title: CIELAB color space

text: The CIELAB coordinate space represents the entire gamut of human photopic (daylight) vision and far exceeds the gamut for sRGB or CMYK. In an integer implementation such as TIFF, ICC or Photoshop, the large coordinate space results in substantial data inefficiency due to unused code values. Only about 35% of the available coordinate code values are inside the CIELAB gamut with an integer format.


title: CIELAB color space

text: Using CIELAB in an 8-bit per channel integer format typically results in significant quantization errors. Even 16-bit per channel can result in clipping, as the full gamut extends past the bounding coordinate space. Ideally, CIELAB should be used with floating-point data to minimize obvious quantization errors.


title: CIELAB color space

text: CIE standards and documents are copyright by the CIE and must be purchased; however, the formulas for CIELAB are available on the CIE website.


title: CIELAB color space

text: The three coordinates of CIELAB represent the lightness of the color ("L*" = 0 yields black and "L*" = 100 indicates diffuse white; specular white may be higher), its position between red and green ("a*", where negative values indicate green and positive values indicate red) and its position between yellow and blue ("b*", where negative values indicate blue and positive values indicate yellow). The asterisks (*) after "L*", "a*," and "b*" are pronounced "star" and are part of the full name to distinguish "L"*"a"*"b"* from Hunter's "Lab", described below.


title: CIELAB color space

text: Since the "L*a*b*" model has three axes, it requires a three-dimensional space to be represented completely. Also, because each axis is non-linear, it is not possible to create a two-dimensional chromaticity diagram. Also, it is important to understand that the visual representations shown in the plots of the full CIELAB gamut on this page are an approximation, as it is impossible for a monitor to display the full gamut of LAB colors.


title: CIELAB color space

text: The red-green and yellow-blue opponent channels relate to the human vision system's opponent color process. This makes CIELAB a Hering opponent color space. The nature of the transformations also characterizes it as an chromatic value color space.


title: CIELAB color space

text: A related color space, the CIE 1976 "L"*"u"*"v"* color space (a.k.a. CIELUV), preserves the same "L*" as "L*a*b*" but has a different representation of the chromaticity components. CIELAB and CIELUV can also be expressed in cylindrical form (CIELCh and CIELCh, respectively), with the chromaticity components replaced by correlates of chroma and hue.


title: CIELAB color space

text: Since the work on CIELAB and CIELUV, the CIE has been incorporating an increasing number of color appearance phenomena into their models and difference equations to better predict human color perception. These color appearance models, of which CIELAB is a simple example, culminated with CIECAM02.


title: CIELAB color space

text: The nonlinear relations for "L*", "a*" and "b*" are intended to mimic the nonlinear response of the visual system. Furthermore, uniform changes of components in the "L*a*b*" color space aim to correspond to uniform changes in perceived color, so the relative perceptual differences between any two colors in "L*a*b*" can be approximated by treating each color as a point in a three-dimensional space (with three components: "L*", "a*", "b*") and taking the Euclidean distance between them.


title: CIELAB color space

text: In order to convert RGB or CMYK values to or from "L*a*b*", the RGB or CMYK data must be linearized relative to light. The reference illuminant of the RGB or CMYK data must be known, as well as the RGB primary coordinates or the CMYK printer's reference data in the form of a color lookup table (CLUT).


title: CIELAB color space

text: In color managed systems, ICC profiles contain these needed data, which are then used to perform the conversions.


title: CIELAB color space

text: As mentioned previously, the "L"* coordinate nominally ranges from 0 to 100. The range of "a"* and "b"* coordinates is technically unbounded, though it is commonly clamped to the range of −128 to 127 for use with integer code values, though this results in potentially clipping some colors depending on the size of the source colorspace. The gamut's large size and inefficient utilization of the coordinate space means the best practice is to use floating-point values for all three coordinates.


title: CIELAB color space

text: "X, Y, Z" describe the color stimulus considered and "X", "Y", "Z" describe a specified white achromatic reference illuminant. for the CIE 1931 (2°) standard colorimetric observer and assuming normalization where , the values are:


title: CIELAB color space

text: The division of the domain of the function into two parts was done to prevent an infinite slope at . The function was assumed to be linear below some and was assumed to match the part of the function at "t" in both value and slope. In other words:


title: CIELAB color space

text: The "CIELCh" or "CIEHLC" space is a color space based on CIELAB, which uses the polar coordinates "C"* (chroma, relative saturation) and "h"° (hue angle, angle of the hue in the CIELAB color wheel) instead of the Cartesian coordinates "a"* and "b"*. The CIELAB lightness L* remains unchanged.


title: CIELAB color space

text: where "Y" is the "Y" tristimulus value of a specified white object. For surface-color applications, the specified white object is usually (though not always) a hypothetical material with unit reflectance that follows Lambert's law. The resulting "L" will be scaled between 0 (black) and 100 (white); roughly ten times the Munsell value. Note that a medium lightness of 50 is produced by a luminance of 25, due to the square root proportionality.


title: CIELAB color space

text: "a" and "b" are termed opponent color axes. "a" represents, roughly, Redness (positive) versus Greenness (negative). It is computed as:


title: CIELAB color space

text: where "K" is a coefficient that depends upon the illuminant (for D65, "K" is 172.30; see approximate formula below) and "X" is the "X" tristimulus value of the specified white object.


title: CIELAB color space

text: The other opponent color axis, "b", is positive for yellow colors and negative for blue colors. It is computed as:


title: CIELAB color space

text: where "K" is a coefficient that depends upon the illuminant (for D65, "K" is 67.20; see approximate formula below) and "Z" is the "Z" tristimulus value of the specified white object.


title: CIELAB color space

text: Both "a" and "b" will be zero for objects that have the same chromaticity coordinates as the specified white objects (i.e., achromatic, grey, objects).


title: CIELAB color space

text: In the previous version of the Hunter "Lab" color space, "K" was 175 and "K" was 70. Hunter Associates Lab discovered that better agreement could be obtained with other color difference metrics, such as CIELAB (see above) by allowing these coefficients to depend upon the illuminants. Approximate formulae are:


title: CIELAB color space

text: which result in the original values for Illuminant "C", the original illuminant with which the "Lab" color space was used.


title: CIELAB color space

text: Adams chromatic valence color spaces are based on two elements: a (relatively) uniform lightness scale and a (relatively) uniform chromaticity scale. If we take as the uniform lightness scale Priest's approximation to the Munsell Value scale, which would be written in modern notation as:


title: CIELAB color space

text: which is identical to the Hunter "Lab" formulas given above if we select and . Therefore, the Hunter Lab color space is an Adams chromatic valence color space.


title: Oxycodone/paracetamol

text: Oxycodone/paracetamol, sold under the brand name Percocet among others, is a fixed-dose combination of the opioid oxycodone with paracetamol (acetaminophen), used to treat moderate to severe pain.


title: Oxycodone/paracetamol

text: In 2020, it was the 69th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 10million prescriptions.


title: Oxycodone/paracetamol

text: The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) first approved Percocet in 1976, under application ANDA 085106.


title: Oxycodone/paracetamol

text: In June 2009, an FDA advisory panel recommended that Percocet, Vicodin, and every other combination of acetaminophen with narcotic analgesics be limited in their sales because of their contributions to an alleged 400 acetaminophen-related deaths in the U.S. each year, that were attributed to acetaminophen overdose and associated liver damage.


title: Oxycodone/paracetamol

text: In December 2009, the "Canadian Medical Association Journal" reported a study finding a fivefold increase in oxycodone-related deaths in Ontario (mostly accidental) between 1991 and 2007 that led to a doubling of all opioid-related deaths in Ontario over the same period.


title: Oxycodone/paracetamol

text: <poem>As we have all seen, opioids are a prime contributor to our addiction and overdose crisis. In 2015, nearly two-thirds of drug overdoses were linked to opioids like Percocet, OxyContin, heroin, and fentanyl. [...] Americans consume more opioids than any other country in the world. In fact, in 2015, the amount of opioids prescribed in the U.S. was enough for every American to be medicated around the clock for three weeks.


title: Oxycodone/paracetamol

text: Since 1999, the number of opioid overdoses in America have quadrupled according to the CDC. Not coincidentally, in that same period, the amount of prescription opioids in America have quadrupled as well. This massive increase in prescribing has occurred despite the fact that there has not been an overall change in the amount of pain Americans have reported in that time period. We have an enormous problem that is often not beginning on street corners; it is starting in doctor's offices and hospitals in every state in our nation. [...]


title: Oxycodone/paracetamol

text: In 2016, specific states witnessed an escalating number of overdose deaths due to heroin and/or fentanyl(s), in some states vastly exceeding deaths due to prescription opioids.


title: Oxycodone/paracetamol

text: In 2015, 27 million people reported current use of illegal drugs or abuse of prescription drugs. Despite this self-reporting, only 10 percent of the nearly 21 million citizens with a substance use disorder (SUD) receive any type of specialty treatment according to the most recent National Survey on Drug Use and Health. This is contributing greatly to the increase of deaths from overdose.</poem>


title: Elisabeth of Valois

text: Elisabeth of France or Elisabeth of Valois (; ) (2 April 1545 – 3 October 1568) was Queen of Spain as the third spouse of Philip II of Spain. She was the eldest daughter of Henry II of France and Catherine de' Medici.


title: Elisabeth of Valois

text: Elisabeth was born in the Château de Fontainebleau. She was raised under the supervision of the governor and governess of the royal children, Jean d'Humières and Françoise d'Humières.


title: Elisabeth of Valois

text: Elisabeth's childhood was spent in the French royal nursery, where her father insisted she share her bedroom with her future sister-in-law, Mary, Queen of Scots, who was about three years older. Although Elisabeth had to give precedence to Mary (since Mary was already a crowned queen), the two would remain close friends for the rest of their lives.


title: Elisabeth of Valois

text: Her lady-in-waiting, Claude de Vineulx, accompanied her to Spain and often wrote reports of Elisabeth's health to Catherine. She was described as being shy, timid and very much in awe of her formidable mother, even as there is evidence in letters that Catherine was tender and loving towards her. While it is acknowledged that her sister Margaret and her future sister-in-law Mary were both prettier than she, Elisabeth was nevertheless still considered one of Catherine's attractive daughters.


title: Elisabeth of Valois

text: In 1550, Elisabeth's father, Henry, began negotiations for her marriage to Edward VI of England. This arrangement brought condemnation from Pope Julius III who reportedly stated that he would excommunicate both if they married. Henry, undeterred, agreed to a dowry of 200,000 ecus, which became irrelevant upon Edward's death in 1553.


title: Elisabeth of Valois

text: Elisabeth married Philip II of Spain in 1559. Originally married via proxy at Notre Dame (with the Duke of Alba standing in for Philip) prior to leaving France, the actual ceremony took place in Guadalajara, Spain, upon her arrival. The marriage was a result of the Peace of Cateau Cambrésis (1559). His second wife, Mary I of England, had recently died, making Elisabeth of Valois Philip's third wife.


title: Elisabeth of Valois

text: At her wedding she met the painter Sofonisba Anguissola, and Ana de Mendoza, who would live with her the rest of her life. Philip II appointed Anguissola to be a lady-in-waiting and court painter for his queen. Under Anguissola's tutelage, Elisabeth improved her amateur painting skills. Anguissola also influenced the artistic works of her children, Isabella Clara Eugenia and Caterina Michaela, during her time at the court.


title: Elisabeth of Valois

text: Philip was completely enchanted by his 14-year-old bride, and by 1564 had given up his infidelities. Despite the significant age difference, Elisabeth was also quite pleased with her husband. (In letters to her mother, she proclaimed herself to be fortunate to have married so charming a prince.) Philip enjoyed hosting chivalric tournaments to entertain his wife. Elisabeth would play liege lady to the three young princes of the Spanish Court: Carlos, Prince of Asturias, John of Austria (illegitimate son of Charles V), and Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma (son of Charles V's illegitimate daughter Margaret).


title: Elisabeth of Valois

text: Elisabeth had originally been betrothed to Philip's son, Carlos, Prince of Asturias, but political complications unexpectedly necessitated instead a marriage to Philip. Her relationship with her troubled stepson Carlos was warm and friendly. Despite reports of his progressively bizarre behavior, Carlos was always kind and gentle to Elisabeth. When it eventually became necessary for Philip to lock him away (which shortly led to the Prince's demise), Elisabeth cried for days.


title: Elisabeth of Valois

text: Philip was very attached to Elisabeth, staying close by her side even when she was ill with smallpox. Elisabeth's first pregnancy in 1560 resulted in a stillborn son, followed in 1564 with a miscarriage of twin girls. She later gave birth to Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia of Spain on 12 August 1566, and then to Isabella's younger sister Catherine Michelle of Spain on 10 October 1567. Phillip and Elisabeth were very close to both of their daughters buying them jams, dolls, toys and more. It is said "both rejoiced at the birth of Isabella as if it had been the birth of a son". Elisabeth had another miscarriage on 3 October 1568, and died the same day, along with her newborn infant daughter.


title: Elisabeth of Valois

text: After the death of Elisabeth, Catherine de' Medici offered her younger daughter Margaret as a bride for Philip. Philip declined the offer.


title: Elisabeth of Valois

text: Elisabeth of Valois is a central character in Thomas Otway's play "Don Carlos, Prince of Spain"; in Schiller's play of the same name; in Verdi's opera adapted from Schiller's play, also titled "Don Carlos"; and in several other, less well-known operas. Antonio Buzzolla's version of 1850 is actually named "Elisabetta di Valois". All these works imply a tragic romance between Elisabeth and Carlos, suggesting that they were really in love with each other when Elisabeth was forced to break off her engagement to Carlos and marry his father Philip.


title: Elisabeth of Valois

text: In Madame de Lafayette's novella "The Princesse de Cleves", Elisabeth of Valois' marriage to Philip II is the occasion for the wedding games at which her father Henri II dies; her role is brief but it substantially affects the novella's narrative arc.


title: Elisabeth of Valois

text: Elisabeth of Valois is portrayed by Caoimhe O'Malley (in the pilot) on the CW show, Reign, then later by Anastasia Phillips in the fourth season of the show. Rather than the “plain Jane” of her family the character is portrayed as beautiful and her timid and shy personality is changed to that of one more forceful, cold, insensitive and quite controlling which is driven out of her legitimate desire for her mother's affections. Her name "Elisabeth" is spelled with an S instead of a Z though in the fourth season she is simply called "Leeza" as not to be confused with Queen Elizabeth I. In the first episode, Leeza is married to King Philip of Spain, leaves for Spain with her husband without speaking any lines, and isn't physically seen until fourth season of the show. Though not seen until the fourth season, she is mentioned as a possible option for god-mother to her King Francis' (her brother's) son John in the second season. In the third season, her kingdom is chosen as a safe haven for her younger sisters and brothers after a group calling themselves "The Red Knights" threaten revenge on the Valois family. Making her physical return to the show, she is one of the four Queens (Queen Mary, Queen Elizabeth I and her mother, regent Queen Catherine) to be featured during the season. During her appearance, she spends time in French court as an envoy of Spain and voice of her husband's wishes as well rival for her mother.


title: Elisabeth of Valois

text: Elisabeth of Valois is a major character in "The Creation of Eve", a novel by Lynn Cullen based on the history of Sofonisba Anguissola, the first renowned female artist of the Italian Renaissance. In the novel, Sofonisba is the painting tutor and premier lady-in-waiting for young Queen Elisabeth.


title: Adamantium

text: Adamantium is a fictional metal alloy appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics and in various games in the Elder Scrolls franchise. It is best known as the substance bonded to the character Wolverine's skeleton and claws. In the Elder Scrolls it is depicted as a durable and rare metal that varies in weight class from game to game.


title: Adamantium

text: Adamantium was created by writer Roy Thomas and artists Barry Windsor-Smith and Syd Shores in Marvel Comics' "The Avengers" #66 (July 1969), which presents the substance as part of the character Ultron's outer shell. In the stories where it appears, the defining quality of adamantium is its practical indestructibility.


title: Adamantium

text: The word is a pseudo-Latin neologism (real Latin: "adamans", from original Greek "ἀδάμας" [=indomitable]; "adamantem" [Latin accusative]) based on the English noun and adjective "adamant" (and the derived adjective "adamantine") added to the neo-Latin suffix "-ium." The adjective "adamant" has long been used to refer to the property of impregnable, diamond-like hardness, or to describe a very firm/resolute position (e.g. "He adamantly refused to leave"). The noun "adamant" describes any impenetrably or unyieldingly hard substance and, formerly, a legendary stone/rock or mineral of impenetrable hardness and with many other properties, often identified with diamond or lodestone. "Adamant" and the literary form "adamantine" occur in works such as "The Faerie Queene", "Paradise Lost", "Gulliver's Travels", "The Adventures of Tom Sawyer", "The Lord of the Rings", and the film "Forbidden Planet" (as "adamantine steel").


title: Adamantium

text: In 1912, The Metallurgo Syndicate, Ltd., of Balfour House, used "Adamantium" (with a capital 'A') as a product brand when they exhibited ""two of their specialities in the shape of Adamantium bronze—a high-class non-corrosive, anti-friction metal...""


title: Adamantium

text: The term "adamantium" occurs in the 1941 short story "Devil's Powder" by Malcolm Jameson:"It was a bullet. It was a small slug of "adamantium", the toughest and hardest of all metals..."All these uses predate the use of "adamantium" in Marvel's comics.


title: Adamantium

text: According to the comic books, the components of the alloy are kept in separate batches—typically in blocks of resin—before molding. Adamantium is prepared by melting the blocks together, mixing the components while the resin evaporates. The alloy must then be cast within eight minutes. Marvel Comics' adamantium has an extremely stable molecular structure that prevents it from being further molded even if the temperature is high enough to keep it in its liquefied form. In its solid form, it is described as a dark, shiny gray, like high-grade steel or titanium. It is almost impossible to destroy or fracture in this state, and when molded to a sharp edge, it can penetrate most lesser materials with minimal force.


title: Adamantium

text: The Marvel Comics character Wolverine discovers an adamantium-laced skull in the character Apocalypse's laboratory and says it seems to have been there for eons.


title: Adamantium

text: Adamantium appears in various Marvel Comics publications and licensed products, where it is found in:


title: Adamantium

text: Marvel’s comic books introduced a variant of "true" adamantium, “secondary adamantium”, to explain why, in certain stories, adamantium was shown to be damaged by sufficiently powerful conventional forces. Its resilience is described as far below that of “true“ adamantium.


title: Adamantium

text: Appearances of secondary adamantium in Marvel comic books include the casing of the supercomputer F.A.U.S.T., a suit constructed by F.A.U.S.T. and Blastaar for Stilt-Man, a retractable protective dome around Exile Island, and an army of Ultron duplicates.


title: Adamantium

text: In stories published under the Marvel Comics Ultimate Marvel imprint, adamantium is highly durable and can shield a person's mind from telepathic probing or attacks. It is a component of the claws and skeleton of Ultimate Wolverine and of the Ultimate Lady Deathstrike character. This version of adamantium is not unbreakable. In "Ultimates" #5, the Hulk breaks a needle made of adamantium. In "Ultimate X-Men" #11 (December 2001), an adamantium cage is damaged by a bomb. In "Ultimate X-Men" #12 (January 2002), one of Sabretooth's four adamantium claws is broken.


title: Adamantium

text: Scientist David Evans argued that as adamantium "is considered to be a very dense and indestructible metal" the most suitable real material to model it would be "[o]smium, the densest known metallic element".


title: Mitsubishi X-2 Shinshin

text: The Mitsubishi X-2 Shinshin (, formerly the ATD-X) is a Japanese experimental aircraft for testing advanced stealth fighter aircraft technologies. It is being developed by the Japanese Ministry of Defense Technical Research and Development Institute (TRDI) for research purposes. The main contractor of the project is Mitsubishi Heavy Industries. Many consider this aircraft to be Japan's first domestically made stealth fighter. ATD-X is an abbreviation for "Advanced Technology Demonstrator – X". The aircraft is widely known in Japan as although the name itself is an early code name within the Japan Self-Defense Forces and is not officially in use. The aircraft's first flight was on 22 April 2016.


title: Mitsubishi X-2 Shinshin

text: The success of this development test prototype has led to the start-up of the Mitsubishi F-X sixth-generation fighter program.


title: Mitsubishi X-2 Shinshin

text: At the beginning of the twenty-first century, Japan, seeking to replace its aging fleet of fighter aircraft, began making overtures to the United States on the topic of purchasing several Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor fighters. However the U.S. Congress had banned the exporting of the aircraft in order to safeguard secrets of the aircraft's technology such as its extensive use of stealth; this rejection necessitated Japan to develop its own modern fighter, to be equipped with stealth features and other advanced systems.


title: Mitsubishi X-2 Shinshin

text: A radio-controlled 1/5 scale model made its first flight in 2006 to gain data on performance at high angles of attack and to test new sensory equipment and self-repairing flight control systems.


title: Mitsubishi X-2 Shinshin

text: Following these preliminary steps, the decision was taken in 2007 to push ahead with the multi billion-yen project. At the time of this decision, production was forecast to start roughly 10 years later, around 2017. In 2007, the ATD-X was expected to conduct its maiden flight in 2014. In 2011, the maiden flight was projected to take place in 2014 or 2015.


title: Mitsubishi X-2 Shinshin

text: The 40 billion yen construction project in the Mitsubishi's Komaki South Plant began in 2009 under the supervision of the Acquisition, Technology & Logistics Agency (ATLA) of the Defense Ministry. In July 2014, the TRDI (Technical Research & Development Institute) released the first official photos of the ATD-X prototype, and stated that the aircraft was undergoing ground testing. The fighter prototype was expected to be fully developed by 2018. The ATD-X program will then lead to the Mitsubishi F-3, which should carry sixth-generation technology, and is expected to be produced in 2027.


title: Mitsubishi X-2 Shinshin

text: The ATD-X prototype was officially unveiled on 29 January 2016. The aircraft's first flight was expected the following month; it carried the X-2 official military designation at the unveiling.


title: Mitsubishi X-2 Shinshin

text: The X-2 made its maiden flight on 22 April 2016 taking off from Nagoya Airfield and landing at the JASDF's Gifu Air Field after a 26-minute flight. The unusually prolonged period between structural completion and first flight has not been fully explained. The Jiji News Agency reported that the X-2 has a take-off weight of ; Japanese media reported its weight as , heavy for a demonstrator of these dimensions span and long.


title: Mitsubishi X-2 Shinshin

text: In late-November 2017, ATLA announced that the X-2's testing will be concluded in March 2018. Of the time of the reporting the X-2 has completed 34 sorties out of the original 50 planned flights.


title: Mitsubishi X-2 Shinshin

text: By July 2018, Japan had gleaned sufficient information from flight tests for a determination, and decided that it would need to bring on-board international partners to complete this project. Several companies have responded. Lockheed Martin is reportedly offering an updated version of the F-22 Raptor. British based BAE Systems also entered talks about which little is yet reported. Third to enter the competition was Northrop Grumman and there is speculation that it will offer a modernized version of the YF-23 to Japan.


title: Mitsubishi X-2 Shinshin

text: The X-2's development and maiden flight allowed Japan to become the fourth nation in the world to develop and test-fly their own stealth jet (after the United States, Russia and China), revitalize Japan's defense and aerospace industry, and stay competitive with regional powers China and South Korea that are also developing their own stealth fighter. Prior to the X-2 and the 2014 easing of arms export Japan's defense industry stagnated because of the arms export ban prevented Japan from exporting weapons or participate in any joint development with another country, with the exception being the United States. This in turn slows the growth of Japan's defense industry and similarly effects the aerospace industry as the lack of military aircraft development means that procurement of certain aircraft are sought elsewhere from foreign defense contractors. The X-2 is thus seen with potential to reinvigorate Japan's aerospace and defense industry. According to Hideaki Watanabe, head of the Acquisition, Technology & Logistics Agency (ATLA), the X-2 can be used to give Japan more bargaining power in future joint development projects because of its technological advancement. There is also potential that technologies developed from the X-2 can be transferred and used for civilian applications as the Mitsubishi F-2 has done prior. The F-2 (although its development is controversial) introduced the first usage of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) and AESA radar on a fighter aircraft. CFRP material would later be used for the Boeing 787 Dreamliner and while the AESA radar technology would help produce electronic toll collection system.


title: Mitsubishi X-2 Shinshin

text: The X-2 will be used as a technology demonstrator and research prototype to determine whether domestic advanced technologies for a fifth generation fighter aircraft are viable. The aircraft features 3-D thrust vectoring capability. Thrust is controlled in the ATD-X by three paddles on each engine nozzle similar to the system used on the Rockwell X-31, while an axis-symmetric thrust vectoring engine is also being developed for the full-scale production model.


title: Mitsubishi X-2 Shinshin

text: Among the planned features of the X-2 is a fly-by-optics flight control system, which by replacing traditional wires with optical fibers, allows data to be transferred faster and with immunity to electromagnetic disturbance.


title: Mitsubishi X-2 Shinshin

text: Its radar will be an active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar called the 'Multifunction RF Sensor', which is intended to have broad spectrum agility, capabilities for electronic countermeasures (ECM), electronic support measures (ESM), communications functions, and possibly even microwave weapon functions.


title: Mitsubishi X-2 Shinshin

text: A further feature will be a so-called , which will allow the aircraft to automatically detect failures or damage in its flight control surfaces, and using the remaining control surfaces, calibrate accordingly to retain controlled flight.


title: Mitsubishi X-2 Shinshin

text: To minimize its radar cross-section (RCS), the X-2's body is designed to have even surfaces and eliminate seam joints. The radiation-absorbent material (RAM) used on the body is reportedly a composite material consisting of ceramic and silicon carbide and is developed by Ube Industries, while the cockpit windshield is coated with a special tin alloy. The aircraft incorporates a serpentine shaped air intake duct to further suppress radar reflection. According to Hideaki Miwa of the Defense Ministry's procurement agency, the X-2's RCS is "no bigger than a giant beetle viewed from tens of kilometers away".


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Lancaster (, ) is a city and the county town of Lancashire, England, standing on the River Lune. Its population of 52,234 compares with one of 138,375 in the wider City of Lancaster local government district. The House of Lancaster was a branch of the English royal family. The Duchy of Lancaster still holds large estates on behalf of Charles III, who is also Duke of Lancaster. Its long history is marked by Lancaster Castle, Lancaster Priory Church, Lancaster Cathedral and the Ashton Memorial. It is the seat of Lancaster University and has a campus of the University of Cumbria. The Port of Lancaster played a big role in the city's growth, but for many years the outport of Glasson Dock has become the main shipping facility.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: The name of the city first appeared in the Domesday Book of 1086, as "Loncastre", where "Lon" refers to the River Lune and "castre" (from the Old English "cæster" and Latin "castrum" for "fort") to the Roman fort that stood on the site.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: A Roman fort was built by the end of the 1st century CE on the hill where Lancaster Castle now stands, possibly as early as the 60s CE, based on Roman coin evidence. Coin evidence also suggests that the fort was not continuously inhabited in its early years. It was rebuilt in stone about 102 CE. The fort name is known only in a shortened form; the only evidence is a Roman milestone found 4 miles outside Lancaster, with an inscription ending L MP IIII, meaning "from L – 4 miles, and that its name began with an L. The fort was perhaps named Lunium.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Roman baths were found in 1812 and can be seen near the junction of Bridge Lane and Church Street. There was presumably a bath-house with the 4th-century fort. The Roman baths incorporated a reused inscription of the Gallic Emperor Postumus, dating from 262 to 266 CE. The 3rd-century fort was garrisoned by the "ala Sebosiana" and "numerus Barcariorum Tigrisiensium".


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: The ancient "Wery Wall" was identified in 1950 as the north wall of the 4th-century fort, which was a drastic remodelling of the 3rd-century one, while retaining the same orientation. The later fort is the only example in north-west Britain of a 4th-century type, with massive curtain-wall and projecting bastions typical of the "Saxon Shore" or Wales. Extension of the technique as far north as Lancaster shows that the coast between Cumberland and North Wales was not left defenceless after the west-coast attacks and the disaster in the Carausian Revolt of 296 CE, which followed from those under Albinus in 197 CE.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: The fort at its largest extent covered . Evidence suggests that it stayed in use until the end of Roman occupation of Britain. Church Street and some of St Leonard's Gate probably mark the initial course of the Roman road up the valley to the fort at Over Burrow.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Little is known of Lancaster from the end of Roman rule to the early 5th century and the Norman Conquest of the late 11th century. Despite a lack of documentation for the period, it is thought that Lancaster remained inhabited. It lay on the fringes of the kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria and over time may have passed from one to the other. Archaeological evidence suggests there was a monastery on or near the site of today's Lancaster Priory by the 700s or 800s. The Anglo-Saxon runic "Cynibald's cross" found at the Priory in 1807 is thought to date from the late 9th century. Lancaster was probably one of several abbeys founded under Wilfrid.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: After the Norman conquest of England in 1066, Lancaster fell under the control of William I, as stated in the Domesday Book of 1086, which has the earliest known mention of Lancaster as such in any document. The founding Priory charter dated 1094 is the first known document specific to Lancaster. By this time William had passed Lancaster and its surroundings to Roger de Poitou. The document also suggests the monastery was refounded as a parish church some time before 1066.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Lancaster became a borough in 1193 under King Richard I. Its first charter, dated 12 June 1193, was from John, Count of Mortain, who later became King of England.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Lancaster Castle, partly built in the 13th century and enlarged by Elizabeth I, stands on the site of a Roman garrison. During The Great Raid of 1322, damage was done to the castle by Robert the Bruce, though it resisted the attack and was restored and strengthened by John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster, who added much of the Gateway Tower and a turret on the keep or Lungess Tower, which has been named "John o' Gaunt's Chair". In 1322 the Scots burnt the town. It was rebuilt but removed from its position on the hill to the slope and foot. Again in 1389, after the Battle of Otterburn, it was destroyed by the Scots. Lancaster Castle is known as the site of the Pendle witch trials in 1612. It was said that the court based in the castle (the Lancaster Assizes) sentenced more people to be hanged than any other in the country outside London, earning Lancaster the nickname, ""the Hanging Town"". It also figured prominently in the suppression of Catholicism during the Reformation – at least eleven Catholic priests were executed and a memorial to them as the Lancaster Martyrs stands by the city centre.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: The traditional emblem of the House of Lancaster is the Red Rose of Lancaster, similar to that of the House of York with a white rose. The names derive from emblems of the Royal Duchies of Lancaster and York in the 15th century. This erupted into a civil war over rival claims to the throne during the Wars of the Roses.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: More recently the term ""Wars of the Roses"" has been applied to rivalry in sports between teams from Lancashire and Yorkshire. It is also applied to the annual Roses Tournament between Lancaster and York universities.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Lancaster gained a first charter in 1193 as a market town and borough, but had to await city status until 1937. Many central buildings and ones along St George's Quay date from the 18th century, as the port became one of the UK's busiest and the fourth most important in the UK slave trade. Among prominent Lancaster slave-traders were Dodshon Foster, Thomas Hinde and his eponymous son. However, Lancaster's role as a major port ceased as the river began to silt up. Morecambe, Glasson Dock and Sunderland Point took over as outports for brief periods. Heysham Port has now eclipsed all those on the Lune.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Lancaster is mainly a service-oriented city. Products include animal feed, textiles, chemicals, livestock, paper, synthetic fibre, farm machinery, HGV trailers and mineral fibres. In recent years, a high-tech sector has emerged from Information Technology and Communications firms investing in the city.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: A permanent military presence was built up with the completion of Bowerham Barracks in 1880. The Phoenix Street drill hall was completed in 1894.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Lancaster was home to the European headquarters of Reebok. After merging with Adidas, Reebok moved to Bolton and Stockport in 2007.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: In May 2015 Queen Elizabeth II visited the castle for commemorations for the 750th anniversary of the creation of the Duchy of Lancaster.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: The former City and Municipal Borough of Lancaster and the Municipal Borough of Morecambe and Heysham along with other authorities merged in 1974 to form the City of Lancaster district within the shire county of Lancashire. This was given city status in the United Kingdom and Lancaster City Council is the local governing body for the district. Lancaster is an unparished area and has no separate council. It is divided into wards such as Bulk, Castle, Ellel, John O'Gaunt (named after John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster), Scotforth East, Scotforth West, Skerton East, Skerton West, and University and Scotforth Rural.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Most of the city lies in the Lancaster and Fleetwood constituency for elections of Members of Parliament to the House of Commons. The current MP for Lancaster and Fleetwood is Cat Smith of the Labour Party. The Skerton part of the city lies in the Morecambe and Lunesdale constituency represented by David Morris of the Conservative Party.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: In the late 1990s and early first decade of the 21st century, the city council was under the control of the Morecambe Bay Independents (MBIs), who campaigned for an independent Morecambe council. In 2003, their influence waned and Labour became the largest party on the council. They formed a coalition with the Liberal Democrats and Greens. At the May 2007 local elections, Labour lost ground to the Greens in Lancaster and the MBIs in Morecambe, resulting in no overall control, with all parties represented in a PR administration. The 2011 elections saw Labour emerge as the largest party. They reached a joint administrative arrangement with the Greens.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: The 2019 Lancaster City Council election results put no party in overall control. The council is run by a coalition of Labour, Green, Eco-Socialist Independent and Liberal Democrat councillors, supported by the Independent Group, with Conservatives and MBIs in opposition. The cabinet consists of 4 Labour, 4 Green, 1 Eco-Socialist, 1 Independent Group. At 10 seats, Lancaster has one of the country's largest Green Party representations.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Lancaster is Lancashire's northernmost city, three miles () inland from Morecambe Bay on the River Lune (from which comes its name), and the Lancaster Canal. It becomes hillier from the Lune Valley eastwards, with Williamson Hill in the north-west a notable peak at .


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Lancaster, Morecambe and Heysham have been identified by the Office for National Statistics as forming the Lancaster/Morecambe Built-up area, with a population of 97,150 in 2011.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: There is a small portion of green belt on the northern fringe of Lancaster, covering the area into Carnforth and helping to prevent further urban expansion towards nearby Morecambe, Hest Bank, Slyne and Bolton-le-Sands.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: The M6 motorway passes to the east of Lancaster with junctions 33 and 34 to the south and north. The A6 road, one of the main historic north–south roads in England, leads south to Preston, Chorley and Manchester and north to Carnforth, Kendal, Penrith and Carlisle. It currently runs from Luton, Bedfordshire, to Carlisle, Cumbria. In passing through Lancaster it gives access to nearby Carnforth, Kendal and Garstang. The Bay Gateway opened in 2016, linking Heysham and the M6 with a dual carriageway.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Lancaster's main bus operator is Stagecoach Cumbria & North Lancashire, with a network of services from Lancaster bus station throughout the Lancaster District and frequent services to more distant places such as Kendal, Keswick, Kirkby Lonsdale, Preston and Blackpool. There are frequent buses to Lancaster University, with the No. 1 and No. 1A services running every 10–15 minutes using double-deckers, with less frequent services 4, 41 and 42.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Other routes are covered by Kirkby Lonsdale Coach Hire, including the 582 to Kirkby Lonsdale, Settle and Skipton and the 89 to Knott End-on-Sea.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Lancaster is served by the West Coast Main Line, which runs through Lancaster railway station. The station was formerly named Lancaster Castle, to differentiate it from Lancaster Green Ayre on the Leeds–Morecambe line, which closed in 1966. There are through train services to and from London, Glasgow, Edinburgh, Birmingham, Manchester, Leeds and Barrow-in-Furness, with a local service to Morecambe.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: The long-term aim of the city council is to open a railway station serving the university and south Lancaster, although this is not feasible in the short or medium term with current levels of demand. The Caton–Morecambe section of the former North Western railway is now used as a cycle path.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Historically, the Port of Lancaster gained importance in the 18th century. In 1750 the Lancaster Port Commission was established to develop the port. However, in more recent years, shipping visits Glasson Dock, where the Port commission is now based.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: In 2005, Lancaster was one of six English towns chosen to be cycling demonstration towns to promote cycling as a means of transport.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: At Bailrigg south of the city is Lancaster University, a research university founded in the 1960s with an annual income of about £319 million, 3,000 staff and 17,415 registered students. Its business school is one of two in the country to gain a six-star research rating. Its physics department rated #1 in the United Kingdom in 2008. InfoLab21 at the university is a Centre of Excellence for Information and Communication Technologies. LEC (Lancaster Environment Centre) has over 200 staff and shares premises with the government-funded CEH. In 2017 it was rated 21st nationally for research in The Times Higher league table. For teaching, it gained the highest Gold ranking for quality in the 2017 government TEF, and in 2018 was ranked 9th for its teaching by "The Independent" and 9th by "The Guardian". "The Times" Higher placed it 137th worldwide for research and 58th worldwide for arts and humanities. Lancaster University was named International University of the Year by "The Times and The Sunday Times Good University Guide" in 2020. It has campuses in Malaysia, China and Ghana and plans one in Leipzig, Germany.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Lancaster is also home to a campus of the University of Cumbria – more centrally located on the site of the former St Martin's College – which was inaugurated in 2007. It provides undergraduate and postgraduate courses in the arts, social sciences, business, teacher training, health care and nursing.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Jamea Al Kauthar Islamic College, in the former Royal Albert Hospital building on Ashton Road, is an independent girls' school, providing education in a Muslim tradition.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Lancaster has a range of historic buildings and venues, having retained many fine examples of Georgian architecture. Lancaster Castle, the Priory Church of St. Mary and the Edwardian Ashton Memorial are among the sites of historical importance. Its many museums include Lancaster City Museum, Maritime Museum, the Cottage Museum, and Judges' Lodgings Museum.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Lancaster Friends Meeting House dating from 1708, is the longest continual Quaker meeting site in the world, with an original building built in 1677. George Fox, founder of Quakerism, was near the site several times in the 1660s and spent two years imprisoned in Lancaster Castle. The meeting house holds regular Quaker meetings and a wide range of cultural activities including adult learning, meditation, art classes, music and political meetings. The Lancaster Grand Theatre is another historic cultural venue, under its many names. It has played a major part in social and cultural life since it was built in 1782.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Lancaster is known nationally for its Arts scene. There are 600 business and organisations in the region involved directly or indirectly in arts and culture.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: In 2009 several major arts bodies based in the district formed a consortium called Lancaster Arts Partners (LAP) to champion strategic development of arts activities in Lancaster District. Notable partners include Ludus Dance, More Music, the Dukes among others. LAP curates and promotes "Lancaster First Fridays", a monthly multi-disciplinary mini-festival under its brand "Lancaster Arts City".


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Lancaster University has a public arts organisation, part of LAP, known as Lancaster Arts at Lancaster University. Its programmes include Lancaster's Nuffield Theatre, one of the largest professional studio theatres in Europe, the Peter Scott Gallery, with the most significant collection of Royal Lancastrian ceramics in Britain, and the Lancaster International Concerts Series, drawing nationally and internationally renowned classical and world-music artists.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: The gallery in the Storey Creative Industries Centre is now programmed and run by Lancaster City Council. In 2013 the previous incumbent organisation "The Storey Gallery" moved out of the building and reformed as "Storey G2". The Storey Creative Industries Centre is also home to Lancaster's Litfest, which runs an annual literature festival. In the summer months Williamson Park hosts outdoor performances, including a Dukes "Play in the Park", which over the past 26 years has attracted 460,000 people, as the UK's biggest outdoor walkabout theatre event.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Lancaster is known as the Northern City of Ale, with almost 30 pubs serving cask ale. The pubs include the "White Cross", "Three Mariners", "Borough" and "Water Witch". There are two cask ale breweries: Lancaster Brewery and a microbrewery run by the Borough. There is a local CAMRA (Campaign for Real Ale) branch at Lunesdale.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: The Lancaster Grand Theatre and the Dukes are notable venues for live performance, as are the Yorkshire House (currently closed), Jailors Barrel, The John O' Gaunt and The Bobbin. Throughout the year events are held in and around the city, such as the Lancaster Music Festival, Lancaster Jazz Festival, and Chinese New Year celebrations in the city centre.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Every November the city hosts a daylight and art festival entitled "Light Up Lancaster", which includes a prominent fireworks display.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Lancaster still has two city-centre cinemas; Vue and the Dukes playhouse. The 1930s art deco "Regal Cinema" closed in 2006. The Gregson Centre is also known for small film screenings and cultural events.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: John Henderson (c.1770-1853) painted many views of the town. One of these together with a poetical illustration (which relates to the treacherous sands of Morecambe Bay) by Letitia Elizabeth Landon was published in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1833


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Lancaster's main football team, Lancaster City, plays in the Northern Premier League Premier Division having won promotion as champions of Division One North in 2016–2017. It plays its home matches at the Giant Axe, which can take 3,500 (513 seated) and was formed in 1911 originally as Lancaster Town F.C. Lancaster City has been seven-times Lancashire FA Challenge cup winners and in 2010-11 won the Northern Premier League President's cup for a second time. Lancaster John O' Gaunt Rowing Club is the fifth-oldest surviving rowing club in the UK, outside the universities. It competes nationally at regattas and heads races run by British Rowing. The clubhouse stands next to the weir at Skerton.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: The city entertains contestants in the "Lancaster International Youth Games", a multi-sport 'Olympic' style event featuring competitors from Lancaster's twin towns: Rendsburg (Germany), Perpignan (France), Viana do Castelo (Portugal), Aalborg (Denmark), Almere (Netherlands), Lublin (Poland) and Växjö (Sweden).


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Lancaster Cricket Club is sited near the River Lune. It has two senior teams that participate in the Palace Shield. Rugby union is a popular sport in the area, with the local clubs being Vale of Lune RUFC and Lancaster CATS.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Lancaster is home to the Golf Centre, Lansil Golf Club, Forest Hills and Lancaster Golf Club. It also has a Lancaster Amateur Swimming and Waterpolo Club that competes in the north-west. It trains at Salt Ayre and at Lancaster University Sports Centre. Lancaster is home to a senior UK team. Water polo is also popular in the area.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: The local athletics track near the Salt Ayre Sports Centre is home to both Lancaster and Morecambe AC. It regularly fields athletes across disciplines including track and field, cross country, road and fell running. It competes in several local and national leagues including the Young Athletics League, the Northern Athletics League and the local Mid Lancs League (Cross-Country in Winter, and Track and Field in Summer).


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: The city's semi-professional Haffner Orchestra has a reputation for classical music. It performs in the Ashton Hall in the city centre and at Lancaster University.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: During parades and festivals it is common to see two other long standing musical groups perform, Lancaster City Brass, which is the oldest remaining brass band in the city celebrating its 75th anniversary in 2021 and Batala who recently completed 15 years of Samba Regge drumming


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Lancaster has been producing successful bands and musicians since the 1990s, notably the drummer Keith Baxter of 3 Colours Red and folk-metal band Skyclad, who also featured Lancaster guitarist Dave Pugh, and the thrash metal band D.A.M., who were all from Lancaster, recording two albums for the Noise International label, with Dave Pugh appearing on the second.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: The all-girl punk-rock band Angelica used the Lancaster Musicians' Co-operative, the main rehearsal and recording studio in the area.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: The city has also produced many other musicians, including singer and songwriter John Waite, who first became known as lead singer of The Babys and had a solo #1 hit in the US, "Missing You". As part of the band Bad English, John Waite also had a #1 hit in the Billboard top hundred in the 1970s called "When I See You Smile". Additionally, Paul James, better known as The Rev, former guitarist of English punk band Towers of London who is now in the band Day 21 and plays guitar live on tour for The Prodigy; Chris Acland, drummer of the early 1990s shoegaze band Lush; Tom English, drummer of North East indie band Maxïmo Park and Steve Kemp, drummer of the indie band Hard-Fi.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Lancaster continues to produce bands and musicians such as singer-songwriter Jay Diggins, and acts like The Lovely Eggs, receiving considerable national radio play and press coverage in recent years. More recently, Lancaster locals Massive Wagons signed to Nottingham-based independent label Earache Records. The city is also the founding home of the dance-music sound systems Rhythm Method and ACME Bass Company. Pioneers in the field of the free party, these two systems and others forged strong representations of the genre in the North West of England in the 1990s.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Since 2006, Lancaster Library has hosted regular music events under the "Get it Loud in Libraries" initiative. Musicians such as The Wombats, The Thrills, Kate Nash, Adele and Bat for Lashes have taken part. Get It Loud in Libraries has gained national exposure, featuring on The One Show on BBC1 and having gigs reviewed in "Observer Music Monthly", "NME" and "Art Rocker".


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Notable popular music venues include The Dukes, The Grand Theatre, The Gregson Centre, The Bobbin, The Pub and The Yorkshire House, which since 2006 has hosted such acts as John Renbourn, Polly Paulusma, Marissa Nadler, Baby Dee, Diane Cluck, Alasdair Roberts, Jesca Hoop, Lach, Jack Lewis, Tiny Ruins and 2008 Mercury Prize nominees Rachel Unthank and the Winterset. Other venues include the Dalton Rooms, the Park Hotel and The Hall, China Street. These host Lancaster's diverse music culture, such as the Lancaster Speakeasy or Stylus.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: The Lancaster Jazz and Lancaster Music Festivals are respectively held every September and October, at venues throughout the city. In 2013 the headline jazz act was The Neil Cowley Trio, performing at The Dukes, whilst one of the Lancaster Music Festival headline acts was Jay Diggins at the Dalton Rooms.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Heart North Lancashire & Cumbria (formerly "The Bay") has been a commercial radio station for north Lancashire and south Cumbria. Its studios are based at St George's Quay in the city and it broadcasts on three frequencies: 96.9 FM (Lancaster), 102.3 FM (Windermere) and 103.2 FM (Kendal). It is now part of the Manchester-based Heart North West.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Beyond Radio is a voluntary, non-profit community radio station for Lancaster and Morecambe and broadcasts on 103.5FM and online. Operated by Proper Community Media (Lancaster) Ltd, the station and broadcasts 24 hours a day from The Old Bowling Pavilion in Palatine Avenue Park, Bowerham. It took over from Diversity FM, a community radio station run by Lancaster and District YMCA, which had closed in April 2012.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Lancaster University has its own student radio station, Bailrigg FM, broadcasting on 87.7 FM, and an online student-run television station called (formerly LUTube.tv) and a student-run newspaper named SCAN.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: The city is home to the film production company A1 Pictures, which founded the independent film brand Capture.


title: Lancaster, Lancashire

text: Commercially available newspapers include the tabloids "The Lancaster Guardian" and "The Visitor" (mainly targeted at residents of Morecambe). Both are based on the White Lund Industrial Estate in Morecambe. "Virtual Lancaster", founded in 1999, is a non-commercial volunteer-led resource website also featuring local news, events and visitor information.


title: Manor house

text: A manor house was historically the main residence of the lord of the manor. The house formed the administrative centre of a manor in the European feudal system; within its great hall were held the lord's manorial courts, communal meals with manorial tenants and great banquets. The term is today loosely applied to various country houses, frequently dating from the Late Middle Ages, which formerly housed the landed gentry.


title: Manor house

text: Manor houses were sometimes fortified, albeit not as fortified as castles, and were intended more for show than for defencibility. They existed in most European countries where feudalism was present.


title: Manor house

text: The lord of the manor may have held several properties within a county or, for example in the case of a feudal baron, spread across a kingdom, which he occupied only on occasional visits. Even so, the business of the manor was directed and controlled by regular manorial courts, which appointed manorial officials such as the bailiff, granted copyhold leases to tenants, resolved disputes between manorial tenants and administered justice in general. A large and suitable building was required within the manor for such purpose, generally in the form of a great hall, and a solar might be attached to form accommodation for the lord.


title: Manor house

text: The produce of a small manor might be insufficient to feed a lord and his large family for a full year, and thus he would spend only a few months at each manor and move on to another where stores had been laid up. This also gave the opportunity for the vacated manor house to be cleaned, especially important in the days of the cess-pit, and repaired. Thus such non-resident lords needed to appoint a steward or "seneschal" to act as their deputy in such matters and to preside at the manorial courts of his different manorial properties. The day-to-day administration was carried out by a resident official in authority at each manor, who in England was called a bailiff, or reeve.


title: Manor house

text: Although not typically built with strong fortifications as were castles, many manor-houses were fortified, which required a royal licence to crenellate. They were often enclosed within walls or ditches which often also included agricultural buildings. Arranged for defence against roaming bands of robbers and thieves, in days long before police, they were often surrounded by a moat with a drawbridge, and were equipped with gatehouses and watchtowers, but not, as for castles, with a keep, large towers or lofty curtain walls designed to withstand a siege. The primary feature of the manor house was its great hall, to which subsidiary apartments were added as the lessening of feudal warfare permitted more peaceful domestic life.


title: Manor house

text: By the beginning of the 16th century, manor houses as well as small castles began to acquire the character and amenities of the residences of country gentlemen, and many defensive elements were dispensed with, for example Sutton Place in Surrey, circa 1521. A late 16th-century transformation produced many of the smaller Renaissance châteaux of France and the numerous country mansions of the Elizabethan and Jacobean styles in England.


title: Manor house

text: Before around 1600, larger houses were usually fortified, generally for true defensive purposes but increasingly, as the kingdom became internally more peaceable after the Wars of the Roses, as a form of status-symbol, reflecting the position of their owners as having been worthy to receive royal licence to crenellate. The Tudor period (16th century) of stability in England saw the building of the first of the unfortified great houses, for example Sutton Place in Surrey, circa 1521. The Dissolution of the Monasteries under King Henry VIII resulted in many former monastical properties being sold to the King's favourites, who then converted them into private country houses, examples being Woburn Abbey, Forde Abbey, Nostell Priory and many other mansions with the suffix Abbey or Priory to their name.


title: Manor house

text: During the second half of the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1558–1603) and under her successor King James I (1603–1625) the first mansions designed by architects not by mere masons or builders, began to make their appearance. Such houses as Burghley House, Longleat House, and Hatfield House are among the best known of this period and seem today to epitomise the English country house.


title: Manor house

text: Nearly every large medieval manor house had its own deer-park adjoining, emparked (i.e. enclosed) by royal licence, which served primarily as a store of food in the form of venison. Within these licensed parks deer could not be hunted by royalty (with its huge travelling entourage which needed to be fed and entertained), nor by neighbouring land-owners nor by any other persons. During the 16th century many lords of manors moved their residences from their ancient manor houses often situated next to the parish church and near or in the village and built a new manor house within the walls of their ancient deer-parks adjoining. This gave them more privacy and space.


title: Manor house

text: While suffixes given to manor houses in recent centuries have little substantive meaning, and many have changed over time, in previous centuries manor names had specific connotations.


title: Manor house

text: Manor houses, although mostly forming residences for the lords of the manors on which they were situated, were not historically named with the suffix "Manor", as were many grand country houses built in the 19th century, such as Hughenden Manor or Waddesdon Manor. The usage is often a modern catch-all suffix for an old house on an estate, true manor or not.


title: Manor house

text: The German equivalent of a manor house is a "Gutshaus" (or "Gut", "Gutshof", "Rittergut", "Landgut" or "Bauerngut"). Also "Herrenhaus" and "Domäne" are common terms. "Schloss" (pl. Schlösser) is another German word for a building similar to manor house, stately home, château or palace. Other terms used in German are "Burg" (castle), "Festung" (fort/fortress) and "Palais"/"Palast" (palace).


title: Manor house

text: In France, the terms "château" or "manoir" are often used synonymously to describe a French manor house; "maison-forte" is the appellation for a strongly fortified house, which may include two sets of enclosing walls, drawbridges, and a ground-floor hall or "salle basse" that was used to receive peasants and commoners. The "salle basse" was also the location of the manorial court, with the steward or seigneur's seating location often marked by the presence of a "crédence de justice" or wall-cupboard (shelves built into the stone walls to hold documents and books associated with administration of the demesne or "droit de justice"). The "salle haute" or upper-hall, reserved for the seigneur and where he received his high-ranking guests, was often accessible by an external spiral staircase. It was commonly "open" up to the roof trusses, as in similar English homes. This larger and more finely decorated hall was usually located above the ground-floor hall. The seigneur and his family's private "chambres" were often located off of the upper first-floor hall, and invariably had their own fireplace (with finely decorated chimney-piece) and frequently a latrine.


title: Manor house

text: In addition to having both lower and upper halls, many French manor houses also had partly fortified gateways, watchtowers, and enclosing walls that were fitted with arrow or gun loops for added protection. Some larger 16th-century manors, such as the Château de Kerjean in Finistère, Brittany, were even outfitted with ditches and fore-works that included gun platforms for cannons. These defensive arrangements allowed "maisons-fortes" and rural manors to be safe from a "coup de main" perpetrated by an armed band, many of which roamed the countryside during the troubled times of the Hundred Years War and the French wars of religion; but these fortified manor houses could not have withstood a lengthy siege undertaken by a regular army equipped with (siege) engines or heavy artillery.


title: Manor house

text: German language uses terms like Schloss or Gutshaus for places that functioned as the administrative center of a manor. Gut(shaus) implies a smaller ensemble of buildings within a more agricultural setting, usually owned by lower-ranking landed gentry whereas Schloss describes more representative and larger places. During the 18th century, some of these manor houses became local centers of culture where the local gentry, sometimes inspired by what they had experienced during their grand tour, was mimicking the lifestyle of the higher nobility, creating lavish parks, art collections or showed an interest in science and research.


title: Manor house

text: There are many historical manor houses throughout the Netherlands. Some have been converted into museums, hotels, conference centres, etc. Some are located on estates and in parks.


title: Manor house

text: Many of the earlier houses are the legacy of the feudal "heerlijkheid" system. The Dutch had a manorial system centred on the local lord's demesne. In Middle Dutch this was called the "vroonhof" or "vroenhoeve", a word derived from the Proto-Germanic word "fraujaz", meaning "lord". This was also called a "hof" and the lord's house a "hofstede". Other terms were used, including "landhuis" (or just "huis"), a "ridderhofstad" (Utrecht), a "stins" or "state" (Friesland), or a "havezate" (Drente, Overijssel and Gelderland). Some of these buildings were fortified. A number of castles associated with the nobility are found in the country. In Dutch, a building like this was called a "kasteel", a "slot", a "burcht" or (in Groningen) a "borg".


title: Manor house

text: During the Dutch Golden Age in the 17th century, merchants and regents looking for ways to spend their wealth bought country estates and built grand new homes, often just for summer use. Some purchased existing manor houses and castles from the nobility. Some country houses were built on top of the ruins of earlier castles that had been destroyed during the Dutch Revolt. The owners, aspiring to noble status, adopted the name of the earlier castle.


title: Manor house

text: These country houses or stately homes (called "buitenplaats" or "buitenhuis" in Dutch) were located close to the city in picturesque areas with a clean water source. Wealthy families sent their children to the country in the summer because of the putrid canals and diseases in the city. A few still exist, especially along the river Vecht, the river Amstel, the Spaarne in Kennemerland, the river Vliet and in Wassenaar. Some are located near former lakes (now polders) like the Wijkermeer, Watergraafsmeer and the Beemster. In the 19th century, with improvements in water management, new regions came into fashion, such as the Utrecht Hill Ridge (Utrechtse Heuvelrug) and the area around Arnhem.


title: Manor house

text: Today there is a tendency to group these grand buildings together in the category of "castles". There are many castles and buitenplaatsen in all twelve provinces. A larger-than-average home is today called a villa or a herenhuis, but despite the grand name this is not the same as a manor house.


title: Manor house

text: The architectural form of the Polish manor house () evolved around the late Polish Renaissance period and continued until the Second World War, which, together with the communist takeover of Poland, spelled the end of the nobility in Poland. A 1944 decree nationalized most mansions as property of the nobles, but few were adapted to other purposes. Many slowly fell into ruin over the next few decades.


title: Manor house

text: Poland inherited many German-style manor houses ("Gutshäuser") after parts of eastern Germany were taken over by Poland after World War II.


title: Manor house

text: In Portugal, it was quite common during the 17th to early 20th centuries for the aristocracy to have country homes. These homes, known as solares (paços, when the manor was a certain stature or size; "quintas", when the manor included a sum of land), were found particularly in the northern, usually richer, Portugal, in the Beira, Minho, and Trás-os-Montes provinces. Many have been converted into a type of hotel called pousada.


title: Manor house

text: Quinta is a term used in the Portuguese language-speaking world, which is applied variously to manors homes or to estates as a whole.


title: Manor house

text: Casa solariega is the catch-all name for manor houses in Spain. They were the places where heads of noble families resided. Those houses receive a different name depending on the geographical region of Spain where they are located, the noble rank of the owner family, the size of the house and/or the use that the family gave to them. In Spain a good many old manor houses, palaces, castles and grand homes have been converted into a Parador hotel.


title: Manor house

text: A Palacio is a sumptuously decorated grand residence, especially a royal residence or the home of a head of state or some other high-ranking dignitary, such as a bishop or archbishop. The word itself is derived from the Latin name Palātium, for Palatine Hill, the hill which housed the Imperial residences in Rome. Palacio Real is the same as Palacio, but historically used (either now or in the past) by the Spanish Royal Family. Palacio arzobispal is the same as Palacio, but historically used (either now or in the past) by the ecclesiastic authorities (mainly bishops or archbishops). Palacete is bejewelled and built house as a palace, but smaller.


title: Manor house

text: Alcázar is a type of Moorish castle or fortified palace in Spain (and also Portugal) built during Muslim rule, although some founded by Christians. Mostly of the alcázars were built between the 8th and 15th centuries. Many cities in Spain have its alcázar. Palaces built in the Moorish style after the expulsion of the Moors from Spain are often referred to as alcazars as well.


title: Manor house

text: Hacienda is landed estates of significant size located in the south of Spain (Andalusia). They were also very common in the former Spanish Colonies. Some haciendas were plantations, mines or factories. Many haciendas combined these productive activities. They were developed as profit-making, economic enterprises linked to regional or international markets. The owner of an hacienda was termed an "hacendado" or "patrón". The work force on haciendas varied, depending on the type of hacienda and where it was located.


title: Manor house

text: Casona is old manor houses in León, Asturias and Cantabria (Spain) following the so-called "casa montañesa architecture". Most of them were built in the 17th and 18th centuries. Typologically they are halfway between rustic houses and palaces


title: Manor house

text: Quinta is a countryside house closer to the urban core. Initially, "quinta" (fifth) designated the 1/5 part of the production that the lessee (called "quintero") paid to the lessor (owner of the land), but lately the term was applied to the whole property. This term is also very common in the former Spanish Colonies.


title: Manor house

text: Alqueria in Al-Andalus made reference to small rural communities that were located near cities (medinas). Since the 15th century it makes reference to a farmhouse, with an agricultural farm, typical of Levante and the southeastern Spanish, mainly in Granada and Valencia.


title: Manor house

text: A "pazo" is a type of grand old house found in Galicia. A "pazo" is usually located in the countryside and the former residence of an important nobleman or other important individual. They were of crucial importance to the rural and monastic communities around them. The "pazo" was a traditional architectural structure associated with a community and social network. It usually consisted of a main building surrounded by gardens, a dovecote and outbuildings such as a small chapels for religious celebrations. The word "pazo" is derived from the Latin "palatiu(m)" ("palace").


title: Manor house

text: The Baserri, called "Caserio" in Spanish, is the typical manor house of the Basque Provinces and Navarre. A baserri represents the core unit of traditional Basque society, as the "ancestral home of a family". Traditionally, the household is administered by the "etxekoandre" (lady of the house) and the "etxekojaun" (master of the house), each with distinctly defined rights, roles and responsibilities. When the couple reaches a certain age upon which they wish to retire, the baserri is formally handed over to a child. Unusually, the parents were by tradition free to choose any child, male or female, firstborn or later born, to assume the role of "etxekoandre" or "etxekojaun" to ensure the child most suitable to the role would inherit the ancestral home. The baserri under traditional law (the "fueros") cannot be divided or inherited by more than one person. This is still the case in the Southern Basque Country but the introduction of the Napoleonic Code in France, under which such practices are illegal, greatly upset this tradition in the North. Although the Basques in the north chose to be "creative" with the new laws, it overall resulted in the breakup and ultimate financial ruin of many baserris. In practice the tradition of not breaking up baserris meant that the remaining children had to marry into another baserri, stay on the family baserri as unmarried employees or make their own way in the world ("Iglesia o mar o casa real", "Church or sea or royal house").


title: Manor house

text: A cortijo is a type of traditional rural habitat in the Southern half of Spain, including all of Andalusia and parts of Extremadura and Castile-La Mancha. "Cortijos" may have their origins in ancient Roman villas, for the word is derived from the Latin "cohorticulum", a diminutive of "cohors", meaning 'courtyard'. They are often isolated structures associated with a large family farming or livestock operation in the vast and empty adjoining lands. It would usually include a large house, together with accessory buildings such as workers' quarters, sheds to house livestock, granaries, oil mills, barns and often a wall enclosing a courtyard. The master of the "cortijo" or ""señorito"" would usually live with his family in a two-story building, while the accessory structures were for the labourers and their families —also known as ""cortijeros"".


title: Manor house

text: Before the founding of the United States, colonial powers such as Britain, France and the Netherlands made land grants to favored individuals in the original colonies that evolved into large agricultural estates that resembled the manors familiar to Europeans. In fact, founding fathers such as George Washington, Thomas Jefferson and James Madison were the owners of large agricultural estates granted by colonial rulers and built large manor houses from which these estates were managed (e.g., Mount Vernon, Monticello). However, there were important distinctions. American agricultural estates often relied on slaves rather than tenant farmers or serfs which were common in Europe at the time. The owners of American agricultural estates did not have noble titles and there was no legally recognized political structure based on an aristocratic, land-owning class. As a result, this limited the development of a feudal or manorial land-owning system to just a few regions such as Tidewater and Piedmont Virginia, the Carolina Low Country, the Mississippi Delta, and the Hudson River Valley in the early years of the republic. Southern California (under Spanish and Mexican administration) also developed a primitive manorial society. However, even these exceptions did not produce European-style manorial social, political and economic structures and with a few notable exceptions, did not result in the extravagant manor houses as found throughout Europe.


title: Manor house

text: Today, relics of early manorial life in the early United States are found in a few places such as the Eastern Shore of Maryland with examples such as Wye Hall and Hope House (Easton, Maryland), Virginia at Monticello and Westover Plantation, the Hudson River Valley of New York at Clermont State Historic Site or along the Mississippi such as Lansdowne (Natchez, Mississippi). Over time, these large estates were usually subdivided as they became economically unsustainable and are now a fraction of their historical extent. In the southern states, the demise of plantation slavery after the Civil War gave rise to a sharecropping agricultural economy that had similarities to European serfdom and lasted into the early 20th century. The Biltmore Estate in North Carolina (which is still owned by descendants of the original builder, a member of the Vanderbilt family) is a more modern, though unsuccessful, attempt at building a small manorial society near Asheville, North Carolina.


title: Manor house

text: Most manor-style homes built since the Civil War were merely country retreats for wealthy industrialists in the late 19th and early 20th century and had little agricultural, administrative or political function. Examples of these homes include Castle Hill (Ipswich, Massachusetts), Vanderbilt Mansion National Historic Site and Hearst Castle. A rare example of hereditary estate ownership in the United States that includes a manor-type house is Gardiners Island, a private island that has been in the same family since the 17th century and contains a Georgian architecture house. Today, some historically and architecturally significant manor houses in the United States are museums. However, many still function as private residences, including many of the colonial-era manor houses found in Maryland and Virginia a few of which are still held within the original families.


title: Manor house

text: Unlike in Europe, the United States did not create a native architectural style common to manor houses. A typical architectural style used for American manor-style homes in the mid-Atlantic region is Georgian architecture although a homegrown variant of Georgian did emerge in the late 1700s called Federal architecture. A typical example of a Georgian manor house is Tulip Hill in Maryland. Other styles borrowed from Europe include Châteauesque with Biltmore Estate being an example, Tudor Revival architecture see Planting Fields Arboretum State Historic Park, and Neoclassical architecture with Monticello being a prominent example. In the Antebellum South, many plantation homes were built in Greek Revival architecture style.


title: Manor house

text: Virginia House is a former sixteenth century English manor house blending three romantic English Tudor designs. In 1925, it was relocated to Richmond, Virginia from main sections dating from the 1620 remodeling of a priory in Warwickshire, England and reconstructed on a hillside overlooking the James River in Windsor Farms. Virginia House is now owned and operated by the Virginia Historical Society. When the interior was re-designed by it owners Alexander and Virginia Weddell, it became a home that was modern for its time with central heating, seven full baths, an up-to-date kitchen, and large closets. The almost eight acres of gardens and grounds on which Virginia House rests were designed by Charles Gillette. The house has been preserved and is largely as it was when the Weddells lived there. Virginia House is on the National Register of Historic Places listings in Richmond, Virginia.


title: Mandible

text: In anatomy, the mandible, lower jaw or jawbone is the largest, strongest and lowest bone in the human facial skeleton. It forms the lower jaw and holds the lower teeth in place. The mandible sits beneath the maxilla. It is the only movable bone of the skull (discounting the ossicles of the middle ear). It is connected to the temporal bones by the temporomandibular joints.


title: Mandible

text: The bone is formed in the fetus from a fusion of the left and right mandibular prominences, and the point where these sides join, the mandibular symphysis, is still visible as a faint ridge in the midline. Like other symphyses in the body, this is a midline articulation where the bones are joined by fibrocartilage, but this articulation fuses together in early childhood.


title: Mandible

text: The word "mandible" derives from the Latin word "mandibula", "jawbone" (literally "one used for chewing"), from "mandere" "to chew" and "-bula" (instrumental suffix).


title: Mandible

text: The body of the mandible is curved, and the front part gives structure to the chin. It has two surfaces and two borders. From the outside, the mandible is marked in the midline by a faint ridge, indicating the mandibular symphysis, the line of junction of the two halves of the mandible, which fuse at about one year of age. This ridge divides below and encloses a triangular eminence, the mental protuberance (the chin), the base of which is depressed in the center but raised on both sides to form the mental tubercle. Just above this, on both sides, the mentalis muscles attach to a depression called the incisive fossa. Below the second premolar tooth, on both sides, midway between the upper and lower borders of the body, are the mental foramen, for the passage of the mental vessels and nerve. Running backward and upward from each mental tubercle is a faint ridge, the oblique line, which is continuous with the anterior border of the ramus. Attached to this is the masseter muscle, the depressor labii inferioris and depressor anguli oris, and the platysma (from below).


title: Mandible

text: From the inside, the mandible appears concave. Near the lower part of the symphysis is a pair of laterally placed spines, termed the mental spines, which give origin to the genioglossus. Immediately below these is a second pair of spines, or more frequently a median ridge or impression, for the origin of the geniohyoid. In some cases, the mental spines are fused to form a single eminence, in others they are absent and their position is indicated merely by an irregularity of the surface. Above the mental spines, a median foramen and furrow are sometimes seen; they mark the line of union of the halves of the bone. Below the mental spines, on either side of the middle line, is an oval depression for the attachment of the anterior belly of the digastric. Extending upward and backward on either side from the lower part of the symphysis is the mylohyoid line, which gives origin to the mylohyoid muscle; the posterior part of this line, near the alveolar margin, gives attachment to a small part of the constrictor pharyngis superior, and to the pterygomandibular raphe. Above the anterior part of this line is a smooth triangular area against which the sublingual gland rests, and below the hinder part, an oval fossa for the submandibular gland.


title: Mandible

text: On the outside, the ramus is flat and marked by oblique ridges at its lower part. It gives attachment throughout nearly the whole of its extent to the masseter muscle.


title: Mandible

text: On the inside at the center there is an oblique mandibular foramen, for the entrance of the inferior alveolar vessels and nerve. The margin of this opening is irregular; it presents in front a prominent ridge, surmounted by a sharp spine, the lingula of the mandible, which gives attachment to the sphenomandibular ligament; at its lower and back part is a notch from which the mylohyoid groove runs obliquely downward and forward, and lodges the mylohyoid vessels and nerve. Behind this groove is a rough surface, for the insertion of the medial pterygoid muscle. The mandibular canal runs obliquely downward and forward in the ramus, and then horizontally forward in the body, where it is placed under the alveoli and communicates with them by small openings. On arriving at the incisor teeth, it turns back to communicate with the mental foramen, giving off two small canals which run to the cavities containing the incisor teeth. In the posterior two-thirds of the bone the canal is situated nearer the internal surface of the mandible; and in the anterior third, nearer its external surface. It contains the inferior alveolar vessels and nerve, from which branches are distributed to the teeth.


title: Mandible

text: The inferior alveolar nerve, a branch of the mandibular nerve, (a major division of the trigeminal nerve), enters the mandibular foramen and runs forward in the mandibular canal, supplying sensation to the teeth. At the mental foramen, the nerve divides into two terminal branches: incisive and mental nerves. The incisive nerve runs forward in the mandible and supplies the anterior teeth. The mental nerve exits the mental foramen and supplies sensation to the lower lip.


title: Mandible

text: Males generally have squarer, stronger, and larger mandibles than females. The mental protuberance is more pronounced in males but can be visualized and palpated in females.


title: Mandible

text: Rarely, a bifid inferior alveolar nerve may be present, in which case a second mandibular foramen, more inferiorly placed, exists and can be detected by noting a doubled mandibular canal on a radiograph.


title: Mandible

text: The mandible forms as a bone (ossifies) over time from a left and right piece of cartilage, called Meckel's cartilage.


title: Mandible

text: These cartilages form the cartilaginous bar of the mandibular arch. Near the head, they are connected with the ear capsules, and they meet at the lower end at the mandibular symphysis, a fusion point between the two bones, by mesodermal tissue. They run forward immediately below the condyles and then, bending downward, lie in a groove near the lower border of the bone; in front of the canine tooth they incline upward to the symphysis. From the proximal end of each cartilage the malleus and incus, two of the bones of the middle ear, are developed; the next succeeding portion, as far as the lingula, is replaced by fibrous tissue, which persists to form the sphenomandibular ligament.


title: Mandible

text: Between the lingula and the canine tooth the cartilage disappears, while the portion of it below and behind the incisor teeth becomes ossified and incorporated with this part of the mandible.


title: Mandible

text: About the sixth week of fetal life, intramembranous ossification takes place in the membrane covering the outer surface of the ventral end of Meckel's cartilage, and each half of the bone is formed from a single center which appears, near the mental foramen.


title: Mandible

text: By the tenth week, the portion of Meckel's cartilage which lies below and behind the incisor teeth is surrounded and invaded by the dermal bone (also known as the membrane bone). Somewhat later, accessory nuclei of cartilage make their appearance:


title: Mandible

text: These accessory nuclei possess no separate ossific centers but are invaded by the surrounding dermal bone and undergo absorption. The inner alveolar border, usually described as arising from a separate ossific center ("splenial center"), is formed in the human mandible by an ingrowth from the main mass of the bone.


title: Mandible

text: At birth the bone consists of two parts, united by a fibrous symphysis, in which ossification takes place during the first year.


title: Mandible

text: At birth, the body of the bone is a mere shell, containing the sockets of the two incisor, the canine, and the two deciduous molar teeth, imperfectly partitioned off from one another. The mandibular canal is of large size and runs near the lower border of the bone; the mental foramen opens beneath the socket of the first deciduous molar tooth. The angle is obtuse (175°), and the condyloid portion is nearly in line with the body. The coronoid process is of comparatively large size, and projects above the level of the condyle.


title: Mandible

text: After birth, the two segments of the bone become joined at the symphysis, from below upward, in the first year; but a trace of separation may be visible in the beginning of the second year, near the alveolar margin. The body becomes elongated in its whole length, but more especially behind the mental foramen, to provide space for the three additional teeth developed in this part. The depth of the body increases owing to increased growth of the alveolar part, to afford room for the roots of the teeth, and by thickening of the subdental portion which enables the jaw to withstand the powerful action of the masticatory muscles; but, the alveolar portion is the deeper of the two, and, consequently, the chief part of the body lies above the oblique line. The mandibular canal, after the second dentition, is situated just above the level of the mylohyoid line; and the mental foramen occupies the position usual to it in the adult. The angle becomes less obtuse, owing to the separation of the jaws by the teeth; about the fourth year it is 140°.


title: Mandible

text: In the adult, the alveolar and subdental portions of the body are usually of equal depth. The mental foramen opens midway between the upper and lower borders of the bone, and the mandibular canal runs nearly parallel with the mylohyoid line. The ramus is almost vertical in direction, the angle measuring from 110° to 120°, also the adult condyle is higher than the coronoid process and the sigmoid notch becomes deeper.


title: Mandible

text: In old age, the bone can become greatly reduced in volume where there is a loss of teeth, and consequent resorption of the alveolar process and interalveolar septa. Consequently, the chief part of the bone is below the oblique line. The mandibular canal, with the mental foramen opening from it, is closer to the alveolar border. The ramus is oblique in direction, the angle measures about 140°, and the neck of the condyle is more or less bent backward.


title: Mandible

text: The mandible forms the lower jaw and holds the lower teeth in place. It articulates with the left and right temporal bones at the temporomandibular joints.


title: Mandible

text: One fifth of facial injuries involve a mandibular fracture. Mandibular fractures are often accompanied by a 'twin fracture' on the opposite side. There is no universally accepted treatment protocol, as there is no consensus on the choice of techniques in a particular anatomical shape of mandibular fracture clinic. A common treatment involves attachment of metal plates to the fracture to assist in healing.


title: Mandible

text: The mandible may be dislocated anteriorly (to the front) and inferiorly (downwards) but very rarely posteriorly (backwards). The articular disk of the temporomandibular joint prevents the mandible from moving posteriorly, making the condylar neck particularly vulnerable to fractures.


title: Mandible

text: The mandibular alveolar process can become resorbed when completely edentulous in the mandibular arch (occasionally noted also in partially edentulous cases). This resorption can occur to such an extent that the mental foramen is virtually on the superior border of the mandible, instead of opening on the anterior surface, changing its relative position. However, the more inferior body of the mandible is not affected and remains thick and rounded. With age and tooth loss, the alveolar process is absorbed so that the mandibular canal becomes nearer the superior border. Sometimes with excessive alveolar process absorption, the mandibular canal disappears entirely and leaves the inferior alveolar nerve without its bony protection, although it is still covered by soft tissue.


title: Mandible

text: When remains of humans are found, the mandible is one of the common findings, sometimes the only bone found. Skilled experts can estimate the age of the human upon death because the mandible changes over a person's life.


title: Mandible

text: In lobe-finned fishes and the early fossil tetrapods, the bone homologous to the mandible of mammals is merely the largest of several bones in the lower jaw. In such animals, it is referred to as the dentary bone or "os dentale", and forms the body of the outer surface of the jaw. It is bordered below by a number of splenial bones, while the angle of the jaw is formed by a lower angular bone and a suprangular bone just above it. The inner surface of the jaw is lined by a "prearticular" bone, while the articular bone forms the articulation with the skull proper. Finally a set of three narrow "coronoid bones" lie above the prearticular bone. As the name implies, the majority of the teeth are attached to the dentary, but there are commonly also teeth on the coronoid bones, and sometimes on the prearticular as well.


title: Mandible

text: This complex primitive pattern has, however, been simplified to various degrees in the great majority of vertebrates, as bones have either fused or vanished entirely. In teleosts, only the dentary, articular, and angular bones remain, while in living amphibians, the dentary is accompanied only by the prearticular, and, in salamanders, one of the coronoids. The lower jaw of reptiles has only a single coronoid and splenial, but retains all the other primitive bones except the prearticular and the periosteum.


title: Mandible

text: While, in birds, these various bones have fused into a single structure, in mammals most of them have disappeared, leaving an enlarged dentary as the only remaining bone in the lower jaw – the mandible. As a result of this, the primitive jaw articulation, between the articular and quadrate bones, has been lost, and replaced with an entirely new articulation between the mandible and the temporal bone. An intermediate stage can be seen in some therapsids, in which both points of articulation are present. Aside from the dentary, only few other bones of the primitive lower jaw remain in mammals; the former articular and quadrate bones survive as the malleus and the incus of the middle ear.


title: Mandible

text: Finally, the cartilaginous fish, such as sharks, do not have any of the bones found in the lower jaw of other vertebrates. Instead, their lower jaw is composed of a cartilagenous structure homologous with the Meckel's cartilage of other groups. This also remains a significant element of the jaw in some primitive bony fish, such as sturgeons.


title: Eros Ramazzotti

text: Eros Walter Luciano Ramazzotti (; born 28 October 1963) is an Italian pop singer, musician and songwriter. He is popular in Italy and most European countries, and throughout the Spanish-speaking world, as he has released most of his albums in both Italian and Spanish.


title: Eros Ramazzotti

text: Since 1984, Ramazzotti has released 11 studio albums, one EP, three compilation albums, three live albums, and 37 singles. He has sold over 60 million records in his 30-year career. His repertoire includes duets with artists such as Cher, Tina Turner, Andrea Bocelli, Patsy Kensit, Anastacia, Joe Cocker, Julio Iglesias, Lynn Davis, Ricardo Arjona, Luciano Pavarotti, Laura Pausini, Nicole Scherzinger and Ricky Martin.


title: Eros Ramazzotti

text: Ramazzotti first gained international success in 1993, with the release of "Tutte storie", which amassed five million album sales and occupied the top five in every country where he had previously released albums. This success led to a BMG International record contract in 1994. His audience appeal comes from several factors, including his unique voice, which can be described as somewhat nasal but nevertheless forceful and resonant baritone, and his energetic delivery of catchy, melodic tunes which are often passionate mid-tempo autobiographical ballads, with instrumentation that is rich in soft-rock influence.


title: Eros Ramazzotti

text: Ramazzotti was born in Cinecittà Est, a suburb of Rome. He is the son of Rodolfo Ramazzotti, a construction worker and Raffaela Molina, a housewife. His father originated from the province of Viterbo in Lazio and his mother from the province of Vibo Valentia in Calabria. He was named after Eros, the Greek god of love. He began playing the guitar at age seven. As a teenager, he wrote songs with the help of his father who was a music lover and played piano. He wanted to attend a musical conservatory but failed the admission examination, and started training in bookkeeping, but dropped out. He occasionally appeared as an extra in films while dreaming of having a career as a pop-star.


title: Eros Ramazzotti

text: In 1981, Ramazzotti took part in a music contest, "Voci Nuove di Castrocaro" (New Voices of Castrocaro Terme) with the song "Rock 80", which he wrote, performing in front of various record label representatives. Although the contest was won by Zucchero and Fiordaliso, Ramazzotti reached the final and received two votes from Roberto Galanti and Baron Lando Lanni, who represented the recently launched Italian Label DDD (Drogueria di Drugolo). DDD gave Eros his first contract. He moved to Milan with his brother Marco and his mother Raffaella, and they initially lived in the same building as the record label company.


title: Eros Ramazzotti

text: Ramazzotti's first single, "Ad un amico" (To a Friend), was released in 1982, and was not particularly well received. Soon after, Eros met Renato Brioschi, who mentored the young artist toward his first success in 1984 at the highly regarded Sanremo Festival. His song, "Terra promessa" (Promised Land) won the Newcomers' category, and was subsequently released widely throughout Europe.


title: Eros Ramazzotti

text: In 1985, Ramazzotti took part in the Sanremo Festival again with the song "Una storia importante" (An Important Story), taken from his debut album "Cuori agitati" (Troubled Hearts). While only placing sixth at the festival, "Una storia importante" was released as a single and became a huge hit in many European countries, including France where it sold a million units.