title: Romanization of Russian

text: "British Standard 2979:1958" is the main system of the Oxford University Press, and a variation was used by the British Library to catalogue publications acquired up to 1975—the Library of Congress system (ALA-LC) is used for newer acquisitions.


title: Romanization of Russian

text: The BGN/PCGN system is relatively intuitive for Anglophones to read and pronounce. In many publications, a simplified form of the system is used to render English versions of Russian names, typically converting "ë" to "yo", simplifying "-iy" and "-yy" endings to "-y", and omitting apostrophes for "ъ" and "ь". It can be rendered using only the basic letters and punctuation found on English-language keyboards: no diacritics or unusual letters are required, although the interpunct character (·) may be used to avoid ambiguity.


title: Romanization of Russian

text: This particular standard is part of the BGN/PCGN romanization system which was developed by the United States Board on Geographic Names and by the Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use. The portion of the system pertaining to the Russian language was adopted by BGN in 1944 and by PCGN in 1947.


title: Romanization of Russian

text: In Soviet international passports, transliteration was based on French rules but without diacritics and so all names were transliterated in a .


title: Romanization of Russian

text: In 1997, with the introduction of new Russian passports, a diacritic-free English-oriented system was established by the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs, but the system was also abandoned in 2010.


title: Romanization of Russian

text: In 2006, GOST 52535.1-2006 was adopted, which defines technical requirements and standards for Russian international passports and introduces its own system of transliteration. In 2010, the Federal Migratory Service of Russia approved Order No. 26, stating that all personal names in the passports issued after 2010 must be transliterated using GOST 52535.1-2006. Because of some differences between the new system and the old one, citizens who wanted to retain the old version of a name's transliteration, especially one that had been in the old pre-2010 passport, could apply to the local migratory office before they acquired a new passport. The standard was abandoned in 2013.


title: Romanization of Russian

text: In 2013, Order No. 320 of the Federal Migratory Service of Russia came into force. It states that all personal names in the passports must be transliterated by using the ICAO system, which is published in Doc 9303 ""Machine Readable Travel Documents, Part 3"". The system differs from the GOST 52535.1-2006 system in two things: ц is transliterated into "ts" (as in pre-2010 systems), ъ is transliterated into "ie" (a novelty).


title: Romanization of Russian

text: In a second sense, the romanization or Latinization of Russian may also indicate the introduction of a dedicated Latin alphabet for writing the Russian language. Such an alphabet would not necessarily bind closely to the traditional Cyrillic orthography. The transition from Cyrillic to Latin has been proposed several times throughout history (especially during the Soviet era), but was never conducted on a large scale, except for graphemic (such as the Volapuk) and phonemic (such as translit) ad hoc transcriptions.


title: Romanization of Russian

text: The most serious possibility of adoption of a Latin alphabet for the Russian language was discussed in 1929–30 during the campaign of latinisation of the languages of the USSR, when a special commission was created to propose a latinisation system for Russian.


title: Romanization of Russian

text: The letters of the Latin script are named in Russian as following (and are borrowed from French and/or German):


title: Hydraulics

text: Hydraulics (from Greek: Υδραυλική) is a technology and applied science using engineering, chemistry, and other sciences involving the mechanical properties and use of liquids. At a very basic level, hydraulics is the liquid counterpart of pneumatics, which concerns gases. Fluid mechanics provides the theoretical foundation for hydraulics, which focuses on the applied engineering using the properties of fluids. In its fluid power applications, hydraulics is used for the generation, control, and transmission of power by the use of pressurized liquids. Hydraulic topics range through some parts of science and most of engineering modules, and cover concepts such as pipe flow, dam design, fluidics and fluid control circuitry. The principles of hydraulics are in use naturally in the human body within the vascular system and erectile tissue.


title: Hydraulics

text: Free surface hydraulics is the branch of hydraulics dealing with free surface flow, such as occurring in rivers, canals, lakes, estuaries and seas. Its sub-field open-channel flow studies the flow in open channels.


title: Hydraulics

text: The word "hydraulics" originates from the Greek word ("hydraulikos") which in turn originates from ("hydor", Greek for water) and ("aulos", meaning pipe).


title: Hydraulics

text: Early uses of water power date back to Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, where irrigation has been used since the 6th millennium BC and water clocks had been used since the early 2nd millennium BC. Other early examples of water power include the Qanat system in ancient Persia and the Turpan water system in ancient Central Asia.


title: Hydraulics

text: In the Persian Empire, the Persians constructed an intricate system of water mills, canals and dams known as the Shushtar Historical Hydraulic System. The project, commenced by Achaemenid king Darius the Great and finished by a group of Roman engineers captured by Sassanian king Shapur I, has been referred to by UNESCO as "a masterpiece of creative genius". They were also the inventors of the Qanat, an underground aqueduct. Several of Iran's large, ancient gardens were irrigated thanks to Qanats.


title: Hydraulics

text: The earliest evidence of water wheels and watermills date back to the ancient Near East in the 4th century BC, specifically in the Persian Empire before 350 BCE, in the regions of Iraq, Iran, and Egypt.


title: Hydraulics

text: In ancient China there was Sunshu Ao (6th century BC), Ximen Bao (5th century BC), Du Shi (circa 31 AD), Zhang Heng (78 – 139 AD), and Ma Jun (200 – 265 AD), while medieval China had Su Song (1020 – 1101 AD) and Shen Kuo (1031–1095). Du Shi employed a waterwheel to power the bellows of a blast furnace producing cast iron. Zhang Heng was the first to employ hydraulics to provide motive power in rotating an armillary sphere for astronomical observation.


title: Hydraulics

text: In ancient Sri Lanka, hydraulics were widely used in the ancient kingdoms of Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa. The discovery of the principle of the valve tower, or valve pit, (Bisokotuwa in Sinhalese) for regulating the escape of water is credited to ingenuity more than 2,000 years ago. By the first century AD, several large-scale irrigation works had been completed. Macro- and micro-hydraulics to provide for domestic horticultural and agricultural needs, surface drainage and erosion control, ornamental and recreational water courses and retaining structures and also cooling systems were in place in Sigiriya, Sri Lanka. The coral on the massive rock at the site includes cisterns for collecting water. Large ancient reservoirs of Sri Lanka are Kalawewa (King Dhatusena), Parakrama Samudra (King Parakrama Bahu), Tisa Wewa (King Dutugamunu), Minneriya (King Mahasen)


title: Hydraulics

text: In Ancient Greece, the Greeks constructed sophisticated water and hydraulic power systems. An example is a construction by Eupalinos, under a public contract, of a watering channel for Samos, the Tunnel of Eupalinos. An early example of the usage of hydraulic wheel, probably the earliest in Europe, is the Perachora wheel (3rd century BC).


title: Hydraulics

text: In Greco-Roman Egypt, the construction of the first hydraulic machine automata by Ctesibius (flourished c. 270 BC) and Hero of Alexandria (c. 10 – 80 AD) is notable. Hero describes several working machines using hydraulic power, such as the force pump, which is known from many Roman sites as having been used for raising water and in fire engines.


title: Hydraulics

text: In the Roman Empire, different hydraulic applications were developed, including public water supplies, innumerable aqueducts, power using watermills and hydraulic mining. They were among the first to make use of the siphon to carry water across valleys, and used hushing on a large scale to prospect for and then extract metal ores. They used lead widely in plumbing systems for domestic and public supply, such as feeding thermae.


title: Hydraulics

text: Hydraulic mining was used in the gold-fields of northern Spain, which was conquered by Augustus in 25 BC. The alluvial gold-mine of Las Medulas was one of the largest of their mines. At least seven long aqueducts worked it, and the water streams were used to erode the soft deposits, and then wash the tailings for the valuable gold content.


title: Hydraulics

text: In the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age and Arab Agricultural Revolution (8th–13th centuries), engineers made wide use of hydropower as well as early uses of tidal power, and large hydraulic factory complexes. A variety of water-powered industrial mills were used in the Islamic world, including fulling mills, gristmills, paper mills, hullers, sawmills, ship mills, stamp mills, steel mills, sugar mills, and tide mills. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from Al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia. Muslim engineers also used water turbines, employed gears in watermills and water-raising machines, and pioneered the use of dams as a source of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines.


title: Hydraulics

text: Al-Jazari (1136–1206) described designs for 50 devices, many of them water-powered, in his book, "The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices", including water clocks, a device to serve wine, and five devices to lift water from rivers or pools. These include an endless belt with jugs attached and a reciprocating device with hinged valves.


title: Hydraulics

text: The earliest programmable machines were water-powered devices developed in the Muslim world. A music sequencer, a programmable musical instrument, was the earliest type of programmable machine. The first music sequencer was an automated water-powered flute player invented by the Banu Musa brothers, described in their "Book of Ingenious Devices", in the 9th century. In 1206, Al-Jazari invented water-powered programmable automata/robots. He described four automaton musicians, including drummers operated by a programmable drum machine, where they could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns. The castle clock, a hydro-powered mechanical astronomical clock invented by Al-Jazari, was the first programmable analog computer.


title: Hydraulics

text: In 1619 Benedetto Castelli, a student of Galileo Galilei, published the book "Della Misura dell'Acque Correnti" or "On the Measurement of Running Waters," one of the foundations of modern hydrodynamics. He served as a chief consultant to the Pope on hydraulic projects, i.e., management of rivers in the Papal States, beginning in 1626.


title: Hydraulics

text: Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) studied fluid hydrodynamics and hydrostatics, centered on the principles of hydraulic fluids. His discovery on the theory behind hydraulics led to his invention of the hydraulic press, which multiplied a smaller force acting on a smaller area into the application of a larger force totaled over a larger area, transmitted through the same pressure (or exact change of pressure) at both locations. Pascal's law or principle states that for an incompressible fluid at rest, the difference in pressure is proportional to the difference in height, and this difference remains the same whether or not the overall pressure of the fluid is changed by applying an external force. This implies that by increasing the pressure at any point in a confined fluid, there is an equal increase at every other end in the container, i.e., any change in pressure applied at any point of the liquid is transmitted undiminished throughout the fluids.


title: Hydraulics

text: A French physician, Poiseuille (1797–1869) researched the flow of blood through the body and discovered an important law governing the rate of flow with the diameter of the tube in which flow occurred.


title: Hydraulics

text: Several cities developed citywide hydraulic power networks in the 19th century, to operate machinery such as lifts, cranes, capstans and the like. Joseph Bramah (1748–1814) was an early innovator and William Armstrong (1810–1900) perfected the apparatus for power delivery on an industrial scale. In London, the London Hydraulic Power Company was a major supplier its pipes serving large parts of the West End of London, City and the Docks, but there were schemes restricted to single enterprises such as docks and railway goods yards.


title: Hydraulics

text: After students understand the basic principles of hydraulics, some teachers use a hydraulic analogy to help students learn other things.


title: Hydraulics

text: The conservation of mass requirement combined with fluid compressibility yields a fundamental relationship between pressure, fluid flow, and volumetric expansion, as shown below:


title: Hydraulics

text: Assuming an incompressible fluid or a "very large" ratio of compressibility to contained fluid volume, a finite rate of pressure rise requires that any net flow into the collected fluid volume create a volumetric change.


title: Back in the U.S.S.R.

text: "Back in the U.S.S.R." is a song by the English rock band the Beatles and the first track of the 1968 double album "The Beatles" (also known as the "White Album"). Written by Paul McCartney and credited to the Lennon–McCartney partnership, the song is a parody of Chuck Berry's "Back in the U.S.A." and the Beach Boys' "California Girls". The lyrics subvert Berry's patriotic sentiments about the United States, as the narrator expresses relief upon returning home to the Soviet Union, formally the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).


title: Back in the U.S.S.R.

text: The Beatles recorded "Back in the U.S.S.R." as a three-piece after Ringo Starr temporarily left the group, in protest at McCartney's criticism of his drumming and the tensions that typified the sessions for the White Album. Instead, the other Beatles created a composite drum track from numerous takes. McCartney's singing was based on Jerry Lee Lewis, while the bridge features a Beach Boys–style celebration of girls from various parts of the USSR. The song opens and closes with a tape loop of an aircraft landing on a runway.


title: Back in the U.S.S.R.

text: Released six months after the Warsaw Pact's invasion of Czechoslovakia, the Beatles' sympathetic portrayal of the USSR prompted condemnation in the West from both the New Left and the political right. In 1976, backed by "Twist and Shout", it was issued as a single to promote the compilation album "Rock 'n' Roll Music". It peaked at number 19 on the UK Singles Chart and number 11 in Ireland. In 2003, McCartney performed the song in Moscow's Red Square. Elton John and Billy Joel have also released versions recorded during concerts in Russia.


title: Back in the U.S.S.R.

text: Paul McCartney began writing the song as "I'm Backing the UK", inspired by the "I'm Backing Britain" campaign, which had gained wide national support in January 1968, a month before the Beatles departed for India to undertake a course in Transcendental Meditation. According to author Ian MacDonald, McCartney altered the title to "I'm Backing the USSR" and then, drawing on Chuck Berry's 1959 hit song "Back in the U.S.A.", arrived at the song's eventual title. Donovan, the Scottish singer-songwriter who joined the Beatles in India, said that "Back in the U.S.S.R." was one of the "funny little ditties" that McCartney regularly played at the ashram, adding that "of course, melodious ballads just poured out of him".


title: Back in the U.S.S.R.

text: In a November 1968 interview for Radio Luxembourg, McCartney said the song was inspired by Berry's "Back in the U.S.A." and was written from the point of view of a Russian spy returning home to the USSR after an extended mission in the United States. Mike Love of the Beach Boys, another student at the meditation retreat, recalled McCartney playing "Back in the U.S.S.R." on acoustic guitar over breakfast in Rishikesh, at which point he suggested to McCartney that the bridge section should focus on the "girls" in Russia,<ref name="Paytress/MojoSpecial"></ref> in the style of the Beach Boys' "California Girls". In his 1984 interview with "Playboy" magazine, McCartney said he wrote it as "a kind of Beach Boys parody" based around "Back in the U.S.A." He added:


title: Back in the U.S.S.R.

text: I just liked the idea of Georgia girls and talking about places like the Ukraine as if they were California, you know? It was also hands across the water, which I'm still conscious of. 'Cause they like us out there [in Soviet Russia], even though the bosses in the Kremlin may not.


title: Back in the U.S.S.R.

text: In his lyrics, McCartney transposed the patriotism of Berry's song into a Soviet context. He said that he intended it to be a "spoof" on the typical American international traveller's contention that "it's just so much better back home" and their yearning for the comforts of their homeland. McCartney said that, despite the lack of such luxuries in the USSR, his Soviet traveller would "still be every bit as proud as an American would be". According to author Michael Gray, "Back in the U.S.S.R." was the Beatles' sardonic comment on Berry's idealised Americana, which had become "deeply unfashionable" by the late 1960s.


title: Back in the U.S.S.R.

text: "Back in the U.S.S.R." opens and closes with the sound of a jet aircraft landing on a runway. The effect also appears partway through the recording and represents an "aural cartoon", according to music critic Tim Riley, who says the song is "offered as a hoot and delivered as such". The opening lyrics refer to a "dreadful" flight back to the USSR from Miami Beach in the United States, on board a BOAC airliner. Driven by McCartney's uptempo piano playing and Harrison's lead guitar riffs, the lyrics tell of the singer's happiness on returning home, where "the Ukraine girls really knock me out" and the "Moscow girls make me sing and shout". He invites these women to "Come and keep your comrade warm" and looks forward to hearing the sound of "balalaikas ringing out".


title: Back in the U.S.S.R.

text: Cultural historian Doyle Greene describes the song as a parody of Berry's "Back in the U.S.A." "with a bridge that parodies the Beach Boys' 'California Girls'". According to Riley, while "Back in the U.S.S.R." is usually viewed as a Beach Boys parody – specifically, a "send-up" of "California Girls" and "Surfin' U.S.A." – its "more direct association" is with Berry's track. He adds that Berry's focus on commercialism is "relocated and mocked" such that "the joyous return to the Soviet homeland is sarcastic camp." McCartney's lyrics also contain an allusion to Hoagy Carmichael's and Stuart Gorrell's "Georgia on My Mind". He sings about the female population of the Soviet Republic of Georgia, right after mentioning "the Ukraine girls" and "Moscow girls".


title: Back in the U.S.S.R.

text: The sessions for "The Beatles" (also known as the "White Album") were fraught with disharmony among the band members. While rehearsing "Back in the U.S.S.R.", on 22 August 1968, Ringo Starr became tired of McCartney's criticism of his drumming on the song, and of the bad atmosphere generally, and walked out, intent on quitting the group. The other Beatles continued with the session, which took place at EMI Studios (now Abbey Road Studios) in London. Ken Scott, the band's recording engineer, later recalled that they created a "composite drum track of bits and pieces" in Starr's absence.


title: Back in the U.S.S.R.

text: Five takes were recorded of the basic track, featuring McCartney on drums, George Harrison on electric guitar, and John Lennon on Fender Bass VI. Take 5 was chosen as "best". During the overdubbing on the song, on 23 August, McCartney and Harrison also contributed bass parts, and both also added lead guitar parts. According to author John Winn, the first overdubs were piano, played by McCartney; drums by Harrison, replacing Lennon's bass part from the previous day; and another electric guitar part.


title: Back in the U.S.S.R.

text: After these additions were mixed down to a single track, McCartney sang a lead vocal, using what he described as his "Jerry Lee Lewis voice", and Lennon, Harrison and McCartney added backing vocals, including Beach Boys-style harmonies over the song's bridges. All three musicians added handclaps. Other overdubs included McCartney's bass, Harrison on six-string bass, and Lennon playing a snare drum. Harrison played the guitar solo in the instrumental break, while McCartney contributed a high-pitched, single-note solo over the final verse. MacDonald describes the musical arrangement as a "thunderous wall of sound". For the sounds of the aircraft that appear on the track, a Viscount turboprop, Scott created a tape loop from a recording stored in EMI's library.


title: Back in the U.S.S.R.

text: After the other Beatles urged him to return, Starr rejoined the group on 4 September to participate in the filming of a promotional clip for their "Hey Jude" single. During a break in the filming, Marc Sinden (who appears in the film) recalls Lennon playing a song on his acoustic guitar. "Everyone went 'Wow' ... Filming started before we could ask what it was. When it was later released, we realised it was Back in the USSR."


title: Back in the U.S.S.R.

text: Apple Records released "The Beatles" on 22 November 1968, with "Back in the U.S.S.R." sequenced as the opening song. The jet aircraft landing sound at the close of the track was cross-faded with the start of the next song, "Dear Prudence". In 1969, Apple issued "Back in the U.S.S.R." as a single in Scandinavia, backed by Starr's composition "Don't Pass Me By". In 1973, three years after the Beatles' break-up, the song was included on the band's double album compilation "1967–1970", as one of only three tracks representing the White Album.


title: Back in the U.S.S.R.

text: On 25 June 1976, the song was issued as a single by Parlophone in the UK to promote the compilation album "Rock 'n' Roll Music". The B-side was "Twist and Shout", making it the first EMI single by the Beatles to include a non-original composition. It peaked at number 19 on the UK Singles Chart, number 11 in Ireland, and number 19 in Sweden. In September 2022, the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) awarded the song a silver certification for sales and streaming figures exceeding 200,000 units. EMI made a promotional film for the release, setting the song to footage of the Beatles visiting Amsterdam in 1964 and from their 1966 tour of West Germany. The single was subsequently included in the "Beatles Singles Collection" box set, released by EMI's World Division in December 1982, making it the 24th single in the series.


title: Back in the U.S.S.R.

text: In his album review for the "NME", Alan Smith described the song as "A fantastic piece of screaming excitement. Great opener." "Record Mirror"s initial reviewer wrote: "The LP begins with a rock based, falsetto backed number called 'Back In The USSR' concerning the attributes of Russian women. Wild Harrison guitar and heavy brass lend that soul element as well." Writing for the same publication, David Griffiths described the song as a "perfectly ingenious" opening track, since:


title: Back in the U.S.S.R.

text: [I]t serves the purpose of disorientating (both politically and socially) the "average" listener whose mind is likely to be thoroughly confused by such lines as "Back in the US, back in the US, back in the USSR," and the use of rock and Beach Boy effects to praise Russian chicks. With both Georgias on his mind, perhaps the listener is rendered more receptive. The message comes across that nothing is as simple as it seems and the violence of the beat effectively demonstrates that The Beatles have not gone soft, or too arty, or too far away from the basics, despite their fame and riches.


title: Back in the U.S.S.R.

text: Writing in "Partisan Review", Geoffrey Cannon said that "The Beatles" showed the band failing to engage with the contemporary rock audience in the manner that the Rolling Stones had done on their 1968 album "Beggars Banquet". In Cannon's view: "The Beatles kick out the jams only in their hard rock numbers: 'Back in the U.S.S.R.', 'Birthday' and 'Helter Skelter'. But the eclecticism of the first two numbers makes them evanescent. They may intend to be good jokes about the Beach Boys, Chuck Berry and Little Richard; in fact, they hide behind these out-front stars."<ref name="Cannon/PartisanReview"> Available at Rock's Backpages (subscription required).</ref> In his review for "The New York Times", Nik Cohn similarly complained that "they hide behind send-up: the middle eight of 'Back in the U.S.S.R.,' for instance, is pure surf-age Beach Boys but it's all half-hearted and limp".


title: Back in the U.S.S.R.

text: Jann Wenner of "Rolling Stone" described "Back in the U.S.S.R." as the "perfect example" of the Beatles' ability to quote from others' work and "expand the idiom, but... [also] to penetrate it and take it further" in a way that recent satirical albums by the Turtles and Frank Zappa had failed to do. He added: "It would be too simple to say that 'Back In the USSR' is a parody, because it operates on more levels than that: it is fine contemporary rock and roll and... also a superb commentary on the United States S. R., hitting every insight – 'honey, disconnect the phone.' As well as a parody, it's also a Beatles song." Richard Goldstein of "The New York Times" praised the double album's "burlesque of musical forms", saying that it represented "almost a mock-history of pop" in which "Back in the U.S.S.R." was "a rock primer, quoting the Jefferson Airplane, the Beach Boys, Jerry Lee Lewis and Ray Charles".


title: Back in the U.S.S.R.

text: Tim Riley describes "Back in the U.S.S.R." as "Brian Wilson with sex appeal" and an example of how, further to "Lady Madonna", several of McCartney's 1968 compositions "straddle the ironic distance between genre treatments and fresh, inventive material that stands well on its own". In his book on the White Album, David Quantick cites the song as an example of McCartney's standing as "a master of pastiche and parody", adding that "In lesser, feebler, hands, 'Back in the U.S.S.R.' could have been a rotten comedy song, a weak parody tune, but McCartney – cocky, confident, and able to do almost anything musically – made it into something amazing." Quantick admires the three Beatles' musicianship and "hilarious" harmony vocals, and concludes: "The whole thing rocks – and rocks substantially more than the Beach Boys ever did." In a review coinciding with the album's 40th anniversary, John Bohannon of "PopMatters" similarly praised the band's performance, including the guitar work and a McCartney vocal that he deemed "one of the best hard rock vocal[s] delivered from below the belt".


title: Back in the U.S.S.R.

text: In 2010, "Rolling Stone" ranked "Back in the U.S.S.R." at number 85 on the magazine's list of the "100 Greatest Beatles Songs". In a similar list compiled by "Mojo" in 2006, it appeared at number 64.<ref name="Mojo/101 Greatest"></ref> In his commentary for the magazine, English singer Billy Bragg said that 1968 was when "our love affair with all things American began to turn sour", with the year marked by reports of US atrocities in Vietnam, the assassinations of Martin Luther King and Robert Kennedy, the gesture of African-American athletes introducing Black Power politics at the Mexico Olympic Games, and Richard Nixon's victory in the US presidential race. Bragg added: "By opening [the White Album] with this wonderful inversion of Chuck Berry's Back In The USA, The Beatles made clear whose side they were on... Subversive or just mischievous? You decide." In 2018, the music staff of "Time Out London" ranked the song at number 26 on their list of the best Beatles songs.


title: Back in the U.S.S.R.

text: Like "Revolution" and "Piggies", "Back in the U.S.S.R." prompted immediate responses in the US from the New Left and the Right. Among the latter, the John Birch Society's magazine cited the song as further evidence of the Beatles' supposed pro-Soviet sentiments. The line "You don't know how lucky you are, boys" left many anti-communist groups stunned. In Riley's view, the song's mocking tone and communist setting thereby had "the desired effect of inciting the [ire]" of the John Birch Society, who misunderstood the lyrics' "sympathetic socialism".


title: Back in the U.S.S.R.

text: Ian MacDonald described the song as "a rather tactless jest", given that the Soviet Army had recently invaded what was then called Czechoslovakia and thwarted that country's attempt to introduce democratic reforms. Some members of the New Left also criticised the Beatles for this gesture.<ref name="O'Callaghan/RB"></ref> During the 1960s, the Beatles were officially derided in the Soviet Union as the "belch of Western culture". David Noebel, a longstanding critic of the Beatles' influence on Western youth, said that: "The lyrics have left even the Reds speechless."


title: Back in the U.S.S.R.

text: Writing for the website "Russia Beyond", Tommy O'Callaghan describes "Back in the U.S.S.R." as a "parody that became a peace offering". He says that, just as the Beatles provided a source of unity with the West for contemporary Russian music fans, the band set out to mock the "new Western narrative" presented by both McCarthyism and the New Left. Aside from the send-ups of the Beach Boys, Berry's "flag-waving" song and Prime Minister Harold Wilson's 'I'm Backing Britain' campaign, O'Callaghan views the references to Russian girls as mocking the "perceived unsexiness" of Soviet culture and says that the song's true satirical qualities are in "its portrayal of Russians and Americans at parity".


title: Back in the U.S.S.R.

text: Although the Beatles were never allowed to perform in the USSR, Elton John was permitted to visit the country in 1979 in a historic concert tour, which "Billboard" magazine referred to as the first there by an "out-and-out rock artist". He sang "Back in the U.S.S.R." as his closing song throughout the tour,<ref name="Robinson/UCR"></ref> ignoring an official request after his opening show that he not do so. Video from these concerts appeared in the documentary film "To Russia with Elton".


title: Back in the U.S.S.R.

text: In the 1980s McCartney was refused permission to perform in the USSR. In Barry Miles' 1997 book "", McCartney said that: "Probably my single most important reason for going to Russia would be to play ['Back in the U.S.S.R.']" According to "The Moscow Times", when McCartney finally got to play the song on his Back in the World tour in Moscow's Red Square in May 2003, "the crowd went wild". When asked about the song before the concert, McCartney said he had known little about the Soviet Union when he wrote it and added: "It was a mystical land then. It's nice to see the reality. I always suspected that people had big hearts. Now I know that's true." In his autobiography, "", Mike Love writes: "'Back in the U.S.S.R.' was a helluva song, and it's lasted longer than the country."


title: Back in the U.S.S.R.

text: In 1987, Billy Joel covered the song on his live-in-the-Soviet Union album "Kontsert". Also released as a single, his version reached number 33 in Australia and number 44 in New Zealand. McCartney said in 1997 that Joel's adoption of "Back in the U.S.S.R." for his Russian concert tours had contributed to the "jokey" song's standing as "a bit of an anthem now".


title: Back in the U.S.S.R.

text: On 4 July 1984, the Beach Boys played "Back in the U.S.S.R.", with Starr joining them as a special guest, during their Fourth of July concerts in Washington, DC, and Miami. In Love's recollection, the "irony" of an Englishman being part of the celebrations for America's independence from Britain "was not lost on Ringo". Starr told a reporter: "Happy Birthday [America]... Sorry we lost."


title: Amol Palekar

text: Amol Palekar (born 24 November 1944) is an Indian actor, director and producer of Hindi and Marathi cinema.


title: Amol Palekar

text: Palekar studied fine arts at the Sir JJ School of Arts, Mumbai, and commenced his artistic career as a painter. As a painter, he had seven one-man exhibitions and participated in many group shows. However, Palekar is better known as a stage and film actor. He has been active in the avant garde theatre in India in Marathi and Hindi theatre as an actor, director and producer since 1967. His contribution to the modern Indian theatre is often overshadowed by his popularity as a lead actor in Hindi films.


title: Amol Palekar

text: As a film actor, he was most prominent in the 1970s. His image as a "boy next door" contrasted with the larger-than-life heroes prevalent at that time in Indian cinema. He received one Filmfare award and six State awards as Best Actor. His performances in regional language films in Marathi, Bengali, Malayalam and Kannada fetched him critical acclaim as well. He decided not to act after 1986 in order to concentrate on filmmaking.


title: Amol Palekar

text: As a director, he is known for the sensitive portrayal of women, selection of classic stories from Indian literature, and perceptive handling of progressive issues. He has directed several television serials on the national network such as "Kachchi Dhoop", "Mrignayani", "Naquab", "Paool Khuna" and "Krishna Kali".


title: Amol Palekar

text: Palekar began in Marathi experimental theatre with Satyadev Dubey, and later started his own group, "Aniket", in 1972. As a theatre actor, he was part of popular plays like Shantata! Court Chalu Aahe, Hayavadana and Adhe Adhure. Following a performance on stage at the National Centre for the Performing Arts (NCPA) in 1994, he returned to theatre after a gap of 25 years with the suspenseful play, Kusur (The Mistake). This play is directed by him and he also plays the lead role.


title: Amol Palekar

text: Palekar made his debut in 1971 with the Marathi film "Shantata! Court Chalu Aahe" directed by Satyadev Dubey, which started the New Cinema Movement in Marathi.


title: Amol Palekar

text: In 1974 he was cast as an actor by Basu Chatterjee in "Rajnigandha", and in the surprise low-budget hit, "Chhoti Si Baat". This led to many other such roles in "middle-class" comedies, mostly alternative. These were mostly directed by Chatterjee or Hrishikesh Mukherjee and included films such as "Gol Maal" and "Naram Garam". He won the Filmfare Best Actor Award for "Gol Maal".


title: Amol Palekar

text: He is noted for his image of the "middle-class everyman" who struggles to get a job ("Gol Maal"), his own flat ("Gharonda"), a girlfriend/wife ("Baaton Baaton Mein"), and appreciation from his boss.


title: Amol Palekar

text: In 1979, he was paired with a sixteen-year-old Sridevi in Solva Saawan, which was her debut Hindi movie as a heroine. Amol played the role of an intellectually disabled man, a character played by Kamal Haasan in the original Tamil movie.


title: Amol Palekar

text: In 1982 he played the role of Ravi in the Malayalam movie "Olangal". He turned to directing with the Marathi film "Aakriet". He showed his capabilities as a director with movies such as Thodasa Roomani Ho Jaayen and Paheli. "Thodasa Roomani Ho Jaayen" has become a part of management courses and study pertaining to human behaviour. "Paheli" was India's official entry for Best Foreign Film at the 2006 Oscars. The movie, however, did not make it to the final nominations.


title: Amol Palekar

text: He has also given his voice to an HIV/AIDS education animated software tutorial created by the nonprofit organization TeachAids. He is willing to act once again if he is given a challenging role.


title: Amol Palekar

text: Amol Palekar was born to Kamlakar and Suhasini Palekar in a lower-middle-class family in Mumbai. He was raised along with his three sisters, Neelon, Rekha and Unnati, by his father who worked in the General Post Office and his mother, who worked in a private company. He worked at the Bank of India before he switched full-time to a career in acting. He also does some social work. He married Sandhya Gokhale after his divorce from his first wife, Chitra. Palekar regards himself as an agnostic atheist.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: Juanita Broaddrick is an American former nursing home administrator. She alleged that she was raped by U.S. President Bill Clinton on April 25, 1978, when he (aged 32) was the Attorney General of Arkansas. Clinton's attorney, David E. Kendall, stated it "never happened" on his client's behalf, and Clinton declined to comment further on the issue.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: Rumors had circulated about such an event for years and it had been recorded in a letter prepared by a Republican rival of Clinton's around 1991, but Broaddrick refused to speak to news media until 1999. In a sworn statement in 1997 with the placeholder name "Jane Doe #5", Broaddrick filed an affidavit with Paula Jones's lawyers stating there were unfounded rumors and stories circulating "that Mr. Clinton had made unwelcome sexual advances toward me in the late seventies. ... These allegations are untrue". She then recanted that statement to investigators of potential misconduct by Clinton led by Kenneth Starr, while insisting at the time that Clinton had not pressured or bribed her in any way. Starr declined to further investigate the issue, and mentioned it only in a footnote of his final report.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: Speculation continued that Broaddrick had more to say on the matter, and in an interview with "Dateline NBC" that aired on February 24, 1999, Broaddrick discussed the matter in public for the first time, this time saying that Clinton had raped her. Among the claims of sexual misconduct by Clinton that emerged during the 1990s, it claims the most serious improper behavior.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: Broaddrick's claims returned to public attention in relation to the 2016 Hillary Clinton presidential campaign and the 2017 Me Too movement. She wrote a memoir repeating the allegation in 2018.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: Broaddrick is from Van Buren, Arkansas, a town in the northwest part of the state. She was born Juanita Smith to parents Buster Smith and Mary Elizabeth Smith. She has an older sister. Her father owned the Smith Cleaners establishment. The family belonged to the Episcopal Church. In her memoir she says her mother was physically and emotionally abusive to her and her sister.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: Juanita Smith graduated from Van Buren High School in 1960. She attended nursing school at Sparks School of Nursing from 1960 to 1963. She then worked as a registered nurse at several nursing homes.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: In 1974, she bought a nursing home in Van Buren. It was known as the Brownwood Manor Nursing Home. Her mother was part owner with her.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: Juanita was first married to Gary Hickey, with the marriage happening before she left nursing school. They had a son, who was born around 1969.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: Broaddrick, who was known as Juanita Hickey at the time, first met Clinton when he made a visit to her nursing home during his 1978 gubernatorial campaign. Clinton was the Arkansas Attorney General at the time. Broaddrick wanted to volunteer for the campaign, and says Clinton invited her to stop by the campaign office in Little Rock. She said she contacted the office a few weeks later while in the area for a nursing home conference and that Clinton said he would not be in the campaign office that day and suggested they meet at her hotel's coffee shop instead. Upon his arrival, however, he allegedly requested that they instead have coffee in her room to avoid a crowd of reporters in the lobby, and Broaddrick agreed.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: Broaddrick said the two spoke briefly in her room, with Clinton describing plans he had to renovate a prison visible from her window if he became governor. Then, according to Broaddrick, Clinton suddenly kissed her. Broaddrick says she pushed Clinton away and told him she was married and not interested, but he persisted. As recounted in the NBC interview:


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: When asked if there was any way Clinton could have thought it was consensual, Broaddrick said "No, not with what I told him and with how I tried to push him away. It was not consensual."


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: Broaddrick shared the hotel room with her friend and employee Norma Rogers. Rogers attended a conference seminar that morning, and says she returned to their room to find Broaddrick on the bed "in a state of shock", with her pantyhose torn in the crotch and her lip swollen as though she had been hit. Rogers says Broaddrick told her Clinton had "forced himself on her". Rogers helped Broaddrick ice her lip, and then the women left Little Rock. Rogers said that Broaddrick was very upset on the way home and blamed herself for letting Clinton in the room. Broaddrick says she did not tell her husband, Gary Hickey, about the incident, and told him she accidentally injured her lip. He told NBC he did not remember the injury or her explanation. David Broaddrick, however, has said he noticed her injured lip, and she told him that Clinton had raped her when he asked about it. Three other friends confirmed that Broaddrick had told them about the incident at the time: Susan Lewis; Louis Ma; and Jean Darden, Norma Rogers' sister. Broaddrick did not recall the date of the alleged incident, but said it was spring of 1978 and that she had stayed in the Camelot Hotel. Records show Broaddrick attended a nursing home meeting at the Camelot Hotel in Little Rock on April 25, 1978. The Clinton White House would not respond to requests for Clinton's official schedule for the date, but news reports suggest that he was in Little Rock that day, with no official commitments in the morning.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: Three weeks after the alleged assault, Broaddrick participated in a small Clinton fundraiser at the home of a local dentist. Broaddrick said she was "in denial" and felt guilty, thinking that she had given Clinton the wrong idea by letting him into her room. When she arrived at the event, she says, her friend who had picked the Clintons up from the airport told her that Hillary Clinton had asked if she would be at the event. Broaddrick says Bill Clinton did not speak to her at the event, but Hillary Clinton approached her, took her hand, and said "I just want you to know how much Bill and I appreciate what you do for him." When Broaddrick moved her hand away, she says, Hillary Clinton held on to her and said, "Do you understand? Everything that you do." Broaddrick says she felt nauseated and left the gathering. Broaddrick says she interpreted the incident as Hillary Clinton thanking her for keeping quiet.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: Broaddrick opened a second facility, to provide services for mentally disabled children in Fort Smith, Arkansas.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: In 1984, Broaddrick's nursing facility was adjudged the best in the state, which brought a congratulatory official letter from the governor. On the bottom was a handwritten note from Clinton, saying, "I admire you very much."


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: Broaddrick said that in 1991, Clinton called her out of a state nursing standards meeting to try to apologize: "'Juanita, I'm so sorry for what I did. I'm not the man that I used to be, can you ever forgive me? What can I do to make this up to you?' And I'm standing there in absolute shock. And I told him to go to hell, and I walked off." Jean Darden, in whom Broaddrick had confided about the incident, also attended the meeting and said she saw Broaddrick talking to Clinton in the hallway. Clinton announced his 1992 presidential campaign soon after that alleged interaction.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: Though Broaddrick was resistant to talking to the media, rumors about her story began circulating no later than Clinton's presidential bid in 1992. Broaddrick had confided in Phillip Yoakum, whom she knew from business circles and at the time considered a friend. When Clinton won the Democratic nomination, Yoakum, widely considered to have a Republican agenda, contacted Sheffield Nelson, Clinton's opponent in the 1990 gubernatorial race. Yoakum arranged a meeting between Nelson and Broaddrick, who resisted Yoakum's and Nelson's push that she go public. Yoakum secretly taped the conversation and wrote a letter summarizing the allegations, which began to circulate within Republican circles. The story reached "The New York Times" and the "Los Angeles Times" in October 1992, but the papers dropped the story after Broaddrick refused to talk to reporters and Yoakum refused to release the recording.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: In the fall of 1997, Paula Jones's private investigators tried to talk to Broaddrick at her home, also secretly taping the conversation. Broaddrick refused to discuss the incident, saying "it was just a horrible horrible thing," and that she "wouldn't relive it for anything." The investigators told her she would likely be subpoenaed if she would not talk to them. Broaddrick said she would deny everything, saying "you can't get to him, and I'm not going to ruin my good name to do it ... there's just absolutely no way anyone can get to him, he's just too vicious." Broaddrick was subpoenaed in the Jones suit soon after and submitted an affidavit denying that Clinton had made "any sexual advances". The recording of Broaddrick's conversation with the investigators was leaked to the press, but Broaddrick continued to refuse to speak to reporters.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: Despite Broaddrick's denial in her affidavit, Jones' lawyers included Yoakum's letter and Broaddrick's name in a 1998 filing. The letter suggested that the Clintons had bought Broaddrick's silence, describing a phone call where Broaddrick's husband asked Yoakum to say the incident never happened and said that he intended to ask Clinton "for a couple of big favors". This, along with the discrepancy between the letter and Broaddrick's affidavit, attracted the attention of independent counsel Kenneth Starr, who was investigating Clinton for obstruction of justice. After being approached by the FBI, Broaddrick consulted her son, a lawyer, who told her she could not lie to federal investigators. After Starr granted her immunity, thus assuring that she would not be prosecuted for perjury regarding her affidavit in the Jones case, Broaddrick recanted the affidavit. However, she insisted that Clinton had not pressured or bribed her in any way, and so Starr concluded that the story was not relevant to his investigation and his report only mentioned the recanting in a footnote.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: Rumors continued to circulate in tabloids and on talk radio, now with Broaddrick's name attached. Broaddrick was upset by a tabloid report that she had been paid to keep quiet, and decided to agree to an interview with NBC's Lisa Myers. Myers interviewed her on January 20, 1999, the day after Clinton was impeached. The interview only aired on February 24, 1999, 35 days later and after Clinton had been acquitted on February 12. NBC was accused of intentionally sitting on the story and invoking unusually demanding standards of corroboration until the impeachment process ended. Broaddrick and another source said NBC gathered the key corroborating evidence within 10 days of the interview, NBC assistant producer Chris Giglio said it may have taken him 14 days—in either case, while the impeachment process was ongoing. Though the story was unaired, at least one Republican senator reportedly invoked it to convince undecided Republicans to vote for impeachment.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: While NBC waited to air the interview, Broaddrick was approached by Dorothy Rabinowitz, who wrote for the "Wall Street Journal" editorial page. Upset with NBC's delay, Broaddrick agreed to speak with Rabinowitz, and the story debuted on the "Wall Street Journal"'s editorial page on February 19. NBC aired Myers' interview soon after.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: On Friday night, February 19, 1999, Clinton's attorney, David Kendall, denied the allegations on Clinton's behalf. Kendall stated: "Any allegation that the president assaulted Mrs. Broaddrick more than 20 years ago is absolutely false. Beyond that, we're not going to comment."


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: When asked about Broaddrick's claims at a news conference on February 24, 1999, Clinton said: "Well, my counsel has made a statement about the ... issue, and I have nothing to add to it." As of November 2020, he has not made any further public statements on the matter, and has not been sued or charged with any crimes in connection with Broaddrick's allegations.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: Because there was limited corroborating evidence for Broaddrick's allegation and she had previously filed a sworn statement saying there was no assault, some thought her allegation was not credible. As "The New York Times" summarized it in 1999, "There is no physical evidence to verify it. No one else was present during the alleged encounter in a Little Rock hotel room nearly 21 years ago. The hotel has since closed. And Mrs. Broaddrick denied the encounter in an affidavit in January 1998 in the Paula Jones case, in which she was known only as 'Jane Doe No. 5'. Through all those years, she refused to come forward. When pressed by the Jones lawyers, she denied the allegation. And now, she has recanted that denial."


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: In March 1999 "Slate" magazine ran a much-cited article called "Is Juanita Broaddrick Telling the Truth?", that gave possible grounds upon which Broaddrick should be believed, or should not be believed, regarding each of a number of key points. On the disbelief side, it was suggested that the five people who said Broaddrick had confided in them soon after the incident could be lying. This argument proposes that Rogers and Darden may have developed a grudge against Clinton; in 1980 as governor, he had commuted the life sentence of Guy Lavern Kuehn, the man who murdered their father in 1971. Skeptics also noted that even if these people were telling the truth, Broaddrick could have been lying to them at the time the original events took place.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: Some details in Broaddrick's account corresponded with other women's allegations. In an interview that emerged after Broaddrick's allegations, Elizabeth Gracen had said that Clinton bit her lip during a consensual encounter that became rough.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: Broaddrick said that after the assault, Clinton told her not to worry about pregnancy because childhood mumps had rendered him sterile. When contacted about the issue, Gennifer Flowers, who Clinton later admitted to a sexual relationship with, also said that Clinton had thought he couldn't have children. Clinton would go on to allegedly father one child, Chelsea Clinton, who was born in 1980.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: In March 1999, shortly after the allegations publicly aired, 56% of Americans believed the allegations were false, while a third believed that Broaddrick's allegation of rape was at least possibly true. Similarly, 66% of the public felt that the media should stop pursuing the story, while 29% felt the press should continue to investigate the allegation.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: The public and media had "scandal fatigue" from the repeated sexual misconduct allegations against Clinton and, after his impeachment and acquittal, many felt the allegation had nowhere to go. Many reporters had encountered the story while it was being disseminated by Republican activists and felt they had already looked into it. Jack Nelson, Washington bureau chief of the "Los Angeles Times", said "This is a story that's been knocked down and discredited so many times ... [E]veryone's taken a slice of it, and after looking at it, everyone's knocked it down. The woman has changed her story about whether it happened. It just wasn't credible." Julia Malone, a Cox Communications reporter, became frustrated by what she perceived as media neglect of the story and held a National Press Club panel on the issue entitled "Too Hot for a 'Scandal-Weary' New Media to Handle?" Sam Donaldson of ABC News said he was frustrated over his fellow reporters' unwillingness to press Clinton to respond to the allegations: Clinton refused to comment when Donaldson asked about the allegations, and no one else would press the issue.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: Judgement on the Broaddrick matter has varied among book-length treatments of the Bill Clinton years. While Christopher Hitchens' 1999 book, "No One Left to Lie To", argued that Broaddrick's claim was credible and shows similarities to Paula Jones' later allegation of sexual harassment, Michael Isikoff's book, "Uncovering Clinton", said that Clinton's lawyers figured that he might well have had consensual, extramarital sex with Broaddrick, but they did not believe he would have forced himself on her, and Joe Conason and Gene Lyons' 2004 book "The Hunting of the President" argued that Broaddrick's claim is not credible, noting that the FBI had found evidence for the allegations inconclusive.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: Broaddrick filed a lawsuit against Clinton in December 1999 to obtain documents that the White House may have gathered about her, claiming its refusal to accede to her demand for such documents violated the Privacy Act of 1974. Her lawyer was conservative judicial activist Larry Klayman, head of conservative activist group Judicial Watch. The suit was dismissed by U.S. District Court Judge Henry H. Kennedy Jr. in March 2001. The judge ruled that the Privacy Act did not apply in this case and that Broaddrick had failed to show evidence that the U.S. Department of Justice had improperly released documents about her.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: During that time Broaddrick's business was audited by the IRS, which she claimed was retaliation: "I do not believe this was coincidence," Broaddrick declared, "I do not think our number just came up."


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: As Hillary Clinton's campaign in the 2000 United States Senate election in New York unfolded, Broaddrick published an open letter to her, denouncing her alleged role in covering for her husband's alleged attack.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: The Broaddricks divorced in 2004. David Broaddrick had opposed her going public with her rape story in 1999. Juanita Broaddrick said she also developed a fear of enclosed spaces as a result of what happened.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: In 2008 Broaddrick sold her nursing home business and retired, having done well as a businesswoman. She continues to live in Van Buren, on a 23-acre ranch.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: Broaddrick resurrected her rape claims on Twitter during the United States presidential election of 2016, as Hillary Clinton was the Democratic nominee for president.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: In this context, the Broaddrick case has often brought about unease on the part of people who are generally supportive of the Clintons. In an October 2016 recap of the case, Dylan Matthews of Vox said: "The basic answer is that some of the claims [against Bill Clinton] appear more credible than others. There are three main accusers [the others being Jones and Willey], of whom it seems by far the most credible—based on the publicly available evidence—is Broaddrick." Matthews continues: "Given the prevailing view among many progressives—including Hillary Clinton—that one should default to believing rape accusers, the Broaddrick allegation thus poses a problem." Michelle Goldberg of "Slate" wrote in a late 2015 essay, "our rules for talking about sexual assault have changed since the 1990s, when these women were last in the news. Today, feminists have repeatedly and convincingly made the case that when women say they've been sexually assaulted, we should assume they're telling the truth. Particularly when it comes to Broaddrick, it's not easy to square the arguments against believing her with the dominant progressive consensus on trusting victims. This is a tension that people on the right are eager to exploit."


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: Many conservative commentators who were typically quite skeptical of sexual assault claims without firm evidence, found Broaddrick's allegations quite believable. As Katie J. M. Baker of BuzzFeed News lamented, "In theory, partisan politics shouldn't play a role in determining whether an alleged rape victim deserves to be heard." Similar observations have been made by Robby Soave of "Reason" magazine.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: The now-retired NBC reporter who broadcast her story, Lisa Myers, said: "No one can objectively look at Juanita's story and not be troubled. One of the things that makes her so credible is who she is—open, straightforward, seemingly guileless."


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: When in late 2015, during a town hall event during her presidential campaign, Hillary Clinton was asked about the allegation, and she responded: "Well, I would say that everybody should be believed at first until they are disbelieved based on evidence."


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: In January 2016, Broaddrick shared on the social networking site Twitter, "I was 35 years old when Bill Clinton, Ark. Attorney General raped me and Hillary tried to silence me. I am now 73. ... it never goes away." Broaddrick said she was neither a Democrat nor a Republican, but she supported the Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign: "He says the things I like to hear." She agreed with Trump's injection of Bill Clinton's acknowledged and alleged sexual misdeeds into the campaign. Although she voted for George W. Bush in the 2000 and 2004 elections, in the 2008 presidential election she voted for Barack Obama and gave $3,000 to his campaign because he was running against Hillary Clinton. As the election progressed, she increasingly aligned herself with conservative actions and views.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: On October 8, 2016, in the wake of controversy over the Donald Trump "Access Hollywood" tape, Trump retweeted Broaddrick's tweets in which she calls Bill Clinton a "rapist" and calls Hillary Clinton's actions "horrific". On October 9 Broaddrick appeared on a panel with Trump, Paula Jones, and Kathleen Willey (a fourth woman at the panel, Kathy Shelton, had an unrelated grievance against Hillary Clinton) an hour before the second debate between Trump and Clinton in the general election portion of the United States presidential election debates, 2016. Broaddrick and the others were also in the audience during the debate, as was Bill Clinton, although debate organizers kept them in separate areas. The Trump campaign said it had paid for Broaddrick's travel to the debate.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: In 2017, in the wake of Harvey Weinstein sexual abuse allegations, Broaddrick criticized 1990s Bill Clinton paramour Monica Lewinsky for aligning herself with the #MeToo movement, saying, "I have always felt sad for you, but where were you when we needed you?" Broaddrick added, "I always felt she was a victim. I only wish she had spoken up in '99 when I was going through so much persecution after my interview on "NBC Dateline"."


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: Other discussions of the allegations against Clinton also appeared, including those from Broaddrick. Matthews wrote that "America's ongoing national reckoning with sexual assault and sexual harassment by powerful men now has liberals and Democrats reconsidering the legacy of one of party's most important figures of the past quarter-century: President Bill Clinton."


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: Caitlin Flanagan of "The Atlantic" wrote "Yet let us not forget the sex crimes of which the younger, stronger Bill Clinton was very credibly accused in the 1990s. Juanita Broaddrick reported that ..." before recapping the case. During an NPR interview Flanagan said, "And so there were a series of women throughout the course of his presidency who came forward with accounts of things they said he did to them which really mirror the kinds of things we're looking at now in the very worst of the cases. Juanita Broaddrick, most prominently, said that he raped her very violently in a way that is quite like the Harvey Weinstein accusations in terms of the hotel room and the suddenness and the bleak horror of it all."


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: Michelle Goldberg wrote an op-ed in "The New York Times" entitled "I Believe Juanita", where she said, "In this #MeToo moment, when we're reassessing decades of male misbehavior and turning open secrets into exposes, we should look clearly at the credible evidence that Juanita Broaddrick told the truth when she accused Clinton of raping her. But revisiting the Clinton scandals in light of today's politics is complicated as well as painful."


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: Following the sexual assault allegations made against Alabama Senate candidate Roy Moore, Broaddrick said, "All victims matter. It doesn't matter if you're a Democrat or a Republican ... We all have the right to be believed."


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: In 2017, Broaddrick said, of women who had accused Trump of sexually assaulting them, "I felt sorry for them. I felt like they had a right to be heard. But I also felt at the same time that they should bear investigation, scrutiny and vetting. I think it's only fair for all parties involved."


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: In January 2018 Broaddrick self-published a memoir, co-authored by Nick Lulli, with the title "You'd Better Put Some Ice On That: How I Survived Being Raped By Bill Clinton".


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: Following the September 2018 allegations against Supreme Court Justice Brett Kavanaugh during his confirmation process, Broaddrick stated the allegations made by Kavanaugh accuser Christine Blasey Ford were "sketchy" and "vague".


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: In a 2019 article for The Atlantic, Amanda FitzSimons wrote that Broaddrick had said regarding E. Jean Carroll, who publicly accused Donald Trump of rape, that Carroll had "just wanted attention... When you’ve been raped, you have a persona about you—it’s almost like you can sense it. I don’t have ESP, but you can almost feel their feelings if these things really happened to them."


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: Since the 2016 election, Broaddrick has been increasingly politically active in support of Donald Trump, the Republican Party, and conservative groups. She had criticized Democratic politicians Joe Biden, Nancy Pelosi, Adam Schiff, and Ilhan Omar along with six Fox News journalists critical of Trump. She claims to have "loved Rush Limbaugh" - the conservative talk-radio host - since 1990, nine years before she made public allegations about President Clinton.


title: Juanita Broaddrick

text: Broaddrick is critical of COVID-19 vaccination in the United States, tweeting on July 7, 2021, "Unvaccinated and staying that way. Keep away from my door and my freedom." In April 2022, Broaddrick was suspended from Twitter for "violating the policy on spreading misleading and potentially harmful information related to COVID-19."


title: Phillips curve

text: The Phillips curve is an economic model, named after William Phillips hypothesizing a correlation between reduction in unemployment and increased rates of wage rises within an economy. While Phillips himself did not state a linked relationship between employment and inflation, this was a trivial deduction from his statistical findings. Paul Samuelson and Robert Solow made the connection explicit and subsequently Milton Friedman and Edmund Phelps put the theoretical structure in place.


title: Phillips curve

text: While there is a short run tradeoff between unemployment and inflation, it has not been observed in the long run. In 1967 and 1968, Friedman and Phelps asserted that the Phillips curve was only applicable in the short-run and that, in the long-run, inflationary policies would not decrease unemployment. Friedman then correctly predicted that in the 1973–75 recession, both inflation and unemployment would increase. In the 2010s the slope of the Phillips curve appears to have declined and there has been controversy over the usefulness of the Phillips curve in predicting inflation. A 2022 study found that the slope of the Phillips curve is small and was small even during the early 1980s. Nonetheless, the Phillips curve remains the primary framework for understanding and forecasting inflation used in central banks.


title: Phillips curve

text: William Phillips, a New Zealand born economist, wrote a paper in 1958 titled ""The Relation between Unemployment and the Rate of Change of Money Wage Rates in the United Kingdom, 1861-1957"", which was published in the quarterly journal "Economica". In the paper Phillips describes how he observed an inverse relationship between money wage changes and unemployment in the British economy over the period examined. Similar patterns were found in other countries and in 1960 Paul Samuelson and Robert Solow took Phillips' work and made explicit the link between inflation and unemployment: when inflation was high, unemployment was low, and vice versa.


title: Phillips curve

text: In the 1920s, an American economist Irving Fisher had noted this kind of Phillips curve relationship. However, Phillips' original curve described the behavior of money wages.


title: Phillips curve

text: In the years following Phillips' 1958 paper, many economists in the advanced industrial countries believed that his results showed that there was a permanently stable relationship between inflation and unemployment. One implication of this for government policy was that governments could control unemployment and inflation with a Keynesian policy. They could tolerate a reasonably high rate of inflation as this would lead to lower unemployment – there would be a trade-off between inflation and unemployment. For example, monetary policy and/or fiscal policy could be used to stimulate the economy, raising gross domestic product and lowering the unemployment rate. Moving along the Phillips curve, this would lead to a higher inflation rate, the cost of enjoying lower unemployment rates. Economist James Forder argues that this view is historically false and that neither economists nor governments took that view and that the 'Phillips curve myth' was an invention of the 1970s.


title: Phillips curve

text: Since 1974, seven Nobel Prizes have been given to economists for, among other things, work critical of some variations of the Phillips curve. Some of this criticism is based on the United States' experience during the 1970s, which had periods of high unemployment and high inflation at the same time. The authors receiving those prizes include Thomas Sargent, Christopher Sims, Edmund Phelps, Edward Prescott, Robert A. Mundell, Robert E. Lucas, Milton Friedman, and F.A. Hayek.


title: Phillips curve

text: In the 1970s, many countries experienced high levels of both inflation and unemployment also known as stagflation. Theories based on the Phillips curve suggested that this could not happen, and the curve came under a concerted attack from a group of economists headed by Milton Friedman. Friedman argued that the Phillips curve relationship was only a short-run phenomenon. In this he followed eight years after Samuelson and Solow [1960] who wrote "All of our discussion has been phrased in short-run terms, dealing with what might happen in the next few years. It would be wrong, though, to think that our Figure 2 menu that related obtainable price and unemployment behavior will maintain its same shape in the longer run. What we do in a policy way during the next few years might cause it to shift in a definite way." As Samuelson and Solow had argued 8 years earlier, he argued that in the long run, workers and employers will take inflation into account, resulting in employment contracts that increase pay at rates near anticipated inflation. Unemployment would then begin to rise back to its previous level, but now with higher inflation rates. This result implies that over the longer-run there is no trade-off between inflation and unemployment. This implication is significant for practical reasons because it implies that central banks should not set unemployment targets below the natural rate.


title: Phillips curve

text: More recent research suggests that there is a moderate trade-off between low-levels of inflation and unemployment. Work by George Akerlof, William Dickens, and George Perry, implies that if inflation is reduced from two to zero percent, unemployment will be permanently increased by 1.5 percent. This is because workers generally have a higher tolerance for real wage cuts than nominal ones. For example, a worker will more likely accept a wage increase of two percent when inflation is three percent, than a wage cut of one percent when the inflation rate is zero.


title: Phillips curve

text: Most economists no longer use the Phillips curve in its original form because it was shown to be too simplistic. This can be seen in a cursory analysis of US inflation and unemployment data from 1953–92. There is no single curve that will fit the data, but there are three rough aggregations—1955–71, 1974–84, and 1985–92—each of which shows a general, downwards slope, but at three very different levels with the shifts occurring abruptly. The data for 1953–54 and 1972–73 do not group easily, and a more formal analysis posits up to five groups/curves over the period.


title: Phillips curve

text: But still today, modified forms of the Phillips curve that take inflationary expectations into account remain influential. The theory goes under several names, with some variation in its details, but all modern versions distinguish between short-run and long-run effects on unemployment. Modern Phillips curve models include both a short-run Phillips Curve and a long-run Phillips Curve. This is because in the short run, there is generally an inverse relationship between inflation and the unemployment rate; as illustrated in the downward sloping short-run Phillips curve. In the long run, that relationship breaks down and the economy eventually returns to the natural rate of unemployment regardless of the inflation rate.


title: Phillips curve

text: The "short-run Phillips curve" is also called the "expectations-augmented Phillips curve", since it shifts up when inflationary expectations rise, Edmund Phelps and Milton Friedman argued. In the long run, this implies that monetary policy cannot affect unemployment, which adjusts back to its "natural rate", also called the "NAIRU". The popular textbook of Blanchard gives a textbook presentation of the expectations-augmented Phillips curve.


title: Phillips curve

text: An equation like the expectations-augmented Phillips curve also appears in many recent New Keynesian dynamic stochastic general equilibrium models. As Keynes mentioned: "A Government has to remember, however, that even if a tax is not prohibited it may be unprofitable, and that a medium, rather than an extreme, imposition will yield the greatest gain". In these macroeconomic models with sticky prices, there is a positive relation between the rate of inflation and the level of demand, and therefore a negative relation between the rate of inflation and the rate of unemployment. This relationship is often called the "New Keynesian Phillips curve". Like the expectations-augmented Phillips curve, the New Keynesian Phillips curve implies that increased inflation can lower unemployment temporarily, but cannot lower it permanently. Two influential papers that incorporate a New Keynesian Phillips curve are Clarida, Galí, and Gertler (1999), and Blanchard and Galí (2007).


title: Phillips curve

text: There are at least two different mathematical derivations of the Phillips curve. First, there is the traditional or Keynesian version. Then, there is the new Classical version associated with Robert E. Lucas Jr.


title: Phillips curve

text: The original Phillips curve literature was not based on the unaided application of economic theory. Instead, it was based on empirical generalizations. After that, economists tried to develop theories that fit the data.


title: Phillips curve

text: The traditional Phillips curve story starts with a wage Phillips Curve, of the sort described by Phillips himself. This describes the rate of growth of money wages ("gW"). Here and below, the operator "g" is the equivalent of "the percentage rate of growth of" the variable that follows.


title: Phillips curve

text: The "money wage rate" ("W") is shorthand for total money wage costs per production employee, including benefits and payroll taxes. The focus is on only production workers' money wages, because (as discussed below) these costs are crucial to pricing decisions by the firms.


title: Phillips curve

text: This equation tells us that the growth of money wages rises with the trend rate of growth of money wages (indicated by the superscript "T") and falls with the unemployment rate ("U"). The function "f" is assumed to be monotonically increasing with "U" so that the dampening of money-wage increases by unemployment is shown by the negative sign in the equation above.


title: Phillips curve

text: There are several possible stories behind this equation. A major one is that money wages are set by "bilateral negotiations" under partial bilateral monopoly: as the unemployment rate rises, "all else constant" worker bargaining power falls, so that workers are less able to increase their wages in the face of employer resistance.


title: Phillips curve

text: During the 1970s, this story had to be modified, because (as the late Abba Lerner had suggested in the 1940s) workers try to keep up with inflation. Since the 1970s, the equation has been changed to introduce the role of inflationary expectations (or the expected inflation rate, "gP"). This produces the expectations-augmented wage Phillips curve:


title: Phillips curve

text: The introduction of inflationary expectations into the equation implies that actual inflation can "feed back" into inflationary expectations and thus cause further inflation. The late economist James Tobin dubbed the last term "inflationary inertia," because in the current period, inflation exists which represents an inflationary impulse left over from the past.


title: Phillips curve

text: It also involved much more than expectations, including the price-wage spiral. In this spiral, employers try to protect profits by raising their prices and employees try to keep up with inflation to protect their real wages. This process can feed on itself, becoming a self-fulfilling prophecy.


title: Phillips curve

text: The parameter λ (which is presumed constant during any time period) represents the degree to which employees can gain money wage increases to keep up with expected inflation, preventing a fall in expected real wages. It is usually assumed that this parameter equals 1 in the long run.


title: Phillips curve

text: In addition, the function f() was modified to introduce the idea of the non-accelerating inflation rate of unemployment (NAIRU) or what's sometimes called the "natural" rate of unemployment or the


title: Phillips curve

text: Here, "U*" is the NAIRU. As discussed below, if "U" < "U"*, inflation tends to accelerate. Similarly, if "U" > "U"*, inflation tends to slow. It is assumed that "f"(0) = 0, so that when "U" = "U"*, the "f" term drops out of the equation.


title: Phillips curve

text: In equation (), the roles of gW and gP seem to be redundant, playing much the same role. However, assuming that λ is equal to unity, it can be seen that they are not. If the trend rate of growth of money wages equals zero, then the case where U equals U* implies that gW equals expected inflation. That is, expected real wages are constant.


title: Phillips curve

text: In any reasonable economy, however, having constant expected real wages could only be consistent with actual real wages that are constant over the long haul. This does not fit with economic experience in the U.S. or any other major industrial country. Even though real wages have not risen much in recent years, there have been important increases over the decades.


title: Phillips curve

text: An alternative is to assume that the trend rate of growth of money wages equals the trend rate of growth of average labor productivity (Z). That is:


title: Phillips curve

text: Under assumption (), when U equals U* and λ equals unity, expected real wages would increase with labor productivity. This would be consistent with an economy in which actual real wages increase with labor productivity. Deviations of real-wage trends from those of labor productivity might be explained by reference to other variables in the model.


title: Phillips curve

text: Next, there is price behavior. The standard assumption is that markets are "imperfectly competitive", where most businesses have some power to set prices. So the model assumes that the average business sets a unit price (P) as a mark-up (M) over the unit labor cost in production measured at a standard rate of capacity utilization (say, at 90 percent use of plant and equipment) and then adds in the unit materials cost.


title: Phillips curve

text: The standardization involves later ignoring deviations from the trend in labor productivity. For example, assume that the growth of labor productivity is the same as that in the trend and that current productivity equals its trend value:


title: Phillips curve

text: The markup reflects both the firm's degree of market power and the extent to which overhead costs have to be paid. Put another way, all else equal, M rises with the firm's power to set prices or with a rise of overhead costs relative to total costs.


title: Phillips curve

text: UMC is unit raw materials cost (total raw materials costs divided by total output). So the equation can be restated as:


title: Phillips curve

text: Now, assume that both the average price/cost mark-up (M) and UMC are constant. On the other hand, labor productivity grows, as before. Thus, an equation determining the price inflation rate (gP) is:


title: Phillips curve

text: Then, combined with the wage Phillips curve [equation 1] and the assumption made above about the trend behavior of money wages [equation 2], this price-inflation equation gives us a simple expectations-augmented price Phillips curve:


title: Phillips curve

text: Some assume that we can simply add in gUMC, the rate of growth of UMC, in order to represent the role of supply shocks (of the sort that plagued the U.S. during the 1970s). This produces a standard short-term Phillips curve:


title: Phillips curve

text: Economist Robert J. Gordon has called this the "Triangle Model" because it explains short-run inflationary behavior by three factors: demand inflation (due to low unemployment), supply-shock inflation (gUMC), and inflationary expectations or inertial inflation.


title: Phillips curve

text: In the "long run", it is assumed, inflationary expectations catch up with and equal actual inflation so that gP = gP. This represents the long-term equilibrium of expectations adjustment. Part of this adjustment may involve the adaptation of expectations to the experience with actual inflation. Another might involve guesses made by people in the economy based on other evidence. (The latter idea gave us the notion of so-called rational expectations.)


title: Phillips curve

text: This is nothing but a steeper version of the short-run Phillips curve above. Inflation rises as unemployment falls, while this connection is stronger. That is, a low unemployment rate (less than U*) will be associated with a higher inflation rate in the long run than in the short run. This occurs because the actual higher-inflation situation seen in the short run feeds back to raise inflationary expectations, which in turn raises the inflation rate further. Similarly, at high unemployment rates (greater than U*) lead to low inflation


title: Phillips curve

text: rates. These in turn encourage lower inflationary expectations, so that inflation itself drops again.


title: Phillips curve

text: This logic goes further if λ is equal to unity, i.e., if workers are able to protect their wages "completely" from expected inflation, even in the short run. Now, the Triangle Model equation becomes:


title: Phillips curve

text: If we further assume (as seems reasonable) that there are no long-term supply shocks, this can be simplified to become:


title: Phillips curve

text: All of the assumptions imply that in the long run, there is only one possible unemployment rate, U* at any one time. This uniqueness explains why some call this unemployment rate "natural."


title: Phillips curve

text: To truly understand and criticize the uniqueness of U*, a more sophisticated and realistic model is needed. For example, we might introduce the idea that workers in different sectors push for money wage increases that are similar to those in other sectors. Or we might make the model even more realistic. One important place to look is at the determination of the mark-up, M.


title: Phillips curve

text: The Phillips curve equation can be derived from the (short-run) Lucas aggregate supply function. The Lucas approach is very different from that of the traditional view. Instead of starting with empirical data, he started with a classical economic model following very simple economic principles.


title: Phillips curve

text: where Y is log value of the actual output, formula_4 is log value of the "natural" level of output, formula_5 is a positive constant, formula_6 is log value of the actual price level, and formula_7 is log value of the expected price level. Lucas assumes that formula_4 has a unique value.


title: Phillips curve

text: Note that this equation indicates that when expectations of future inflation (or, more correctly, the future price level) are "totally accurate", the last term drops out, so that actual output equals the so-called "natural" level of real GDP. This means that in the Lucas aggregate supply curve, the "only" reason why actual real GDP should deviate from potential—and the actual unemployment rate should deviate from the "natural" rate—is because of "incorrect expectations" of what is going to happen with prices in the future. (The idea has been expressed first by Keynes, "General Theory", Chapter 20 section III paragraph 4).


title: Phillips curve

text: This differs from other views of the Phillips curve, in which the failure to attain the "natural" level of output can be due to the imperfection or incompleteness of markets, the stickiness of prices, and the like. In the non-Lucas view, incorrect expectations can contribute to aggregate demand failure, but they are not the only cause. To the "new Classical" followers of Lucas, markets are presumed to be perfect and always attain equilibrium (given inflationary expectations).


title: Phillips curve

text: There is also a negative relationship between output and unemployment (as expressed by Okun's law). Therefore, using


title: Phillips curve

text: where formula_18 is a positive constant, formula_19 is unemployment, and formula_20 is the natural rate of unemployment or NAIRU, we arrive at the final form of the short-run Phillips curve:


title: Phillips curve

text: This equation, plotting inflation rate formula_15 against unemployment formula_19 gives the downward-sloping curve in the diagram that characterizes the Phillips curve.


title: Phillips curve

text: The New Keynesian Phillips curve was originally derived by Roberts in 1995, and since been used in most state-of-the-art New Keynesian DSGE models like the one of Clarida, Galí, and Gertler (2000).


title: Phillips curve

text: In the 1970s, new theories, such as rational expectations and the NAIRU (non-accelerating inflation rate of unemployment) arose to explain how stagflation could occur. The latter theory, also known as the "natural rate of unemployment", distinguished between the "short-term" Phillips curve and the "long-term" one. The short-term Phillips Curve looked like a normal Phillips Curve but shifted in the long run as expectations changed. In the long run, only a single rate of unemployment (the NAIRU or "natural" rate) was consistent with a stable inflation rate. The long-run Phillips Curve was thus vertical, so there was no trade-off between inflation and unemployment. Milton Friedman in 1976 and Edmund Phelps in 2006 won the Nobel Prize in Economics in part for this work.


title: Phillips curve

text: However, the expectations argument was in fact very widely understood (albeit not formally) before Friedman's and Phelps's work on it.


title: Phillips curve

text: In the diagram, the long-run Phillips curve is the vertical red line. The NAIRU theory says that when unemployment is at the rate defined by this line, inflation will be stable. However, in the short-run policymakers will face an inflation-unemployment rate trade-off marked by the "Initial Short-Run Phillips Curve" in the graph. Policymakers can, therefore, reduce the unemployment rate temporarily, moving from point A to point B through expansionary policy. However, according to the NAIRU, exploiting this short-run trade-off will raise inflation expectations, shifting the short-run curve rightward to the "new short-run Phillips curve" and moving the point of equilibrium from B to C. Thus the reduction in unemployment below the "Natural Rate" will be temporary, and lead only to higher inflation in the long run.


title: Phillips curve

text: Since the short-run curve shifts outward due to the attempt to reduce unemployment, the expansionary policy ultimately worsens the exploitable trade-off between unemployment and inflation. That is, it results in more inflation at each short-run unemployment rate. The name "NAIRU" arises because with actual unemployment below it, inflation accelerates, while with unemployment above it, inflation decelerates. With the actual rate equal to it, inflation is stable, neither accelerating nor decelerating. One practical use of this model was to explain stagflation, which confounded the traditional Phillips curve.


title: Phillips curve

text: The rational expectations theory said that expectations of inflation were equal to what actually happened, with some minor and temporary errors. This, in turn, suggested that the short-run period was so short that it was non-existent: any effort to reduce unemployment below the NAIRU, for example, would "immediately" cause inflationary expectations to rise and thus imply that the policy would fail. Unemployment would never deviate from the NAIRU except due to random and transitory mistakes in developing expectations about future inflation rates. In this perspective, any deviation of the actual unemployment rate from the NAIRU was an illusion.


title: Phillips curve

text: However, in the 1990s in the U.S., it became increasingly clear that the NAIRU did not have a unique equilibrium and could change in unpredictable ways. In the late 1990s, the actual unemployment rate fell below 4% of the labor force, much lower than almost all estimates of the NAIRU. But inflation stayed very moderate rather than accelerating. So, just as the Phillips curve had become a subject of debate, so did the NAIRU.


title: Phillips curve

text: Furthermore, the concept of rational expectations had become subject to much doubt when it became clear that the main assumption of models based on it was that there exists a single (unique) equilibrium in the economy that is set ahead of time, determined independently of demand conditions. The experience of the 1990s suggests that this assumption cannot be sustained.


title: Phillips curve

text: The Phillips curve started as an empirical observation in search of a theoretical explanation. Specifically, the Phillips curve tried to determine whether the inflation-unemployment link was causal or simply correlational. There are several major explanations of the short-term Phillips curve regularity.


title: Phillips curve

text: To Milton Friedman there is a short-term correlation between inflation shocks and employment. When an inflationary surprise occurs, workers are fooled into accepting lower pay because they do not see the fall in real wages right away. Firms hire them because they see the inflation as allowing higher profits for given nominal wages. This is a movement along the Phillips curve as with change A. Eventually, workers discover that real wages have fallen, so they push for higher money wages. This causes the Phillips curve to shift upward and to the right, as with B. Some research underlines that some implicit and serious assumptions are actually in the background of the Friedmanian Phillips curve. This information asymmetry and a special pattern of flexibility of prices and wages are both necessary if one wants to maintain the mechanism told by Friedman. However, as it is argued, these presumptions remain completely unrevealed and theoretically ungrounded by Friedman.


title: Phillips curve

text: Economists such as Edmund Phelps reject this theory because it implies that workers suffer from money illusion. According to them, rational workers would only react to real wages, that is, inflation adjusted wages. However, one of the characteristics of a modern industrial economy is that workers do not encounter their employers in an atomized and perfect market. They operate in a complex combination of imperfect markets, monopolies, monopsonies, labor unions, and other institutions. In many cases, they may lack the bargaining power to "act on" their expectations, no matter how rational they are, or their perceptions, no matter how free of money illusion they are. It is not that high inflation "causes" low unemployment (as in Milton Friedman's theory) as much as "vice versa": Low unemployment raises worker bargaining power, allowing them to successfully push for higher nominal wages. To protect profits, employers raise prices.


title: Phillips curve

text: Similarly, built-in inflation is not simply a matter of subjective "inflationary expectations" but also reflects the fact that high inflation can gather momentum and continue beyond the time when it was started, due to the objective price/wage spiral.


title: Phillips curve

text: However, other economists, like Jeffrey Herbener, argue that price is market-determined and competitive firms cannot simply raise prices. They reject the Phillips curve entirely, concluding that unemployment's influence is only a small portion of a much larger inflation picture that includes prices of raw materials, intermediate goods, cost of raising capital, worker productivity, land, and other factors.


title: Phillips curve

text: Robert J. Gordon of Northwestern University has analyzed the Phillips curve to produce what he calls the triangle model, in which the actual inflation rate is determined by the sum of


title: Phillips curve

text: The last reflects inflationary expectations and the price/wage spiral. Supply shocks and changes in built-in inflation are the main factors shifting the short-run Phillips curve and changing the trade-off. In this theory, it is not only inflationary expectations that can cause stagflation. For example, the steep climb of oil prices during the 1970s could have this result.


title: Phillips curve

text: In between these two lies the NAIRU, where the Phillips curve does not have any inherent tendency to shift, so that the inflation rate is stable. However, there seems to be a range in the middle between "high" and "low" where built-in inflation stays stable. The ends of this "non-accelerating inflation range of unemployment rates" change over time.


title: Captain Atom

text: Captain Atom is a superhero appearing in American comic books, first in the 1960s by Charlton Comics before being acquired in the 1980s by DC Comics. Captain Atom has existed in three basic incarnations.


title: Captain Atom

text: Captain Atom was created by writer Joe Gill and artist/co-writer Steve Ditko, and first appeared in "Space Adventures" #33 (March 1960). Captain Atom was initially created for Charlton Comics, but was later acquired by DC Comics and revised for DC's Post-"Crisis" continuity. In 2011, DC Comics relaunched its superhero comics and rewrote the histories of some characters from scratch, including Captain Atom, giving him a new origin, appearance and slightly altered powers. Captain Atom was the character inspiration for Doctor Manhattan, who was featured in the miniseries (and later live-action film adaptation) "Watchmen", which would be connected to the DC Universe in the miniseries "Doomsday Clock".


title: Captain Atom

text: Throughout the years, the character has been featured in several moderate-to-short-lived eponymous series, and has been a member of several different versions of DC's flagship superhero team, the Justice League. In all incarnations, the character initially served for the military. In the Charlton Comics continuity, he was a scientist named Allen Adam and gained his abilities by accident when he was seemingly "atomized" and then his body reformed, now existing as an atomic-powered being. In both DC Comics incarnations, he is an Air Force pilot named Nathaniel Adam, who was a test subject in a scientific experiment who seemingly disintegrated in the process, only to reappear later as the super-powered Captain Atom. Over the years, DC has attempted to reinvent the character several times. For a period, the character assumed the mantle of the supervillain Monarch, and in 2005 DC attempted to retell the Captain Atom story with an entirely new character, Breach, who was subsequently discarded. In the new continuity following DC's 2011 relaunch, Captain Atom has never been a member of the Justice League and the team views him with distrust; his character origin and abilities were also revised.


title: Captain Atom

text: Captain Atom has appeared in several animated television and film adaptations of Justice League and other DC storylines since the mid-2000s, where he is depicted as a powerful member of the Justice League whose abilities place him roughly on par with the franchise's flagship character Superman. In several animated depictions, he has served the role as a government stooge when the government has brought itself into conflict with the Justice League.


title: Captain Atom

text: The Charlton Comics version of Captain Atom was Allen Adam. The character's origin had Adam working as a technician in a special experimental rocket when it accidentally launched with him trapped inside. Adam was atomized when the rocket exploded while entering the upper atmosphere. However, he somehow gained superpowers that included the ability to reform his body safely on the ground. He was outfitted in a red and yellow costume that was designed to shield people from the radiation of his nuclear powers. When he powered up, his hair changed to a silvery-white.


title: Captain Atom

text: Later, in his own title, he replaced his original red and gold costume with a liquid-metal outfit that was under his skin and which transformed when he powered up. Captain Atom's powers were similar to such other nuclear-powered superheroes as Gold Key's Doctor Solar and Dell Comics' Nukla. Captain Atom was first published in a series of short stories in the anthology series "Space Adventures" #33–40 (March 1960 – June 1961) and #42 (October 1961). Charlton began reprinting his short adventures in the anthology "Strange Suspense Stories" beginning with issue #75 (June 1965), renaming the title "Captain Atom" with issue #78 (December 1965) and giving the hero full-length stories and supervillain antagonists such as Dr. Spectro (previous stories involved Cold War anti-Communist missions or dealing with aliens). Captain Atom later teamed with the superhero Nightshade, with whom he shared a mutual attraction. The superhero the Blue Beetle starred in the initial back-up feature, later replaced by a Nightshade back-up series.


title: Captain Atom

text: "Captain Atom" was cancelled with issue #89 (December 1967). In 1975, the unfinished Ditko art for issue #90 was inked by John Byrne and published in the first two issues of the official Charlton fanzine, "Charlton Bullseye", as the 10-page "Showdown in Sunuria" (writer: Jon G. Michels) and the 11-page "Two Against Sunuria" (writer: Roger Stern). Captain Atom next appeared in issue #7 (May 1982) of the new-talent showcase comic also called "Charlton Bullseye", in a story by writer Benjamin Smith and artist/co-writer Dan Reed, which for some reason returned him to his original red and yellow outfit. The character's last pre-DC appearance was in AC Comics' one-shot issue "Americomics Special" #1 (August 1983), in a story teaming the Charlton "Action Heroes" the Blue Beetle, Captain Atom, Nightshade and the Question as the Sentinels of Justice. This last story had originally been done for Charlton before the company folded.


title: Captain Atom

text: The actual Charlton characters made their first reappearance in DC's "Crisis on Infinite Earths", which introduced Earth-Four as the native reality of Captain Atom and the world where all the Charlton Comics adventures had taken place. By story's end, Earth-Four (and the Charlton characters) had been incorporated into the Post-"Crisis" DC Universe, its history merging with that of the mainstream reality. The last appearance of this Charlton-era Captain Atom was in "DC Comics Presents" #90 (February 1986).


title: Captain Atom

text: A new Post-"Crisis" version of the character was introduced in March 1987 with the launch of a monthly comic written by Cary Bates (long-time writer of "The Flash" and "Superman"), co-written by Greg Weisman and drawn by Pat Broderick.