title: Harrison Schmitt

text: Schmitt is an adjunct professor of engineering physics at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, and has long been a proponent of lunar resource utilization. In 1997 he proposed the Interlune InterMars Initiative, listing among its goals the advancement of private-sector acquisition and use of lunar resources, particularly lunar helium-3 as a fuel for notional nuclear fusion reactors.


title: Harrison Schmitt

text: Schmitt was chair of the NASA Advisory Council, whose mandate is to provide technical advice to the NASA Administrator, from November 2005 until his abrupt resignation on October 16, 2008. In November 2008, he quit the Planetary Society over policy advocacy differences, citing the organization's statements on "focusing on Mars as the driving goal of human spaceflight" (Schmitt said that going back to the Moon would speed progress toward a crewed Mars mission), on "accelerating research into global climate change through more comprehensive Earth observations" (Schmitt voiced objections to the notion of a present "scientific consensus" on climate change as any policy guide), and on international cooperation (which he felt would retard rather than accelerate progress), among other points of divergence.


title: Harrison Schmitt

text: Schmitt also serves as a visiting Senior Research Scientist at the Florida Institute for Human & Machine Cognition.


title: Harrison Schmitt

text: In January 2011, he was appointed as secretary of the New Mexico Energy, Minerals and Natural Resources Department in the cabinet of Governor Susana Martinez, but was forced to give up the appointment the following month after refusing to submit to a required background investigation. "El Paso Times" called him the "most celebrated" candidate for New Mexico energy secretary.


title: Harrison Schmitt

text: Schmitt wrote a book entitled "Return to the Moon: Exploration, Enterprise, and Energy in the Human Settlement of Space" in 2006.


title: Harrison Schmitt

text: He lives in Silver City, New Mexico, and spends some of his summer at his northern Minnesota lake cabin.


title: Harrison Schmitt

text: Schmitt is also involved in several civic projects, including the improvement of the Senator Harrison H. Schmitt Big Sky Hang Glider Park in Albuquerque, New Mexico.


title: Harrison Schmitt

text: Schmitt has rejected the overwhelming scientific consensus on climate change, which states that climate change is real, progressing, dangerous, and primarily human caused. He has instead claimed that climate change is predominantly due to natural factors, instead of human activity. Schmitt has argued that the risks posed by climate change are overstated and has supported the conspiracy theory that climate change is a "tool" for people to advocate for the expansion of the government.


title: Harrison Schmitt

text: He resigned his membership in the Planetary Society primarily because of its Mars-first policy, but also because of its stance on global warming, writing in his resignation letter that the "'global warming scare' is being used as a political tool to increase government control over American lives, incomes and decision making. It has no place in the Society's activities." Schmitt spoke at the March 2009 International Conference on Climate Change, a climate-denier event hosted by the conservative Heartland Institute, where he said that climate change was a "stalking horse for National Socialism." He appeared in December that year on the Fox Business Network, saying that "[t]he CO scare is a red herring".


title: Harrison Schmitt

text: In a 2009 interview with far-right conspiracy theorist and radio host Alex Jones, Schmitt asserted a link between the collapse of the Soviet Union and the American environmental movement: "I think the whole trend really began with the fall of the Soviet Union. Because the great champion of the opponents of liberty, namely communism, had to find some other place to go and they basically went into the environmental movement."


title: Harrison Schmitt

text: Schmitt co-authored a 2013 "Wall Street Journal" opinion column with William Happer, contending that increasing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are not significantly correlated with global warming, attributing the "single-minded demonization of this natural and essential atmospheric gas" to advocates of government control of energy production. Noting a positive relationship between crop resistance to drought and increasing carbon dioxide levels, the authors argued, "Contrary to what some would have us believe, increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere will benefit the increasing population on the planet by increasing agricultural productivity."


title: Harrison Schmitt

text: Schmitt was one of five inductees into the International Space Hall of Fame in 1977. He was one of 24 Apollo astronauts who were inducted into the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame in 1997.


title: Harrison Schmitt

text: Schmitt is one of the astronauts featured in the 2007 documentary "In the Shadow of the Moon". He also contributed to the 2006 book "NASA's Scientist-Astronauts" by David Shayler and Colin Burgess.


title: Osteopenia

text: Osteopenia, known as "low bone mass" or "low bone density", is a condition in which bone mineral density is low. Because their bones are weaker, people with osteopenia may have a higher risk of fractures, and some people may go on to develop osteoporosis. In 2010, 43 million older adults in the US had osteopenia. Unlike osteoporosis, osteopenia does not usually cause symptoms, and losing bone density in itself does not cause pain.


title: Osteopenia

text: There is no single cause for osteopenia, although there are several risk factors, including modifiable (behavioral, including dietary and use of certain drugs) and non-modifiable (for instance, loss of bone mass with age). For people with risk factors, screening via a DXA scanner may help to detect the development and progression of low bone density. Prevention of low bone density may begin early in life and includes a healthy diet and weight-bearing exercise, as well as avoidance of tobacco and alcohol. The treatment of osteopenia is controversial: non-pharmaceutical treatment involves preserving existing bone mass via healthy behaviors (dietary modification, weight-bearing exercise, avoidance or cessation of smoking or heavy alcohol use). Pharmaceutical treatment for osteopenia, including bisphosphonates and other medications, may be considered in certain cases but is not without risks. Overall, treatment decisions should be guided by considering each patient's constellation of risk factors for fractures.


title: Osteopenia

text: Many divide risk factors for osteopenia into fixed (non-changeable) and modifiable factors. Osteopenia can also be secondary to other diseases. An incomplete list of risk factors:


title: Osteopenia

text: The ISCD (International Society for Clinical Densitometry) and the National Osteoporosis Foundation recommend that older adults (women over 65 and men over 70) and adults with risk factors for low bone mass, or previous fragility fractures, undergo DXA testing. The DXA (dual X-ray absorptiometry) scan uses a form of X-ray technology, and offers accurate bone mineral density results with low radiation exposure.


title: Osteopenia

text: The United States Preventive Task Force recommends osteoporosis screening for women with increased risk over 65 and states there is insufficient evidence to support screening men. The main purpose of screening is to prevent fractures. Of note, USPSTF screening guidelines are for osteoporosis, not specifically osteopenia. The National Osteoporosis Foundation recommends use of central (hip and spine) DXA testing for accurate measure of bone density, emphasizing that peripheral or "screening" scanners should not be used to make clinically meaningful diagnoses and that peripheral and central DXA scans cannot be compared to each other.


title: Osteopenia

text: DXA scanners can be used to diagnose osteopenia or osteoporosis as well as to measure bone density over time as people age or undergo medical treatment or lifestyle changes.


title: Osteopenia

text: Information from the DXA scanner creates a bone mineral density T-score by comparing a patient's density to the bone density of a healthy young person. Bone density between 1 and 2.5 standard deviations below the reference, or a T-score between −1.0 and −2.5, indicates osteopenia (a T-score smaller than or equal to −2.5 indicates osteoporosis). Calculation of the T-score itself may not be standardized. The ISCD recommends using Caucasian women between 20 and 29 years old as the baseline for bone density for ALL patients, but not all facilities follow this recommendation.


title: Osteopenia

text: The ISCD recommends that Z-scores, not T-scores, be used to classify bone density in premenopausal women and men under 50.


title: Osteopenia

text: Prevention of low bone density can start early in life by maximizing peak bone density. Once a person loses bone density, the loss is usually irreversible, so preventing (greater than normal) bone loss is important.


title: Osteopenia

text: The pharmaceutical treatment of osteopenia is controversial and more nuanced than well-supported recommendations for improved nutrition and weight-bearing exercise. The diagnosis of osteopenia in and of itself does not always warrant pharmaceutical treatment. Many people with osteopenia may be advised to follow risk prevention measures (as above).


title: Osteopenia

text: Risk of fracture guides clinical treatment decisions: the World Health Organization (WHO) Fracture Risk Assessment Tool (FRAX) estimates the probability of hip fracture and the probability of a major osteoporotic fracture (MOF), which could occur in a bone other than the hip. In addition to bone density (T-score), calculation of the FRAX score involves age, body characteristics, health behaviors, and other medical history.


title: Osteopenia

text: As of 2014, The National Osteoporosis Foundation (NOF) recommends pharmaceutical treatment for osteopenic postmenopausal women and men over 50 with FRAX hip fracture probability of >3% or FRAX MOF probability >20%. As of 2016, the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and the American College of Endocrinology agree. In 2017, the American College of Physicians recommended that clinicians use individual judgment and knowledge of patients' particular risk factors for fractures, as well as patient preferences, to decide whether to pursue pharmaceutical treatment for women with osteopenia over 65.


title: Osteopenia

text: Pharmaceutical treatment for low bone density includes a range of medications. Commonly used drugs include bisphosphonates (alendronate, risedronate, and ibandronate)—some studies show that decreased fracture risk and increased bone density after bisphosphonate treatment for osteopenia. Other medications include selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) (e.g., raloxifene), estrogens (e.g., estradiol), calcitonin, and parathyroid hormone-related protein analogues (e.g., abaloparatide, teriparatide).


title: Osteopenia

text: These drugs are not without risks. In this complex landscape, many argue that clinicians must consider a patient's individual risk of fracture, not simply treat those with osteopenia as equally at risk. A 2005 editorial in the Annals of Internal Medicine states "The objective of using osteoporosis drugs is to prevent fractures. This can be accomplished only by treating patients who are likely to have a fracture, not by simply treating T-scores."


title: Osteopenia

text: Osteopenia, from Greek ὀστέον ("ostéon"), "bone" and πενία ("penía"), "poverty", is a condition of sub-normally mineralized bone, usually the result of a rate of bone lysis that exceeds the rate of bone matrix synthesis. See also osteoporosis.


title: Osteopenia

text: In June 1992, the World Health Organization defined osteopenia. An osteoporosis epidemiologist at the Mayo Clinic who participated in setting the criterion in 1992 said "It was just meant to indicate the emergence of a problem", and noted that "It didn't have any particular diagnostic or therapeutic significance. It was just meant to show a huge group who looked like they might be at risk."


title: English Americans

text: English Americans (historically known as Anglo-Americans) are Americans whose ancestry originates wholly or partly in England.


title: English Americans

text: The term is distinct from British Americans, which includes not only English Americans but also Scottish, Scotch-Irish (descendents of Ulster Scots from Ulster, Ireland), Welsh, Cornish and Manx Americans from the whole of the United Kingdom.


title: English Americans

text: Demographers regard the reported number of English Americans as a serious undercount, as the index of inconsistency is high and many if not most Americans of English ancestry have a tendency to identify simply as "Americans" or if of mixed European ancestry, identify with a more recent and differentiated ethnic group.


title: English Americans

text: At 26.34%, this was the largest group amongst the 188 million people who reported at least one ancestry. The population was 226 million which would have made the English ancestry group 22% of the total. Scotch-Irish Americans are for the most part descendants of Lowland Scots and Northern English (specifically County Durham, Cumberland, Northumberland and Yorkshire) settlers who migrated to Ireland during the Plantation of Ulster in the 17th century.


title: English Americans

text: The majority of the Founding Fathers of the United States were of English ancestry. English immigrants in the 19th century, as with other groups, sought economic prosperity. They began migrating in large numbers, without state support, in the 1840s and continued into the 1890s.


title: English Americans

text: Americans of English heritage are often seen, and identify, as simply "American" due to the many historic cultural ties between England and the U.S. and their influence on the country's population. Relative to ethnic groups of other European origins, this may be due to the early establishment of English settlements; as well as to non-English groups having emigrated in order to establish significant communities.


title: English Americans

text: Since 1776, English Americans have been less likely to proclaim their heritage, unlike Latino Americans, African Americans, Italian Americans, Irish Americans, Native Americans or other ethnic groups. A leading specialist, Charlotte Erickson, found them to be ethnically "invisible," dismissing the occasional St. George Societies as ephemeral elite clubs that were not in touch with a larger ethnic community. In Canada, by contrast, the English organized far more ethnic activism, as the English competed sharply with the well-organized French and Irish elements. In the United States the Scottish immigrants were much better organized than the English in the 19th century, as were their descendants in the late 20th century.


title: English Americans

text: The original 17th century settlers were overwhelmingly English. From the time of the first permanent English presence in the New World until the 1900s, these migrants and their descendants outnumbered all others firmly establishing the English cultural pattern as predominant for the American version.


title: English Americans

text: According to studies and estimates, the ethnic populations in the British American Colonies of 1700, 1755 and 1775 were:


title: English Americans

text: At the time of the first census in 1790, "English" was the majority ancestry in all U.S. states, ranging from a high of 96.2% in Connecticut to a low of 58.0% in New Jersey.


title: English Americans

text: The ancestries of the population in 1790 (the first national population census) has been estimated by various sources, first in 1909, then again in 1932, 1980 and 1984 by sampling distinctive surnames in the census and assigning them a country of origin. There is debate over the accuracy between the studies with individual scholars and the Federal Government using different techniques and conclusion for the ethnic composition.


title: English Americans

text: A study published in 1909 titled "A Century of Population Growth. From the First to the Twelfth census of the United States: 1790-1900" by the Government Census Bureau estimated the English were 83.5%, 6.7% Scottish, 1.6% Irish, 2.0% Dutch, 0.5% French, 5.6% German and 0.1% all others of the white population for the 12 enumerated states. "Hebrews" (Jews) were less than one-tenth of 1 per cent. When the Scotch and Irish are added, British origins would be more than 90% of the European ancestry.


title: English Americans

text: The same 1909 data for each state (of the total European population only) of English ancestry were Connecticut 96.2%, Rhode Island 96.0%, Vermont 95.4%, Massachusetts 95.0%, New Hampshire 94.1%, Maine 93.1%, Virginia 85.0%, Maryland 84.0%, North Carolina 83.1%, South Carolina 82.4%, New York 78.2% and Pennsylvania 59.0%. CPG estimated that, of all European Americans in the Continental United States as of 1790, 82.1% were English, followed by 7.0% Scotch, 5.6% German, 2.5% Dutch, 1.9% Irish, and 0.6% French.


title: English Americans

text: The 1909 "Century of Population Growth" report came under intense scrutiny in the 1920s; its methodology was subject to criticism over fundamental flaws that cast doubt on the accuracy of its conclusions. The catalyst for controversy had been passage of the Immigration Act of 1924, which imposed numerical quotas on each country of Europe limiting the number of immigrants to be admitted out of a finite total annual pool. The size of each national quota was determined by the National Origins Formula, in part computed by estimating the origins of the colonial stock population descended from White Americans enumerated in the 1790 Census. The undercount of other colonial stocks like German Americans and Irish Americans would thus have contemporary policy consequences. When CPG was produced in 1909, the concept of independent Ireland did not even exist. CPG made no attempt to further classify its estimated 1.9% Irish population to distinguish Celtic Irish Catholics of Gaelic Ireland, who in 1922 formed the independent Irish Free State, from the Scotch-Irish descendants of Ulster Scots and Anglo-Irish of the Plantation of Ulster, which became Northern Ireland and remained part of the United Kingdom. In 1927, proposed immigration quotas based on CPG figures were rejected by the President's Committee chaired by the Secretaries of State, Commerce, and Labor, with the President reporting to Congress "the statistical and historical information available raises grave doubts as to the whole value of these computations as the basis for the purposes intended."


title: English Americans

text: Concluding that CPG "had not been accepted by scholars as better than a first approximation of the truth", the Census Bureau commissioned a study to produce new scientific estimates of the colonial American population, in collaboration with the American Council of Learned Societies, in time to be adopted as basis for legal immigration quotas in 1929, and later published in the journal of the American Historical Association, reproduced in the table below. Note: as in the original CPG report, the "English" category encompassed England and Wales, grouping together all names classified as either "Anglican" (from England) or "Cambrian" (from Wales).


title: English Americans

text: Another source by Thomas L. Purvis in 1984 estimated that people of English ancestry made up about 47.5% of the total population or 60.9% of the European American or white population (his figures can also be found, and as divided by region, in Colin Bonwick, The American Revolution, 1991 p. 2540-839-1346-2).


title: English Americans

text: The study which gives similar results can be found in The American Revolution, Colin Bonwick in percentages for 1790: 47.9 English, 3.5 Welsh, 8.5 Scotch Irish (Ulster), 4.3 Scottish, 4.7 Irish (South), 7.2 German, 2.7 Dutch, 1.7 French, 0.2 Swedish, 19.3 Black. The difference between the two estimates are found by comparing the ratios of the groups (adding and subtracting) to accommodate and adding the Welsh. The category 'Irish' in the Bonwick study represents immigrants from Ireland outside the Province of Ulster, the overwhelming majority of whom were Protestant and not ethnically Irish, though from Ireland. They were not Irish Catholics. By the time the American War for Independence started in 1776, Catholics were 1.6%, or 40,000 persons of the 2.5 million population of the 13 colonies.


title: English Americans

text: Using the first model above, in 1900, an estimated 28,375,000 or 37.8% of the population of the United States was wholly or partly of English ancestry from colonial roots. The estimate was based on the Census Bureaus Estimate that approximately thirty five million white Americans were descended from colonial forebears


title: English Americans

text: In 1980, 23,748,772 Americans claimed only English ancestry and another 25,849,263 claimed English along with another ethnic ancestry. 13.3 million or 5.9% of the total U.S. population chose to identify as "American" (counted under "not specified") as also seen in censuses that followed. Below shows the persons who reported at least one specific ancestry are as follows.


title: English Americans

text: In 1990, the national level response rate for the question was high with 90.4% of the total United States population choosing at least one specific ancestry and 9.6% ignored the question completely. Of those who chose English, 66.9% of people chose it as their first response.


title: English Americans

text: Responses for "American" slightly decreased both numerically and as a percentage from 5.9% to 5.2% in 1990 with most being from the South.


title: English Americans

text: In the 2000 census, 24.5 million or 8.7% of Americans reported English ancestry, a decline of some eight million people. At the national level, the response rate for the ancestry question fell to 80.1% of the total U.S. population, while 19.9% were unclassified or ignored the question completely. It was the fourth largest ancestral group. Some Cornish Americans may not identify as English American, even though Cornwall had been part of England since long before their ancestors arrived in North America. Responses were:


title: English Americans

text: In 2010, the American Community Survey enumerated Americans reporting English ancestry at 27.4 million, 9.0% of the U.S. population; in 2015, 24.8 million, 7.8% of the population. A decade thereafter, in 2020, the U.S. Census Bureau recorded 25.2 million Americans reporting full or partial English ancestry, about 7.7% of the U.S. population. The decline in English identification in the 21st century may merely reflect further cultural assimilation of English Americans into the broader identity of White Americans, increasingly intermixed with other European Americans: the number of Americans who reported being solely of English ancestry alone steadily fell from 9,605,188 in 2010 to 8,992,416 in 2015 to 8,253,942 in 2020. However, the number of Americans who reported being of English ancestry mixed with another ancestry fluctuated from 17,799,055 in 2010 down to 15,794,133 in 2015 up to 16,959,677 in 2020.


title: English Americans

text: English Americans are found in large numbers throughout the United States, particularly in the Northeast, South and West. According to the 2000 US census, the 10 states with the largest populations of self-reported English Americans are:


title: English Americans

text: English was the highest reported European ancestry in the states of Maine, Vermont and Utah; joint highest along with German in the Carolinas.


title: English Americans

text: The following are the top 20 highest percentages of people of English ancestry, in U.S. communities with 500 or more total inhabitants (for the total list of the 101 communities, see the reference):


title: English Americans

text: On the top right, a map showing percentages by county of Americans who declared English ancestry in the 2000 Census. Dark blue and purple colours indicate a higher percentage: highest in the east and west (see also Maps of American ancestries). Center, a map showing the population of English Americans by state. On the right, a map showing the percentages of English Americans by state.


title: English Americans

text: English settlement in America began with Jamestown in the Virginia Colony in 1607. With the permission of James I, three ships (the "Susan Constant, The Discovery", and "The God Speed") sailed from England and landed at Cape Henry in April, under the captainship of Christopher Newport, who had been hired by the London Company to lead expeditions to what is now America.


title: English Americans

text: The second successful colony was Plymouth Colony, founded in 1620 by people who later became known as the Pilgrims. Fleeing religious persecution in the East Midlands in England, they first went to Holland, but feared losing their English identity. Because of this, they chose to relocate to the New World, with their voyage being financed by English investors. In September 1620, 102 passengers set sail aboard the "Mayflower", eventually settling at Plymouth Colony in November. Of the passengers on the Mayflower, 41 men signed the "Mayflower Compact" aboard ship on November 11, 1620, while anchored in Provincetown Harbor. Signers included Carver, Alden, Standish, Howland, Bradford, Allerton, and Fuller. This story has become a central theme in the United States cultural identity.


title: English Americans

text: A number of English colonies were established under a system of proprietary governors, who were appointed under mercantile charters to English joint stock companies to found and run settlements.


title: English Americans

text: England also took over the Dutch colony of New Netherland (including the New Amsterdam settlement), renaming it the Province of New York in 1664. With New Netherland, the English came to control the former New Sweden (in what is now Delaware), which the Dutch had conquered from Sweden earlier. This became part of Pennsylvania.


title: English Americans

text: Cultural similarities and a common language allowed English immigrants to integrate rapidly and gave rise to a unique Anglo-American culture. An estimated 3.5 million English immigrated to the U.S. after 1776. English settlers provided a steady and substantial influx throughout the 19th century.


title: English Americans

text: The first wave of growing English immigration began in the late 1820s and was sustained by unrest in the United Kingdom until it peaked in 1842 and declined slightly for nearly a decade. Most of these were small farmers and tenant farmers from depressed areas in rural counties in southern and western England and urban laborers who fled from the depressions and from the social and industrial changes of the late 1820s-1840s. While some English immigrants were drawn by dreams of creating model utopian societies in America, most others were attracted by the lure of new lands, textile factories, railroads, and the expansion of mining.


title: English Americans

text: A number of English settlers moved to the United States from Australia in the 1850s (then a British political territory), when the California Gold Rush boomed; these included the so-called "Sydney Ducks" ("see Australian Americans").


title: English Americans

text: During the last years of the 1860s, annual English immigration grew to over 60,000 and continued to rise to over 75,000 per year in 1872, before experiencing a decline. The final and most sustained wave of immigration began in 1879 and lasted until the depression of 1893. During this period English annual immigration averaged more than 82,000, with peaks in 1882 and 1888 and did not drop significantly until the financial panic of 1893. The building of America's transcontinental railroads, the settlement of the great plains, and industrialization attracted skilled and professional emigrants from England.


title: English Americans

text: Also, cheaper steamship fares enabled unskilled urban workers to come to America, and unskilled and semiskilled laborers, miners, and building trades workers made up the majority of these new English immigrants. While most settled in America, a number of skilled craftsmen remained itinerant, returning to England after a season or two of work. Groups of English immigrants came to America as missionaries for the Salvation Army and to work with the activities of the Evangelical and LDS Churches.


title: English Americans

text: The depression of 1893 sharply decreased English emigration to the United States, and it stayed low for much of the twentieth century. This decline reversed itself in the decade of World War II when over 100,000 English (18 percent of all European immigrants) came from England. In this group was a large contingent of war brides who came between 1945 and 1948. In these years four women emigrated from England for every man. In the 1950s, English immigration increased to over 150,000 and rose to 170,000 in the 1960s. While differences developed, it is not surprising that English immigrants had little difficulty in assimilating to American life. The American resentment against the policies of the British government was rarely transferred to English settlers who came to America in the first decades of the nineteenth century.


title: English Americans

text: Throughout American history, English immigrants and their descendants have been prominent in every level of government and in every aspect of American life. Eight out of the first ten American presidents and more than that proportion of the 46 presidents, as well as the majority of sitting congressmen and congresswomen, are descended from English ancestors. The descendants of English expatriates are so numerous and so well integrated in American life that it is impossible to identify all of them. While they are the third-largest ethnic nationality self-reported in the 1990 census, they retain such a pervasive representation at every level of national and state government that, on any list of American senators, Supreme Court judges, governors, or legislators, they would constitute a plurality if not an outright majority. Today, it is estimated that over 80 million Americans are of English ancestry, not including African-Americans who also have some English ancestry.


title: English Americans

text: As early colonists of the United States, settlers from England and their descendants often held positions of power and made and enforced laws, often because many had been involved in government back in England. In the original 13 colonies, most laws contained elements found in the English common law system.


title: English Americans

text: The majority of the Founding Fathers of the United States were of English extraction. A minority were of high social status and can be classified as White Anglo-Saxon Protestant (WASP). Many of the prewar WASP elite were Loyalists who left the new nation.


title: English Americans

text: While WASPs (White Anglo-Saxon Protestants usually of English origins) have been major players in every major American political party, an exceptionally strong association has existed between WASPs and the Republican Party, before the 1980s. A few top Democrats qualified, such as Franklin D. Roosevelt. Northeastern Republican leaders such as Leverett Saltonstall of Massachusetts, Prescott Bush of Connecticut and especially Nelson Rockefeller of New York exemplified the pro-business liberal Republicanism of their social stratum, espousing internationalist views on foreign policy, supporting social programs, and holding liberal views on issues like racial integration. A famous confrontation was the 1952 Senate election in Massachusetts where John F. Kennedy, a Catholic of Irish descent, defeated WASP Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. However the challenge by Barry Goldwater in 1964 to the Eastern Republican establishment helped undermine the WASP dominance. Goldwater himself had solid WASP credentials through his mother, of a prominent old Yankee family, but was instead mistakenly seen as part of the Jewish community (which he had never associated with). By the 1980s, the liberal Rockefeller Republican wing of the party was marginalized, overwhelmed by the dominance of the Southern and Western conservative Republicans.


title: English Americans

text: Asking "Is the WASP leader a dying breed?" journalist Nina Strochlic in 2012 pointed to eleven WASP top politicians—typically scions of upper class English families. She ended with Republicans G.H.W. Bush elected in 1988, his son George W. Bush elected in 2000 and 2004, and John McCain, who was nominated but defeated in 2008.


title: English Americans

text: English is the most commonly spoken language in the U.S, where it is estimated that two thirds of all native speakers of English live.


title: English Americans

text: The American English dialect developed from English colonization. It serves as the "de facto" official language, the language in which government business is carried out. According to the 1990 census, 94% of the U.S. population speak only English. Adding those who speak English "well" or "very well" brings this figure to 96%. Only 0.8% speak no English at all as compared with 3.6% in 1890. American English differs from British English in a number of ways, the most striking being in terms of pronunciation (for example, American English retains the pronunciation of the letter "R" after vowels, unlike standard British English, though it still can be heard in several regional dialects in England) and spelling (one example is the "u" in words such as "color", "favor" (US) vs "colour", "favour" (UK)). Less obvious differences are present in grammar and vocabulary. The differences are rarely a barrier to effective communication between American English and British English speakers, but there are certainly enough differences to cause occasional misunderstandings, usually surrounding slang or dialect differences.


title: English Americans

text: Some states, like California, have amended their constitutions to make English the only official language, but in practice, this only means that official government documents must "at least" be in English, and "does not" mean that they should be exclusively available only in English. For example, the standard California Class C driver's license examination is available in 32 different languages.


title: English Americans

text: "In for a penny, in for a pound" is an expression to mean, ("if you're going to take a risk at all, you might as well make it a big risk"), is used in the United States which dates back to the colonial period, when cash in the colonies was denominated in Pounds, shillings and Pence.


title: English Americans

text: Today, the one-cent coin is commonly known as a penny. A modern alternative expression is "In for a dime, in for a dollar".


title: English Americans

text: The American legal system also has its roots in English law. For example, elements of the Magna Carta were incorporated into the United States constitution. English law prior to the American Revolution is still part of the law of the United States, and provides the basis for many American legal traditions and policies.


title: English Americans

text: The first American schools in the thirteen original colonies opened in the 17th century. Boston Latin School was founded in 1635 and is both the first public school and oldest existing school in the United States. The first free taxpayer-supported public school in North America, the Mather School, was opened in Dorchester, Massachusetts, in 1639.


title: English Americans

text: New England had a long emphasis on literacy in order that individuals could read the Bible. Harvard College was founded by the colonial legislature in 1636, and named after an early benefactor. Most of the funding came from the colony, but the college began to build an endowment from its early years. Harvard at first focused on training young men for the ministry, but many alumni went into law, medicine, government or business. The college was a leader in bringing Newtonian science to the colonies.


title: English Americans

text: A school of higher education for both Native American young men and the sons of the colonists was one of the earliest goals of the leaders of the Colony of Virginia. The College of William & Mary was founded founded on February 8, 1693, under a royal charter (legally, letters patent) to ""make, found and establish a certain Place of Universal Study, a perpetual College of Divinity, Philosophy, Languages, and other good arts and sciences...to be supported and maintained, in all time coming."" Named in honor of the reigning monarchs King William III and Queen Mary II, the college is the second oldest college in the United States. It hired the first law professor and trained many of the lawyers, politicians, and leading planters. Students headed for the ministry were given free tuition.


title: English Americans

text: Yale College was founded by Puritans in 1701, and in 1716 was relocated to New Haven, Connecticut. The conservative Puritan ministers of Connecticut had grown dissatisfied with the more liberal theology of Harvard, and wanted their own school to train orthodox ministers. However president Thomas Clap (1740–1766) strengthened the curriculum in the natural sciences and made Yale a stronghold of revivalist New Light theology.


title: English Americans

text: The Colonial Colleges are nine institutions of higher education chartered in the Thirteen Colonies before the United States of America became a sovereign nation after the American Revolution. These nine have long been considered together, notably since the survey of their origins in the 1907 "The Cambridge History of English and American Literature". Seven of the nine colonial colleges became seven of the eight Ivy League universities: Harvard, Columbia, Princeton, Yale, University of Pennsylvania, Dartmouth, and Brown.


title: English Americans

text: English ballads, jigs, and hornpipes had a large influence on American folk music, eventually contributing to the formation of such genres as old time, country, bluegrass, and to a lesser extent, blues as well.


title: English Americans

text: In 2010, the top ten family names in the United States, seven have English origins or having possible mixed British Isles heritage, the other three being of Spanish origin.


title: English Americans

text: Many African Americans have their origins in slavery (i.e. slave name) and ancestrally came to bear the surnames of their former owners. Many freed slaves either created family names themselves or adopted the name of their former master. Due to anti-German xenophobia during the first and second world wars, some German families anglicised their names. For example changing "Schmidt" to "Smith," causing an increase of English names.


title: English Americans

text: This is a partial list of places in the United States named after places in England as a result of the many English settlers and explorers; in addition, some places were named after the English royal family. These include the region of New England and some of the following:


title: English Americans

text: Most of the presidents of the United States have had English ancestry. The extent of English heritage varies. Earlier presidents were predominantly of colonial English Yankee origin. Later presidents' ancestry can often be traced to ancestors from multiple nations in Europe, including England. The presidents who have "lacked" recent English ancestry are Martin Van Buren, James K. Polk, James Buchanan, Woodrow Wilson, John F. Kennedy, and Donald Trump.


title: English Americans

text: Thomas Jefferson, James Madison John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson, William Henry Harrison, John Tyler, Zachary Taylor, Millard Fillmore, Franklin Pierce, Abraham Lincoln, Andrew Johnson, Ulysses S. Grant, Rutherford B. Hayes, James A. Garfield, Chester A. Arthur, Grover Cleveland, Benjamin Harrison, William McKinley.


title: English Americans

text: Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, Warren G. Harding, Calvin Coolidge, Herbert Hoover, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harry S. Truman, Lyndon B. Johnson, Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: The Triple Crown is an accomplishment recognized by various professional wrestling promotions. It is a distinction made to a professional wrestler who has won three of a single promotion's championships; specifically, a world championship, another singles championship, and a tag team championship. Promotions to officially recognize Triple Crown winners include WWE, Impact Wrestling, and Ring of Honor as well as the defunct promotions World Championship Wrestling, Extreme Championship Wrestling, and Lucha Underground.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: The Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW) Triple Crown consisted of the ECW World Heavyweight Championship, the ECW World Television Championship and the ECW World Tag Team Championship. ECW was founded in 1992 as Eastern Championship Wrestling until the name was changed to Extreme Championship Wrestling in 1994. While Johnny Hotbody won all three titles before 1994, sources consider Mikey Whipwreck the first Triple Crown Champion.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: In Impact Wrestling (formerly TNA), the Triple Crown was an accolade bestowed upon those who won (not necessarily concurrently) all three championships regularly contested in TNA between 2002 and 2007: the NWA World Heavyweight Championship, the TNA X Division Championship, and one-half of the NWA World Tag Team Championship. It was unknown whether or not those who won the NWA World Heavyweight and NWA World Tag Team Championships before or after TNA's acquisition and usage of the title belts would qualify for the Triple Crown.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: In May 2007, TNA lost the rights to the NWA Worlds Heavyweight Championship and the NWA World Tag Team Championship and introduced the TNA World Heavyweight Championship and the TNA World Tag Team Championship. On July 8, 2007, Impact Wrestling (then known as TNA) stated that, should the then- X Division Champion Samoa Joe win the TNA World Tag Team Championship, this would leave him "just one step shy of becoming only the second Triple Crown Champion". This indicates that the TNA World Heavyweight Championship and the TNA World Tag Team Championship are part of the existing Triple Crown accolade.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: The following is a list of Impact Triple Crown winners with dates indicating the wrestler's first reign with the respective championship. Under Impact's definition of the Triple Crown, wrestlers are eligible to win the Triple Crown each time they complete a new circuit.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: To date, A.J. Styles and Eddie Edwards have won the Impact Triple Crown on more than one occasion, and Styles is the only wrestler to hold all of the eligible championships. Kurt Angle completed the Triple Crown the fastest, achieving it in a mere 92 days, between May and August 2007, and is the only wrestler to hold all the required championships at once.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: Jordynne Grace become the first Knockouts Triple Crown winner after winning Impact Knockouts Championship, Impact Knockouts Tag Team Championship and the Impact Digital Media Championship - which is open to all Impact wrestlers.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide had eight established titles in its promotion, but recognises the AAA Mega Championship, the AAA Latin American Championship and, World Tag Team Championship as its Triple Crown.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: Fenix completed the AAA Triple Crown the fastest, achieving it in 1,098 days between March 2019 and June 2022.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: Lucha Underground had three established titles in its promotion, the Lucha Underground Championship, the Gift of the Gods Championship and, uniquely, Trios Championship.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: Johnny Mundo completed the Lucha Underground Triple Crown the fastest, achieving it in a mere 85 days between January and April 2016.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: The New Japan Pro-Wrestling Triple Crown consisted of the IWGP Heavyweight Championship, the IWGP Intercontinental Championship and the NEVER Openweight Championship. The NJPW Triple Crown is unique as it consists of three singles championships, instead of a tag team championship in addition to two singles.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: The IWGP Heavyweight and Intercontinental championships were retired in 2021, and it is unknown if NJPW considers their replacement, the IWGP World Heavyweight Championship, as a suitable accolade for the Triple Crown. It is also unknown if it considers the IWGP United States Heavyweight Championship as a part of the accolade, although it is considered part of their Grand Slam.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: The Ring of Honor (ROH) Triple Crown originally was defined as the ROH World Championship, the ROH World Tag Team Championship, and the ROH World Television Championship. It was later amended so that the World Championship and any combination of the Television, Tag Team or ROH Pure Championship would qualify. The ROH World Six Man Tag Team Championship is not part of the Triple Crown, but when added to the Triple Crown it forms the ROH Grand Slam.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: Eddie Edwards completed the ROH Triple Crown the fastest, completing it in 709 days, between April 2009 and March 2011.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: The World Championship Wrestling (WCW) Triple Crown consisted of the WCW World Heavyweight Championship, the WCW United States Heavyweight Championship (now the WWE United States Championship) and the WCW World Tag Team Championship.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: When Bret Hart and Goldberg won the WCW World Tag Team Championship, they both became Triple Crown winners at the same time. Chris Benoit completed the WCW Triple Crown the fastest, completing it in 309 days between March 1999 and January 2000.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: In WWE (formerly known as the World Wide Wrestling Federation/WWWF and World Wrestling Federation/WWF), the term Triple Crown Champion has traditionally been used to describe a wrestler who has won the WWE Championship, the Intercontinental Championship, and the (now defunct) World Tag Team Championship (as shown above from left to right with The Miz). For a span of nearly 18 years, from 1979 up through 1997, these were the only three championships of the company, and a wrestler who won all three championships (not necessarily concurrently) was considered a "Triple Crown Champion". Until the 1990s, the accomplishment was extremely rare, with Pedro Morales remaining the sole Triple Crown winner for more than a decade.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: Following the first brand extension between 2002 and 2011, the (now defunct) World Heavyweight Championship and the WWE Tag Team Championship became alternate titles that could compose part of WWE's Triple Crown. After the respective unifications of the two world championships and two tag team championships, the only three eligible Triple Crown championships of WWE became the WWE Championship, Intercontinental Championship, and WWE Tag Team Championship (now called the Raw Tag Team Championship). A total of eight men have won all five eligible championships; Edge, Chris Jericho, Shawn Michaels, Triple H, Kane, Big Show, Jeff Hardy and Randy Orton.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: Although the United States Championship is the counterpart to the Intercontinental Championship, it has not been designated as an acceptable substitute for the Triple Crown, though in 2015, it became a required championship for WWE's Grand Slam. In July 2016, a second brand extension period began and two new titles were introduced: the Universal Championship and the SmackDown Tag Team Championship. In January 2017, these were designated as acceptable substitutes for their counterpart titles in the Grand Slam, but WWE have not yet confirmed if they are acceptable substitutes for the Triple Crown. Only five wrestlers have become a Triple Crown winner since the new titles were established, and for three of them, although they have held one of the newer titles, their Triple Crown designation is recognized by their previous titles held (Seth Rollins and Roman Reigns have each held the Universal Championship while Kofi Kingston, The Miz, Jeff Hardy, and Daniel Bryan have each held the SmackDown Tag Team Championship, but these wrestlers had already held the required titles in those tiers). At WrestleMania 36, Braun Strowman won the Universal Championship after previously holding the Intercontinental and Raw Tag Team Championships, but WWE did not recognize him as a Triple Crown winner.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: CM Punk holds the record for completing the Triple Crown in the shortest amount of time between the first and third title. It took him 203 days between June 2008 and January 2009. The wrestler holding the record for most time between the first and third title is Ric Flair, for whom it took 4998 days between January 1992 and September 2005.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: The following is a list of WWE Triple Crown winners with dates indicating the wrestler's first or only reign with the respective championship.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: The following is a list of WWE Tag Team Triple Crown winners, indicating they have won all three of the tag team championships for men (Raw, SmackDown, and NXT) currently available in WWE. Dates indicate the wrestler's first reign with the respective championship. Only tag teams who have completed this are included, individuals such as Jason Jordan and Chad Gable (who won the NXT and SmackDown Tag Team championships as a team, but won the Raw Tag Team Championship separately) are excluded.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: The WWE Tag Team Triple Crown was established after The Revival won the SmackDown Tag Team Championships in September 2019. The Street Profits has to date completed the Men's Tag Team Triple Crown the fastest, with days between their first qualifying title win and Triple Crown achieving win.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: With his NXT Tag Team Championship win with New Day teammate Xavier Woods, Kofi Kingston became the first (and thus far only) wrestler to have won both the traditional and tag team version of the WWE Triple Crown.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: On May 22, 2019, a women’s Triple Crown was established, consisting of (from left to right above with Bayley) the Raw Women's Championship, SmackDown Women's Championship, and the WWE Women's Tag Team Championship. With the announcement, Bayley - who had won the SmackDown Women's Championship for the first time three days prior - was recognized as the inaugural WWE Women's Triple Crown Champion, after having previously held the Raw and Women's Tag Team championships.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: Bayley has also been referred to as a Grand Slam Champion after her win, for having also held the NXT Women's Championship. Asuka has to date completed the Women's Triple Crown the fastest, with 486 days between her first qualifying title win and Triple Crown achieving win.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: WWE's NXT Triple Crown consists of the NXT Championship, NXT North American Championship, and NXT Tag Team Championship. The NXT brand was originally established as a developmental territory for WWE's main roster in 2012, was elevated to the third global brand in 2019, but after being rebooted as NXT 2.0 in 2021, was returned to its original status as a developmental brand.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: Johnny Gargano became the first to be recognized as the NXT Triple Crown Champion, winning his first NXT Championship, and having previously held the NXT North American and NXT Tag Team championships.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: Adam Cole has completed the NXT Triple Crown the fastest, doing so within 420 days, between April 2018 and June 2019.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: The NXT UK Triple Crown consisted of the NXT UK Championship, the defunct NXT UK Heritage Cup Championship and the NXT UK Tag Team Championship. Tyler Bate was the only wrestler to achieve the feat, completing it on December 9, 2021 after winning the tag team titles with Trent Seven. He previous became the first UK Champion in 2017 (the title was then known as the WWE United Kingdom Championship) and later won the Heritage Cup in May 2021.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: All American Wrestling (AAW) is an independent regional promotion. Their version consists of the AAW Heavyweight Championship, the AAW Heritage Championship and the AAW Tag Team Championship.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: Chaotic Wrestling is an independent regional promotion. Their version consists of the Chaotic Wrestling Heavyweight Championship, the Chaotic Wrestling New England Championship and the Chaotic Wrestling Tag Team Championship.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: Combat Zone Wrestling (CZW) is an independent regional promotion. Their version consists of the CZW World Heavyweight Championship, the CZW World Tag Team Championship, CZW Wired Championship and CZW World Junior Heavyweight Championship.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: Explosive Pro Wrestling (EPW) is an Australian independent regional promotion. Their version consists of the EPW Heavyweight Championship, the EPW Tag Team Championship, and the EPW Coastal Championship.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: Full Impact Pro (FIP) is an independent regional promotion. Their version consists of the FIP World Heavyweight Championship, the FIP Florida Heritage Championship and the FIP Tag Team Championship.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: is a "joshi puroresu" (women's professional wrestling) promotion. Their version consists of the ICE×60/ICE×∞ Championship, the International Ribbon Tag Team Championship


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: Insane Championship Wrestling (ICW) is a British wrestling promotion based in Glasgow, Scotland. Their version consists of the ICW World Heavyweight Championship, the ICW Tag Team Championship, and ICW Zero-G Championship.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: Melbourne City Wrestling (MCW) is an Australian independent professional wrestling promotion founded in October 2010, in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Their version consists of the MCW Heavyweight Championship, the MCW Tag Team Championship, and MCW Intercommonwealth Championship.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: Ohio Valley Wrestling (OVW) is an independent regional promotion that at various points served as a developmental territory for WWE and Impact Wrestling (with whom OVW is once again currently affiliated). Their version consists of the OVW Heavyweight Championship, the OVW Television Championship and the OVW Southern Tag Team Championship.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: Philippine Wrestling Revolution (PWR) is an independent promotion based in the Philippines. Their version consists of the PWR Championship, the PWR Tag Team Championship and the Philippine Excellence (PHX) Championship.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: (EVE) is a British independent women's professional wrestling promotion. Their version consists of the Pro-Wrestling: EVE Championship, Pro-Wrestling: EVE International Championship, and the Pro-Wrestling: EVE Tag Team Championship.


title: Triple Crown (professional wrestling)

text: Revolution Pro Wrestling (RPW) is a United Kingdom based promotion. Their version consists of the British Heavyweight Championship, the Undisputed British Tag Team Championship and the British Cruiserweight Championship.


title: Bariloche

text: San Carlos de Bariloche, usually known as Bariloche (), is a city in the province of Río Negro, Argentina, situated in the foothills of the Andes on the southern shores of Nahuel Huapi Lake. It is located within the Nahuel Huapi National Park. After development of extensive public works and Alpine-styled architecture, the city emerged in the 1930s and 1940s as a major tourism centre with skiing, trekking and mountaineering facilities. In addition, it has numerous restaurants, cafés, and chocolate shops. The city has a permanent population of 108,205 according to the 2010 census. According to the latest statistics from 2015, the population is around 122,700, and a projection for 2020 estimates 135,704.


title: Bariloche

text: The name "Bariloche" comes from the Mapudungun word "Vuriloche" meaning "people from behind the mountain" ( = behind, = people). The Poya people used the Vuriloche pass to cross the Andes, keeping it secret from the Spanish priests for a long time.


title: Bariloche

text: There is evidence of the existence of indigenous settlements on banks of Lake Nahuel Huapi, in the area now occupied by the city of Bariloche, prior to arrival of expeditionaries and white settlers. During the Neolithic, the arrival of human beings to Nahuel Huapi region occurs. The archaeological and historical record speaks of tehuelches and puelches presence in the area. With the process of araucanization and mainly since the 17th century, the culture of these groups is strongly affected by Mapuches, who increased their presence from the settlement of Spaniards in Chile, and their continued push east.


title: Bariloche

text: At 19th century end, in the vicinity of Nahuel Huapi, only a few scattered indigenous families were there: People of Inacayal had been stripped of their lands, and transferred to Tecka (Chubut) when the cacique was taken prisoner. Curruhinca had made an act of submission to Argentine government with his own. Some Nguillatun was still being celebrated.


title: Bariloche

text: But the region was beginning a new stage in its history. Although incorporated into national sovereignty, the Nahuel Huapi area began to develop fundamentally linked to Chile. Before 19th century end, when the border was still in dispute, people from the south of the neighboring country were gradually arriving to settle in surroundings of the lake. Small farmers were most of them from the island of Chiloe, but German immigrants living in Chile also arrived.


title: Bariloche

text: Nahuel Huapi lake was known to Spaniards since the times of the Conquest of Chile. Following the trails of the Mapuche people across the Andes, in the summer of 1552–1553, the Spanish Governor of the Captaincy of Chile Pedro de Valdivia sent Francisco de Villagra to explore the area east of the Andes at the latitudes of the city of Valdivia. Francisco de Villagra crossed the Andes through Mamuil Malal Pass and headed south until reaching Limay River in the vicinity of Nahuel Huapi Lake.


title: Bariloche

text: Another early Spaniard to visit the zone of Nahuel Huapi Lake was the Jesuit priest Diego de Rosales. He had been ordered to the area by the Governor of Chile Antonio de Acuña Cabrera, who was concerned about the unrest of the native Puelche and Poya after the slave-hunting expeditions carried out by Luis Ponce de León in 1649, who captured Indians and sold them into slavery. Diego de Rosales started his journey at the ruins of Villarica in Chile, crossed the Andes through Mamuil Malal Pass, and traveled further south along the eastern Andean valleys, reaching Nahuel Huapi Lake in 1650.


title: Bariloche

text: In 1670, Jesuit priest Nicolás Mascardi, based in Chiloé Archipelago, entered the area through the Reloncaví Estuary and Todos los Santos Lake to found a mission at the Nahuel Huapi Lake, which lasted until 1673. A new mission at the shores of Nahuel Huapi Lake was established in 1703, backed financially from Potosí, thanks to orders from the viceroy of Peru. Historians disagree if the mission belonged to the jurisdiction of Valdivia or Chiloé. According to historic documents, the Poya of Nahuelhuapi requested the mission to be reestablished, apparently to forge an alliance with the Spaniards against the Puelche. Following the 1712 Huilliche rebellion in Chiloé Archipelago some insurgents sought refuge with Father Manuel del Hoyo in the mission.


title: Bariloche

text: The mission was destroyed in 1717 by Poyas following a disagreement with the missionaries; the superior of the mission had refused to give them a cow. Soon thereafter authorities learned that four or five people travelling to Concepción had been killed by the Poya. The colonists assembled a punitive expedition in Calbuco and Chiloé. Composed of both Spaniards and indios reyunos, the expedition did not find any Poya.


title: Bariloche

text: In 1766 the head of the Mission of Ralún tried to reestablish the mission at Nahuel Huapi, but the following year, the Crown suppressed the Society of Jesus, ordering them out of the colonies in the Americas.


title: Bariloche

text: The area had stronger connections to Chile than to the distant city of Buenos Aires during most of the 19th century, but the explorations of Francisco Moreno and the Argentine campaigns of the Conquest of the Desert established the legitimacy of the Argentine government. It thought the area was a natural expansion of the Viedma colony and the Andes were the natural frontier to Chile. In the 1881 border treaty between Chile and Argentina, the Nahuel Huapi area was recognized as part of Argentina.


title: Bariloche

text: German settlers begun to arrive in neighboring southern Chile from the 1840s. Some of these settlers and their descendants begun a lucrative leather industry obtaining leather from indigenous communities across the Andes. In the 1880s, the Argentine Army displaced indigenous communities, disrupting this trade and forcing leather merchants in Chile to cross the Andes to obtain supplies. This way numerous entrepreneurs from Chile, many with a German background, established cattle and trade business in the area of Nahuel Huapi and Lácar lakes.


title: Bariloche

text: In the summer of 1894-1895 Carlos Wiederhold, a German-Chilean from Osorno, Chile, crossed the poorly known mountain passes of the Andes from Chile into Nahual Huapi Lake. He was aided by the guide Antonio Millaqueo and Daniel Márquez from Chiloé helped them in navigating the lake. Back in Chile Wiederhold bought provisions in Puerto Montt and brought them across the Andes to sell these in the Nahuel Huapi area. Wiederhold established then a little shop called "La Alemana" (The German) in 1895, and it is from this shop the modern settlement of Bariloche developed from. As Wiederhold was named consul of the German Empire in Chile he left Bariloche for Puerto Montt in the 1900s. In Puerto Montt Wiederhold continued to run the business while in Bariloche Wiederhold's business partner Federico Hube, also a German-Chilean from Osorno, was left in charge of local affairs. By 1900 Chilean merchants dominated trade in the area of Nahuel Huapi Lake by their control of nearby mountain passes. Hube & Achelis controlled Paso Pérez Rosales and Camino y Lacoste did so in Paso Puyehue. A war scare between Chile and Argentina in the 1900s meant some difficulties for these earlier entrepreneurs who later came to benefit from the 1902 boundary arbitration between Chile and Argentina which increased trust along the international boundary. The trade route established by Wiederhold connecting the Pacific port of Puerto Montt with Nahuel Huapi Lake in the inland was well into the 1910s among the most important ones in northern Patagonia.


title: Bariloche

text: The Chilean entrepreneurs expanded beyond trade and established husbandry operations around Nahuel Huapi Lake. These enterprises exported meat to Central Chile and imported labour from southern Chile, mainly Chiloé Archipelago, to run the business. Argentine authorities encouraged at first the immigration of Chileans offering land properties if they renounced the Chilean citizenship becoming Argentines. Chilean authorities responded by offering land to those that returned from Argentina. As spontaneous migration from Chiloé Archipelago begun to replace those brought in by enterprises the Argentine authorities came to distrust these migrants. Many independent settlers from Chiloé Archipelago established themselves in Valle Manso south of Bariloche. In the words of historian Jorge Muñoz Sougarett, Argentine authorities viewed these Chileans settlers as "illiterate nomads, vicious and unruly".


title: Bariloche

text: In the 1930s, the centre of the city was redesigned to have the appearance of a traditional European central alpine town (it was called "Little Switzerland.") Many buildings were made of wood and stone. In 1909 there were 1,250 inhabitants; a telegraph, post office, and a road connected the city with Neuquén. Commerce continued to depend on Chile until the arrival of the railroad in 1934, which connected the city with Argentine markets.


title: Bariloche

text: Between 1935 and 1940, the Argentine Directorate of National Parks carried out a number of urban public works, giving the city a distinctive architectural style. Among them, perhaps the best-known is the Civic Centre.


title: Bariloche

text: Bariloche grew from being a centre of cattle trade that relied on commerce with Chile, to becoming a tourism centre for the Argentine elite. It took on a cosmopolitan architectural and urban profile. Growth in the city's tourist trade began in the 1930s, when local hotel occupancy grew from 1550 tourists in 1934 to 4000 in 1940. In 1934 Ezequiel Bustillo, then director of the National Parks Direction, contracted his brother Alejandro Bustillo to build several buildings in Iguazú and Nahuel Huapi National Park (Bariloche was the main settlement inside the park). In contrast to subtropical Iguazú National Park, planners and developers thought that Nahuel Huapi National Park, because of its temperate climate, could compete with the tourism of Europe. Together with Bariloche, it was established for priority projects by national tourism development planners.


title: Bariloche

text: Alejandro Bustillo designed the Edificio Movilidad, Plaza Perito Moreno, the Neo-Gothic San Carlos de Bariloche Cathedral, and the Llao Llao Hotel. Architect Ernesto de Estrada designed the Civic Centre of Bariloche, which opened in 1940. The Civic Centre's tuff stone, slate and "Fitzroya" structures include the Domingo Sarmiento Library, the Francisco Moreno Museum of Patagonia, City Hall, the Post Office, the Police Station, and the Customs.


title: Bariloche

text: U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower visited Bariloche as a guest of President Arturo Frondizi in 1960. Classical violinist Alberto Lysy established the string quartet Camerata Bariloche in 1967.


title: Bariloche

text: During the 1950s, on the small island of Huemul, not far into lake Nahuel Huapi, former president Juan Domingo Perón tried to have the world's first fusion reactor built secretly. The project cost the equivalent of about $300 million modern US dollars, and it was never finished, due to the lack of the highly advanced technology that was needed. The Austrian Ronald Richter was in charge of the project. The facilities can still be visited, and are visible from certain locations on the coast.


title: Bariloche

text: In 1995, Bariloche made headlines in the international press when it became known as a haven for Nazi war criminals, such as the former SS "Hauptsturmführer" Erich Priebke and SS officer Reinhard Kopps, known in Argentina as Juan Maler. Priebke had been the director of the German School of Bariloche for many years.


title: Bariloche

text: The narrative that Adolf Hitler did not commit suicide, but instead escaped Berlin, was first presented to the general public by Marshal Georgy Zhukov at a press conference on 9 June 1945 on orders from Soviet leader Joseph Stalin. That month, 68% of Americans polled thought Hitler was still alive. When asked at the Potsdam Conference in July 1945 how Hitler had died, Stalin said he was either living "in Spain or Argentina."


title: Bariloche

text: In his 2004 book "Bariloche nazi-guía turística", Argentine author Abel Basti claims that Adolf Hitler and Eva Braun lived in the surroundings of Bariloche for many years after World War II. Basti said that the Argentine Nazis chose the estate of "Inalco" as Hitler's refuge.


title: Bariloche

text: "", a 2011 book by British authors Simon Dunstan and Gerrard Williams, proposed that Hitler and Eva Braun escaped from Berlin in 1945 and flew to Denmark, then on to Spain and from there to the Canary Islands, where they boarded a U-Boat and crossed the Atlantic to Argentina, where thousands of Nazis were provided sanctuary by president Juan Perón, who, with his wife Eva Perón, had been receiving money from the Nazis for some time. As claims received by the FBI stated, Hitler allegedly arrived in Argentina, first staying at Hacienda San Ramón, a rural property east of Bariloche owned by a relative of Prince Bernhard, then moved to a Bavarian-style mansion at Inalco, a remote and barely accessible spot at the northwest end of Nahuel Huapi Lake, close to the Chilean border. Supposedly, Eva Braun left Hitler around 1954 and moved to Neuquén with their daughter Ursula ('Uschi'). Adolf Hitler died in February 1962 at age 73, and Eva Braun was alleged to be alive in the 2000s.


title: Bariloche

text: These accounts are disputed by most historians, who generally believe that Hitler and Braun committed suicide in the Führerbunker during last days of World War II.


title: Bariloche

text: Tourism, both domestic and international, is the main economic activity of Bariloche throughout the year. The city is very popular with Brazilians, Europeans and Israelis. One of the most popular activities is skiing, and most tourists visit Bariloche in winter (June–September). Regular flights from Buenos Aires via LAN airlines and Aerolíneas Argentinas serve the city year round. The main ski slopes are the ones at Cerro Catedral, the biggest ski resort in South America and in the southern hemisphere. During the summer, beautiful beaches such as Playa Bonita and Villa Tacul welcome sun-bathers; brave lake swimmers venture into its cold waters (chilled by melting snow). Lake Nahuel Huapi averages in the summertime. Bariloche is the biggest city of a huge Lakes District, and it serves as a base for many excursions in the region. Activities such as fishing, whitewater rafting, and birdwatching are popular with tourists. Trekking along trails in the nearby mountain wilderness is supported by a few high-mountain huts operated by the Club Andino Bariloche. The city is noted for its chocolates and Swiss-style architecture. Many high school students in Argentina take a senior trip to Bariloche, and the town is well prepared to host these kinds of groups. In November 2012, Bariloche was named "national capital of adventure tourism" under Law 26802 sanctioned by the Argentine National Congress.


title: Bariloche

text: Besides tourism and related services, Bariloche is home of advanced scientific and technological activities. The Centro Atómico Bariloche is a research center of the National Atomic Energy Commission, where basic and applied research in many areas of the physical sciences is carried out. The complex also houses Instituto Balseiro, a higher education institution of the Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, with a small and carefully selected number of students. The institute confers degrees in Physics and Nuclear, Mechanical and Telecommunications Engineering, as well as Masters and Doctorate degrees in Physics and Engineering. The city also hosts INVAP, a high-technology company that designs and builds nuclear reactors, state-of-the-art radars and space satellites, among other projects.


title: Bariloche

text: The private, non-profit organization Bariloche Foundation continues the tradition of scientific research in the city. Started in 1963, it promotes postgraduate teaching and research. There are also several departments and laboratories at the National University of Comahue.


title: Bariloche

text: Bariloche lies in the transition between a cool Mediterranean climate (Köppen "Csb") and an Oceanic climate (Köppen: "Cfb"), with marked alpine characteristics (low nighttime temperatures, wide temperature variations, high thermal amplitude). The combination of its altitude, latitude, and predominance of west-northwest winds cause the climate to be classified as a cool temperate climate with a dry season that presents a west–east precipitation gradient. Mean annual precipitation ranges from in the Andean peaks and in Puerto Blest to only in the Limay River area. In the urban areas, mean annual precipitation ranges from . Most of this is concentrated in autumn and winter, which are responsible for 70% of the annual precipitation.


title: Bariloche

text: The mean annual temperature in Bariloche is in the city centre (1901–1950). At the airport in the eastern end, the mean annual temperature is (for the period 1981–2010). In January, daytime temperatures normally range from and may occasionally go up to . The average minimum in January is at the city centre and at the airport although during warm days, nighttime temperatures can reach to . In winter, daytime temperatures range from while nighttime temperatures approach freezing or less. Temperatures vary by altitude; in general, the temperature decreases by for every increase in altitude.


title: Bariloche

text: The weather is characterized by being windy throughout the year; 85% of the days are windy and calm days are rare. Most of the wind predominantly comes from the west-northwest with easterly winds being rare. Normally, the winds are strong, particularly in spring where gusts can exceed .


title: Bariloche

text: At the city centre, mean annual precipitation is in which there are 122 days with precipitation. In the eastern end where the airport is located, precipitation is lower, averaging . In winter when temperatures are lower, snowfall can occur, which is favoured by the low evapotranspiration. In spring, melt from snow and lower temperatures lead to moist conditions that facilitate the development of dense forest and agricultural activities.


title: Bariloche

text: The water temperature in the lakes are always cold, ranging from . This is due to the lakes being large, making it difficult for the sun to influence its temperature owing to their large heat capacity. Smaller lakes can freeze in the winter, particularly those located in the higher elevations.


title: Bariloche

text: The central parts of Bariloche are built on a landscape of moraines and, next to the lake, of alluvial and lacustrine plains and terraces. The subsoil of the city consists partially of a succession of tills deposited during the Last Ice Age.


title: Bariloche

text: Bariloche is in the transition area between the Patagonian steppe and Valdivian forest, therefore it is rich in a variety of native species, of which the following is a list.


title: Bariloche

text: The city is served by San Carlos de Bariloche International Airport (IATA BRC/ICAO SAZS) equipped to receive any kind of aircraft. Several of Argentina's most important airlines maintain regular flights to Bariloche, as well as some international lines from neighbouring countries, especially during the ski season. The city is linked by train with the city of Viedma through the Tren Patagonico that crosses Argentina from the Andes to the Atlantic Ocean.


title: Bariloche

text: Bariloche can also be reached by buses and private cars. The main land routes from North are RN 40, coming from Villa La Angostura, San Martín de los Andes and Mendoza Province, and RN 237 that enters from Neuquén and connects through Argentine's route system with Buenos Aires and Eastern/Central Argentina. Other options are, from the East, by RN 23 (partially paved), crossing the railway line to Viedma ("Línea Sur"), or from the South by RN 40, coming from the town of El Bolsón (until 2003 this road was numbered RN 258).


title: Bariloche

text: San Carlos de Bariloche lies close to the Chilean border and is connected to Chile by the Cardenal Antonio Samoré Pass (125 km North-West from Bariloche, near Villa La Angostura) crossing the Andes Mountains.


title: Bariloche

text: Within the city, Mibus is the single mass transit bus company that works, this bus line operates with the SUBE card. The Company Las Grutas that connects Bariloche with Dina Huapi also runs through part of the city, although this line operates with its own card.


title: Bariloche

text: Bariloche is home of the army's "12° Regimiento de Infantería de Montaña" (12th Mountain Infantry Regiment), where military personnel are instructed in mountainous conditions, including combat, survival, and skiing. It is usual for the Regiment to receive infantry personnel from other parts of the country and train them. Furthermore, the "Escuela Militar de Montaña", the mountain warfare school of the Argentine Army is located in Bariloche.


title: Bariloche

text: The main Neighbourhoods are Belgrano, Jardín Botánico, Melipal, Centro, Las Victorias, Las Marias, Dos Valles, and Playa Bonita.


title: Bariloche

text: The city of Bariloche has one of the fifty most dangerous landfills for natural environment of the world. This was indicated by a report that was carried out by the environmental organization International Solid Waste Association (ISWA), based in Austria.


title: Bariloche

text: The request for the transfer of the Bariloche dump, located on National Route 40 (Argentina) south, was being surrounded by neighborhoods with a high population density, it is already historic. Added to the situation of environmental collapse is the desperate situation of a large number of people who go to the dump daily in search of food or shelter. In addition, the fires in various sectors of the landfill also became recurrent, affecting not only those who work in the dump but also the closest neighborhoods, without forgetting to mention the forests that surround it, the fauna that inhabits them, and the water, that is deposited in layers that end up in the lake from which the local inhabitants extract the water to drink.


title: Bariloche

text: The "Andean Club Bariloche" () was co-organiser of the 1st and the 3rd South American Ski Mountaineering Championships.


title: Bariloche

text: The Club Deportivo Cruz del Sur takes part in Torneo Federal B, the fourth tier of the Argentine football league system. The sides "Estudiantes Unidos" and "Estrella del Sur" also participated in lower Argentine leagues.


Bariloche


title: Bill Robinson

text: Bill Robinson, nicknamed Bojangles (born Luther Robinson; May 25, 1878 – November 25, 1949), was an American tap dancer, actor, and singer, the best known and the most highly paid African-American entertainer in the United States during the first half of the 20th century. His long career mirrored changes in American entertainment tastes and technology. His career began in the age of minstrel shows and moved to vaudeville, Broadway theatre, the recording industry, Hollywood films, radio, and television.


title: Bill Robinson

text: According to dance critic Marshall Stearns, "Robinson's contribution to tap dance is exact and specific. He brought it up on its toes, dancing upright and swinging," adding a "hitherto-unknown lightness and presence." His signature routine was the stair dance, in which he would tap up and down a set of stairs in a rhythmically complex sequence of steps, a routine that he unsuccessfully attempted to patent. He is also credited with having popularized the word "copacetic" through his repeated use of it in vaudeville and radio appearances.


title: Bill Robinson

text: He is famous for his dancing with Shirley Temple in a series of films during the 1930s, and for starring in the musical "Stormy Weather" (1943), loosely based on his own life and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry. He used his popularity to challenge and overcome numerous racial barriers. Robinson was one of the first minstrel and vaudeville performers to appear as Black without the use of blackface makeup, as well as one of the earliest black performers to perform solo, overcoming vaudeville's two-colored rule. Additionally, he was an early black headliner in Broadway shows. Robinson was the first black performer to appear in a Hollywood film in an interracial dance team (with Shirley Temple in "The Little Colonel", 1935), and the first black performer to headline a mixed-race Broadway production.


title: Bill Robinson

text: Robinson came under heavy criticism for his apparent tacit acceptance of racial stereotypes of the era, with some critics calling him an Uncle Tom. He strongly resented this, and his biographers suggested that critics were underestimating the difficulties faced by black performers engaging with mainstream white culture at the time, and ignoring his many efforts to overcome racial prejudice. In his public life, Robinson led efforts to persuade the Dallas Police Department to hire its first black policeman; lobby President Franklin Delano Roosevelt during World War II for more equal treatment of black soldiers; and stage the first integrated public event in Miami, a fundraiser which was attended by both black and white city residents.


title: Bill Robinson

text: Robinson was a popular figure in both black and white entertainment worlds of his era, and is remembered for the support that he gave to fellow performers, including Fred Astaire, Eleanor Powell, Lena Horne, Jesse Owens and the Nicholas Brothers. Sammy Davis Jr. and Ann Miller credited him as a teacher and mentor, Miller saying that he "changed the course of my life." Gregory Hines produced and starred in a biographical movie about Robinson for which he won the NAACP Best Actor Award.


title: Bill Robinson

text: Despite being the highest-paid black performer of the time, Robinson died penniless in 1949, his funeral paid for by longtime friend Ed Sullivan. In 1989, Congress designated Robinson's birthday of May 25 as National Tap Dance Day.


title: Bill Robinson

text: Bill "Bojangles" Robinson was born Luther Robinson in Richmond, Virginia, on May 25, 1878, to Maxwell, a machinist, and Maria Robinson, a church choir director. He and his younger brother William were raised in Richmond's Jackson Ward neighborhood. His grandmother Bedelia Robinson, a former slave, raised him after both of his parents died tragically in 1884: his father died from chronic heart disease and his mother from Unknown causes. Details of his early life are known only through legend, much of it perpetuated by Robinson himself. He claimed that he was christened Luther, a name that he did not like. He suggested to his younger brother William that they should exchange names, and they eventually did.


title: Bill Robinson

text: His brother subsequently adopted the name of Percy and achieved recognition as a musician under that name.


title: Bill Robinson

text: At the age of five, Robinson began dancing for small change, appearing as a "hoofer" or busker in local beer gardens and in front of theaters for tossed pennies. A promoter saw him performing outside the Globe Theater in Richmond and offered him a job as a "pick" in a local minstrel show. At that time, minstrel shows were staged by white performers in blackface. Pickaninnies were cute black children at the edge of the stage singing, dancing, or telling jokes.


title: Bill Robinson

text: In 1890, at the age of 12, Robinson ran away to Washington, D.C., where he did odd jobs at Benning Race Track and worked briefly as a jockey. He teamed up with a young Al Jolson, with Jolson singing while Robinson danced for pennies or to sell newspapers. In 1891, he was hired by Whallen and Martel, touring with Mayme Remington's troupe in a show titled "The South Before the War", performing again as a pickaninny, despite his age. He travelled with the show for over a year before growing too mature to play the role credibly.


title: Bill Robinson

text: In 1898, he returned to Richmond where he joined the United States Army as a rifleman when the Spanish–American War broke out. He received an accidental gunshot wound from a second lieutenant who was cleaning his gun.


title: Bill Robinson

text: On March 30, 1900, Robinson entered a buck-and-wing dance contest at the Bijou Theatre in Brooklyn, New York, winning a gold medal and defeating Harry Swinton, star of the show "In Old Kentucky" and considered the best dancer of his day. The resulting publicity helped Robinson to get work in numerous travelling shows, sometimes in a troupe, more frequently with a partner, though not always as a dancer (Robinson also sang and performed two-man comedy routines).


title: Bill Robinson

text: By 1912, Robinson was a full partner in the duo, which had become primarily a tap-dancing act, booked on both the Keith and Orpheum Circuits. The team broke up in 1914, and vaudeville performer Rae Samuels, who had performed in shows with Robinson, convinced him to meet with her manager (and husband), Marty Forkins. Under Forkins' tutelage, Robinson matured and began working as a solo act, increasing his earnings to an estimated $3,500 per week. Forkins accomplished this by inventing an alternate history for Robinson, promoting him as already being a solo act. This technique succeeded, making Robinson one of the first performers to break vaudeville's two-coloured rule, which forbade solo black acts.


title: Bill Robinson

text: When the U.S. entered World War I, the War Department set up a series of "Liberty Theatres" in the training camps. The Keith and Orpheum Circuits underwrote vaudeville acts at reduced fees, but Robinson volunteered to perform gratis for thousands of troops, in both black and white units of the expeditionary forces, receiving a commendation from the War Department in 1918.


title: Bill Robinson

text: Throughout the early 1920s, Robinson continued his career on the road as a solo vaudeville act, touring throughout the country and most frequently visiting Chicago, where Marty Forkins, his manager, lived. From 1919 to 1923 he was fully booked on the Orpheum Circuit and was signed full-time by the Keith in 1924 and 1925. In addition to being booked for 50–52 weeks (an avid baseball fan, he took a week off for the World Series), Robinson did multiple shows per night, frequently on two different stages.


title: Bill Robinson

text: As mentioned, the chapter of Stearns' "Bill Robinson: Up on the Toes" entitled "Jazz Dance" (1966) describes how Robinson introduced dancing "up on the toes" to tap dance. This was a new addition to King Rastus Brown's popular "flat-footed wizardry." Moving primarily from the waist down, Robinson maintained impressive control of his body. Pete Nugent is said to have remarked, "Robinson was the absolute tops in "control"." That Robinson infrequently dropped his heels marked a significant change in popular tap technique. Due to his adroit ability to be both light on his feet and distinct in his percussive taps, Robinson was called the "Father of Tapology."


title: Bill Robinson

text: In 1918 at the Palace Theatre in New York, Robinson performed the stair dance. Claims regarding the origin of the stair dance were highly disputed; however, Robinson was widely credited with the dance because he made it popular. The dance involved "a different rhythm for each step each one reverberating with a different pitch and the fact that he had a special set of portable steps enhanced his claim to originating the dance." The popularity of the stair dance led Robinson to file for a patent through the U.S. Patent Office in Washington D.C., ultimately to no avail; however the lack of a patent did not diminish Robinson's professional command of the stair dance. The entertainment community began to associate the stair dance exclusively with Robinson as the routine became a standard part of his performances in 1921. Haskins reports that dancer Fred Stone sent Robinson a check for having performed the routine.


title: Bill Robinson

text: Robinson's talents transcended his famous stair dance. The steps themselves were not essential to Robinson's performances; rather, Robinson would naturally shift into "a little skating step to stop-time; or a scoot step, a cross-over tap" or many other tap steps involved in his particular movement. Robinson changed rhythmic meter and tap steps and syncopated breaks seamlessly. Often Robinson would talk to his audience, share anecdotes, and act as if he were surprised by the action of his feet. His amusing personality was essential to his performances and popularity. Robinson is said to have consistently performed in split-soled wooden shoes, handcrafted by a Chicago craftsman.


title: Bill Robinson

text: In 1928, a White impresario, Lew Leslie, produced "Blackbirds of 1928" on Broadway, a black revue for white audiences starring Adelaide Hall and Bill Robinson along with Aida Ward, Tim Moore and other black stars. The show originally did not include Robinson; only after three weeks of lukewarm reception did Leslie add Robinson as an "extra attraction." The show then became a huge success on Broadway, where it ran for over a year to sell-out performances. On stage, Adelaide Hall and Robinson danced and sang a duet together, captivating their audiences. From then on, Robinson's public role was that of a dapper, smiling, plaid-suited ambassador to the white world, maintaining a connection with the black show-business circles through his continuing patronage of the Hoofers Club, an entertainer's haven in Harlem. So successful was Adelaide Hall's collaboration with Bojangles, that they appeared together on stage at the prestigious Palace Theatre (Broadway) before they were teamed up together again by Marty Forkins (Robinson's manager) to star in another Broadway musical titled, "Brown Buddies," that opened in 1930 at the Liberty Theatre, where it ran for four months before commencing a road tour of the States.


title: Bill Robinson

text: In 1939, Robinson returned to the stage in "The Hot Mikado", a jazz version of the Gilbert and Sullivan operetta. The show opened at the Broadhurst Theatre, with Robinson cast in the role of the Emperor. His rendition of "My Object All Sublime" stopped the show and produced eight encores. After Broadway, the show moved to the 1939 New York World's Fair, and was one of the greatest hits of the fair. August 25, 1939, was named "Bill Robinson Day" at the fair.


title: Bill Robinson

text: Robinson's next Broadway show, "All in Fun" (1940), was with an all-white cast. Despite having Imogene Coca, Pert Kelton, and other stars, the show received poor reviews at out-of-town tryouts in New Haven and Boston. When the white stars and co-producers, Phil Baker and Leonard Sillman, withdrew, Robinson became the star, the first time an African-American headlined an otherwise all-White production. Although the reviewers were enthusiastic about Robinson, they panned the show, and it failed to attract audiences. "All in Fun" closed after four performances.


title: Bill Robinson

text: Robinson's next foray on Broadway was the musical comedy "Memphis Bound", which opened in May 1945. This production used an all-Black cast including Robinson (who had top billing), Avon Long, Billy Daniels, Ada Brown, and Sheila Guyse. Robinson played the boat pilot and then Sir Joseph Porter in the play-within-a-play of "H.M.S. Pinafore". Critics widely praised Robinson's performance and especially his dancing, with his stair dance cited as a high point of the show.


title: Bill Robinson

text: After 1932, Black stage revues waned in popularity, but Robinson remained in vogue with White audiences for more than a decade in some fourteen motion pictures produced by such companies as RKO, 20th Century Fox and Paramount Pictures. Most of them had musical settings, in which he played old-fashioned roles in nostalgic romances.


title: Bill Robinson

text: Robinson's film debut was in the RKO Pictures 1930 musical "Dixiana". RKO was formed in part by a merger of the Keith and Orpheum theater circuits, with whom Robinson had performed as a headliner for many years. He was cast as a specialty performer in a standalone scene. This practice, customary at the time, permitted Southern theaters to remove scenes containing black performers from their showings of the film. "Dixiana" was followed by Robinson's first starring role, in "Harlem Is Heaven" (1932), which is sometimes cited as the first film with an all-Black cast, even though all-Black silent films preceded it and the cast of "Harlem Is Heaven" includes a white actor with a speaking part, as well as a few White extras. The movie was produced in New York and did not perform well financially, leading Robinson to focus on Hollywood-produced movies after that.


title: Bill Robinson

text: The idea for bringing a black dancer to Fox to star with Temple in "The Little Colonel" was actually first proposed by Fox head Winfield Sheehan after a discussion with D. W. Griffith. Sheehan set his sights on Robinson but, unsure of his ability as an actor, arranged for a contract that was void if Robinson failed the dramatic test. Robinson passed the test and was brought in to star with Temple and to teach her tap dancing. They quickly hit it off, as Temple recounted years later:


title: Bill Robinson

text: Robinson walked a step ahead of us, but when he noticed me hurrying to catch up, he shortened his stride to accommodate mine. I kept reaching up for his hand, but he hadn't looked down and seemed unaware. Fannie called his attention to what I was doing, so he stopped short, bent low over me, his eyes wide and rows of brilliant teeth showing in a wide smile. When he took my hand in his, it felt large and cool. For a few moments, we continued walking in silence. "Can I call you Uncle Billy?" I asked. "Why sure you can," he replied... "But then I get to call you darlin.'" It was a deal. From then on, whenever we walked together it was hand in hand, and I was always his "darlin.'"


title: Bill Robinson

text: Temple had already appeared in five films released in 1934, and had performed a tap routine with James Dunn in "Stand Up and Cheer!" After Robinson was signed by 20th Century Fox, it was decided that he would perform his famous stair dance with Temple. While Robinson liked the idea, he quickly realized that he could not teach his complex stair dance to a seven-year-old in the few days permitted by the shooting schedule. Instead, he taught Temple to kick the riser (face) of each stairstep with her toe. After watching her practice his choreography, Robinson modified his routine to mimic her movements, so that it appeared on film that she was imitating his steps. The sequence was the highlight of the film.


title: Bill Robinson

text: Robinson and Temple became the first interracial dance partners in Hollywood history. The scene was controversial for its time, and was cut out in the south along with all other scenes showing the two making physical contact. Temple and Robinson appeared in four films together: "The Little Colonel", "The Littlest Rebel", "Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm" and "Just Around the Corner".


title: Bill Robinson

text: Robinson and Temple became close friends as a result of his dance coaching and acting with her. Robinson carried pictures of Temple with him wherever he traveled, and Temple considered him a lifelong friend, saying in an interview "Bill Robinson treated me as an equal, which was very important to me. He didn't talk down to me, like to a little girl. And I liked people like that. And Bill Robinson was the best of all."


title: Bill Robinson

text: Robinson refused to play stereotypical roles imposed by Hollywood studios. In a small vignette in "Hooray for Love" (1935), he played a mayor of Harlem modeled after his own ceremonial honor; in "One Mile from Heaven" (1937), he played a romantic lead opposite African-American actress Fredi Washington after Hollywood had relaxed its taboo against such roles for Blacks.


title: Bill Robinson

text: Robinson appeared opposite Will Rogers in "In Old Kentucky" (1935), the last movie Rogers made prior to his death in an airplane crash. Robinson and Rogers were good friends, and after Rogers' death, Robinson refused to fly, instead travelling by train to Hollywood for his film work.


title: Bill Robinson

text: Robinson's final film appearance was a starring role in the 1943 Fox musical "Stormy Weather". Lena Horne co-starred as Robinson's love interest, and the movie also featured Fats Waller in his final movie appearance before his death, playing with Cab Calloway and his orchestra. The Nicholas Brothers are featured in the film's final dance sequence, performing to Calloway's "Jumpin' Jive", in what Fred Astaire called "the greatest movie musical number he had ever seen."


title: Bill Robinson

text: In 2001, "Stormy Weather" was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant."


title: Bill Robinson

text: From 1936 until his death in 1949, Robinson made numerous radio and occasional television appearances. The distinctive sound of Robinson's tap dancing was frequently featured, but Robinson also sang, made sound effects, and told jokes and stories from his vaudeville acts. He also addressed the audience directly, something very rare for a black radio performer in that era.


title: Bill Robinson

text: Robinson also made several recordings, including one in which he demonstrated each of his tap steps and their corresponding sounds. It was also on the radio and in his recordings that Robinson introduced and popularized a word of his own invention, "copasetic", which he had used for years in his vaudeville shows, and which was added to "Webster's Dictionary" in 1934.