title: Phoenician language

text: The imperfect or prefix-conjugation, which expresses the present and future tense (and which is not distinguishable from the descendant of the Proto-Semitic jussive expressing wishes), is exemplified below, again with the root p-ʻ-l.


title: Phoenician language

text: The imperative endings were presumably , and for the second-person singular masculine, second-person singular feminine and second-person plural masculine respectively, but all three forms surface in the orthography as // 𐤐𐤏𐤋 ': '. The old Semitic jussive, which originally differed slightly from the prefix conjugation, is no longer possible to separate from it in Phoenician with the present data.


title: Phoenician language

text: The non-finite forms are the infinitive construct, the infinitive absolute and the active and passive participles. In the G-stem, the infinitive construct is usually combined with the preposition 𐤋 l- "to", as in 𐤋𐤐𐤏𐤋 "to do"; in contrast, the infinitive absolute 𐤐𐤏𐤋 (paʻōl) is mostly used to strengthen the meaning of a subsequent finite verb with the same root: 𐤐𐤕𐤇 𐤕𐤐𐤕𐤇 "you will indeed open!", accordingly /𐤐𐤏𐤋 𐤕𐤐𐤏𐤋 / "you will indeed do!".


title: Phoenician language

text: The missing forms above can be inferred from the correspondences between the Proto-Northwest Semitic ancestral forms and the attested Phoenician counterparts: the PNWS participle forms are *.


title: Phoenician language

text: Most of the stems apparently also had passive and reflexive counterparts, the former differing through vowels, the latter also through the infix 𐤕 -t-. The G stem passive is attested as 𐤐𐤉𐤏𐤋 pyʻl, < *; t-stems can be reconstructed as 𐤉𐤕𐤐𐤏𐤋 ytpʻl /yitpaʻil/ (tG) and 𐤉𐤕𐤐𐤏𐤋 yptʻʻl /yiptaʻʻil/ (Dt).


title: Phoenician language

text: Some prepositions are always prefixed to nouns, deleting, if present, the initial of the definite article: such are 𐤁 b- "in", 𐤋 l- "to, for", 𐤊 k- "as" and 𐤌 m- // "from". They are sometimes found in forms extended through the addition of 𐤍 -n or 𐤕 -t. Other prepositions are not like that: 𐤀𐤋 "upon", .𐤏𐤃 "until", 𐤀𐤇𐤓 "after", 𐤕𐤇𐤕 "under", 𐤁𐤉𐤍, 𐤁𐤍 "between". New prepositions are formed with nouns: 𐤋𐤐𐤍 lpn "in front of", from 𐤋 l- "to" and 𐤐𐤍 pn "face". There is a special preposited marker of a definite object 𐤀𐤉𐤕 (//?), which, unlike Hebrew, is clearly distinct from the preposition את (//).


title: Phoenician language

text: The most common negative marker is 𐤁𐤋 (//), negating verbs but sometimes also nouns; another one is 𐤀𐤉 (//), expressing both nonexistence and the negation of verbs. Negative commands or prohibitions are expressed with 𐤀𐤋 (//). "Lest" is 𐤋𐤌 . Some common conjunctions are 𐤅 (originally perhaps //, but certainly // in Late Punic), "and" 𐤀𐤌 (), "when", and 𐤊 (), "that; because; when". There was also a conjunction 𐤀𐤐/𐤐 ("also". 𐤋 (//) could (rarely) be used to introduce desiderative constructions ("may he do X!"). 𐤋 could also introduce vocatives. Both prepositions and conjunctions could form compounds.


title: Phoenician language

text: The basic word order is verb-subject-object. There is no verb "to be" in the present tense; in clauses that would have used a copula, the subject may come before the predicate. Nouns precede their modifiers, such as adjectives and possessors.


title: Phoenician language

text: Most nouns are formed by a combination of consonantal roots and vocalic patterns, but they can be formed also with prefixes (𐤌 , expressing actions or their results, and rarely 𐤕 ) and suffixes . Abstracts can be formed with the suffix 𐤕 -t (probably , ). Adjectives can be formed following the familiar Semitic nisba suffix 𐤉 y 𐤑𐤃𐤍𐤉 (e.g. ṣdny "Sidonian").


title: Phoenician language

text: Like the grammar, the vocabulary is very close to Biblical Hebrew, but some peculiarities attract attention. For example, the copula verb "to be" is 𐤊𐤍 kn (as in Arabic, as opposed to Hebrew and Aramaic היה hyh) and the verb "to do" is 𐤐𐤏𐤋 pʿl (as in Aramaic פעל pʿl and Arabic فعل fʿl, as opposed to Hebrew עשה ʿśh, though in Hebrew פעל pʿl has the similar meaning "to act").


title: Phoenician language

text: The significantly divergent later form of the language that was spoken in the Tyrian Phoenician colony of Carthage is known as Punic and remained in use there for considerably longer than Phoenician did in Phoenicia itself by arguably surviving into Augustine of Hippo's time. Throughout its existence, Punic co-existed with the Berber languages, which were then native to Tunisia (including Carthage) and North Africa. Punic disappeared some time after the destruction of Carthage by the Romans and the Berbers. It is possible that Punic may have survived the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb in some small isolated area: the geographer al-Bakri describes a people speaking a language that was not Berber, Latin or Coptic in the city of Sirte in rural Ifriqiya, a region in which spoken Punic survived well past its written use. However, it is likely that arabization of the Punics was facilitated by their language belonging to the same group (both being Semitic languages) as that of the conquerors and thus having many grammatical and lexical similarities. Most Punic speakers may have been linguistically Berberized and/or Latinized after the fall of Carthage.


title: Phoenician language

text: The ancient Libyco-Berber alphabet that is still in irregular use by modern Berber groups such as the Tuareg is known by the native name Tifinagh, possibly a derived form of a cognate of the name "Punic". Still, a direct derivation from the Phoenician-Punic script is debated and far from established since the two writing systems are very different. As far as language (not the script) is concerned, some borrowings from Punic appear in modern Berber dialects: one interesting example is "agadir" "wall" from Punic "gader".


title: Phoenician language

text: Perhaps the most interesting case of Punic influence is that of the name of Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula, comprising Portugal and Spain), which, according to one of the theories, is derived from the Punic "I-Shaphan" meaning "coast of hyraxes", in turn a misidentification on the part of Phoenician explorers of its numerous rabbits as hyraxes. Another case is the name of a tribe of hostile "hairy people" that Hanno the Navigator found in the Gulf of Guinea. The name given to those people by Hanno the Navigator's interpreters was transmitted from Punic into Greek as "gorillai" and was applied in 1847 by Thomas S. Savage to the western gorilla.


title: Phoenician language

text: Phoenician, together with Punic, is primarily known from approximately 10,000 surviving inscriptions, supplemented by occasional glosses in books written in other languages. In addition to their many inscriptions, the Phoenicians are believed to have left numerous other types of written sources, but most have not survived.


title: Phoenician language

text: Roman authors, such as Sallust, allude to some books written in the Punic language, but none have survived except occasionally in translation (e.g., Mago's treatise) or in snippets (e.g., in Plautus' plays). The Cippi of Melqart, a bilingual inscription in Ancient Greek and Carthaginian discovered in Malta in 1694, was the key which allowed French scholar Jean-Jacques Barthélemy to decipher and reconstruct the alphabet in 1758. Even as late as 1837 only 70 Phoenician inscriptions were known to scholars. These were compiled in Wilhelm Gesenius's "Scripturae linguaeque Phoeniciae monumenta", which comprised all that was known of Phoenician by scholars at that time.


title: Phoenician language

text: Since bilingual tablets with inscriptions in both Etruscan and Phoenician dating from around 500 BC were found in 1964, more Etruscan has been deciphered through comparison to the more fully understood Phoenician.


title: Signal processing

text: Signal processing is an electrical engineering subfield that focuses on analyzing, modifying and synthesizing "signals", such as sound, images, and scientific measurements. Signal processing techniques are used to optimize transmissions, digital storage efficiency, correcting distorted signals, subjective video quality and to also detect or pinpoint components of interest in a measured signal.


title: Signal processing

text: According to Alan V. Oppenheim and Ronald W. Schafer, the principles of signal processing can be found in the classical numerical analysis techniques of the 17th century. They further state that the digital refinement of these techniques can be found in the digital control systems of the 1940s and 1950s.


title: Signal processing

text: In 1948, Claude Shannon wrote the influential paper "A Mathematical Theory of Communication" which was published in the Bell System Technical Journal. The paper laid the groundwork for later development of information communication systems and the processing of signals for transmission.


title: Signal processing

text: Signal processing matured and flourished in the 1960s and 1970s, and digital signal processing became widely used with specialized digital signal processor chips in the 1980s.


title: Signal processing

text: Analog signal processing is for signals that have not been digitized, as in most 20th-century radio, telephone, and television systems. This involves linear electronic circuits as well as nonlinear ones. The former are, for instance, passive filters, active filters, additive mixers, integrators, and delay lines. Nonlinear circuits include compandors, multipliers (frequency mixers, voltage-controlled amplifiers), voltage-controlled filters, voltage-controlled oscillators, and phase-locked loops.


title: Signal processing

text: Continuous-time signal processing is for signals that vary with the change of continuous domain (without considering some individual interrupted points).


title: Signal processing

text: The methods of signal processing include time domain, frequency domain, and complex frequency domain. This technology mainly discusses the modeling of linear time-invariant continuous system, integral of the system's zero-state response, setting up system function and the continuous time filtering of deterministic signals


title: Signal processing

text: Discrete-time signal processing is for sampled signals, defined only at discrete points in time, and as such are quantized in time, but not in magnitude.


title: Signal processing

text: "Analog discrete-time signal processing" is a technology based on electronic devices such as sample and hold circuits, analog time-division multiplexers, analog delay lines and analog feedback shift registers. This technology was a predecessor of digital signal processing (see below), and is still used in advanced processing of gigahertz signals.


title: Signal processing

text: The concept of discrete-time signal processing also refers to a theoretical discipline that establishes a mathematical basis for digital signal processing, without taking quantization error into consideration.


title: Signal processing

text: Digital signal processing is the processing of digitized discrete-time sampled signals. Processing is done by general-purpose computers or by digital circuits such as ASICs, field-programmable gate arrays or specialized digital signal processors (DSP chips). Typical arithmetical operations include fixed-point and floating-point, real-valued and complex-valued, multiplication and addition. Other typical operations supported by the hardware are circular buffers and lookup tables. Examples of algorithms are the fast Fourier transform (FFT), finite impulse response (FIR) filter, Infinite impulse response (IIR) filter, and adaptive filters such as the Wiener and Kalman filters.


title: Signal processing

text: Nonlinear signal processing involves the analysis and processing of signals produced from nonlinear systems and can be in the time, frequency, or spatio-temporal domains. Nonlinear systems can produce highly complex behaviors including bifurcations, chaos, harmonics, and subharmonics which cannot be produced or analyzed using linear methods.


title: Signal processing

text: Polynomial signal processing is a type of non-linear signal processing, where polynomial systems may be interpreted as conceptually straight forward extensions of linear systems to the non-linear case.


title: Signal processing

text: Statistical signal processing is an approach which treats signals as stochastic processes, utilizing their statistical properties to perform signal processing tasks. Statistical techniques are widely used in signal processing applications. For example, one can model the probability distribution of noise incurred when photographing an image, and construct techniques based on this model to reduce the noise in the resulting image.


title: Dorabji Tata

text: Dorab was the elder son of Hirabai and Parsi Zoroastrian Jamsetji Nusserwanji Tata. Through an aunt, Jerbai Tata, who married a Bombay merchant, Dorabji Saklatvala, he was a cousin of Shapurji Saklatvala who later became a Communist Member of the British Parliament.


title: Dorabji Tata

text: Tata received his primary education at the Proprietary High School in Bombay (now Mumbai) before travelling to England in 1875, where he was privately tutored. He entered Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge in 1877, where he remained for two years before returning to Bombay in 1879. He continued his studies at St. Xavier's College, Bombay, where he obtained a degree in 1882.


title: Dorabji Tata

text: Upon graduating, Dorab worked for two years as a journalist at the "Bombay Gazette". In 1884, he joined the cotton business division of his father's firm. He was first sent to Pondicherry, then a French colony, to determine whether a cotton mill might be profitable there. Thereafter, he was sent to Nagpur, to learn the cotton trade at the Empress Mills which had been founded by his father in 1877.


title: Dorabji Tata

text: Dorabji's father, Jamshetji, had visited Mysore State in south India on business, and had met Dr. Hormusji Bhabha, a Parsi and the first Indian Inspector-General of Education of that state. While visiting the Bhabha home, he had met and approved of young Meherbai, Bhabha's only daughter. Returning to Bombay, Jamshetji sent Dorab to Mysore State, specifically to call on the Bhabha family. Dorab did so, and duly married Meherbai in 1897. The couple had no children.


title: Dorabji Tata

text: Meherbai's brother, Jehangir Bhabha, became a reputed lawyer. He was the father of scientist Homi J. Bhabha. Thus Dorabji was Homi Bhabha's uncle by marriage. The Tata Group funded Bhabha's research and his research institutions, including the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research.


title: Dorabji Tata

text: Dorabji was intimately involved in the fulfilment of his father's ideas of a modern iron and steel industry, and agreed to the necessity for hydroelectric electricity to power the industry. Dorab is credited with the establishment of the Tata Steel conglomerate in 1907, which his father founded and Tata Power in 1911, which are the core of the present-day Tata Group.


title: Dorabji Tata

text: Dorabji accompanied the mineralogists searching for iron fields. It is said that his presence encouraged researchers to search areas that would otherwise have been neglected. Under Dorabji's management, the business that had once included three cotton mills and the Taj Hotel Bombay grew to include India's largest private sector steel company, three electric companies and one of India's leading insurance companies.


title: Dorabji Tata

text: Founder of New India Assurance Co Ltd. in 1919, the largest General Insurance company in India, Dorabji Tata was knighted in January 1910 by Edward VII, becoming Sir Dorabji Tata.


title: Dorabji Tata

text: Dorabji was extremely fond of sports, and was a pioneer in the Indian Olympic movement. As president of the Indian Olympic Association, he financed the Indian contingent to the Paris Olympics in 1924. The Tata family, like most of India's big businessmen, were Indian nationalists.


title: Dorabji Tata

text: Tata was also a member of the International Olympic Committee during most of the years between World War I and World War II.


title: Dorabji Tata

text: Meherbai Tata died of leukaemia in 1931 at the age of 52. Shortly after her death, Dorabji established the Lady Tata Memorial Trust to advance the study into diseases of the blood.


title: Dorabji Tata

text: On 11 March 1932, one year after Meherbai's death and shortly before his own, he established a trust fund which was to be used "without any distinction of place, nationality or creed," for the advancement of learning and research, disaster relief, and other philanthropic purposes. That trust is today known as the Sir Dorabji Tata Trust. Dorabji additionally provided the seed money to fund the setting up of India's premier scientific and engineering research institution, the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.


title: Dorabji Tata

text: Dorabji died in Bad Kissingen, Germany on 3 June 1932, at the age of 73. He is buried alongside his wife Meherbai in Brookwood Cemetery, Woking, England. They had no children.


title: Ahimsa

text: Ahimsa (, IAST: "ahiṃsā", ) is the ancient Indian principle of nonviolence which applies to all living beings. It is a key virtue in Indian religions: Jainism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Sikhism.


title: Ahimsa

text: Ahimsa is one of the cardinal virtues of Jainism, where it is the first of the Pancha Mahavrata. It is also the first of the five precepts of Buddhism. "Ahimsa" is a multidimensional concept, inspired by the premise that all living beings have the spark of the divine spiritual energy; therefore, to hurt another being is to hurt oneself. "Ahimsa" is also related to the notion that all acts of violence has karmic consequences. While ancient scholars of Brahmanism already investigated and refined the principles of "ahimsa", the concept reached an extraordinary development in the ethical philosophy of Jainism. Perhaps the most popular advocate of the principle of "ahimsa" in modern times was Mahatma Gandhi.


title: Ahimsa

text: Ahimsa's precept that one living being should 'cause no injury' to another living being includes one's deeds, words, and thoughts. Classical Hindu texts like the Mahabharata and Ramayana, as well as modern scholars, debate principles of "Ahimsa" when one is faced with war and situations requiring self-defence. Historical Indian literature has in this way contributed to modern theories of just war and self-defence.


title: Ahimsa

text: The word "Ahimsa"—sometimes spelled "Ahinsa"—is derived from the Sanskrit root "hiṃs", meaning to strike; "hiṃsā" is injury or harm, while "a-hiṃsā" (prefixed with the alpha privative), its opposite, is "non-harming" or "nonviolence".


title: Ahimsa

text: The idea of reverence for ahiṃsā exist in Hindu, Jain and Buddhist canonical texts. Parshvanatha preached ahimsa as one of the four vows in 9th century BCE. No other Indian religion has developed the non-violence doctrine and its implications on everyday life as has Jainism.


title: Ahimsa

text: Ahimsa as an ethical concept evolved in the Vedic texts. The oldest scriptures indirectly mention "Ahimsa", but do not emphasize it. Over time, the Hindu scripts revise ritual practices and the concept of "Ahimsa" is increasingly refined and emphasized, until "Ahimsa" becomes the highest virtue by the late Vedic era (about 500 BCE). For example, hymn 10.22.25 in the Rig Veda uses the words Satya (truthfulness) and "Ahimsa" in a prayer to deity Indra; later, the Yajur Veda dated to be between 1000 BCE and 600 BCE, states, "may all beings look at me with a friendly eye, may I do likewise, and may we look at each other with the eyes of a friend".


title: Ahimsa

text: The term "Ahimsa" appears in the text Taittiriya Shakha of the Yajurveda (TS 5.2.8.7), where it refers to non-injury to the sacrificer himself. It occurs several times in the "Shatapatha Brahmana" in the sense of "non-injury". The "Ahimsa" doctrine is a late Vedic era development in Brahmanical culture. The earliest reference to the idea of non-violence to animals ("pashu-Ahimsa"), apparently in a moral sense, is in the Kapisthala Katha Samhita of the Yajurveda (KapS 31.11), which may have been written in about the 8th century BCE.


title: Ahimsa

text: Bowker states the word appears but is uncommon in the principal Upanishads. Kaneda gives examples of the word "Ahimsa" in these Upanishads. Other scholars suggest "Ahimsa" as an ethical concept that started evolving in the Vedas, becoming an increasingly central concept in Upanishads.


title: Ahimsa

text: The Chāndogya Upaniṣad, dated to the 8th or 7th century BCE, one of the oldest Upanishads, has the earliest evidence for the Vedic era use of the word "Ahimsa" in the sense familiar in Hinduism (a code of conduct). It bars violence against "all creatures" ("sarvabhuta") and the practitioner of "Ahimsa" is said to escape from the cycle of rebirths (CU 8.15.1). Some scholars state that this 8th or 7th century BCE mention may have been an influence of Jainism on Vedic Hinduism. Others scholar state that this relationship is speculative, and though Jainism is an ancient tradition the oldest traceable texts of Jainism tradition are from many centuries after the Vedic era ended.


title: Ahimsa

text: Chāndogya Upaniṣad also names Ahimsa, along with Satyavacanam (truthfulness), Ārjavam (sincerity), Dānam (charity), Tapo (penance/meditation), as one of five essential virtues (CU 3.17.4).


title: Ahimsa

text: The Sandilya Upanishad lists ten forbearances: "Ahimsa", "Satya", "Asteya", "Brahmacharya", "Daya", "Arjava", "Kshama", "Dhriti", "Mitahara" and "Saucha". According to Kaneda, the term "Ahimsa" is an important spiritual doctrine shared by Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. It literally means 'non-injury' and 'non-killing'. It implies the total avoidance of harming of any kind of living creatures not only by deeds, but also by words and in thoughts.


title: Ahimsa

text: The Mahabharata, one of the epics of Hinduism, has multiple mentions of the phrase "Ahimsa Paramo Dharma" (अहिंसा परमॊ धर्मः), which literally means: non-violence is the highest moral virtue. For example, Anushasana Parva has the verse:


title: Ahimsa

text: The above passage from Mahabharata emphasises the cardinal importance of "Ahimsa" in Hinduism, and literally means:


title: Ahimsa

text: Some other examples where the phrase "Ahimsa Paramo Dharma" are discussed include Adi Parva, Vana Parva and Anushasana Parva. The Bhagavad Gita, among other things, discusses the doubts and questions about appropriate response when one faces systematic violence or war. These verses develop the concepts of lawful violence in self-defence and the theories of just war. However, there is no consensus on this interpretation. Gandhi, for example, considers this debate about non-violence and lawful violence as a mere metaphor for the internal war within each human being, when he or she faces moral questions.


title: Ahimsa

text: The classical texts of Hinduism devote numerous chapters discussing what people who practice the virtue of Ahimsa, can and must do when they are faced with war, violent threat or need to sentence someone convicted of a crime. These discussions have led to theories of just war, theories of reasonable self-defence and theories of proportionate punishment. Arthashastra discusses, among other things, why and what constitutes proportionate response and punishment.


title: Ahimsa

text: The precepts of Ahimsa under Hinduism require that war must be avoided, with sincere and truthful dialogue. Force must be the last resort. If war becomes necessary, its cause must be just, its purpose virtuous, its objective to restrain the wicked, its aim peace, its method lawful. War can only be started and stopped by a legitimate authority. Weapons used must be proportionate to the opponent and the aim of war, not indiscriminate tools of destruction. All strategies and weapons used in the war must be to defeat the opponent, not designed to cause misery to the opponent; for example, use of arrows is allowed, but use of arrows smeared with painful poison is not allowed. Warriors must use judgment in the battlefield. Cruelty to the opponent during war is forbidden. Wounded, unarmed opponent warriors must not be attacked or killed, they must be brought to your realm and given medical treatment. Children, women and civilians must not be injured. While the war is in progress, sincere dialogue for peace must continue.


title: Ahimsa

text: In matters of self-defence, different interpretations of ancient Hindu texts have been offered. For example, Tähtinen suggests self-defence is appropriate, criminals are not protected by the rule of Ahimsa, and Hindu scriptures support the use of violence against an armed attacker. Ahimsa is not meant to imply pacifism.


title: Ahimsa

text: Alternate theories of self-defence, inspired by Ahimsa, build principles similar to theories of just war. Aikido, pioneered in Japan, illustrates one such principles of self-defence. Morihei Ueshiba, the founder of Aikido, described his inspiration as Ahimsa. According to this interpretation of Ahimsa in self-defence, one must not assume that the world is free of aggression. One must presume that some people will, out of ignorance, error or fear, attack other persons or intrude into their space, physically or verbally. The aim of self-defence, suggested Ueshiba, must be to neutralise the aggression of the attacker, and avoid the conflict. The best defence is one where the victim is protected, as well as the attacker is respected and not injured if possible. Under Ahimsa and Aikido, there are no enemies, and appropriate self-defence focuses on neutralising the immaturity, assumptions and aggressive strivings of the attacker.


title: Ahimsa

text: Tähtinen concludes that Hindus have no misgivings about the death penalty; their position is that evil-doers who deserve death should be killed, and that a king in particular is obliged to punish criminals and should not hesitate to kill them, even if they happen to be his own brothers and sons.


title: Ahimsa

text: Other scholars conclude that the scriptures of Hinduism suggest sentences for any crime must be fair, proportional and not cruel.


title: Ahimsa

text: The Hindu precept of 'cause no injury' applies to animals and all life forms. This precept isn't found in the oldest verses of Vedas (1500–1000 BCE), but increasingly becomes one of the central ideas in post-Vedic period. In the oldest layer of the Vedas, such as the "Rigveda", ritual sacrifices of animals and cooking of meat to feed guests are mentioned. This included goat, ox, horse and others. However, the text is not uniform in the prescriptive sense. Some verses praise meat as food, while other verses in the Vedas also recommend "abstention from meat", in particular, "beef". According to Marvin Harris, the Vedic literature is inconsistent, with some verses suggesting ritual slaughter and meat consumption, while others suggesting a taboo on meat-eating.


title: Ahimsa

text: Hindu texts dated to 1st millennium BC, initially mention meat as food, then evolve to suggestions that only meat obtained through ritual sacrifice can be eaten, thereafter evolving to the stance that one should eat no meat because it hurts animals, with verses describing the noble life as one that lives on flowers, roots and fruits alone. The late Vedic era literature (pre-500 BCE) condemns all killings of men, cattle, birds and horses, and prays to god Agni to punish those who kill.


title: Ahimsa

text: Later texts of Hinduism declare Ahimsa one of the primary virtues, declare any killing or harming any life as against "dharma" (moral life). Finally, the discussion in Upanishads and Hindu Epics shifts to whether a human being can ever live his or her life without harming animal and plant life in some way; which and when plants or animal meat may be eaten, whether violence against animals causes human beings to become less compassionate, and if and how one may exert least harm to non-human life consistent with "ahimsa precept", given the constraints of life and human needs. The Mahabharata permits hunting by warriors, but opposes it in the case of hermits who must be strictly non-violent. Sushruta Samhita, a Hindu text written in the 3rd or 4th century, in Chapter XLVI suggests proper diet as a means of treating certain illnesses, and recommends various fishes and meats for different ailments and for pregnant women, and the Charaka Samhita describes meat as superior to all other kinds of food for convalescents.


title: Ahimsa

text: Across the texts of Hinduism, there is a profusion of ideas about the virtue of "Ahimsa" when applied to non-human life, but without a universal consensus. Alsdorf claims the debate and disagreements between supporters of vegetarian lifestyle and meat eaters was significant. Even suggested exceptions – ritual slaughter and hunting – were challenged by advocates of "Ahimsa". In the Mahabharata both sides present various arguments to substantiate their viewpoints. Moreover, a hunter defends his profession in a long discourse.


title: Ahimsa

text: Many of the arguments proposed in favor of non-violence to animals refer to the bliss one feels, the rewards it entails before or after death, the danger and harm it prevents, as well as to the karmic consequences of violence.


title: Ahimsa

text: The ancient Hindu texts discuss Ahimsa and non-animal life. They discourage wanton destruction of nature including of wild and cultivated plants. Hermits (sannyasins) were urged to live on a fruitarian diet so as to avoid the destruction of plants. Scholars claim the principles of ecological nonviolence is innate in the Hindu tradition, and its conceptual fountain has been Ahimsa as their cardinal virtue.


title: Ahimsa

text: The classical literature of the Indian religions, such as Hinduism and Jainism, exists in many Indian languages. For example, the "Tirukkural," written in three volumes, likely between 450 and 500 CE, dedicates verses 251–260 and 321–333 of its first volume to the virtue of "Ahimsa", emphasizing on moral vegetarianism and non-killing ("kollamai"). However, the "Tirukkural" also glorifies soldiers and their valour during war, and states that it is king's duty to punish criminals and implement "death sentence for the wicked".


title: Ahimsa

text: In 1960, H. Jay Dinshah founded the American Vegan Society (AVS), linking veganism to the concept of ahimsa.


title: Ahimsa

text: In the 19th and 20th centuries, prominent figures of Indian spirituality such as Shrimad Rajchandra and Swami Vivekananda emphasised the importance of Ahimsa.


title: Ahimsa

text: Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi successfully promoted the principle of Ahimsa to all spheres of life, in particular to politics (Swaraj). His non-violent resistance movement satyagraha had an immense impact on India, impressed public opinion in Western countries, and influenced the leaders of various civil and political rights movements such as the American civil rights movement's Martin Luther King Jr. and James Bevel. In Gandhi's thought, Ahimsa precludes not only the act of inflicting a physical injury, but also mental states like evil thoughts and hatred, unkind behavior such as harsh words, dishonesty and lying, all of which he saw as manifestations of violence incompatible with "Ahimsa". Gandhi believed Ahimsa to be a creative energy force, encompassing all interactions leading one's self to find satya, "Divine Truth". Sri Aurobindo criticised the Gandhian concept of "Ahimsa" as unrealistic and not universally applicable; he adopted a pragmatic non-pacifist position, saying that the justification of violence depends on the specific circumstances of the given situation.


title: Ahimsa

text: Gandhi stated his belief that "Ahimsa is in Hinduism, it is in Christianity as well as in Islam." He added, "Nonviolence is common to all religions, but it has found the highest expression and application in Hinduism (I do not regard Jainism or Buddhism as separate from Hinduism)." When questioned whether violence and non-violence is both taught in Quran, he stated, "I have heard it from many Muslim friends that the Koran teaches the use of non-violence. (... The) argument about non-violence in the Holy Koran is an interpolation, not necessary for my thesis."


title: Ahimsa

text: A historical and philosophical study of Ahimsa was instrumental in the shaping of Albert Schweitzer's principle of "reverence for life". Schweitzer praised Indian philosophical and religious traditions for the ethics of "Ahimsa": "the laying down of the commandment not to kill and not to damage is one of the greatest events in the spiritual history of humankind", but suggested that "not-killing and not-harming" is not always practically possible as in self-defence, nor ethical as in chronic starving during a famine case.


title: Ahimsa

text: Ahimsa is imperative for practitioners of Patañjali's eight limb Raja yoga system. It is included in the first limb and is the first of five Yamas (self restraints) which, together with the second limb, make up the code of ethical conduct in Yoga philosophy. "Ahimsa" is also one of the ten "Yamas" in Hatha Yoga according to verse 1.1.17 of its classic manual "Hatha Yoga Pradipika".


title: Ahimsa

text: The significance of "Ahimsa" as the first restraint in the first limb of Yoga (Yamas), is that it defines the necessary foundation for progress through Yoga. It is a precursor to Asana, implying that success in Yogasana can be had only if the self is purified in thought, word, and deed through the self-restraint of "Ahimsa".


title: Ahimsa

text: In Jainism, the understanding and implementation of "Ahimsā" is more radical, scrupulous, and comprehensive than in any other religion. Killing any living being out of passions is considered "hiṃsā" (to injure) and abstaining from such an act is "ahimsā" (noninjury). The vow of "ahimsā" is considered the foremost among the 'five vows of Jainism'. Other vows like truth (satya) are meant for safeguarding the vow of "ahimsā". In the practice of "Ahimsa", the requirements are less strict for the lay persons (sravakas) who have undertaken "anuvrata" (Smaller Vows) than for the Jain monastics who are bound by the Mahavrata "Great Vows". The statement ' (or, "Non-injury/nonviolence/harmlessness is the supreme/ultimate/paramount/highest/absolute duty"'/virtue/attribute/religion" — slashes are used here to present alternative denotations) is often found inscribed on the walls of the Jain temples. Like in Hinduism, the aim is to prevent the accumulation of harmful karma. When Mahavira revived and reorganised the Jain faith in the 6th or 5th century BCE, "Ahimsa" was already an established, strictly observed rule. Rishabhanatha (Ādinātha), the first Jain Tirthankara, whom modern Western historians consider to be a historical figure, followed by Parshvanatha (Pārśvanātha) the twenty-third Tirthankara lived in about the 9th century BCE. He founded the community to which Mahavira's parents belonged. Ahimsa was already part of the "Fourfold Restraint" ("Caujjama"), the vows taken by Parshva's followers. In the times of Mahavira and in the following centuries, Jains were at odds with both Buddhists and followers of the Vedic religion or Hindus, whom they accused of negligence and inconsistency in the implementation of "Ahimsa". According to the Jain tradition either lacto vegetarianism or veganism is prescribed.


title: Ahimsa

text: The Jain concept of Ahimsa is characterised by several aspects. Killing of animals for food is absolutely ruled out. Jains also make considerable efforts not to injure plants in everyday life as far as possible. Though they admit that plants must be destroyed for the sake of food, they accept such violence only inasmuch as it is indispensable for human survival, and there are special instructions for preventing unnecessary violence against plants. Jain monks and nuns go out of their way so as not to hurt even small insects and other minuscule animals. Both the renouncers and the laypeople of Jain faith reject meat, fish, alcohol and honey as these are believed to harm large or minuscule life forms.


title: Ahimsa

text: Jaina scholars have debated the potential injury to other life forms during one's occupation. Certain Jain texts, states Padmannabh Jaini – a Jainism scholar, forbid people of its faith from husbandry, agriculture and trade in animal-derived products. Some Jains abstain from farming because it inevitably entails unintentional killing or injuring of many small animals, such as worms and insects, These teachings, in part, have led the Jain community to focus on trade, merchant, clerical and administrative occupations to minimize "arambhaja-himsa" (occupational violence against all life forms). For the layperson, the teaching has been of "ahimsa" with "pramada" – that is, reducing violence through proper intention and being careful in every action on a daily basis to minimize violence to all life forms.


title: Ahimsa

text: The Jain texts, unlike most Hindu and Buddhist texts on just war, have been inconsistent. For its monastic community – "sadhu" and "sadhvi" – the historically accepted practice has been to "willingly sacrifice one's own life" to the attacker, to not retaliate, so that the mendicant may keep the First Great Vow of "total nonviolence". Jain literature of the 10th century CE, for example, describes a king ready for war and being given lessons about non-violence by the Jain acharya (spiritual teacher). In the 12th century CE and thereafter, in an era of violent raids, destruction of temples, the slaughter of agrarian communities and ascetics by Islamic armies, Jain scholars reconsidered the First Great Vow of mendicants and its parallel for the laypeople. The medieval texts of this era, such as by Jinadatta Suri, recommended both the mendicants and the laypeople to fight and kill if that would prevent greater and continued violence on humans and other life forms ("virodhi-himsa"). Such exemptions to "ahimsa" is a relatively rare teaching in Jain texts, states Dundas.


title: Ahimsa

text: Mahatma Gandhi stated, "No religion in the World has explained the principle of "Ahiṃsā" so deeply and systematically as is discussed with its applicability in every human life in Jainism. As and when the benevolent principle of "Ahiṃsā" or non-violence will be ascribed for practice by the people of the world to achieve their end of life in this world and beyond, Jainism is sure to have the uppermost status and Mahāvīra is sure to be respected as the greatest authority on Ahiṃsā".


title: Ahimsa

text: In Buddhist texts "Ahimsa" (or its Pāli cognate ) is part of the Five Precepts (), the first of which has been to abstain from killing. This precept of Ahimsa is applicable to both the Buddhist layperson and the monk community.


title: Ahimsa

text: The Ahimsa precept is not a commandment and transgressions did not invite religious sanctions for laypersons, but their power has been in the Buddhist belief in karmic consequences and their impact in afterlife during rebirth. Killing, in Buddhist belief, could lead to rebirth in the hellish realm, and for a longer time in more severe conditions if the murder victim was a monk. Saving animals from slaughter for meat is believed to be a way to acquire merit for better rebirth. These moral precepts have been voluntarily self-enforced in lay Buddhist culture through the associated belief in karma and rebirth. The Buddhist texts not only recommended "Ahimsa", but suggest avoiding trading goods that contribute to or are a result of violence:


title: Ahimsa

text: Unlike lay Buddhists, transgressions by monks do invite sanctions. Full expulsion of a monk from "sangha" follows instances of killing, just like any other serious offense against the monastic "nikaya" code of conduct.


title: Ahimsa

text: Violent ways of punishing criminals and prisoners of war were not explicitly condemned in Buddhism, but peaceful ways of conflict resolution and punishment with the least amount of injury were encouraged. The early texts condemn the mental states that lead to violent behavior.


title: Ahimsa

text: Nonviolence is an overriding theme within the Pāli Canon. While the early texts condemn killing in the strongest terms, and portray the ideal queen/king as a pacifist, such a queen/king is nonetheless flanked by an army. It seems that the Buddha's teaching on nonviolence was not interpreted or put into practice in an uncompromisingly pacifist or anti-military-service way by early Buddhists. The early texts assume war to be a fact of life, and well-skilled warriors are viewed as necessary for defensive warfare. In Pali texts, injunctions to abstain from violence and involvement with military affairs are directed at members of the sangha; later Mahayana texts, which often generalise monastic norms to laity, require this of lay people as well.


title: Ahimsa

text: The early texts do not contain just-war ideology as such. Some argue that a sutta in the "Gamani Samyuttam" rules out all military service. In this passage, a soldier asks the Buddha if it is true that, as he has been told, soldiers slain in battle are reborn in a heavenly realm. The Buddha reluctantly replies that if he is killed in battle while his mind is seized with the intention to kill, he will undergo an unpleasant rebirth. In the early texts, a person's mental state at the time of death is generally viewed as having a great impact on the next birth.


title: Ahimsa

text: Some Buddhists point to other early texts as justifying defensive war. One example is the "Kosala Samyutta", in which King Pasenadi, a righteous king favored by the Buddha, learns of an impending attack on his kingdom. He arms himself in defence, and leads his army into battle to protect his kingdom from attack. He lost this battle but won the war. King Pasenadi eventually defeated King Ajātasattu and captured him alive. He thought that, although this King of Magadha has transgressed against his kingdom, he had not transgressed against him personally, and Ajātasattu was still his nephew. He released Ajātasattu and did not harm him. Upon his return, the Buddha said (among other things) that Pasenadi "is a friend of virtue, acquainted with virtue, intimate with virtue", while the opposite is said of the aggressor, King Ajātasattu.


title: Ahimsa

text: According to Theravada commentaries, there are five requisite factors that must all be fulfilled for an act to be both an act of killing and to be karmically negative. These are: (1) the presence of a living being, human or animal; (2) the knowledge that the being is a living being; (3) the intent to kill; (4) the act of killing by some means; and (5) the resulting death. Some Buddhists have argued on this basis that the act of killing is complicated, and its ethicality is predicated upon intent. Some have argued that in defensive postures, for example, the primary intention of a soldier is not to kill, but to defend against aggression, and the act of killing in that situation would have minimal negative karmic repercussions.


title: Ahimsa

text: According to Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, there is circumstantial evidence encouraging Ahimsa, from the Buddha's doctrine, "Love all, so that you may not wish to kill any." Gautama Buddha distinguished between a principle and a rule. He did not make Ahimsa a matter of rule, but suggested it as a matter of principle. This gives Buddhists freedom to act.


title: Ahimsa

text: The emperors of the Sui dynasty, Tang dynasty, and early Song dynasty banned killing in the Lunar calendar's 1st, 5th, and 9th months. Empress Wu Tse-Tien banned killing for more than half a year in 692. Some rulers banned fishing for a period of time each year.


title: Ahimsa

text: There were also bans after the death of emperors, after Buddhist and Taoist prayers, and after natural disasters such as Shanghai's 1926 summer drought, as well as an 8-day ban beginning August 12, 1959, after the August 7 flood (), the last big flood before the 88 Taiwan Flood.


title: Ahimsa

text: People avoid killing during some festivals, like the Taoist Ghost Festival, the Nine Emperor Gods Festival, and the Vegetarian Festival, as well as during others.


title: Jorah Mormont

text: Jorah Mormont is a fictional character in the "A Song of Ice and Fire" series of fantasy novels by American author George R. R. Martin and its television adaptation "Game of Thrones".


title: Jorah Mormont

text: Introduced in "A Game of Thrones" (1996), Jorah is a knight in exile, the disgraced former lord of Bear Island and the only son of Jeor Mormont, the honorable lord commander of the Night's Watch. Jorah subsequently appeared in Martin's "A Clash of Kings" (1998), "A Storm of Swords" (2000) and "A Dance with Dragons" (2011). After fleeing Westeros, Jorah pledges fealty to Daenerys Targaryen and over the course of both the novels and the television show becomes her closest and most loyal companion; Jorah's passionate yet unrequited love of Daenerys is central to the character's arc in both the novels and television show. He is portrayed as a skilled warrior whose knowledge of the peoples and customs of Essos proves invaluable to Daenerys' journeys.


title: Jorah Mormont

text: Ser Jorah Mormont is the only child of the Night's Watch's Lord Commander Jeor Mormont, who abdicated shortly before Robert's Rebellion to join the Night's Watch and let Jorah assume the lordship of Bear Island. At some point Jorah married a lady of House Glover, who died from miscarriage after ten years of marriage. Jorah fought in Greyjoy's Rebellion, distinguishing himself by being one of the first to enter the fray during the siege of Pyke and was knighted by King Robert Baratheon. At a tourney at Lannisport celebrating the Baratheon victory, Jorah fell in love with the beautiful Lynesse Hightower (aunt of Margaery Tyrell). He named her Queen of Love and Beauty after winning the tourney and asked her father for her hand in marriage, which he accepted. However, Lynesse found herself ill-suited to the rough life on Bear Island, having grown up as a member of the wealthy House Hightower. Jorah bankrupted himself trying to provide her with luxuries and eventually sold poachers found on his lands to a Tyroshi slaver to fund her lifestyle. His liege lord, Eddard Stark, condemned Jorah to death, but he and Lynesse fled to Lys. Jorah then made his living as a sellsword, but was still unable to provide enough to satisfy Lynesse, and eventually returned from a campaign to find that Lynesse had become a concubine of a wealthy Lysene merchant. The merchant warned Jorah that he would be enslaved to settle his debts if he remained in Lys and Jorah was forced to flee again. Afterwards he drifted among the Free Cities and the Dothraki, before becoming a spy for Varys.


title: Jorah Mormont

text: Jorah Mormont is not a point of view character in the novels, so his actions are witnessed and interpreted through the eyes of Daenerys Targaryen and Tyrion Lannister. Jorah mostly serves to provide Daenerys with background information such as Westerosi history and the various cultures of Essos.


title: Jorah Mormont

text: In Pentos, Jorah enters the service of House Targaryen during Daenerys Targaryen's wedding to Khal Drogo, although he is actually spying on behalf of Robert's Master of Whisperers Varys in hopes of earning a royal pardon. Although Jorah holds Daenerys' brother Viserys in contempt, he comes to admire Daenerys for her bravery and strength of character, and eventually falls in love with her. In Vaes Dothrak, Jorah is warned by Illyrio Mopatis that Robert has ordered Daenerys' assassination and saves her from being poisoned. After Drogo's death, Jorah is the first to pledge fealty to Daenerys and is astounded when she emerges from Drogo's funeral pyre with three dragon hatchlings.


title: Jorah Mormont

text: Jorah accompanies Daenerys and the remnants of her khalasar to Qarth. There, Jorah stops sending reports to Varys, having truly fallen in love with Daenerys. Daenerys discovers his love after Jorah notes her physical similarity to Lynesse, but does not tell Jorah that she knows. At Qarth's docks, Jorah and Daenerys encounter the former pit fighter Strong Belwas and his squire Arstan Whitebeard. Arstan claims to know Jorah; Jorah finds him familiar, but does not recognise him. Despite Jorah's mistrust, Daenerys accepts the duo into her service.


title: Jorah Mormont

text: Jorah confesses his love to Daenerys, who rejects his advances. Jorah recommends that they sail to Astapor to buy an army of Unsullied, and commands the army when they overthrow the masters of Yunkai. As they arrive at Meereen, Arstan is revealed to be Ser Barristan Selmy, former Kingsguard to Aerys II Targaryen and Robert, and he announces Jorah's former status as a spy. Daenerys orders Jorah and Selmy to infiltrate Meereen and release slaves. Upon their return, Jorah refuses to beg forgiveness, insisting that Daenerys owes him forgiveness as reward for his service. Daenerys agrees but notes that she cannot grant it without undermining her authority, and banishes Jorah.


title: Jorah Mormont

text: Jorah encounters the exiled Tyrion Lannister in a brothel in Selhorys and abducts him, hoping to return to Daenerys' graces by presenting a Lannister captive as a gift. In Volantis they encounter the dwarf Penny, whom Tyrion takes pity on and is allowed by Jorah to accompany them. During their voyage to Meereen, their ship is disabled by a storm and later seized by slavers, and Jorah is badly beaten and branded trying to fend them off. In Meereen the trio are sold to the Yunkish master Yezzan zo Qaggaz. Jorah becomes despondent after learning that Daenerys has taken the Meereenese nobleman Hizdhar zo Loraq as her husband. When Yezzan dies from dysentery, Jorah and Tyrion escape to the camp of the sellsword company Second Sons, formerly in service to Daenerys before defecting to the slavers, and Jorah rejoins the company along with Tyrion. Jorah realises that the Yunkai'i will lose the coming battle with Meereen and tells Tyrion that they need to convince the company to defect again.


title: Jorah Mormont

text: Jorah Mormont is portrayed by Scottish actor Iain Glen in the television adaption of the series of books.


title: Jorah Mormont

text: Ser Jorah Mormont is an exiled knight in the service of Daenerys Targaryen and the son of Jeor Mormont of the Night's Watch. To fund his wife's extravagant lifestyle, he sold poachers on his land to slave traders, which is illegal in the Seven Kingdoms. Rather than face punishment by Lord Stark, he fled to Essos and learned the lifestyle of the Dothraki, who embrace him as one of their own and know him as "Jorah the Andal". Jorah serves as an adviser to the Targaryens on both political and cultural matters regarding the Seven Kingdoms and Essos. Jorah is actually spying on the Targaryens for Lord Varys in exchange for a pardon from Robert, but after learning more about Daenerys, it appears that Jorah is falling for her; even preventing her poisoning, when Robert & Varys so order it.


title: Jorah Mormont

text: When Daenerys is widowed after Khal Drogo's death, Jorah travels with her to Qarth and becomes the first knight of her Queensguard. He travels with Daenerys to Qarth, serving as her adviser and protector. When a mysterious, masked, female seuthsayer (privately) questions his fealty, he affirms that he will no longer help Varys, or anybody else, betray Daenerys. He explains to Daenerys that he respects her birthright claim to the Seven Kingdoms as she "has a kind heart", which he believes to be the key to being a just ruler. When Daenerys' dragons are stolen by the warlock Pyat Pree (a member of the Thirteen, the leaders of Qarth) and taken to the House of the Undying, Jorah accompanies her as she defeats her children's captor and departs Qarth for Astapor.


title: Jorah Mormont

text: After Daenerys sacks Astapor and defeats the slavers who own the city, Jorah plays an important part in the capture of Yunkai, together with Unsullied commander Grey Worm and Daario Naharis, Lieutenant and leader of the Second Sons. Led by Daario, the trio infiltrates the city and kill a number of Yunkish guards to open a gate, ensuring the city's capture. Jorah later assists Daenerys and her army in conquering Meereen, and later informs her of Joffrey's death, but at the same time dissuades her from invading King's Landing, since she is not strong enough to take all of Westeros yet. When Daenerys appears to begin a romantic relationship with Daario, Jorah voices his disapproval.


title: Jorah Mormont

text: Following Daenerys' capture of Meereen, Jorah joins her council and aids her in ruling the city and its nearby territories. However, another member of Daenerys' advisory council, Ser Barristan, uncovers the truth about Jorah's original mission in Essos, and presents the information to Daenerys. When it is revealed to her that Jorah spied on her for the "usurper" Robert Baratheon, which almost led to her poisoning by the wine merchant in Vaes Dothrak, she exiles Jorah from Meereen on the threat of death. Jorah subsequently departs alone, with his destination unclear.


title: Jorah Mormont

text: Jorah encounters Tyrion Lannister in Volantis and kidnaps him with the intention of delivering him to Daenerys. Sailing through the ruins of Valyria, the duo is assaulted by "stone men" – humans turned insane by the disease greyscale – and Jorah is infected in the struggle. He decides to hide this information from Tyrion. Jorah then learns from Tyrion that his father Jeor was killed in a Night's Watch mutiny beyond the Wall. The pair are captured by slavers and sold into the fighting pits in Meereen. At a demonstration of pit fighters, Jorah encounters Daenerys, who orders him freed but refuses to let him return to her service. With nowhere else left to go, Jorah returns to the fighting pits. At the reopening of the fighting pits, Jorah foils an assassination attempt on Daenerys and protects her from the insurgent Sons of the Harpy in the resulting confrontation. After Daenerys flies away on Drogon, Jorah and Daario Naharis leave Meereen to look for her.


title: Jorah Mormont

text: Jorah and Daario discover Daenerys' intentionally discarded ring in a grass plain, and Jorah deduces that she has been captured by a Dothraki horde and taken to Vaes Dothrak. Upon arriving there, they are reunited with Daenerys, who rejects their offer to flee the city and instead asks them to help her with her own plan, to which they reluctantly agree. The next evening, Jorah and Daario watch as Daenerys, after trapping and burning all the Khals alive in the temple building, emerges from it completely unharmed, and they join the rest of the Dothraki in kneeling before her in awe. As Daenerys and her entourage prepare to leave Vaes Dothrak, Jorah reveals his greyscale to Daenerys and his intention to end his life before his illness overtakes him. Daenerys instead orders him to find a cure for his condition and return to her, declaring that she will need his counsel after conquering Westeros. Jorah then departs alone.


title: Jorah Mormont

text: Jorah returns to Westeros, seeking aid at the Citadel in Oldtown. By this time his greyscale has drastically progressed, consuming his entire arm and part of his torso. Archmaester Ebrose diagnoses Jorah's greyscale as untreatably advanced, and informs Jorah that he has six months of sanity left and will be exiled from the Citadel the next day. Samwell Tarly, who formerly served under Jeor in the Night's Watch, rediscovers a cure for greyscale. Despite being forbidden to administer it, because whoever treats the patient could become infected, he treats Jorah in secret and successfully heals Jorah's greyscale. Ebrose, although unimpressed by Jorah's attempts to conceal Sam's treatment, discharges Jorah. Jorah then returns to Daenerys, who is happy to see him and accepts him into her service once again. He then joins the expedition led by Jon Snow beyond the Wall to capture a wight and prove its existence to Cersei Lannister. He and Jon talk about their respective fathers, and Jon expresses his relief that Jorah was not executed. Jon attempts to return Longclaw to Jorah, on the basis that it is still the family sword of House Mormont, but Jorah refuses, claiming that he forfeited his right to claim the sword and that Jeor "gave" the weapon to Jon, making it his. Jorah survives the expedition and returns to Dragonstone.


title: Jorah Mormont

text: Jorah travels with Jon, Daenerys, and her forces to Winterfell to make a stand against the White Walkers. Daenerys is displeased with Tyrion when she learns that his sister Cersei Lannister is not sending her army, but she is mollified after Jorah speaks up in support of him. Samwell grants Jorah House Tarly's ancestral sword Heartsbane out of gratitude for Jeor's formative influence on him. During the Battle of Winterfell, Jorah is mortally wounded defending Daenerys from certain death at the hands of the undead, though he does survive long enough to see the army felled. Jorah dies in the arms of a sobbing Daenerys, encircled by the wings of her dragon, Drogon.


title: Zenith

text: The zenith (, ) is an imaginary point directly "above" a particular location, on the celestial sphere. "Above" means in the vertical direction (plumb line) opposite to the gravity direction at that location (nadir). The zenith is the "highest" point on the celestial sphere.


title: Zenith

text: The word "zenith" derives from an inaccurate reading of the Arabic expression (), meaning "direction of the head" or "path above the head", by Medieval Latin scribes in the Middle Ages (during the 14th century), possibly through Old Spanish. It was reduced to "samt" ("direction") and miswritten as "senit"/"cenit", the "m" being misread as "ni". Through the Old French "cenith", "zenith" first appeared in the 17th century.


title: Zenith

text: The term "zenith" sometimes means the highest point, way, or level reached by a celestial body on its daily apparent path around a given point of observation. This sense of the word is often used to describe the position of the Sun ("The sun reached its zenith..."), but to an astronomer, the Sun does not have its own zenith and is at the zenith only if it is directly overhead.


title: Zenith

text: In a scientific context, the zenith is the direction of reference for measuring the zenith angle (or zenith angular distance), the angle between a direction of interest (e.g. a star) and the local zenith - that is, the complement of the altitude angle (or elevation angle).


title: Zenith

text: The Sun reaches the observer's zenith when it is 90° above the horizon, and this only happens between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. In Islamic astronomy, the passing of the Sun over the zenith of Mecca becomes the basis of the qibla observation by shadows twice a year on 27/28 May and 15/16 July.


title: Zenith

text: At a given location during the course of a day, the Sun reaches not only its zenith but also its nadir, at the antipode of that location 12 hours from solar noon.


title: Zenith

text: In astronomy, the altitude in the horizontal coordinate system and the zenith angle are complementary angles, with the horizon perpendicular to the zenith. The astronomical meridian is also determined by the zenith, and is defined as a circle on the celestial sphere that passes through the zenith, nadir, and the celestial poles.


title: Zenith

text: A zenith telescope is a type of telescope designed to point straight up at or near the zenith, and used for precision measurement of star positions, to simplify telescope construction, or both. The NASA Orbital Debris Observatory and the Large Zenith Telescope are both zenith telescopes, since the use of liquid mirrors meant these telescopes could only point straight up.


title: Zenith

text: On the International Space Station, "zenith" and "nadir" are used instead of "up" and "down", referring to directions within and around the station, relative to the earth.


title: 2008–09 Premier League

text: The 2008–09 Premier League (known as the Barclays Premier League for sponsorship reasons) was the 17th season since the establishment of the Premier League in 1992. Manchester United became champions for the 11th time on the penultimate weekend of the season, defending their crown after winning their tenth Premier League title on the final day of the previous season. They were run close by Liverpool, who had a better goal difference and who had beaten United home and away, including a 4–1 victory at Old Trafford, but who were undone by a series of draws. The campaign – the fixtures for which were announced on 16 June 2008 – began on Saturday, 16 August 2008, and ended on 24 May 2009. A total of 20 teams contested the league, consisting of 17 who competed in the previous season and three promoted from the Football League Championship. The new match ball was the Nike T90 Omni.


title: 2008–09 Premier League

text: At the start of this season, clubs were allowed to name seven substitutes on the bench instead of five. This season was also different in that there was no New Year's Day game, as is traditional. This was because the FA Cup Third Round is traditionally played on the first Saturday in January, which in 2009 fell in the usual spot for New Year's league games. September saw Manchester City taken over by the Abu Dhabi United Group, transforming them into one of the world's wealthiest football clubs, securing the signing of Robinho for a British record £32.5 million just seconds before the 2008 summer transfer window closed in the process.


title: 2008–09 Premier League

text: The first goal of the season was scored by Arsenal's Samir Nasri against newly promoted West Bromwich Albion in the fourth minute of the early kick-off game on the opening day of the season on 16 August. Gabriel Agbonlahor of Aston Villa scored the first hat-trick of the season against Manchester City, scoring three goals in the space of seven minutes. Manchester United clinched the 2009 Premier League title with a scoreless draw against Arsenal on 16 May 2009, their 11th Premier League title, and 18th League title overall, drawing level with fierce rivals Liverpool who finished as runners-up. It is the second time they clinched the title for three consecutive years, the first being in 2001. Only three other clubs have achieved this feat: Liverpool (1980s), Arsenal (1930s) and Huddersfield Town (1920s).


title: 2008–09 Premier League

text: West Bromwich Albion were the first team to be relegated to the Championship after losing 2–0 at home to Liverpool on 17 May 2009. They were joined in the Championship by Middlesbrough and Newcastle United on the last day of the season after Middlesbrough's 2–1 defeat at West Ham United and Newcastle's 1–0 defeat at Aston Villa. It meant that Hull City and Sunderland stayed up despite home defeats to Manchester United and Chelsea respectively. The fact that Hull City avoided relegation (along with Stoke City, who stayed up relatively comfortably under the management of Tony Pulis), meant it was the first time since the 2005–06 season that more than one promoted club maintained their Premier League status. Aston Villa, Everton and Fulham all secured European football for the 2009–10 season through their league position.


title: 2008–09 Premier League

text: Twenty teams competed in the league – the top seventeen teams from the previous season and the three teams promoted from the Championship. The promoted teams were West Bromwich Albion, Stoke City (returning to the top flight after absences of two and twenty-three years respectively) and Hull City (playing top flight football for the first time ever). This was also Stoke City's first season in the Premier League. They replaced Reading (ending their two-year top flight spell), Birmingham City and Derby County (both teams relegated after a season's presence).


title: 2008–09 Premier League

text: Also, Nike provided new match balls, white with red and yellow (autumn/spring) and yellow with purple and black (winter), based on their T90 Laser II Omni model.


title: 2008–09 Premier League

text: Sir Alex Ferguson, 67, picked up the Premier League Manager of the Season for the ninth time. During his hugely successful spell with Manchester United, which began in 1986, he won eleven Premier League titles, five FA Cups, three League Cups, three European titles, one Intercontinental Cup and one Club World Cup.


title: 2008–09 Premier League

text: Goalkeeper: Edwin van der Sar (Manchester United)Defence: Glen Johnson (Portsmouth), Patrice Evra, Rio Ferdinand, Nemanja Vidić (all Manchester United)Midfield: Steven Gerrard (Liverpool), Cristiano Ronaldo, Ryan Giggs (both Manchester United), Ashley Young (Aston Villa)Attack: Nicolas Anelka (Chelsea), Fernando Torres (Liverpool)


title: 2008–09 Premier League

text: The FWA Footballer of the Year award for 2009 was won by Steven Gerrard for the first time. The Liverpool captain saw off the challenges of Manchester United winger Ryan Giggs and forward Wayne Rooney, who finished second and third respectively.


title: 2008–09 Premier League

text: Chelsea striker Nicolas Anelka won the Premier League Golden Boot award for the first time. He scored 19 goals in 35 appearances, which ensured he finished as the season's top scorer.


title: 2008–09 Premier League

text: Manchester United goalkeeper Edwin van der Sar collected the Premier League Golden Glove award for the first time. He kept a total of 21 clean sheets in 33 appearances, including a record run of 11 consecutive clean sheets (1,311 minutes) from Stoke City on 15 November 2008 to West Bromwich Albion on 27 January 2009.


title: 2008–09 Premier League

text: The Premier League Fair Play Award is merit given to the team who has been the most sporting and best behaved team. Fulham won this, ahead of London neighbours Chelsea and Arsenal. Hull City were deemed the least sporting side, finished in last place in the rankings


title: 2008–09 Premier League

text: The LMA Manager of the Year award was won by David Moyes after leading Everton to back-to-back fifth-place finishes and the FA Cup Final.


title: 2008–09 Premier League

text: The Premier League Spirit Award is given to "the player or manager whose actions best encapsulate the spirit of the game". In recognition for leading his club to the top of the Fair Play league, the Premier League Spirit Award for 2008–09 was given to Fulham manager Roy Hodgson.


title: 2008–09 Premier League

text: Given to the best-behaved fans, Fulham won this for the third consecutive year, rounding off a hat-trick of sporting awards.


title: Linda Miller (actress)

text: Linda Mae Miller (née Gleason; born September 16, 1942) is an American film, stage, and television actress. The daughter of actor and comedian Jackie Gleason and the mother of actor Jason Patric, Miller began working professionally as a child, later appearing on Broadway in a production of "Black Picture Show" (1975), for which she was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Supporting Actress. She would go on to star in television and in feature films such as the drama "One Summer Love", and the horror film "Alice, Sweet Alice" (both 1976).


title: Linda Miller (actress)

text: Miller was born Linda Mae Gleason on September 16, 1942 in New York City, the second child of actor Jackie Gleason and dancer Genevieve Halford. She began working in commercials and local stage productions beginning at age nine. Through her father, she is of Irish ancestry. She has one older sister, Geraldine. Miller was raised Catholic by her parents; her mother was described by her sister as "more Catholic than the Pope."


title: Linda Miller (actress)

text: Miller attended the Catholic University of America in Washington, D.C., where she met playwright Jason Miller, then a graduate student. The two were married in 1963, and gave birth to a son, actor Jason Patric, in 1966.


title: Linda Miller (actress)

text: Miller was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in 1975 for her role in the Broadway play "Black Picture Show". She had a regular role in the 1983 TV series "The Mississippi", and her film credits include roles in "One Summer Love" (1976), "Alice, Sweet Alice" (1976), "An Unmarried Woman" (1978), "Night of the Juggler" (1980) and "2 Little, 2 Late" (1999). She also played Ann Beaulieu in the 1988 television movie "Elvis and Me".


title: La Masia

text: La Masia de Can Planes, usually shortened to La Masia (; ), is a term used for FC Barcelona's youth academy. The academy includes more than 300 young players. It has been an instrumental factor in Barcelona's European success, and produced several world class players in the early 2000s.


title: La Masia

text: In 2010, La Masia became the first youth academy to have trained all three finalists for the Ballon d'Or in a single year: Andrés Iniesta, Lionel Messi and Xavi.


title: La Masia

text: La Masia is also the name of FC Barcelona's football training facilities, originally located near the Camp Nou in the Les Corts district of Barcelona. The original building itself was an ancient country residence (In Catalan: masia) built in 1702, and once Camp Nou was inaugurated in 1957, the building was remodelled and extended for use as the club's social headquarters. With the gradual expansion of the club, the building became too small for headquarters, and on 20 October 1979, La Masia was converted into a dormitory for young players from outside Barcelona. On 30 June 2011, the Masia building ceased housing the academy players. In a simple ceremony, the doors were closed and the Ciutat Esportiva Joan Gamper took over the function of the residential center for the players.


title: La Masia

text: La Masia de Can Planes was an old Catalan farmhouse, built in 1702. In 1979, it was first used by the club to house its young footballers who originated from outside Barcelona. The idea for the youth academy was proposed to Núñez by Jaume Amat, and Oriol Tort was put in charge of the facility.


title: La Masia

text: In 2011, it was announced that Barcelona would be moving all its football training activities to La Ciutat Esportiva Joan Gamper.


title: La Masia

text: La Masia received more publicity after Barcelona B's success with homegrown players; Rory Smith reported in "The Daily Telegraph" that La Masia "has replaced the fabled Ajax Academy as football's foremost production line". The recent fame and success of La Masia as a talent school was ascribed by Ian Hawkey of "The Times" to the class of 1987, which featured prominent members such as Cesc Fàbregas, Lionel Messi, Gerard Piqué and Pedro. In 2000, Louis van Gaal, coach of Barcelona's first team, was widely ridiculed by the city sports media for his dream to win the Champions League with 11 home-grown players. The first team won the trophy in 2009 with eight home-grown players.


title: La Masia

text: From 1979 to 2009, 440 youngsters have left their homes and families to stay at the academy. About half of them were from Catalonia, and the rest came from other regions of the Kingdom of Spain and beyond, including 15 from Cameroon, 7 from Brazil, 5 from Senegal and 3 from Argentina. Of those 440, 40 made it into Barcelona's first team.


title: La Masia

text: La Masia houses about 60 players: 10 in the farmhouse, and the rest in rooms of the adjacent stadium; the rest of the youth players must provide for their own accommodation.


title: La Masia

text: The academy is one of the most expensive in Europe, operating at a cost of £5 million a year. The main cost is the dormitory, La Masia itself. The minimum age for the youth program is six years; each year, more than 1,000 boys from the ages of six to eight try out for admission. The best 200 are selected. The club also actively seeks for prospective students; it employs a system in which 15 scouts are deployed in Catalonia, 15 in the rest of Spain and 10 scattered throughout the world. To alleviate the expenses of this scouting, the club has an agreement with 15 local clubs for them to train players who are not ready for entry into the youth academy. In return, FC Barcelona gives money, coaching and technical advice to these clubs for their services. While expanding its operations abroad, the club established five schools in Mexico and one in Egypt; successful applicants to these schools become full-time students, receiving academic education and football training.


title: La Masia

text: When Guardiola re-organised the reserve side, he set up a three-staged program to formalise the advancement from Juvenil to Barcelona B and finally to the first team. The first stage of a youth player's career involves a rotation scheme with Barcelona B. The second stage involves making the player aware of his importance to the team and the expectation that the player will improve cohesion and performance within the reserve side. In the last stage, he is designated a "key" player of the B team and might be called to the first team. One of the players in the third phase is made captain, regardless of the experience of older players.


title: La Masia

text: The teams at Barcelona play from August to May; mild weather at La Masia allows players to train outdoors throughout the year. The youth teams train after school; Barcelona B plays as a professional team, training in the morning and evening. All of the trainers at FC Barcelona are former professional footballers.


title: La Masia

text: Barcelona B, the club's main youth team, and the 12 other youth teams contained 24 coaches and more than 300 players. There are 56 other employees, including doctors, psychologists, nutritionists, cooks and physiologists. In the 2009–10 season, the B team qualified for the Segunda División again. Barcelona B play in a 4–3–3 formation, which is the same formation employed by the first team.


title: La Masia

text: Former technical director Pep Segura attributes the club's success to its "philosophy of play": "It is about creating one philosophy, one mentality, from the bottom of the club to the top". The philosophy consists of the application of total football mixed with traditional Spanish one-touch play ("tiqui-taka"). The total football approach was derived from the Netherlands football team through Cruyff. The total football approach requires the players to move in a fluid formation, where players can interchange positions quickly. In the youth academy, there is a large focus on technical ability, which is seen as a pre-requisite for inter-changes. An often-quoted reason for Barcelona's success is the continuity and commitment with which Barcelona follow the current philosophy of pass and move. Guardiola was the prototype of the pivotal midfielder; famous midfielders Xavi and Iniesta are its custodians.


title: La Masia

text: Another aspect of La Masia is its marked Catalan national character—local talent in the service of a club with a strong, defining sense of the cultural make-up of Catalonia.


title: La Masia

text: In 2009, Messi became the first player from La Masia to be awarded with the Ballon d'Or prize for the best footballer in Europe, and the FIFA World Player award, for the best footballer in the world.


title: La Masia

text: Spain won the 2010 FIFA World Cup with seven players from Barcelona in a World Cup final. Joachim Löw, coach of Germany, said after his side's defeat by Spain that the opposition had a distinct Barcelona style: "You can see it in every pass, how Spain plays is how Barcelona plays. They can hardly be beaten. They are extremely confident and very calm in the way they circulate the ball."


title: La Masia

text: On 25 November 2012, for the first time, Barcelona fielded all eleven players that have come up through La Masia in a La Liga match. After Dani Alves was substituted by Martín Montoya due to an injury in the 13th minute, Barça played the next 60 minutes with Víctor Valdés, Jordi Alba, Carles Puyol, Gerard Piqué, Montoya, Sergio Busquets, Xavi, Iniesta, Cesc Fàbregas, Pedro, and Messi.


title: La Masia

text: In the years immediately following this achievement, with those players aging and Barcelona seeking to maintain their position as one of the world's top clubs, they moved towards a more conventional recruitment strategy, signing some of the most talented players from around the globe for large transfer fees, such as Neymar, Luis Suárez and Philippe Coutinho, plus younger players (most with origins in Brazil and France) expected to improve further with the club; however, this approach (combined with something of a 'stockpiling' of players due to a transfer ban for breaching regulations regarding the signing of non-EU youth players) meant there was less opportunity for local academy graduates to appear with the first team, and a perception that the quality of players produced by Barcelona was not quite as high as the previous generation. Nevertheless, the team continued to win trophies and some further "canteranos" did make a breakthrough into the squad, including Rafinha, Carles Aleñá and Sergi Roberto, the latter having to retrain as a right back due to the abundance of talent in his original midfield position.


title: La Masia

text: La Masia have opened a Residence Academy in Arizona that leverage the same methods that La Masia does in Spain. Annually top players from the AZ academy are invited to Spain to visit La Masia.


title: La Masia

text: Many players from Barcelona's youth system go on to have careers in football, whether at Barcelona or at other clubs. The following is a list of players who have played at least 100 league matches with the first team.


title: Joe Sugg

text: Joseph Graham Sugg (born 8 September 1991) is an English YouTuber and actor. In 2012, he began posting videos on the YouTube channel ThatcherJoe, currently at over 7 million subscribers. In 2018, he was a finalist on the sixteenth series of "Strictly Come Dancing", and in 2019, he portrayed Ogie Anhorn in the West End production of "Waitress". He is the younger brother of fellow YouTuber Zoe Sugg.


title: Joe Sugg

text: Sugg was born in Lacock, Wiltshire, and attended The Corsham School in Corsham, Wiltshire, where he gained two A*s, an A and a B in his A-levels. The name of his YouTube 'ThatcherJoe' channel is derived from his apprenticeship as a roof thatcher. He is the younger brother of Zoe Sugg, who is also a blogger and internet personality, known on YouTube as Zoella.


title: Joe Sugg

text: In a November 2021 episode of "Who Do You Think You Are?", Sugg discovered that his ancestors from Jersey were working in electrical telegraphy in the early years of its development and implementation. He also found that his 7× great-grandparents were Huguenot refugees from Frênes in Normandy who fled religious persecution in France and made their way to Jersey in the mid-eighteenth century.


title: Joe Sugg

text: Sugg created his 'ThatcherJoe' channel in November 2011 and reached the one-million-subscriber mark two years later. His channel became known for its pranks, impressions and challenge videos, such as the Whisper challenge, which became a popular YouTube trend after Sugg created a YouTuber version of the challenge in 2014. He also created a YouTuber Innuendo Bingo, similar to the BBC Radio 1 segment, and was later invited to appear on the Radio 1 segment himself. In January 2013, Sugg began his vlogging channel, 'ThatcherJoeVlogs', and in June 2014, he created his gaming channel, 'ThatcherJoeGames'.


title: Joe Sugg

text: In September 2020, Sugg announced that he would be the voice of the robot R-41 in "Daleks"!, an animated "Doctor Who" series which was released on YouTube in November 2020 as part of Time Lord Victorious.


title: Joe Sugg

text: In May 2022, it was revealed that Sugg had voiced the host of an animated chat show aimed at children and families called "Corpse Talk", based on a series of graphic novels and comics about various historical figures, which is available on YouTube.


title: Joe Sugg

text: Sugg had an uncredited voiceover role as a seagull in the 2015 UK version of the film "". Also in 2015, Sugg appeared alongside Caspar Lee in the direct-to-DVD film "Joe and Caspar Hit the Road", which was shown on British television channel E4 in April 2016. A second DVD, "Joe & Caspar Hit the Road USA", was released in 2016. Alongside fellow YouTubers Alfie Deyes and Marcus Butler, Sugg starred in an episode of the British television show "Release the Hounds," which aired in March 2017.


title: Joe Sugg

text: In 2018, Sugg became the first 'social media star' to appear on "Strictly Come Dancing", and was partnered with professional dancer Dianne Buswell. The pair reached the final and finished as runners-up. Shortly after the final, the BBC announced Sugg as co-presenter of "New Year Live," alongside Stacey Dooley. On 22 February 2019, Sugg co-hosted "The One Show" on BBC One, with Alex Jones, and he was one of the hosts for the Red Nose Day telethon on the BBC on 15 March 2019.


title: Joe Sugg

text: Sugg voiced Gus in the UK version of the film "Wonder Park" (2019). In May 2019, he guest starred on the Cartoon Network show, "The Amazing World of Gumball", as the voice of Azreal. In July 2019, Sugg announced that he would have a cameo voiceover role in the 2019 Aardman film "".


title: Joe Sugg

text: In January 2020, Sugg was a guest panellist on the BBC One show "Would I Lie to You". In March 2020, he appeared as a contestant on "The Great Stand Up to Cancer Bake Off", in which he fainted due to a flesh wound, but recovered to take the title of Star Baker.


title: Joe Sugg

text: It was announced in August 2020 that Sugg would make his television acting debut in the fourth season of the BBC One drama "The Syndicate." In May 2021, it was confirmed that Sugg had joined the cast of the animated adaptation of "The Amazing Maurice", which will be released in 2022.


title: Joe Sugg

text: Sugg was a member of the YouTube Boyband, which raised money for Comic Relief and became a viral hit. He also featured on the 2014 single "Do They Know It's Christmas?" as part of the Band Aid 30 charity supergroup, raising money for the Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa. In January 2020, Sugg released his debut single, "Say It Now". In August 2021, he released his second single, "Wild Things".


title: Joe Sugg

text: In August 2019, Sugg was cast as Ogie Anhorn in the musical "Waitress" in London's West End. He debuted in the role on 9 September 2019, and gave his final performance on 30 November 2019.


title: Joe Sugg

text: Sugg is the author of the graphic novel "Username: Evie", published in 2015 by Hodder & Stoughton. The writing is by Matt Whyman, with illustrations by Amrit Birdi. The story is about bullied teenage schoolgirl Evie, who dreams of a place she can be herself. Her terminally ill father creates a virtual reality for her, but dies before it is completed. After he leaves her an app that allows entry, Evie is transported into a world where everything is influenced by her personality. "Username: Evie" became the fastest-selling graphic novel in the UK since records began, selling 13,745 copies in its debut week. A sequel, "Username: Regenerated", was published in 2016, and the third and final graphic novel in the series, "Username: Uprising", was released in 2017.


title: Joe Sugg

text: In March 2022, Sugg announced that he had written a book called "Grow", a part memoir, part practical guide about reconnecting with nature in the digital age, which was published in September 2022.


title: Joe Sugg

text: From September 2018, Sugg participated in the sixteenth series of "Strictly Come Dancing", partnered with Australian dancer Dianne Buswell. They reached the final, finishing as runners-up.


title: Joe Sugg

text: Sugg, along with his professional dance partner Dianne Buswell, appeared in the "Strictly Come Dancing Live!" tour during January and February 2019. The pair made Strictly Live Tour history by winning 25 shows in a row against six other couples, later becoming the overall tour winners having won 28 of the 29 shows.


title: Joe Sugg

text: In August 2019, it was announced that Sugg would be taking over as co-host of the show's official podcast.


title: Joe Sugg

text: On 5 November 2019, it was announced that Sugg would be participating in the 2019 Christmas special episode. A week later it was revealed that he would be dancing with Dianne Buswell, as he did in series 16 of the show.


title: Joe Sugg

text: Sugg has been in a relationship with Dianne Buswell, his dance partner from "Strictly Come Dancing", since late 2018. The couple confirmed that they were living together in August 2019. In February 2021, they revealed that they had bought a house together.


title: Joe Sugg

text: In 2018, Sugg and Caspar Lee established a management company, Margravine, to support up-and-coming digital talent.


title: Joe Sugg

text: In August 2022, it was announced that Sugg's production company Final Straw Productions had partnered with BBC Studios to develop entertainment and factual entertainment formats for audiences of all ages.


title: Nordic Resistance Movement

text: The Nordic Resistance Movement is a pan-Nordic neo-Nazi movement in the Nordic countries and a political party in Sweden. Besides Sweden, it is established in Norway, Denmark and Iceland, and formerly in Finland before it was banned in 2019. The NRM has been described as a terrorist organization due to their aim of abolishing democracy along with their paramilitary activities, weapons caches and connections to proscribed terrorist organizations such as the Russian Imperial Movement and National Action. There is an ongoing effort in the United States to outlaw the organization as a terrorist entity.


title: Nordic Resistance Movement

text: In December 1997, Klas Lund and some other former members of the White Aryan Resistance (Swedish: "Vitt Ariskt Motstånd", also known as VAM) – a militant neo-Nazi network active from 1991 to 1993 – were released from prison after being convicted of robberies, bombings and killings, among other things. They formed the Swedish Resistance Movement ("Svenska Motståndsrörelsen" or SMR) together with individuals working with the neo-Nazi magazine "Folktribunen" and members of "Nationell Ungdom" ("National Youth"), a neofascist and openly racist organisation known for the murder of the anarchist Björn Söderberg.


title: Nordic Resistance Movement

text: In 2016, the Nordic Resistance Movement was formed, with separate affiliates in Sweden, Finland, and Norway; a Danish affiliate was later disbanded. The Nordic Resistance Movement advocates an immediate stop to what they call mass immigration to the Scandinavian countries, and repatriation of people that are not of Northern European or of closely related descent. It also advocates Nordic self-sufficiency and withdrawal from the European Union.


title: Nordic Resistance Movement

text: On 28 February 2018, "The Verge" reported that Discord had shut down a number of neo-Nazi and alt-right servers, including that of the Nordic Resistance Movement, from their private chat platform, for abuse of their Terms of Service.


title: Nordic Resistance Movement

text: The aim of Nordic Resistance Movement is to establish a totalitarian neo-Nazi Nordic State "consisting of the Nordic countries Sweden, Finland, Norway, Denmark, Iceland and possibly even the Baltic countries". The organization itself describes its goals differently: "Although the Resistance Movement strives to create a state with authoritarian leadership, it is also our goal to develop and secure freedom and democracy. The Nordic National Socialist Republic will be a leader state, but it will also be a people's democracy."


title: Nordic Resistance Movement

text: The organization says its fight will require bloodshed. The NMR has praised Adolf Hitler and Corneliu Codreanu in their publications. Their main tactics are distributing leaflets and making public speeches in inner-city areas in support of neo-Nazism, denouncing immigration. They also publish the "Nationellt Motstånd" magazine.


title: Nordic Resistance Movement

text: The Nordic Resistance Movement was founded by Klas Lund. In 2020 its leader was Simon Lindberg, and its political wing was managed by . It is known for its opposition to non-white immigration to Sweden. The NRM is considered a central actor in Sweden's white power movement.


title: Nordic Resistance Movement

text: In November 2003 the Swedish Security Service raided homes of leading members, among them Lund, who was later sentenced to prison for illegal possession of firearms.


title: Nordic Resistance Movement

text: In May 2006, the Nordic Resistance Movement announced that the National Youth organisation and all its activities and members had been merged with the SRM. In December 2013, armed NRM members attacked an anti-racist demonstration in Stockholm which resulted in riots and clashes. Many were arrested afterwards. In the 2014 Swedish election, two members of the NRM were elected to Sweden Democrats seats in the municipal councils in Ludvika and Borlänge. In what has been described as a "coup" their names were added to Sweden Democrats' ballots that were open for additions. Late in 2015, the NRM was registered as a political party in Sweden, headed by the organization's spokesman, Pär Öberg.


title: Nordic Resistance Movement

text: Three men with ties to Swedish NRM were sentenced to prison for respectively eight and a half years, five years, and one and a half years on 7 July 2017 for three bombings in Göteborg which took place in November 2016 and January 2017. One person received life-threatening injuries at the bombing of a refugee centre in Västra Frölunda. They have appealed the verdict. The men were part of a group of Swedish and Finnish neo-Nazis who went to Russia to receive military training in firearms and explosives from the Russian Imperial Movement. Police also arrested a Russian man connected to the RIM and NRM and confiscated two weapon caches.


title: Nordic Resistance Movement

text: On 30 September 2017, NRM staged a march with roughly 500 members taking part in Sweden's second largest city Göteborg, timed to coincide with the annual Göteborg Book Fair. Fighting broke out between NRM and counterdemonstrators. Twenty-two NRM members including the organisation's leader Simon Lindberg were arrested on suspicion of violent public disorder, and one counter-demonstrator was arrested on suspicion of attacking a police officer. Swedish Jews were outraged at the demonstration, which took place on the Jewish holiday of Yom Kippur and was originally planned to pass near a synagogue. The march was re-routed and shortened following a court ruling.


title: Nordic Resistance Movement

text: On 19 April 2018, fireworks were thrown at the U.S. embassy in Stockholm during a protest against the bombing of Syria. One NRM man was arrested. The same month a member was arrested for plotting to assassinate journalists. Police confiscated a shotgun from the man. On 6 July 2018, members of the NRM assaulted two pro-Israel activists in Gotland.


title: Nordic Resistance Movement

text: On 6 July 2022, during Almedalen Week, Ing-Marie Wieselgren died after being stabbed at Donners plats in Visby. The arrested perpetrator was a 33-year-old man who had previously participated in events organized by the neo-Nazi Nordic Resistance Movement and had written for the neo-Nazi newspaper "Nordfront".


title: Nordic Resistance Movement

text: In May 2022 the Swedish police arrested a man from Falköping for possessing firearms and powerful explosives. The police allege the man plotted mass shooting and bombing. According to Vice News the man possessed material by NRM, Iron March and Atomwaffen Division.


title: Nordic Resistance Movement

text: Nordic Strength () is an underground paramilitary group, formed in August 2019 by the most hard-line NRM members who reject the parliamentary oriented mass organization strategy of the Swedish group as an insufficiently radical approach. The group describes itself as a "fighting organization" (""kamporganisation"") and maintains very strict physical standards for its members. The members of the group have been convicted of over 100 violent crimes and weapon offenses and use an old church in Västmanland as their headquarters. Virtually nothing else is known about the underground sect of the already secretive group.


title: Nordic Resistance Movement

text: "Pohjoismainen Vastarintaliike" is the Finnish branch of the Nordic Resistance Movement. It was founded by Esa Henrik Holappa, who would later abandon neo-Nazism and leave the group. Its current leader is Antti Niemi. Some of the group's activities include planting of propaganda posters and organizing demonstrations. Members also participate in hand-to-hand combat and shooting training arranged by the organization. The group also advocates pan-Finno-Ugrism, or "Kindred-folk ideology" (""""), and unification with ethnically Finnic Estonia is part of the group's program.


title: Nordic Resistance Movement

text: The organisation is responsible for multiple violent crimes, including attacking anti-racism and gay pride demonstrations and stabbing participants of a left-wing event. According to an investigation by Yleisradio, two thirds of the members have a conviction for a violent crime. The NRM is responsible for killing an antifascist activist in 2016 in Helsinki. The group also awarded the title of "activist of the year" to a member convicted of torturing a man to death and possessing illegal weapons. The group assaults people they consider political enemies in their homes, a practice they dub "home visits". In 2020 a campaign chairman was left critically injured after being beaten with a clawhammer in his home in Jämsä. A man connected to the group is charged with attempted murder along with another man. The NRM also vandalized the Israeli embassy over 20 times and defaced synagogues, causing the Finnish ambassador to be called to the Israeli foreign ministry in Jerusalem twice. On 5 December 2020 Finnish police arrested a NRM member for murdering a fellow member, this time in Riihimäki. On 17 March 2021 Finnish police arrested another NRM member and confiscated several crates of explosives from his apartment.


title: Nordic Resistance Movement

text: The NRM along with other nationalist organizations organizes an annual torch march demonstration in Helsinki on the Finnish independence day, which ends at the Hietaniemi cemetery where members visit the tomb of Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim and the monument to the Finnish SS Battalion. The event has been protested by antifascists, which has led to counterdemonstrators being violently assaulted by the NRM members who act as security. The demonstration attracts close to 3000 participants according to the estimates of the police and hundreds of officers patrol Helsinki to prevent violent clashes. The march has been attended and promoted by the Finns Party, and condemned by left-wing parties, for example Green League MP Iiris Suomela characterized it as "obviously neo-nazi" and expressed her disappointment in it being attended by such a large number of people. The event also attracts neo-nazis from abroad and has been attended by the NRM's foreign allies like Junge Nationalisten, who praised the event and compared it to the Battle of Helsinki, "when Germans and Finns marched side by side and liberated the city from the communists".


title: Nordic Resistance Movement

text: In addition to violent crimes, the NRM is closely connected to the proscribed terrorist organization National Action. A Finnish corporal who had served in Afghanistan and was a member of both the NRM and National Action was convicted of terror offenses and membership in the proscribed organization while living in Llansilin. The leader of National Action, Benjamin Raymond, also visited the NRM in Finland and held speeches and was pictured posing with an assault rifle. The NRM also cooperates with the neo-Nazi military formation Azov Battalion according to Yle. Dozens of the Finns are also part of the Iron March terror network, famous for spawning the Atomwaffen Division. The group distributes the magazine "Musta Kivi" advocating Esoteric Hitlerism and the Order of Nine Angles and sells books by Savitri Devi and ONA adept Kerry Bolton of the Black Order. It also promotes and sells "Siege" by James Mason that exhorts accelerationism and terrorism. Representatives of the NRM visited James Mason in the United States in 2019 with a touring NRM-affiliated Finnish neo-Nazi music collective, "Bolt of Ukko" ("Ukonvasama").


title: Nordic Resistance Movement

text: Even though the NRM rejects parliamentarism unlike the Swedish branch, there have been numerous cases where members of the Finns Party have attracted criticism from the other parties and antifascists for attending events organized by or with the NRM. Several members of the Finns Party took part in an event where the participants shot and threw knives at targets, using photos of members of the Rinne Cabinet and attended an event commemorating Eugen Schauman, who assassinated Nikolay Bobrikov. Finns Party Youth members and leaders also attend "Etnofutur" ethnonationalist conferences in Estonia organized by the Blue Awakening together with the NRM. The founder of Blue Awakening and current MP for EKRE Ruuben Kaalep has been described as a neo-nazi and connected to the local proscribed terror group and Atomwaffen affiliate Feuerkrieg Division.


title: Nordic Resistance Movement

text: On 30 November 2017, the Pirkanmaa District Court banned the Nordic Resistance Movement in Finland for having "flagrantly violated the principles of good practice". The ban was appealed and a request by the police for a temporary ban was turned down. In September 2018 the Court of appeal in Turku upheld the ban. In March 2019, the Supreme Court placed a temporary ban on the group. On 22 September 2020, the Supreme Court upheld the ban. The Supreme Court noted in its ruling that "The use of violence linked to the organization's activities has to be considered a part of the organization's operations...The operating methods that were considered unlawful represented a substantial part of the organization's operations, and [the organization] only engaged in a limited amount of other types of activities".