copy of the 1484 clock made for Lorenzo de Medici by Lorenzo della Volpaia. An Antonio Santucci (b.? d.1613) armillary sphere that is now at the Florence Museum of the History of Science, was also displayed in the "guardaroba" along with a second, earlier armillary sphere that is now lost. It is the relationships between these objects and maps and the context for which they are shown that produces intended symbolic gestures; the clock, in relation to the maps, in relation to the celestial representations were an attempt to generate an effect of possessed knowledge over all space and time and in the case of the guardaroba, Cosimo I de Medici was to be seen as the possessor and purveyor of this knowledge, generating a narrative of his power.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: A digital reconstruction of the room, as it was designed and described by Giorgio Vasari can be found here.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: This was Machiavelli's office when he was Secretary of the Republic. His polychrome bust in terracotta and his portrait are by Santi di Tito. They are probably modelled on his death mask.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: In the center of the room, on the pedestal is the famous "Winged Boy with a Dolphin" by Verrocchio, brought to this room from the First Courtyard.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: Located in between the first and second floors, these rooms are occupied by Renaissance and Medieval objects given in a bequest by Charles Loeser, an American expat collector and scholar. This collection is one of the most valuable municipal collections for its artistic and historical value. The rooms are located in the old palace, and were renovated in the mid-15th century by Michelozzo. It is the only part of the palace where the original 14th- and 15th-century ceilings are still entirely visible. Cosimo I's mother Maria Salviati lived in these rooms after Cosimo moved the family from Palazzo Medici to the Palazzo Vecchio (at that point Palazzo Ducale).


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: The first room holds a "Madonna con Bambino e san Giovannino", from the school of Lorenzo di Credi, a "Madonna col Bambino" in stucco painted in the Florentine school in the 15th century, a "Madonna in Adoration by Christ with Saint Giovannino" by Jacopo del Sellaio, a "Madonna and Child" attributed to Master of the Griggs Crucifix (15th century), and a "Madonna Enthroned" by the Tuscan school of the 14th century.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: Above the stone steps is a little room that was for a time a studiolo for Cosimo I. The window looks out over Piazza della Signoria and the room is decorated with birds, animals, fishes, and vegetal elements works by Bachiacca.


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: The dining room holds one of the most famous works of the Loeser Collection, "The Portrait of Laura Battiferri" (wife of Bartolomeo Ammannati), by famous Renaissance painter Bronzino around 1555. Adjacent is another Mannerist work, "The Portrait of Ludovico Martelli", by a follower of Pontormo, possibly Michele Tosini. There is also a small sketch on fresco, "Battle of the Knights" for Vasari's "Defeat of the Pisans at the Tower of Saint Vincent", by a student Giovan Francesco Naldini, which used to be displayed on the balcony above the Salone dei Cinquecento by Vasari's complementary monumental work. By the fireplace are two Romanesque sculptures, a capital with an eagle (first half of the 13th century) and a Coronation Head (first half of 12th century).


title: Palazzo Vecchio

text: In the corner room, three Madonna and Children paintings are on display. The first, "Madonna and Child" is by the Master of Saints Flora and Lucilla, from the 14th century. The second, "Madonna and Child with Saint Little Saint John" is a later Renaissance work by Spanish artist Alonso Berruguete from 1514 to 1518, and the third is "Madonna and Child" by prominent Sienese artist Pietro Lorenzetti. This room also holds "Adoring Angel" by Tino di Camaino from around 1321, a "Bust of Saint Antonino" in painted plaster from the 15th century, and an embroidery designed by Raffaellino del Garbo.


title: Simpson family

text: The Simpson family are the fictional characters featured in the animated television series "The Simpsons". The Simpsons are a nuclear family consisting of married couple Homer and Marge and their three children, Bart, Lisa, and Maggie. They live at 742 Evergreen Terrace in the fictional town of Springfield, United States, and they were created by cartoonist Matt Groening, who conceived the characters after his own family members, substituting "Bart" for his own name. The family debuted on Fox on April 19, 1987, in "The Tracey Ullman Show" short "Good Night" and were later spun off into their own series, which debuted on Fox in the U.S. on December 17, 1989.


title: Simpson family

text: Alongside the five main family members, there are a number of other major and minor characters in their family. The most commonly recurring characters are Homer's father Abraham "Grampa" Simpson; Marge's sisters Patty and Selma Bouvier; and the family's two pets, Santa's Little Helper and Snowball II. Other family members include Homer's mother Mona Simpson, Homer's half-brother Herbert Powell, Marge's mother Jacqueline Bouvier, and other minor relatives.


title: Simpson family

text: Groening conceived of the idea for the Simpsons in the lobby of James L. Brooks's office. Brooks had asked Groening to pitch an idea for a series of animated shorts, which Groening initially intended to present as his "Life in Hell" series. However, when Groening realized that animating "Life in Hell" would require the rescinding of publication rights for his life's work, he chose another approach and formulated his version of a dysfunctional family. He named the characters after his own family members – his father Homer, his mother Margaret, and his younger sisters Lisa and Maggie. He substituted "Bart", an anagram of "brat", for his own name, and modeled the character after his older brother, Mark.


title: Simpson family

text: The five family members were given simple designs so that their facial emotions could easily be changed with almost no effort and so that they would be recognizable in silhouette. Groening submitted only basic sketches to the animators and assumed that the figures would be cleaned-up in production. However, the animators merely re-traced his drawings, which led to the crude appearance of the characters in the initial short episodes. The Simpson family made their debut on April 19, 1987, in "The Tracey Ullman Show" short "Good Night". In 1989, the shorts were adapted into "The Simpsons", a half-hour series airing on the Fox Broadcasting Company. The Simpson family remained the main characters on this new show.


title: Simpson family

text: Dan Castellaneta, Julie Kavner, Nancy Cartwright, and Yeardley Smith all began voicing their characters on "The Tracey Ullman Show". Nancy Cartwright was the only one of the group who had been trained to be a voice actor while Castellaneta had done some voice over work in Chicago. Castellaneta and Kavner had been part of the regular cast of "The Tracey Ullman Show" and voices were needed for the shorts, so the producers decided to ask them to voice Homer and Marge rather than hire more actors. The producers decided to hold casting for the roles of Bart and Lisa. Yeardley Smith had initially been asked to audition for the role of Bart, but casting director Bonita Pietila believed her voice was too high. Smith later recalled, "I always sounded too much like a girl. I read two lines as Bart and they said, 'Thanks for coming!'" Smith was given the role of Lisa instead. On March 13, 1987, Nancy Cartwright went in to audition for the role of Lisa. After arriving at the audition, she found that Lisa was simply described as the "middle child" and at the time did not have much personality. Cartwright became more interested in the role of Bart who she found more fascinating because he was described as "devious, underachieving, school-hating, irreverent, [and] clever." Matt Groening let her try out for the part instead, and upon hearing her read, gave her the job on the spot.


title: Simpson family

text: The Simpsons are a family who live at 742 Evergreen Terrace in the town of Springfield in the United States. The state in which in this town is located is never specified, however they do have snow and sometimes wear sweaters in the fall. It's a running joke in the show to be as vague and ambiguous as possible whenever hinting at which U.S. state the town of Springfield might be located in. Homer, the father, works as a safety inspector at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant, a position at odds with his careless, buffoonish personality. He is married to Marge Simpson, a stereotypical American housewife and mother. They have three children: Bart, a ten-year-old troublemaker; Lisa, an eight-year-old child prodigy; and Maggie, a toddler who rarely speaks, but communicates by sucking on a pacifier. The family owns a dog, Santa's Little Helper, and a cat, Snowball II. Both pets have had starring roles in several seasons. Despite the passing of yearly milestones such as holidays or birthdays, the Simpsons do not physically age and still appear as they did at the end of the 1980s. Although the family is dysfunctional, many episodes examine their relationships and bonds with each other and they are often shown to care about one another.


title: Simpson family

text: Homer Jay Simpson (voiced by Dan Castellaneta) is the protagonist of the show and the father of the Simpson family. He embodies several American working class stereotypes: he is crude, overweight, incompetent, clumsy, thoughtless and a borderline alcoholic. He has occasionally displayed flashes of great intellect and fitness whenever the situation calls for it, and an integrity reflecting his own values, including a fierce devotion to and protectiveness of his family. His voice started out as an impression of Walter Matthau but eventually evolved into a more robust voice during the second and third season of the half-hour show, allowing Homer to cover a fuller range of emotions. Homer has since become one of the most influential fictional characters and has been described by the UK newspaper "The Sunday Times" as the greatest comedic creation of modern time. He has inspired an entire line of merchandise, and his catchphrase, the annoyed grunt "D'oh!", has been included in the "Oxford English Dictionary". During the production of the episode "Insane Clown Poppy" the writers toyed with the idea of giving Homer a long lost illegitimate biological daughter, but when the shows showrunner and writer Mike Scully, as well as Matt Groening rejected the idea, the writers changed the story so the clown Krusty would be the one who finds he has a lost daughter.


title: Simpson family

text: Marjorie Jacqueline "Marge" Simpson (née Bouvier, voiced by Julie Kavner) is the well-meaning and extremely patient wife of Homer and mother of Bart, Lisa and Maggie. She often acts as the voice of reason, but displays exaggerated behavior traits of stereotypical mothers and takes the blatant dysfunctionality of her family for granted, unlike the other family members, who are aware that they are eccentric. Her most notable physical feature is her blue hair, styled into an improbably high beehive. Julie Kavner received a Primetime Emmy Award in 1992 for voicing Marge in the episode "I Married Marge". For her performance in "The Simpsons Movie", Kavner received a nomination for "Best Voice Acting in an Animated Feature" at the 2007 Annie Awards, but lost to Ian Holm in "Ratatouille". Kavner's emotional performance in the movie got positive reviews and one critic said she "gave what must be the most heartfelt performance ever". Part of Kavner's contract says that she will never have to promote "The Simpsons" on video because she does not want to "destroy the illusion for children". In 2008, CityNews published an article entitled "Top 10 Greatest TV Moms of All Time", and placed Marge in eighth spot.


title: Simpson family

text: Bartholomew JoJo "Bart" Simpson (voiced by Nancy Cartwright) is the eldest child and only son in the family—at age 10. Bart's most prominent character traits are his mischievousness, rebelliousness, disrespect for authority and sharp wit. During the first two seasons of "The Simpsons", Bart was the show's main character. The name "Bart" is an anagram of the word "brat". Groening conceived Bart as an extreme version of the typical misbehaving child character, merging all of the extreme traits of characters such as Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn into one person. Groening's older brother Mark provided most of the inspiration for Bart. Bart's catchphrase "Eat My Shorts" was an ad-lib by Cartwright in one of the original table readings, harking back to an incident when she was at college. In 1998, "Time" magazine selected Bart as 46th of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century, and the only fictional character to make the list. He had previously appeared on the cover of the December 31, 1990 edition. Bart is rebellious and frequently escapes without punishment, which led some parents' groups and conservative spokespeople to believe he provided a poor role model for children. This prompted George H. W. Bush to rally, "We're going to keep trying to strengthen the American family. To make them more like the Waltons and less like the Simpsons." Bart, and other Simpsons characters, have appeared in numerous television commercials for Nestlé's Butterfinger candy bars from 1990 to 2001, with the slogan ""Nobody better lay a finger on my Butterfinger!""


title: Simpson family

text: Lisa Marie Simpson (voiced by Yeardley Smith) is the eldest daughter and middle child of the family. She is an extremely intelligent 8-year-old girl, one of the most intelligent characters on the show. Lisa's political convictions are generally socially liberal. She is a vegetarian, and a supporter of the Free Tibet movement, and while still supportive of the Christian church in which she was raised, Lisa became a practicing Buddhist following her decision to follow the Noble Eightfold Path. She is musically proficient on the saxophone; besides the occasional riff during the opening credit sequence Carole King's Jazzman and Gerry Rafferty's Baker Street have been prominently placed during episodes. In the "Tracey Ullman Show" shorts, Lisa was more of a "female Bart" and was equally mischievous. As the series progressed, Lisa began to develop into a more intelligent and more emotional character with "Krusty Gets Busted" being one of the first episodes where her true intelligence is fully shown. When she was a baby, Bart started out not liking her, although he became nicer to her after Marge pointed out that Lisa loves him. Her first word was "Bart", with Bart happily teaching her more names. Many episodes focusing on Lisa have an emotional nature, the first one being "Moaning Lisa". The idea for the episode was pitched by James L. Brooks, who had wanted to do an emotional episode where Lisa is sad because the show had done a lot of "jokey episodes". In 2001 Lisa received a special "board of directors Ongoing Commitment Award" at the Environmental Media Awards. "Lisa the Vegetarian", an episode from the seventh season, won both an Environmental Media Award for "Best Television Episodic Comedy" and a Genesis Award for "Best Television Comedy Series, Ongoing Commitment". In Japan, the broadcasters of the series found they were able to turn the apparent viewer dislike of the series around by focusing marketing attention on Lisa. Lisa's well-intended but ill-fated struggles to be a voice of reason and a force of good in her family and city struck a chord with the Japanese.


title: Simpson family

text: Margaret Evelyn Lenny "Maggie" Simpson is the youngest of the five main family members and is almost always seen as a baby. She has blonde spiked hair like Lisa. Her first word was "daddy", shown at one point after Homer tucks her in. She is almost 2 years old and still uses a pacifier despite teething, although this was mentioned in a Treehouse of Horror episode ("Starship Poopers") and is not considered canon. She was quite prominent in the "Tracey Ullman Show" shorts, often being featured alongside Bart and Lisa but has since become the least seen and heard of the five main Simpsons. It has been revealed that Maggie has outstanding artistic and academic abilities, much like her sister Lisa. The episodes taking place in the future often show her as some kind of businesswoman.


title: Simpson family

text: Maggie rarely speaks, but has been voiced by several different actors including Jodie Foster, Elizabeth Taylor, James Earl Jones, Harry Shearer (who used his Kang voice) in "Starship Poopers", Yeardley Smith, and Nancy Cartwright.


title: Simpson family

text: Abraham Jebediah "Abe" Simpson II (better known simply as Grampa, voiced by Dan Castellaneta) is the patriarch of the Simpson family and the father of Homer. He is a World War II veteran who was later sent to the Springfield Retirement Castle by Homer. He is known for his borderline senility, his long rambling (and probably apocryphal) stories and his love of "Matlock". He shares his name with one of Matt Groening's relatives, in this case his grandfather. However, Groening says he refused to name him, leaving it to other writers to choose a name. By coincidence, the writers chose the name Abraham.


title: Simpson family

text: Mona Penelope Simpson (née Olsen, voiced by Glenn Close) is Homer's long-lost mother, Marge's mother-in-law, and Abe's estranged first wife. Her first major appearance was in "Mother Simpson" where she reveals that she was forced to abandon her family after being caught up in the hippie movement and participated in various acts of activism. The writers used this episode as an opportunity to solve several little puzzles, such as where Lisa's intelligence came from. Prior to the seventh season, Mona Simpson had only made two brief flashback appearances, the first being season two's "Oh Brother, Where Art Thou?" and the second being season six's "Grampa vs. Sexual Inadequacy" and in both episodes she was voiced by Maggie Roswell. Mona dies in the episode "Mona Leaves-a", as Homer struggles to come to terms with her death. The character is named after writer Richard Appel's wife, whose name is Mona Simpson. Mona was designed in a way so that she has little bit of Homer in her face, such as the shape of her upper lip and her nose. There were several design changes because the directors were trying to make her an attractive older and younger woman, but still be Simpson-esque. Glenn Close recorded original material for another episode, season fifteen's "My Mother the Carjacker". Mona also has a speaking appearance in season ten's "D'oh-in in the Wind", this time voiced by Tress MacNeille.


title: Simpson family

text: Patricia Maleficent "Patty" and Selma Bouvier (both voiced by Julie Kavner) are Marge's older twin sisters. They are apparently in their mid-to-late 40s, since Selma has gone through menopause and they were shown as teenagers in flashbacks while Marge was still a small child. They work at the Springfield Department of Motor Vehicles, and possess a strong dislike for their brother-in-law, Homer. Selma is the elder by two minutes, possesses a strong desire for family, and has been married and divorced six times, and also sought to have a child on numerous occasions despite her age. Her sister, Patty, is one of the show's few openly gay (or bisexual, as she once commented "there go the last remaining threads of my heterosexuality") recurring characters although for the most part she has avoided relationships. Kavner voices them as characters "who suck the life out of everything". Kavner makes Patty's voice more masculine and a lower register, while Selma's voice is a little sweeter. The origins of their names are unknown – Matt Groening has a sister named Patty, but unlike the other Simpson relatives, this has not been explicitly revealed.


title: Simpson family

text: Jacqueline Ingrid Bouvier (née Gurney, voiced by Julie Kavner) is the mother of Marge, Patty and Selma, the maternal grandmother of Bart, Lisa, and Maggie, the mother-in-law of Homer, the daughter-in-law of Pepe and Bambi Bouvier, the sister-in-law of Herman, Charlene, Jojo, Chester, and Arthur Bouvier, and the widow of Clancy Bouvier. She was first referenced in a flashback in the episode "Moaning Lisa" and made her first appearance in the episode "Bart vs. Thanksgiving". She had a spinster sister named Gladys, who is deceased; Jacqueline and her family attended her funeral in "Selma's Choice". Mr. Burns and Homer's father Abe Simpson once battled for her affections; she became engaged to Burns, but eventually decided not to marry either man, although she and Abe still ran away together at the end of the episode.


title: Simpson family

text: Although it seems that she disapproves of Marge's marriage to Homer, stating that he is never to address her as "Mom", she does tolerate Homer much more than her elder daughters, Patty and Selma. In "Moe Letter Blues", she admits that Patty and Selma are really to blame for ruining her birthday party, not Homer; also Jacqueline never has been shown to cause trouble in Homer and Marge's marriage, unlike her daughters. Jacqueline has celebrated her 80th birthday twice, in "Moe Letter Blues" and again in "Puffless".


title: Simpson family

text: Like all Bouvier women, she is voiced by Kavner, and has large, unique hair, resembling Marge's, only a light gray color due to her old age. In her younger days she smoked heavily but has quit, although she still speaks more raspily than Patty and Selma. The series creator Matt Groening named the character after the former American First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, whose maiden name was Jacqueline Lee Bouvier. Out of all the characters on the show, Jacqueline has the tallest hair.


title: Simpson family

text: Clarence "Clancy" Bouvier (voiced by Harry Shearer) is the deceased father of Marge, Patty and Selma and the husband of Jacqueline Bouvier. His first appearance was in the episode "The Way We Was". He was kind and complimentary to teenage Homer when he arrived to pick up Marge for the prom, but after finding out that Artie Ziff was really her date remarked that Homer "took years off my life". This provoked Marge to go back and go out with Homer.


title: Simpson family

text: In "Fear of Flying" it was revealed that he was one of the earliest male flight attendants; Marge initially believed he was a heroic pilot and was traumatized when she discovered he was a flight attendant instead. According to Marge in "Bart the Lover" after Clancy got out of the Navy, he had trouble with his cursing that nearly cost him a job as a baby photographer, but Jacqueline was able to curtail that by having him donate money to the swear jar.


title: Simpson family

text: In the episode "Puffless", it is revealed that he died of lung cancer, which provoked Patty and Selma to abstain from smoking cigarettes. While Clancy does not appear with the rest of the Bouvier family in "I Married Marge", implying he was deceased before Homer and Marge were married, he is shown to be still alive when Bart and Lisa were toddlers in the episode "Walking Big & Tall", but he died before Maggie was born. Marge was particularly upset by her father's death, as Homer had to buy her a white noise machine to try and get her to deal with it.


title: Simpson family

text: Like all the Bouvier family, his voice has become croaky through chain-smoking for a number of years. He also shares the same grunt as Patty and Selma, both of whom resemble younger female versions of him, while Marge more resembles her mother.


title: Simpson family

text: In "Treehouse of Horror III", he was eaten at King Homer and Marge's wedding by the former. He also appeared as a ghost in "Treehouse of Horror XXVI".


title: Simpson family

text: Ling Bouvier (voiced by Nancy Cartwright) is Selma Bouvier's adopted daughter. She shares Selma's laugh. In "Goo Goo Gai Pan", Selma discovers that she has reached menopause and adopts Ling in China, after lying that she is married to Homer, to fool the Chinese authorities into thinking that Ling would be part of a traditional family as opposed to being raised by a single mother. The authorities briefly reclaim Ling, but the adoption agent Ms. Woo relates to her experiences of her childhood with her single mother and allows Selma to adopt Ling. Ling has since become a recurring character and has appeared in several episodes. She seems to get along well with her cousin Maggie. Since Patty told Selma to give up smoking once the baby came home, Selma claimed she would switch to chewing tobacco, although it is shown she has not followed through with this.


title: Simpson family

text: Marge's atheist grandmother Genevieve Bouvier lived in Nazi-occupied France in 1944 during World War II, in Vichy, France. She is discussed in "My Way or the Highway to Heaven" (third episode of the thirtieth season). Genevieve co-managed Cafe Meaux with the café's namesake, her husband Meaux, a Nazi-collaborator, and self-described treasoner. They team up to stop Nazi officers from revealing the impending D-day invasion is to happen in Normandy.


title: Simpson family

text: Selma has married six times, resulting in the lengthy last name Bouvier-Terwilliger-Hutz-McClure-Stu-Simpson-D'Amico.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: Robert William Howard (born January 29, 1963) is an American professional wrestler, actor, and former auto racer and wrestling trainer/host, better known by the ring name Hardcore Holly or Bob Holly. He is best known for his 16-year career with the World Wrestling Federation/World Wrestling Entertainment (WWF/E) where he also worked under the ring names Thurman "Sparky" Plugg, Bob "Spark Plug" Holly, Bombastic Bob, and "the Big Shot".


title: Hardcore Holly

text: After debuting in 1987, Holly worked for World Organization Of Wrestling Smoky Mountain Wrestling and other independent promotions, before joining WWE full-time in 1994. Initially portraying the character of a NASCAR driver, Thurman "Sparky" Plugg, his name was soon changed to Bob "Spark Plug" Holly. In 1998, he formed a team with Bart Gunn, known as The Midnight Express.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: In 1999, Howard became known simply as "Hardcore Holly", developing a stern, punishing persona. Once taking up the Hardcore Holly gimmick, he was joined by on-screen cousins, Crash and Molly.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: In 2002, Hardcore Holly suffered a broken neck during a match with Brock Lesnar, which sidelined him for over a year. Upon his return, he engaged in a major feud with Lesnar for the WWE Championship and minor feuds with other wrestlers, such as Mr. Kennedy and Rob Van Dam. He later formed a tag team combination with Cody Rhodes in 2007. Holly was released from the WWE in 2009, wrestling only intermittently on the independent circuit. He published his autobiography, "The Hardcore Truth: The Bob Holly Story", in 2013.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: Championships held by Holly over the course of his career include the WWF/E World Tag Team Championship, NWA World Tag Team Championship, and WWF Hardcore Championship.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: Howard was born in Glendale, California, where he and his older brother were raised by his mother. After his mother remarried, the family relocated to Ventura, California and then to Grants Pass, Oregon, where Howard attended Grants Pass High School. After graduating, Howard worked in a beer warehouse before moving to Mobile, Alabama with the mother of his daughter, Stephanie. Howard spent several years working as a mechanic for Meineke (supplementing his income by boxing in bars) before joining Taylor Wharton as a pipe cutter, where he trained as a welder. Howard later moved to Cowin Equipment, where he worked as a mechanic and welder.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: Holly trained under Bob Sweetan, Marcelle Pringle, and Rip Tyler, and debuted in 1987 in the Mobile area in the World Organization Of Wrestling promotion where he held titles on and off, including the WOW Tag Team Championship with Ron Starr when they defeated the Rock N Roll Express.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: From there, he wrestled in Memphis and then in the NWA (National Wrestling Alliance) with moderate success.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: In 1990 Holly began making television appearances in World Championship Wrestling, being utilized primarily as a jobber. His first match came on July 30 in Gainesville, Georgia, when he was defeated via submission by United States Heavyweight Champion Lex Luger. Holly then wrestled in a six-man match in Marietta, Georgia on August 6, teaming with "Powerhouse" Tim Parker and Brad Bratton against Ric Flair, Arn Anderson and Barry Windham. On August 13 Holly faced Flair in a singles match that aired on "World Championship Wrestling", losing via submission. After an absence of several months, he made a final appearance at a "World Championship Wrestling" taping on January 21 teaming with Dave Johnson in an unsuccessful effort against The Freebirds in a match that aired February 9, 1991.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: Two months later Bob Holly made his initial appearance in the World Wrestling Federation (WWF). Again, he was portrayed as a jobber. His sole match was a teaming with Mike Sample in a loss to The Bushwhackers on the March 30 edition of "WWF Superstars" (match was taped on March 11 in Pensacola, Florida).


title: Hardcore Holly

text: Holly joined Jim Cornette's new Smoky Mountain Wrestling promotion and made his debut at the company's very first television taping on October 30 in Greenville, South Carolina, defeating Tim Frye. Billed as "Hollywood" Bob Holly, he received a televised push and portrayed a snobbish-street thug, West Coast character. Afterwards he worked for Buck Robley & The NWF out of Louisiana.He teamed with Robert Gibson there as the Rock N Roll Express.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: Holly returned to the WWF on January 11, 1994. His initial gimmick was that of a NASCAR driver turned wrestler called Thurman "Sparky" Plugg, which was quietly changed to Bob "Spark Plug" Holly. He competed in the 1994 Royal Rumble match, lasting over 21 minutes.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: At the Royal Rumble in January 1995, Holly and the 1–2–3 Kid defeated Bam Bam Bigelow and Tatanka in the finals of a tournament to crown new WWF Tag Team Champions. Their title reign lasted only one day, however, as the next day, on "WWF Monday Night Raw", Holly and the Kid lost the tag team title to The Smoking Gunns.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: On the May 7, 1995 (taped April 26, 1995) episode of "WWF Action Zone", Holly pinned WWF Intercontinental Champion Jeff Jarrett in a title match, but as Jarrett had his foot on the ropes, the decision was overturned and the title vacated. Later on in the show, Jarrett defeated Holly in a rematch for the vacant title after pinning Holly with a roll-up. Holly's title win is not recognized by WWE. Holly then competed in the 1995 King of the Ring tournament, defeating Mantaur to qualify before losing to The Roadie in the quarterfinals. He was then the first WWF pay-per-view opponent of Hunter Hearst Helmsley, losing to him at "SummerSlam". At "Survivor Series", Holly was a part of the Underdogs team along with Marty Jannetty, Hakushi, and Barry Horowitz. They were defeated by the Body Donnas team of Skip, Doctor of Desire Tom Prichard, Rad Radford, and the 1–2–3 Kid.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: Despite lasting nearly 40 minutes in the Royal Rumble, Holly made very few television appearances in the WWF throughout 1996 and 1997.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: In February 1998, a newly blonde Holly and Bart Gunn joined forces with Jim Cornette as part of Jeff Jarrett's National Wrestling Alliance stable. Holly, renamed "Bombastic Bob", and Gunn, renamed "Bodacious Bart" were known collectively as The Midnight Express. The Midnight Express defeated The Headbangers for the NWA World Tag Team Championship on March 30, 1998 and held the titles until August 14 of that year, when they were defeated by The Border Patrol. They challenged the New Age Outlaws for the World Tag Team Championship at the King of the Ring pay-per-view, but were unsuccessful.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: In mid-1998, Holly competed in the WWF Brawl for All, a 16-man shootfighting tournament. He was eliminated in the first round by the eventual winner, Bart Gunn, who defeated him on points; Holly has the distinction of being the only one of Gunn's opponents he was unable to knock out.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: In November 1998, Al Snow, Bob Holly and Scorpio united and formed The J.O.B. Squad. During that same month on an edition of "Raw", they helped Mankind defeat Ken Shamrock and The Big Boss Man in a triple threat match. In February 1999, Scorpio was released by the WWF while Gillberg was later phased out of storylines and The Blue Meanie allied with Goldust. After dwindling down to only two members, Snow wrestled against himself on an edition of "Raw" before Holly came down to the ring to prevent Snow from hurting himself, which led to the formal breakup of the J.O.B. Squad. Later that month at "", Bob Holly defeated Snow for the WWF Hardcore Championship to permanently end the J.O.B. Squad. A week later on "Raw", for his title defense match against former partner Bart Gunn, Holly formally changed his name to Hardcore Holly.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: Holly dropped the championship to Billy Gunn on the March 15, 1999 edition of "Raw", but regained the title two weeks later at WrestleMania XV, in a triple threat hardcore match also involving Al Snow. He lost the title to Al Snow at Backlash, and soon began referring to himself as "The Big Shot", feuding with Big Show and Kane.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: On the August 16, 1999 edition of "Raw", Holly introduced his on-screen "cousin" Crash Holly. They unsuccessfully challenged for the WWF Tag Team Championship at SummerSlam. Though simultaneously arguing over who was the better Holly, they won the WWF Tag Team Championship on the October 18, 1999 edition of "Raw", by defeating the Rock 'n' Sock Connection, after Triple H interfered. They lost the titles two weeks later to Mankind and Al Snow on the November 4 edition of "SmackDown!". The Holly Cousins and Too Cool defeated Edge, Christian and The Hardy Boyz in a traditional four-on-four elimination match at Survivor Series, where Holly was the lone survivor.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: On the November 18, 1999 edition of "SmackDown!", Holly challenged The Big Show for the WWF Championship, but was defeated. In early 2000, Hardcore Holly pursued the Intercontinental Championship, losing a match against Chyna due to interference from Chris Jericho. He then lost a Triple Threat Match against Chyna and Jericho for the championship at the Royal Rumble, which was won by Jericho. He lost two more subsequent matches to Jericho for the title, ending their feud.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: After Crash Holly won the Hardcore Championship on the February 24, 2000 episode of "SmackDown!", the cousins began feuding over the title. Holly won the Hardcore Championship in a "hardcore" 13-man battle royal at WrestleMania 2000. He lost the title back to Crash the following night on "Raw". He then sporadically challenged for both the Intercontinental and Hardcore championships the following months. Holly then missed several months of ring time due to a legitimately broken arm, suffered in a match with Kurt Angle on the June 29, 2000 edition of "SmackDown!". After his return, later in 2000, another on-screen cousin, Molly Holly was introduced. Holly returned on the November 13, 2000 edition of "Raw", where Holly, Crash Holly and The Undertaker defeated Edge, Christian, and Kurt Angle in a six-man tag match. At Survivor Series, Holly faced William Regal for the WWF European Championship but lost by disqualification. Holly got a rematch at the title at Armageddon but was defeated by Regal. At the Royal Rumble, Holly competed in the 30-man Royal Rumble match but was eliminated by The Undertaker. In February, Holly won the Hardcore title three more times, but each time re-lost the title moments later under the "24/7 Hardcore rule." Holly competed in the King of the Ring tournament but lost to Kurt Angle in the first round.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: In early 2002, Howard worked as one of a collection of trainer/hosts for "Tough Enough II", a reality competition TV series produced by WWE and MTV where participants underwent professional wrestling training and competed for a contract with WWE.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: In 2002, Holly turned heel on "SmackDown!" and began a short feud with Randy Orton. He then had a minor feud with Kurt Angle after eliminating him from a battle royal, turning him face again. On a September 12, 2002, edition of "WWE SmackDown", Holly suffered a broken neck during a match against Brock Lesnar, when he was powerbombed neck first on the mat. He had a thirteen-month hiatus from wrestling after surgery.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: While awaiting surgery, Holly made a guest appearance on "Tough Enough III". The show caused some controversy when, during the course of a practice match, Howard stiffed a competitor, Matt Cappotelli, leaving him bleeding. Cappotelli later said that there was no ill-feeling between the two because of the incident.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: In October 2003, Holly began training at Ohio Valley Wrestling, WWE's developmental territory, in preparation for his return to the main roster. Holly returned at the Survivor Series pay-per-view in November 2003 for revenge. He challenged Lesnar to a match for the WWE Championship at the Royal Rumble, but lost.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: During 2004 and early 2005, he formed short-lived tag teams with Billy Gunn, and later Charlie Haas in the hunt for the WWE Tag Team Championship, but was unsuccessful with both partners. He also failed to claim the WWE Championship from John "Bradshaw" Layfield (JBL) in a hardcore match on the October 14 episode of "SmackDown!".


title: Hardcore Holly

text: In mid-2005, Holly went into singles competition trying to acquire the United States Championship from Orlando Jordan. After being defeated twice by Jordan, Holly finally managed to pick up a non-title win over Jordan via disqualification on "WWE Velocity", which aired on August 6, 2005. Holly then entered a short feud with SmackDown! newcomer, Mr. Kennedy. This feud climaxed on October 9, 2005 at No Mercy, where Kennedy defeated Holly after a Green Bay Plunge.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: Holly then underwent several surgeries to repair nagging injuries. He was hospitalized after a staph infection developed in a right arm wound. The infection was possibly career-threatening, as doctors were worried at one point that the arm may have to undergo amputation. The subsequent treatments were a success, however.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: Holly made a surprise appearance at WWE's ECW house show event on August 21, 2006 in Allentown, Pennsylvania, defeating Balls Mahoney. Holly made his ECW television debut the next night, August 22, appearing in a promo with Paul Heyman, and later attacking Rob Van Dam (RVD) and Danny Doring during a match. Holly, now as a heel, soon joined with Heyman and his other associates to feud with RVD and others.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: On September 26, 2006, Holly received 24 stitches from WWE Doctor Ferdinand Rios in his back after suffering a severe laceration during an Extreme Rules match against Rob Van Dam when he landed on the metal railing of a table he was suplexing Van Dam out of the ring and through during an ECW show in Tulsa, Oklahoma. Holly obtained the injury early in the match but continued to wrestle until the match's conclusion when he was pinned. After the match, as he was being helped out of the ring, he received a standing ovation from fans. The legitimate incident caused fans to cheer Holly in the following weeks, leading him to become a face character and a feud with Paul Heyman's other enforcer Test. His second to latest run as a face was short lived as he eventually turned on Rob Van Dam when they were partners in a tag match.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: When Sabu was found kayfabe unconscious in the locker room area before the Extreme Elimination Chamber at December to Dismember, Holly was chosen as his replacement. Holly entered with Rob Van Dam as the first of two combatants. He was the second to be eliminated; he was eliminated by Test by a running big boot. Subsequently, he entered into a feud with CM Punk whereby Holly, now a tweener, showed his endurance by surviving Punk's Anaconda Vice submission hold. Holly then gave Punk his first loss in ECW; Punk had been undefeated for half a year. After Test replaced Holly in a match against ECW World Champion Bobby Lashley, Holly vowed he would become champion whether he faced Test or Lashley. Holly then was one of ECW superstars entered in the Royal Rumble, but was eliminated by The Great Khali. Holly soon became the number one contender for Lashley's ECW World Championship and faced off against Lashley, albeit unsuccessfully.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: On the April 3 episode of "ECW", Holly lost to Snitsky. After the match, Snitsky wedged Holly's arm between the steel steps and repeatedly hit the steps with a steel chair, resulting in a broken arm in the storyline. Holly had surgery on April 16 because of a staph infection and missed around five months.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: Holly was drafted back to SmackDown! from ECW on June 17, 2007 as part of the Supplemental Draft. Despite this, he returned to the ring as a member of the Raw brand on September 24, 2007, defeating Cody Rhodes, and starting a "respect" feud in which Holly defeated Rhodes on the two following episodes of "Raw". On the October 22 episode of "Raw", Holly became a fan favorite by saving Rhodes from the post-match assault of Shelton Benjamin and Charlie Haas. On the October 29 episode of "Raw", Holly and Rhodes emerged victorious in a tag team match against Benjamin and Haas. They earned a shot at the World Tag Team Championship by defeating Paul London and Brian Kendrick and The Highlanders in a WWE.com exclusive match after an Alabama Slam. Holly and Rhodes lost their title match, however, against Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch at Survivor Series.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: On December 10, 2007, on the "Raw" 15th Anniversary episode, Holly along with Rhodes defeated Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch for the World Tag Team Championship. The following week, Holly and Rhodes retained their title, in their first title defense, against Cade and Murdoch. They successfully defended their title against the teams of Carlito and Santino Marella and Paul London and Brian Kendrick. Holly participated in the 2008 Royal Rumble match and lasted thirteen minutes, but was eliminated by Umaga. On June 29 at Night of Champions, Rhodes turned on Holly by defeating him with Ted DiBiase in a handicap match to crown the new team as champions. This turned out to be his final WWE pay-per-view appearance. After Night of Champions, Holly took time off from WWE television for 7 months. After 7 month hiatus, WWE announced that Holly was released from his WWE contract on January 16, 2009, and ending his 15-year tenure with the company.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: In May 2009, Holly traveled to England and wrestled for Varsity Pro Wrestling. On May 26, Holly defeated The UK Kid in a Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match during which he sustained a rib injury. Throughout mid-2009, Holly wrestled for National Wrestling Superstars, competing against wrestlers including Danny Demento, Salvatore Sincere, and D. J. Hyde. Holly then took a break from wrestling from 2010 until 2013.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: On March 19, 2013, Holly, now bald and sporting a new tattoo, made a one night appearance for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) as he took part in a six-man tag team match and teamed with James Storm and Magnus to defeat Aces & Eights (D.O.C., Wes Brisco, and Knux) at the TNA One Night Only event Hardcore Justice 2, which was aired on July 5, this was Holly's only match for TNA. Later that year he would wrestle for Southside Wrestling Entertainment and Preston City Wrestling in the U.K. and for Melbourne City Wrestling in Australia.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: On May 7, 2016, Holly wrestled in the Netherlands for Pro Wrestling Showdown. Holly would also spend time in the UK, competing for PCW, Kamikaze Pro, Southside. Holly would also challenge Eddie Ryan for the Pro Wrestling Pride Heavyweight Championship, and Joseph Conners for the ; however he would win neither championship.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: In 1992, Howard began auto racing in Mobile, Alabama at the Mobile International Speedway. Driving a 1974 Chevrolet Malibu, Howard placed fifth in the 1992 season and won the 1993 season.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: In 1995, Howard began driving a World Wrestling Federation-sponsored super late model in the All Pro Series in an attempt at cross promotion. After the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) withdrew its sponsorship, WWF chairman Vince McMahon gifted the equipment to Howard.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: Howard has a daughter named Stephanine from his first marriage. Howard has been married to Linda Kievet since 2010.


title: Hardcore Holly

text: Howard's autobiography, titled "The Hardcore Truth: The Bob Holly Story" was released in the United States on April 1, 2013. Co-authored by former British wrestler Ross Owen Williams, an actor and writer who wrestled Holly in June 2010, it was published by ECW Press.


title: Panettone

text: Panettone (, ; ) is an Italian type of sweet bread originally from Milan, usually prepared and enjoyed for Christmas and New Year in Western, Southern, and Southeastern Europe as well as in South America, Eritrea, Australia, the United States and Canada.


title: Panettone

text: It has a cupola shape, which extends from a cylindrical base and is usually about high for a panettone weighing . Other bases may be used, such as an octagon, or a frustum with a star section shape more common to pandoro. It is made during a long process that involves curing the dough, which is acidic, similar to sourdough. The proofing process alone takes several days, giving the cake its distinctive fluffy characteristics. It contains candied orange, citron, and lemon zest, as well as raisins, which are added dry and not soaked. Many other variations are available such as plain or with chocolate. It is served in wedge shapes, vertically cut, accompanied with sweet hot beverages or a sweet wine, such as Asti or Moscato d'Asti. In some regions of Italy, it is served with "crema al mascarpone", a cream made by combining eggs, mascarpone, and a sweet liqueur.


title: Panettone

text: Efforts are underway to obtain Protected Designation of Origin and Denominazione di origine controllata status for this product, but these have not yet been successful. Former Italian Agriculture Minister Paolo De Castro was known to be looking at ways to protect genuine Italian cakes from growing competition in South America, and exploring whether action could be taken at the World Trade Organization.


title: Panettone

text: In Italy, historical accounts of panettone invariably state that it originated in Milan. The word "panettone" derives from "panetto", a small loaf bread. The augmentative suffix "-one" changes the meaning to "large bread".


title: Panettone

text: The beginnings of this cake appear to date from the Roman Empire, when ancient Romans sweetened a type of leavened cake with honey.


title: Panettone

text: It is possibly mentioned in a contemporary recipe book written by Italian Bartolomeo Scappi, personal chef to popes and emperors during the time of Charles V. The oldest and most certain attestation of the panettone is found in a register of expenses of the Borromeo college of Pavia in 1599: on 23 December of that year in the list of courses provided for lunch Christmas costs also appear for 5 pounds of butter, 2 of raisins and 3 ounces of spices given to the baker to make 13 "loaves" to be given to college students on Christmas Day. The first recorded association of panettone with Christmas can be found in the Italian writings of the 18th century illuminist Pietro Verri. He refers to it as "pan de ton" ('luxury bread').


title: Panettone

text: In the early 20th century, two enterprising Milanese bakers began to produce panettone in large quantities for the rest of Italy. In 1919, Angelo Motta started producing his eponymous brand of cakes. It was also Motta who revolutionised the traditional panettone by giving it its tall domed shape by making the dough rise three times, for almost 20 hours, before cooking, giving it its now-familiar light texture. The recipe was adapted shortly after by another baker, Gioacchino Alemagna, around 1925, who also gave his name to a popular brand that still exists today. The stiff competition between the two that then ensued led to industrial production of the cake. Nestlé took over the brands together in the late 1990s, but Bauli, an Italian bakery company based in Verona, has since acquired Motta and Alemagna from Nestlé.


title: Panettone

text: By the end of World War II, panettone was cheap enough for anyone and soon became the country's leading Christmas sweet. Lombard immigrants to Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Brazil also brought their love of panettone, and panettone is enjoyed for Christmas with hot cocoa or liquor during the holiday season, which became a mainstream tradition in those countries. In some places, it replaces the king cake.


title: Panettone

text: Panettone is widely available in South America, including in Argentina, Brazil, Chile (see: Pan de Pascua), Ecuador, Colombia, Uruguay, Venezuela, Bolivia, Paraguay and Peru. It is known in Spanish as "panetón" or "pan dulce", and as "panetone" in Brazilian Portuguese. Peru's Antonio D'Onofrio, son of immigrants hailing from Caserta, Italy, spawned his own brand using a modified form of the Alemagna formula (e.g., candied papaya is used instead of candied citron and lemon, as these fruits are not available in Peru), which he licensed along with the packaging style. This brand is now also owned by Nestlé and exported throughout South America. Panettone is popular within Italian communities in the U.S., Canada, Australia, and the UK.


title: Panettone

text: Italian food manufacturing companies and bakeries produce 117 million panettone and pandoro cakes every Christmas, collectively worth €579 million. There is an event held in Milan since 2013 that awards the Best Traditional Panettone of Italy. In 2016, the prize was awarded to Giuseppe Zippo, from Salento.


title: Radix sort

text: In computer science, radix sort is a non-comparative sorting algorithm. It avoids comparison by creating and distributing elements into buckets according to their radix. For elements with more than one significant digit, this bucketing process is repeated for each digit, while preserving the ordering of the prior step, until all digits have been considered. For this reason, radix sort has also been called bucket sort and digital sort.


title: Radix sort

text: Radix sort can be applied to data that can be sorted lexicographically, be they integers, words, punch cards, playing cards, or the mail.


title: Radix sort

text: Radix sort dates back as far as 1887 to the work of Herman Hollerith on tabulating machines. Radix sorting algorithms came into common use as a way to sort punched cards as early as 1923.


title: Radix sort

text: The first memory-efficient computer algorithm for this sorting method was developed in 1954 at MIT by Harold H. Seward. Computerized radix sorts had previously been dismissed as impractical because of the perceived need for variable allocation of buckets of unknown size. Seward's innovation was to use a linear scan to determine the required bucket sizes and offsets beforehand, allowing for a single static allocation of auxiliary memory. The linear scan is closely related to Seward's other algorithm — counting sort.


title: Radix sort

text: In the modern era, radix sorts are most commonly applied to collections of binary strings and integers. It has been shown in some benchmarks to be faster than other more general-purpose sorting algorithms, sometimes 50% to three times faster.


title: Radix sort

text: Radix sorts can be implemented to start at either the most significant digit (MSD) or least significant digit (LSD). For example, with 1234, one could start with 1 (MSD) or 4 (LSD).


title: Radix sort

text: LSD radix sorts typically use the following sorting order: short keys come before longer keys, and then keys of the same length are sorted lexicographically. This coincides with the normal order of integer representations, like the sequence [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11]. LSD sorts are generally stable sorts.


title: Radix sort

text: MSD radix sorts are most suitable for sorting strings or fixed-length integer representations. A sequence like [b, c, e, d, f, g, ba] would be sorted as [b, ba, c, d, e, f, g]. If lexicographic ordering is used to sort variable-length integers in base 10, then numbers from 1 to 10 would be output as [1, 10, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9], as if the shorter keys were left-justified and padded on the right with blank characters to make the shorter keys as long as the longest key. MSD sorts are not necessarily stable if the original ordering of duplicate keys must always be maintained.


title: Radix sort

text: LSD sorts can group by length, radix sort each group, then concatenate the groups in size order. MSD sorts must effectively 'extend' all shorter keys to the size of the largest key and sort them accordingly, which can be more complicated than the grouping required by LSD.


title: Radix sort

text: However, MSD sorts are more amenable to subdivision and recursion. Each bucket created by an MSD step can itself be radix sorted using the next most significant digit, without reference to any other buckets created in the previous step. Once the last digit is reached, concatenating the buckets is all that is required to complete the sort.


title: Radix sort

text: Each step requires just a single pass over the data, since each item can be placed in its bucket without comparison with any other element.


title: Radix sort

text: Some radix sort implementations allocate space for buckets by first counting the number of keys that belong in each bucket before moving keys into those buckets. The number of times that each digit occurs is stored in an array.


title: Radix sort

text: Although it is always possible to pre-determine the bucket boundaries using counts, some implementations opt to use dynamic memory allocation instead.


title: Radix sort

text: Radix sort operates in formula_1 time, where formula_2 is the number of keys, and formula_3 is the key length. LSD variants can achieve a lower bound for formula_3 of 'average key length' when splitting variable length keys into groups as discussed above.


title: Radix sort

text: They are constrained to lexicographic data, but for many practical applications this is not a limitation. Large key sizes can hinder LSD implementations when the induced number of passes becomes the bottleneck.


title: Radix sort

text: Binary MSD radix sort, also called binary quicksort, can be implemented in-place by splitting the input array into two bins - the 0s bin and the 1s bin. The 0s bin is grown from the beginning of the array, whereas the 1s bin is grown from the end of the array. The 0s bin boundary is placed before the first array element. The 1s bin boundary is placed after the last array element. The most significant bit of the first array element is examined. If this bit is a 1, then the first element is swapped with the element in front of the 1s bin boundary (the last element of the array), and the 1s bin is grown by one element by decrementing the 1s boundary array index. If this bit is a 0, then the first element remains at its current location, and the 0s bin is grown by one element. The next array element examined is the one in front of the 0s bin boundary (i.e. the first element that is not in the 0s bin or the 1s bin). This process continues until the 0s bin and the 1s bin reach each other. The 0s bin and the 1s bin are then sorted recursively based on the next bit of each array element. Recursive processing continues until the least significant bit has been used for sorting. Handling signed integers requires treating the most significant bit with the opposite sense, followed by unsigned treatment of the rest of the bits.


title: Radix sort

text: In-place MSD binary-radix sort can be extended to larger radix and retain in-place capability. Counting sort is used to determine the size of each bin and their starting index. Swapping is used to place the current element into its bin, followed by expanding the bin boundary. As the array elements are scanned the bins are skipped over and only elements between bins are processed, until the entire array has been processed and all elements end up in their respective bins. The number of bins is the same as the radix used - e.g. 16 bins for 16-radix. Each pass is based on a single digit (e.g. 4-bits per digit in the case of 16-radix), starting from the most significant digit. Each bin is then processed recursively using the next digit, until all digits have been used for sorting.


title: Radix sort

text: Neither in-place binary-radix sort nor n-bit-radix sort, discussed in paragraphs above, are stable algorithms.


title: Radix sort

text: MSD radix sort can be implemented as a stable algorithm, but requires the use of a memory buffer of the same size as the input array. This extra memory allows the input buffer to be scanned from the first array element to last, and move the array elements to the destination bins in the same order. Thus, equal elements will be placed in the memory buffer in the same order they were in the input array. The MSD-based algorithm uses the extra memory buffer as the output on the first level of recursion, but swaps the input and output on the next level of recursion, to avoid the overhead of copying the output result back to the input buffer. Each of the bins are recursively processed, as is done for the in-place MSD radix sort. After the sort by the last digit has been completed, the output buffer is checked to see if it is the original input array, and if it's not, then a single copy is performed. If the digit size is chosen such that the key size divided by the digit size is an even number, the copy at the end is avoided.


title: Radix sort

text: Radix sort, such as the two-pass method where counting sort is used during the first pass of each level of recursion, has a large constant overhead. Thus, when the bins get small, other sorting algorithms should be used, such as insertion sort. A good implementation of insertion sort is fast for small arrays, stable, in-place, and can significantly speed up radix sort.


title: Radix sort

text: This recursive sorting algorithm has particular application to parallel computing, as each of the bins can be sorted independently. In this case, each bin is passed to the next available processor. A single processor would be used at the start (the most significant digit). By the second or third digit, all available processors would likely be engaged. Ideally, as each subdivision is fully sorted, fewer and fewer processors would be utilized. In the worst case, all of the keys will be identical or nearly identical to each other, with the result that there will be little to no advantage to using parallel computing to sort the keys.


title: Radix sort

text: In the top level of recursion, opportunity for parallelism is in the counting sort portion of the algorithm. Counting is highly parallel, amenable to the parallel_reduce pattern, and splits the work well across multiple cores until reaching memory bandwidth limit. This portion of the algorithm has data-independent parallelism. Processing each bin in subsequent recursion levels is data-dependent, however. For example, if all keys were of the same value, then there would be only a single bin with any elements in it, and no parallelism would be available. For random inputs all bins would be near equally populated and a large amount of parallelism opportunity would be available.


title: Radix sort

text: There are faster parallel sorting algorithms available, for example optimal complexity O(log("n")) are those of the Three Hungarians and Richard Cole and Batcher's bitonic merge sort has an algorithmic complexity of O(log("n")), all of which have a lower algorithmic time complexity to radix sort on a CREW-PRAM. The fastest known PRAM sorts were described in 1991 by David Powers with a parallelized quicksort that can operate in O(log(n)) time on a CRCW-PRAM with "n" processors by performing partitioning implicitly, as well as a radixsort that operates using the same trick in O("k"), where "k" is the maximum keylength. However, neither the PRAM architecture or a single sequential processor can actually be built in a way that will scale without the number of constant fan-out gate delays per cycle increasing as O(log("n")), so that in effect a pipelined version of Batcher's bitonic mergesort and the O(log("n")) PRAM sorts are all O(log("n")) in terms of clock cycles, with Powers acknowledging that Batcher's would have lower constant in terms of gate delays than his Parallel quicksort and radix sort, or Cole's merge sort, for a keylength-independent sorting network of O(nlog("n")).


title: Radix sort

text: Radix sorting can also be accomplished by building a tree (or radix tree) from the input set, and doing a pre-order traversal. This is similar to the relationship between heapsort and the heap data structure. This can be useful for certain data types, see burstsort.


title: The Man Show

text: The Man Show is an American comedy television show on Comedy Central that aired from 1999 to 2004. It was created in 1999 by its two original co-hosts, Adam Carolla and Jimmy Kimmel, and their executive producer Daniel Kellison. The pilot was originally paid for and pitched to ABC, who declined to pick up the show.


title: The Man Show

text: "The Man Show" simultaneously celebrated and lampooned the stereotypical loutish male perspective in a sexually charged, humorous light. The show consisted of a variety of pre-recorded comedy sketches and live in-studio events, usually requiring audience participation.


title: The Man Show

text: "The Man Show" is particularly well known for its buxom female models, the "Juggy Dance Squad", who would dance in themed, revealing costumes at the opening of every show, in the aisles of the audience just before "The Man Show" went to commercial break, and during the end segment "Girls on Trampolines".


title: The Man Show

text: The first year of "The Man Show" featured beer-guzzling entertainer Bill 'The Fox' Foster as the show's emcee. Foster specialized in chugging two beers in record time (sometimes while suspended upside down) and singing lewd drinking songs. He would close every episode by leading the audience in the German drinking toast "", a tradition that the show continued after his death from prostate cancer in 2000.


title: The Man Show

text: In 2003, Kimmel and Carolla left "The Man Show", with the hosting jobs passed down to comedians Joe Rogan and Doug Stanhope. With the hosting change came a re-composition of the show's theme song. The new pair hosted the show for two more seasons before it ceased production in 2004, after its final episode aired on June 19.


title: The Man Show

text: Kimmel went on to host his own late-night show for ABC, "Jimmy Kimmel Live!", which he has hosted since 2003. Carolla stayed with Comedy Central to host "Too Late with Adam Carolla" in 2005 and then became part of CBS Radio's Free FM experiment after Howard Stern joined Sirius Satellite Radio; his talk show, "The Adam Carolla Show," ran until 2009. Carolla continues to do the show as a daily podcast and also co-hosted the Spike show "Catch a Contractor". Carolla has appeared on Kimmel's program several times (more so than any other guest) during its run.