title: Waterloo, Ontario

text: Announced January 2006, as a new School of Medicine, the Waterloo Regional Campus of McMaster University was completed in 2009. In 2018, the Waterloo campus included "a complete on-site clinical skills laboratory with 4 skills rooms and 2 observation rooms, classrooms with video-conferencing capabilities and a state-of-the-art anatomy lab that was built in 2013 with a high definition video system", according to the university. Its Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine building includes the Centre for Family Medicine and the University of Waterloo School of Optometry and Vision Science.


title: Waterloo, Ontario

text: The Waterloo Public Library was founded in 1888. As of 2022, the library has 4 branches (in order of opening): the Main Branch, the Albert McCormick Branch, the John M. Harper Branch and the Eastside Branch. The Waterloo's Mechanics' Institute, formed in 1875, was the origin of the Waterloo Public Library. Operating out of the then town hall, they offered books at a subscription fee. The fees were abolished in 1887-8 and the city took control over the library, calling it Waterloo Free Library. In 1905, a Carnegie library was built to house the books, across from the current location of the Main Branch, which replaced it in 1964. The Eastside Branch, opened May 7, 2022, is the newest branch built. The $10-million library is built into the existing RIM Park Manulife Sportsplex and has around 35,000 books.


title: Waterloo, Ontario

text: Fire protection and rescue services are provided by Waterloo Fire Rescue, a service of the City of Waterloo. As of 2020, there are four active fire stations in Waterloo. Waterloo Fire Rescue responds to fires, medical emergencies, car accidents and chemical incidents. (Region of Waterloo Paramedic Services also responds to medical emergencies.) When the two-tier regional government system was implemented in the early 1970s, police service was moved to the regional government, but fire service remained at the local municipality (city or township) level. From time to time, the media and interested parties raise the question of whether this service should remain at the city level, or whether there might be cost savings or service improvements if the various fire services were merged into regional fire service. A 2019 newspaper article stated that "there would likely be no cost savings, but service would improve under [a] regionalized system," in the view of some former fire chiefs.


title: Waterloo, Ontario

text: Waterloo Regional Police Service, the seventh-largest police service in the province of Ontario, provides general police service in the city of Waterloo. The Waterloo Regional Police North Division is located at 45 Columbia Street East, Waterloo. Waterloo Regional Police also serve the municipalities of Kitchener and Cambridge and the Townships of Wellesley, Wilmot, Woolwich and North Dumfries. City of Waterloo bylaws controlling matters such as parking, weeds and noise are enforced by city bylaw enforcement officers. The two universities each have special constables who are first responders to all emergencies at their respective university campuses. Special Constables may lay charges and/or make arrests under the same legal authority as police officers. As of 2019, University of Waterloo Police Service had twenty-four Special Constables. Wilfrid Laurier University also has a Special Constable Service.


title: Waterloo, Ontario

text: The Ontario Provincial Police patrols provincial highways. Two homicides were reported in the Waterloo Region in 2021, neither of which was in the city of Waterloo.


title: Waterloo, Ontario

text: The Waterloo Region District School Board is the region's public school board. As of 2022, in Waterloo, they run 21 elementary schools (see List of Waterloo Region, Ontario schools) and three secondary schools, which are Bluevale Collegiate Institute, Laurel Heights Secondary School, and Waterloo Collegiate Institute. The Waterloo Catholic District School Board is the region's catholic school board. As of 2022, in Waterloo, they run 8 elementary schools and one secondary school, which is St. David Catholic Secondary School. There are a number of private and other schools not associated with the above boards, but there are no secondary schools in Waterloo unassociated with the boards.


title: Waterloo, Ontario

text: Waterloo is home to the following universities and colleges: the University of Waterloo, Wilfrid Laurier University, St. Jerome's University, St. Paul's University College, Conrad Grebel University College, Renison University College, and Conestoga College (based in Kitchener but has a Waterloo campus). The University of Waterloo is a public research university that saw 37,884 students in 2022. The university has the largest post-secondary co-op program in the world and ranked 151–200 in the world and 7–8 in Canada in the 2021 Academic Ranking of World Universities. Wilfrid Laurier University saw about 20,000 students in 2022, including its campuses in Brantford and Milton.


title: Waterloo, Ontario

text: The "Waterloo Region Record" is a daily newspaper that covers the Region of Waterloo, while the "Waterloo Chronicle" covers the city; both are published by Metroland Media Group. There are a number of FM radio stations that reach Waterloo, (see Media in Waterloo Region#Radio) although CKMS-FM is the only to broadcast out of the city. CKGL (570 News) is the only AM radio station broadcasting from the Region. CKCO-DT (CTV Kitchener) is the only television station that broadcasts from the Region.


title: Hannah Quinlivan

text: Hannah Quinlivan (born 12 August 1993), also known as Jen Wu () and stage name Kun Ling (), is a Taiwanese Australian actress and model.


title: Hannah Quinlivan

text: Hannah Quinlivan was born in Taipei, Taiwan and raised in New South Wales, Australia. Her father is Australian, and her mother is Chinese-Korean. Quinlivan graduated from Benowa State High School.


title: Hannah Quinlivan

text: Quinlivan began her career by appearing in "Blackie's Teenage Club" in 2008. She became a guest host of "I Love The Man" in December 2011.


title: Hannah Quinlivan

text: Quinlivan's first film role was an uncredited appearance in the film "Step Back to Glory" (2013). That same year, she had a minor role as Lin Jiayi in "Amour et Pâtisserie".


title: Hannah Quinlivan

text: In 2014, she appeared in "Moon River", playing Lucy. She made a cameo appearance in the television series "The Lying Game". She was cast in the lead role of Ren Yuhong in "Heart Of Steel". She was cast in the film "Twa-Tiu-Tiann", playing the former girlfriend of Chris Wang's character.


title: Hannah Quinlivan

text: In 2017, just three days after she gave birth to her second child, Quinlivan auditioned for her role in the action thriller film "Skyscraper", which was released in 2018.


title: Hannah Quinlivan

text: She also played a role in film <bdi>"Skyfire" (2019)</bdi> as Li Xiaomeng, and acted as a top cast in the film <bdi>"Nezha" (</bdi>2021) as Lili Lu.


title: Suniel Shetty filmography

text: Suniel Shetty (born 11 August 1961) is an Indian actor, film producer, television presenter & entrepreneur known for his work in Bollywood, and has also appeared in Telugu, Tamil, Marathi, Kannada, Malayalam and English language films.


title: Late-night talk show

text: A late-night talk show is a genre of talk show popular in the United States, where the format originated. It is generally structured around humorous monologues about the day's news, guest interviews, comedy sketches and music performances. It is characterized by spontaneous conversation, and for an effect of immediacy and intimacy as if the host were speaking alone to each of the millions of audience members. Late-night talk shows are also fundamentally shaped by the personality of the host, which constitutes the "trademark" of the show.


title: Late-night talk show

text: The late-night talk show format was popularized by Johnny Carson and sidekick Ed McMahon with "The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson" on NBC. Typically the show's host conducts interviews from behind a desk, while the guest is seated on a couch. Many late night talk shows feature a house band which generally performs cover songs for the studio audience during commercial breaks and occasionally will back up a guest artist.


title: Late-night talk show

text: Late-night talk shows are a popular format in the United States, but are not as prominent in other parts of the world. Shows that loosely resemble the format air in other countries, but generally air weekly as opposed to the nightly airings of those in the United States. They also generally air in time slots considered to be prime time in the United States.


title: Late-night talk show

text: Late-night talk shows had their genesis in early variety shows, a format that migrated to television from radio, where it had been the dominant form of light entertainment during most of the old-time radio era. "The Pepsodent Show", which opened each weekly episode with host Bob Hope's rapid-fire, topical and often political observational comedy, was a particularly important predecessor to the late-night format.


title: Late-night talk show

text: Early television variety shows included "The Ed Sullivan Show" (originally known as "Toast of the Town"), which aired on CBS Sunday nights from 1948 to 1971, and "Texaco Star Theater" with Milton Berle, which aired on NBC from 1948 to 1956. These shows aired once a week in evening time slots that would come to be known as prime time.


title: Late-night talk show

text: The first show to air in a late-night timeslot itself, "Broadway Open House", aired on NBC in 1950 and ended a year later after host Jerry Lester left the show, a combination of frustration with being upstaged by his sidekick Virginia "Dagmar" Lewis, burnout from having to go through a large amount of material in a short time, and the lack of enough television sets in the United States to make television broadcasting in late nights viable. (Lester himself was a last-minute replacement host for up-and-coming 26-year-old comic Don Hornsby, whom Hope had recommended to NBC but who caught polio and died less than a week before the show began.) For the next season, the only late-night program on the networks would be NBC's "Nightcap", a preview of the next day's programming hosted by Mary Kay Stearns.


title: Late-night talk show

text: The first late-night television talk show was "The Faye Emerson Show", hosted by actress Faye Emerson. It began airing on CBS on October 24, 1949, in local East Coast markets before the network moved the 15-minute show, which regularly aired up to 11pm, nationwide in March 1950. In 1950, Emerson also hosted a similar show on NBC called "Fifteen with Faye" for about six months before committing the CBS show. Emerson's show was distinguished from her competition on NBC in that she was more openly political; Emerson, an avowed Democrat, regularly interviewed political and intellectual figures on her show (among them Soviet leader Joseph Stalin) in addition to a smattering of vaudeville and variety acts.


title: Late-night talk show

text: The first version of "The Tonight Show", "Tonight Starring Steve Allen", debuted in 1954 on NBC. The show created many modern talk show staples including an opening monologue, celebrity interviews, audience participation, comedy bits, and musical performances; it also had some holdovers from the radio era, including a vocal group (Steve and Eydie, who went on to decades of success after "Tonight") in addition to the house band, something that later late-night shows would abandon. By this point, the Federal Communications Commission had lifted a freeze on new television stations, which allowed new stations to appear across the country, and television set sales soon grew exponentially. As a result, unlike "Broadway Open House", "Tonight" proved to be a resounding success.


title: Late-night talk show

text: The success of the show led Allen to receive another show, entitled "The Steve Allen Show", which would compete with "The Ed Sullivan Show" on Sunday nights. Meanwhile, hosting duties of "The Tonight Show" were split between Allen and Ernie Kovacs; Kovacs had defected to NBC from his own late-night show on the then-crumbling DuMont Television Network. Both Allen and Kovacs departed from "Tonight" in 1957 in order to focus on Allen's Sunday night show. After the two left, the format changed to something similar to "Today" and was renamed "Tonight! America After Dark," hosted first by Jack Lescoulie, and later by Al Collins, with interviews conducted by Hy Gardner, and a house band led by Lou Stein performing. The show was not popular, leading to many NBC affiliates dropping the show. The show returned to the original format that year and was renamed "Tonight Starring Jack Paar".


title: Late-night talk show

text: The even greater success of the show during Paar's hosting resulted in many NBC affiliates deciding to clear the show. He was noted for his conversational style, relatively high-brow interview guests, feuds with other media personalities (his animosity toward print journalists Ed Sullivan and Walter Winchell marked a power shift from print to television; Winchell's career never recovered from the damage), and mercurial personality. Paar famously quit the show in 1960 in a dispute over a censored joke, but was allowed to come back a month later. Paar permanently left the show in 1962, citing the reason that he could not handle the workload of "The Tonight Show" (at the time, the show ran 105 minutes a day, five nights a week), and he moved to his own weekly prime-time show, which would run until 1965.


title: Late-night talk show

text: After Paar's departure, hosting duties were filled by Groucho Marx, Mort Sahl, and many others. Johnny Carson took over as host of "The Tonight Show" in 1962 and the show was renamed "The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson". Carson streamlined the format of the show, focusing more on entertainment personalities, tweaking the monologue to feature shorter jokes, and emphasizing sketch comedy. Ed McMahon served as Carson's announcer, while from 1962 to 1966, the band was led by Skitch Henderson, who hired, among others, Doc Severinsen. When Henderson left, Milton DeLugg took over. Severinsen assumed the position in 1967 and served as bandleader with the NBC Orchestra. The show originated from NBC Studios in New York City but, as part of Carson's shifting the show toward a more entertainment-oriented program, moved to Burbank, California, in 1972.


title: Late-night talk show

text: NBC's two other rivals during the early television era, CBS and ABC, did not attempt any major forays into late-night television until the 1960s. ABC's first effort at the late-night TV race was hosted by Les Crane, which pioneered the controversial tabloid talk show format that would not become popular until two decades later. With most viewers not accustomed to the visceral conflict it entailed, Crane's show lasted only six months. Shorter still was "The Las Vegas Show", a Las Vegas-based late-night show hosted by Bill Dana that was the only offering of the United Network that ever made it to air (because that network only had a handful of affiliates, it also syndicated the program to CBS, ABC and independent stations); it, along with the network, only lasted five weeks in summer 1967.


title: Late-night talk show

text: Steve Allen himself returned to NBC late night in syndication twice in this time frame, first with a show that ran from 1962 to 1964 and then with a series that ran from 1968 to 1971. ABC added the "Joey Bishop" Show, with Regis Philbin as his sidekick, to its late-night lineup in 1967, employing a talk show format, in an attempt to compete against the "Tonight Show," which lasted until 1969. CBS went without late-night TV (the closest thing it would have to a late-night show was its popular late-prime-time variety show "The Danny Kaye Show" from 1963 to 1967) until 1969, when it acquired "The Merv Griffin Show" from syndication; Griffin returned to syndication in 1972, and CBS would not air any further late-night talk shows until 1989, instead opting for reruns, lifestyle programs and, later, imported Canadian dramas in the time slot. By the 1960s, NBC had already cornered the market for late-night television viewing and would dominate the ratings for several decades in the future.


title: Late-night talk show

text: A number of restrictions on television networks that took effect in 1971, among them a nationwide prohibition on tobacco advertising, the requirement that a portion of prime time be set aside for local stations, and rules prohibiting networks from also acting as syndicators, prompted NBC to extend its broadcast day by an additional hour with programming it hoped would recuperate some of its lost revenue. In 1973, NBC launched two new programs: a concert series, "The Midnight Special," that aired Friday nights, and a low-cost talk show, "The Tomorrow Show," hosted by Tom Snyder, that aired Mondays through Thursdays. Both shows aired immediately following Carson's "Tonight Show" at 1:00 a.m. ET. "Tomorrow" was different from "The Tonight Show". For instance, the show originally featured no studio audience, while Snyder would conduct one-on-one interviews (Snyder's guest list was often more eclectic and would sometimes include the intellectuals and cultural and artistic figures that Carson had long since abandoned) with a cigarette in hand. Carson's new contract in 1980 allowed him to cut the length of his show from 90 minutes to 60 minutes, and for a short time, "Tomorrow" was moved to an earlier timeslot, to fill the time gap left by Carson's move. NBC felt that Snyder's more conversational style would not bring in enough viewership in the earlier time slot, forcibly changed the show's format to resemble Carson's, and added gossip reporter Rona Barrett as a co-host. The two did not get along and had an acrimonious relationship on and off the air. The agreement gave Carson's production company ownership of the timeslot following "Tonight", which, a year later, Carson Productions and NBC used to create "Late Night with David Letterman". When NBC offered Snyder the time slot after Letterman, he refused it, having always been resentful of the forced change in format, and "NBC News Overnight", a newscast, took the slot instead, some months after "Tomorrow's" final broadcast in 1982.


title: Late-night talk show

text: During his tenure as host of "The Tonight Show", Carson became known as "The King of Late Night". While numerous hosts (Merv Griffin and Dick Cavett being the best-known) attempted to compete with Carson, none was ever successful in drawing more viewers than Carson did on "Tonight", not even ABC's short-lived revival of Paar's show in 1973 using the name "Jack Paar Tonite" (though Paar blamed erratic scheduling and his own unwillingness to succeed at the expense of Cavett, his friend and former writer). Much like Paar, Carson became tired of fulfilling the workload of 525 minutes a week, so "The Tonight Show" was shortened to 90 minutes and again to 60 minutes in 1980 with 15 weeks of vacation a year. Because of a lack of competition, Carson was free to take time off (by 1980, he was only hosting three new shows a week) and have guest hosts on the show on a weekly basis, and for weeks at a time when Carson was on vacation, including Joey Bishop (a former competitor of his), Joan Rivers, David Letterman, Bob Newhart, Don Rickles, David Brenner and Jerry Lewis.


title: Late-night talk show

text: In his final years, Carson produced new shows only three nights a week with guest hosts and "Best of Carson" reruns the other two nights. From 1983 to 1986, Rivers and Brenner served as Carson's permanent guest hosts. Many in 1986, including top executives at NBC, thought it was possible that Johnny Carson would retire after reaching his 25th anniversary on October 1, 1987, as it was such a logical cut-off point. In the spring of 1986, a confidential memo, between top NBC executives listing about ten possible replacements in the event of Carson's retirement the next year, was leaked. When Rivers saw it, she was shocked to see that she was nowhere on the list despite the fact that she had been "The Tonight Show"'s permanent guest host since 1983. In 1986, Joan Rivers joined the brand-new Fox network, where she would host her own late-night talk show, "The Late Show," which competed directly against "The Tonight Show". Clint Holmes served as Rivers' announcer while Mark Hudson served as band leader. Carson was incensed that Rivers did not consult him beforehand and never spoke to her again.


title: Late-night talk show

text: Brenner also left "Tonight" in 1986, although he did so amicably, to launch a syndicated 30-minute late-night talk show called "Nightlife," which was canceled after one season.


title: Late-night talk show

text: Garry Shandling, who had been a frequent guest host in the early 1980s, served as permanent guest host, alternating with Jay Leno, from 1986 to 1987, when he left to focus on his cable show, leaving Leno to be Carson's sole guest host.


title: Late-night talk show

text: In June 1987, the very successful "Late Night with David Letterman" on NBC expanded from four to five nights per week, displacing the four-year-old "Friday Night Videos" to the timeslot following it. "FNV," which had several subsequent format changes, ran until 2002.


title: Late-night talk show

text: Carson did not retire in 1987, instead continuing as host until 1992 with Leno as sole permanent guest host. Rivers was fired from "The Late Show" in 1987 after abysmal ratings and a battle with network executives, leading to her being replaced by Arsenio Hall. Hall performed extremely well among viewers in the 18–49 demographic; however, Fox had already greenlit "The Wilton North Report" to replace "The Late Show", leading to Hall hosting his own late-night talk show in syndication after "The Late Show" was canceled in 1988. "The Late Show" continued with several unknown hosts until its cancellation. Hall's syndicated show, "The Arsenio Hall Show", began in syndication in 1988, becoming more popular among younger viewers than Carson. The last network attempt at a Carson competitor, CBS's "The Pat Sajak Show", lasted less than 16 months, debuting in 1989 and being canceled in 1990. ABC opted not to compete against Carson with a late-night talk show; in 1980, it produced a pilot of a Richard Dawson-hosted show called "Bizarre" (it instead went to series on Showtime with John Byner as host) and, for two years, carried the weekly sketch comedy series "Fridays". ABC instead counterprogrammed Carson with a successful news magazine entitled "Nightline," beginning in 1980.


title: Late-night talk show

text: Beginning on August 22, 1988, NBC concluded its main programming for the day with a half-hour entry, "Later," hosted by NBC sportscaster Bob Costas and airing at 1:35 a.m. Eastern, after Letterman, Mondays through Thursdays. It originated from 30 Rockefeller Plaza in New York and bore a strong resemblance to an earlier NBC late-night favorite, Tom Snyder's "Tomorrow," due to its lack of the typical late-night trappings in favor of a low-key but intense concentration upon Costas interviewing a single guest. Costas hosted the program until 1994.


title: Late-night talk show

text: Carson retired as host of "The Tonight Show" in 1992 following his 30th anniversary as host. This garnered major media attention and speculation on who would replace Carson. The two candidates were David Letterman (host of "Late Night" since 1982) and Jay Leno (Carson's regular guest host since 1987). Leno was eventually chosen, leading to Letterman leaving the network to launch a direct competitor late-night talk show, the "Late Show with David Letterman" on CBS in 1993. "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno" debuted in 1992. Letterman was replaced by newcomer Conan O'Brien as host of "Late Night". Arsenio Hall's show lost numerous affiliates after Letterman's debut and his show was canceled one year later. Fox returned to late-night television in September 1993 with "The Chevy Chase Show". However, due to sagging ratings, disastrous reviews and Chase's embitterment at not being allowed to do the show according to his preferences, the show was canceled the following month. On NBC's "Later," Bob Costas gave way to the host of the cable show "Talk Soup," Greg Kinnear, whose tenure was accompanied by a move to Burbank and toward a more conventional, audience-and-celebrity-driven format. Kinnear parlayed that experience into a movie career and stayed only two years; he was succeeded by a plethora of fill-in hosts for the next four years. Even MTV entered the late-night contest when it debuted "The Jon Stewart Show", hosted by Jon Stewart, which ran until 1995. Letterman initially won the late-night ratings battle but fell behind Leno in 1995; Leno generally remained in first place until first leaving "Tonight" in 2009. To combat NBC's "Late Night", David Letterman (ironically, its former host) created "The Late Late Show" to follow Letterman at 12:37 a.m.; the first host was the one who helmed "The Tomorrow Show" in the 1970s and 1980s, Tom Snyder, who hosted the show using the same format as "Tomorrow" until his departure in 1999. Yet again, ironically, Snyder was Letterman's predecessor on NBC (see above). "The Late Late Show's" second host, Craig Kilborn, followed a more conventional (albeit low-budget) late-night format. He had previously served as host of "The Daily Show", a late-night satirical news program on Comedy Central, and upon Kilborn's departure, Jon Stewart replaced him on that cable program. Perhaps one of the most unusual late-night hosts to come out of this boom was basketball player and later entrepreneur Magic Johnson, whose syndicated "The Magic Hour" was a major flop and effectively ended any future efforts from anyone else at a syndicated late-night talk show at that point in time.


title: Late-night talk show

text: ABC finally re-entered the late-night first-run comedy fray, after an absence of 15 years, in 1997 by placing "Politically Incorrect with Bill Maher" (which had aired on Comedy Central from 1993 to 1996) into its lineup after "Nightline". Unlike traditional late-night talk shows, "Politically Incorrect" was a half hour in length and (following a brief host monologue) featured a panel of four guests debating topical issues while Maher moderated in a comedic fashion.


title: Late-night talk show

text: With the new millennium in 2000, NBC's "Later" finally got another permanent host after various figures had taken the chair for several years, in the form of a VH1 personality, Cynthia Garrett, who broke the proverbial "glass ceiling" by becoming the first African-American female late-night host. Unfortunately, Garrett only lasted a year before NBC canceled the 12-and-a-half-year-old "Later" in favor of reruns of the critically acclaimed cult Canadian-produced sketch comedy series, "SCTV," itself a former NBC late-night program that aired Fridays between 1981 and 1983. That action, a temporary measure, was necessitated by the prolonged development of, and negotiations with a host of, a slated replacement show (see below).


title: Late-night talk show

text: Many late-night talk shows went off the air in the days following the September 11 attacks of 2001, while their networks aired round-the-clock news coverage. Letterman was the first to return on September 17, addressing the situation in an opening monologue. The show was not presented in its normal jovial manner, and featured Dan Rather, Regis Philbin, and a musical performance from Tori Amos. "Politically Incorrect" also resumed on September 17 and immediately drew controversy due to remarks Maher and a guest (Dinesh D'Souza) made concerning the "coward" label given to the terrorists by President George W. Bush. "The Tonight Show" returned the following night, featuring John McCain and a performance from Crosby, Stills, and Nash.


title: Late-night talk show

text: After NBC's placeholding run of "SCTV" at 1:35 a.m. came to an end after a year, the network debuted "Last Call with Carson Daly" in its place in January 2002; Daly was a former MTV VJ. Four months later, it expanded to five nights a week (from "Later's" four), and unlike the other shows on the air at the time, only a half-year's worth of first-run programs were recorded each season. In 2009, Daly dropped the traditional celebrity-driven in-studio template in favor of something of a travelogue that carried the viewer to various pop-culture attractions throughout the U.S., along with interviews. Daly survived a brush with cancelation in 2010 and continued the program for nine more years.


title: Late-night talk show

text: "Politically Incorrect" was canceled due to low ratings in the summer of 2002, after which Maher joined HBO and began hosting the similarly formatted weekly series "Real Time". ABC then tapped Comedy Central personality Jimmy Kimmel to host a more traditional late-night program, "Jimmy Kimmel Live!". From its beginning in 2003 until early 2013, the show aired following "Nightline" on ABC's late-night lineup. With "Nightline" past its prime in audience size due to the proliferation of cable news, and ABC believing in stronger ratings potential in the timeslot, "Jimmy Kimmel Live!" was moved to 11:35 p.m. ET/PT on January 8, 2013—placing it in line with its competitors, Letterman and Leno.


title: Late-night talk show

text: On October 17, 2005, Comedy Central premiered a spin-off of "The Daily Show" hosted by regular cast member Stephen Colbert, "The Colbert Report". The show was structured as a parody of personality-based cable news programs, featuring Colbert portrayed as a narcissistic conservative pundit reminiscent of Fox News hosts such as Bill O'Reilly and Tucker Carlson, among others.


title: Late-night talk show

text: Jake Sasseville entered the late-night arena after a self-syndication campaign got him clearance on several ABC affiliates by local general managers in 2008. "The Edge with Jake Sasseville" aired after "Jimmy Kimmel Live!" in some markets, reaching a total of 35 million homes, despite the network's concerns. The show went off the air in 2010. Another syndicated show that earned significant clearance in the late 2000s was "Comics Unleashed", a panel comedy show that lasted only one season but was seen in reruns for several years afterward.


title: Late-night talk show

text: Scottish native Craig Ferguson succeeded Kilborn as host of "The Late Late Show" in 2005, renaming it "The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson". TBS entered the late-night scene in 2009 when it debuted "Lopez Tonight", hosted by comedian George Lopez. On September 27, 2004, the 50th anniversary of "The Tonight Show"s debut, NBC announced that Jay Leno would be succeeded by Conan O'Brien, in 2009. Leno explained that he did not want to cause a repeat of the hard feelings and controversy that occurred when he was picked for the show over David Letterman following Carson's retirement in 1992. O'Brien's final "Late Night" episode was taped on February 20, 2009. "Saturday Night Live" alum Jimmy Fallon took over as host of "Late Night" on March 2, 2009.


title: Late-night talk show

text: The popularity of late-night shows in the United States has been cited as a key factor in Americans not getting a requisite seven to eight hours of sleep per night. Since 2015, late-night talk shows have competed for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety Talk Series; prior to then, the genre competed against general variety shows for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety Series.


title: Late-night talk show

text: Jay Leno hosted his final episode of "The Tonight Show" on May 29, 2009, with his successor Conan O'Brien, and musician James Taylor as his guests. O'Brien took over hosting duties on "The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien" the following Monday, June 1, 2009.


title: Late-night talk show

text: In September 2009, Leno began hosting a new prime time talk show on NBC, "The Jay Leno Show". It aired on weeknights at 10p.m. ET/PT before late local news and "The Tonight Show", and featured sketches and elements carried over from his tenure. The program faced dismal ratings, which also led to complaints from NBC affiliates that it was impacting the viewership of their late local newscasts.


title: Late-night talk show

text: On January 7, 2010, multiple media outlets reported that "The Jay Leno Show" would be moved to 11:35 p.m. and "The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien" would be moved from 11:35 p.m. to 12:05 a.m. effective March 1, 2010, the first time in its history that the show would begin after midnight in the Eastern Time Zone. On January 12, 2010, O'Brien publicly announced in an open letter that he intended to leave NBC if it moved "The Tonight Show" to any timeslot after midnight in order to accommodate "The Jay Leno Show" at 11:35 p.m. ET. He felt it would damage the show's legacy, as it had always started after the late local news since it began in 1954.


title: Late-night talk show

text: After several days of negotiations, O'Brien reached a settlement with NBC that allowed him to leave "The Tonight Show" on January 22, 2010, ending his affiliation with NBC after 22 years. Leno began his second tenure as host of "The Tonight Show" on March 1, 2010, after the 2010 Winter Olympics, but only after major controversy. Leno's second "Tonight" iteration was taped at NBC's Studio 11 in Burbank, the former home of "The Jay Leno Show", with a modified version of that show's set. After leaving NBC, O'Brien began hosting his new late night talk show, "Conan", on TBS on November 8, 2010, after the non-compete clause in his NBC contract had lapsed.


title: Late-night talk show

text: In March 2013, news broke that NBC was expected to part ways with Leno for good after his contract expired in 2014, clearing the way for Fallon (whose tenure at "Late Night" had found success with a young, culturally savvy audience that was very desirable to advertisers) to take over "The Tonight Show" beginning that year, which also marked the 60th anniversary of the franchise. NBC confirmed the change on April 3, 2013. Under Fallon, the show returned to New York City, where the show originated from its 1954 debut until 1972; NBC no longer owns the former company-owned studios in Burbank where Carson and Leno's programs originated (O'Brien's "Tonight Show" taped at nearby Universal Studios). On May 13, 2013, it was announced that Fallon's former "SNL" castmate Seth Meyers would assume the duties of "Late Night" once Fallon moved to "The Tonight Show". "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon" debuted during NBC's coverage of the Winter Olympics in Russia on February 17, 2014, while "Late Night with Seth Meyers" debuted one week later.


title: Late-night talk show

text: 2014 and 2015 saw a realignment to CBS's late night lineup: in April 2014, Craig Ferguson announced that he would leave "The Late Late Show" at the end of the year. On September 8, 2014, British actor and comedian James Corden was announced as the new host of "The Late Late Show". His incarnation of the program is modelled more upon British chat shows such as "The Graham Norton Show", de-emphasizing the monologue and relying on multiple guests present throughout the show, rather than interviewed individually. Meanwhile, in May 2015, David Letterman retired from "Late Show," ending a 33-year career on late-night TV, and was succeeded the following September by Stephen Colbert—who departed from Comedy Central and "The Colbert Report" to host the program. On August 6, 2015, Jon Stewart also retired from "The Daily Show" (being succeeded by fellow cast member and South African comedian Trevor Noah), joining "The Late Show with Stephen Colbert" as an executive producer and occasional contributor.


title: Late-night talk show

text: "The Late Show with Stephen Colbert" achieved critical and ratings successes for its satire of the 2016 U.S. presidential election campaign and the presidency of Donald Trump; following the 2018-19 television season, it was the highest-rated late-night talk show overall for the third season in a row, and narrowly beat "The Tonight Show" in key demographic (18-to-49-year-old) viewership for the first time since 1994–95.


title: Late-night talk show

text: On February 12, 2019, NBC announced that "Last Call with Carson Daly" would conclude after its 2000th and final episode. Daly had already reduced his role on the program, due to his commitments to the "Today Show" and other projects. On September 16, 2019, NBC premiered "A Little Late with Lilly Singh"—a new talk show hosted by Indian-Canadian YouTuber Lilly Singh. She became the first openly bisexual person and the first person of Indian descent to host a U.S. late-night talk show.


title: Late-night talk show

text: All of the late-night shows were forced to eliminate their studio audiences in March 2020 as a result of measures intended to mitigate the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States; for most of that spring, shows were either hosted from the hosts' homes, or (in the case of "Jimmy Kimmel Live!" and "A Little Late") they suspended production altogether, before returning to mostly empty studios in the summer. Singh opted not to continue "A Little Late" beyond 2021, and NBC returned the time slot to its affiliates. By October 2021, all late night TV shows (with the exception of "The Daily Show" who opted to be permanently without an audience) had full audiences return to their studio.


title: Late-night talk show

text: Le Chezfrancis Kakonde show on Antenne A Monday/Wednesday and friday at 23h (19th season) since 2003-2022


title: Fabian Thylmann

text: Fabian Thylmann (born 5 June 1978) is a businessman from Germany who was founder and managing partner of the Internet pornography conglomerate Manwin (now MindGeek). In October 2013, he sold his stake in the company, which was at the time the largest pornography operator in the world.


title: Fabian Thylmann

text: Thylmann was born in Düsseldorf. He started computer programming when he was 17. His breakthrough came in the late 1990s when he developed software called NATS (Next-generation Affiliate Tracking Software), which enabled website operators to track users' clicks on advertisements and links so that they could be paid commission. Thylmann used the money he made with NATS to buy various Internet pornography companies, and in March 2010, he established Manwin by acquiring the companies Mensef and Interhub. Manwin bought Pornhub, YouPorn, RedTube, Brazzers, Twistys.com, Mofos and other pornography websites.


title: Fabian Thylmann

text: According to a 2016 interview with "EU-Startups", Thylmann claimed that he didn't miss the "adrenaline" and responsibilities that came with running Manwin, stating that he was working on "fun relaxing projects".


title: Fabian Thylmann

text: In December 2012, Thylmann was extradited from Belgium to Germany on suspicion of tax evasion. He did not contest the extradition order, although he reportedly denied avoiding paying tax.


title: Fabian Thylmann

text: In April 2015, Thylmann was indicted by the Cologne, Germany federal prosecutor on tax evasion charges. The charges were dropped when he paid 5 million euros but he still faces a suspended sentence in another case.


title: Space colonization

text: Space colonization (also called space settlement or extraterrestrial colonization) is the use of outer space or celestial bodies other than Earth for permanent habitation or as extraterrestrial territory.


title: Space colonization

text: The inhabitation and territorial use of extraterrestrial space has been proposed to be realized by for example building space settlements or extraterrestrial mining enterprises. To date, no permanent space settlement other than temporary space habitats have been set up, nor any extraterrestrial territory or land has been legally claimed.


title: Space colonization

text: Making territorial claims in space is prohibited by international space law, defining space as a common heritage. International space law has had the goal to prevent colonial claims and militarization of space, advocating the installation of international regimes to regulate access to and sharing of space, particularly for specific locations such as the limited space of geostationary orbit or the Moon.


title: Space colonization

text: Many arguments both for and against space settlement have been made. The two most common in favor of colonization are survival of human civilization and life from Earth in the event of a planetary-scale disaster (natural or human-made), and the availability of additional resources in space that could enable expansion of human society. The most common objections to colonization include concerns that the commodification of the cosmos may be likely to enhance the interests of the already powerful, including major economic and military institutions; enormous opportunity cost as compared to expending the same resources here on Earth; exacerbation of pre-existing detrimental processes such as wars, economic inequality, and environmental degradation.


title: Space colonization

text: A space settlement would set a precedent that would raise numerous socio-political questions. The mere construction of the needed infrastructure presents a daunting set of technological and economic challenges. Space settlements are generally conceived as organizational and material structures that have to provide for nearly all (or all) the needs of larger numbers of humans, in an environment out in space that is very hostile to human life and inaccessible for maintenance and supply from Earth. It would involve technologies, such as controlled ecological life-support systems, that have yet to be developed in any meaningful way. It would also have to deal with the as-yet-unknown issue of how humans would behave and thrive in such places long-term. Because of the present cost of sending anything from the surface of the Earth into orbit (around $1400 per kg, or $640 per pound, to low Earth orbit by Falcon Heavy), a space settlement would currently be a massively expensive project. On the technological front, there is ongoing progress in making access to space cheaper (reusable launch systems could reach $20 per kg to orbit), and in creating automated manufacturing and construction techniques.


title: Space colonization

text: There are yet no plans for building space settlement by any large-scale organization, either government or private. However, many proposals, speculations, and designs for space settlements have been made through the years, and a considerable number of space colonization advocates and groups are active. Several famous scientists, such as Freeman Dyson, have come out in favor of space settlement.


title: Space colonization

text: The term has been used very broadly, being applied to any permanent human presence, even robotic, particularly along with the term "settlement", being imprecisely applied to any human space habitat, from research stations to self-sustaining communities in space.


title: Space colonization

text: The word colony and colonization are terms rooted in colonial history on Earth, making it a human geographic as well as particularly a political term.


title: Space colonization

text: This broad use for any permanent human activity and development in space has been criticized, particularly as colonialist and undifferentiated (see below Objections).


title: Space colonization

text: In this sense, a colony is a settlement that claims territory and exploits it for the settlers or their metropole. Therefore a human outpost, while possibly a space habitat or even a space settlement, does not automatically constitute a space colony. Though entrepôts like trade "factories" did often grow into colonies.


title: Space colonization

text: When the first space flight programs commenced they partly used and have continued to use colonial spaces on Earth, such as places of indigenous peoples at the RAAF Woomera Range Complex, Guiana Space Centre or contemporarily for astronomy at the Mauna Kea telescope.


title: Space colonization

text: When orbital spaceflight was achieved in the 1950s colonialism was still a strong international project, e.g. easing the United States to advance its space program and space in general as part of a "New Frontier". But during the initial decades of the space age decolonization also gained again in force producing many newly independent countries. These newly independent countries confronted spacefaring countries, demanding an anti-colonial stance and regulation of space activity when space law was raised and negotiated internationally.


title: Space colonization

text: Fears of a confrontations because of land grab and an arms race in space between the few countries with spaceflight capabilities gained and were ultimatly shared by the spacefaring countries themselves. This produced the wording of the agreed on international space law, starting with the Outer Space Treaty of 1967, calling space a "province of all mankind" and securing provisions for international regulation and sharing of outer space.


title: Space colonization

text: The advent of geostationary satellites raised the case of limited space in outer space. A group of equatorial countries, all of which were countries that were once colonies of colonial empires, but without spaceflight capabilities, signed in 1976 the Bogota Declaration. These countries declared that geostationary orbit is a limited natural resource and belongs to the equatorial countries directly below, seeing it not as part of outer space, humanity's common. Through this the declaration challenged the dominance of geostationary orbit by spacefaring countries through identifying their dominance as imperialistic. Furthermore this dominance in space has foreshadowed threats to the Outer Space Treaty guaranteed accessibility to space, as in the case of space debris which is ever increasing because of a lack of access regulation.


title: Space colonization

text: In 1977 finally the first sustained space habitat the Salyut 6 station was put into Earth's orbit. Eventually the first space stations were succeeded by the ISS, today's largest human outpost in space and closest to a space settlement.


title: Space colonization

text: Built and operated under a multilateral regime it has become a blueprint for future stations, such as around and possibly on the Moon. An international regime for lunar activity was demanded by the international Moon Treaty, but is currently developed multilaterally as with the Artemis Accords.


title: Space colonization

text: The only habitation on a different celestial body so far have been the temporary habitats of the crewed lunar landers.


title: Space colonization

text: Early suggestions for future colonizers like Francis Drake and Christoph Columbus to reach the Moon and people consequently living there were made by John Wilkins in "A Discourse Concerning a New Planet" in the first half of the 17th century.


title: Space colonization

text: The first known work on space colonization was "The Brick Moon", a work of fiction published in 1869 by Edward Everett Hale, about an inhabited artificial satellite. In 1897 Kurd Lasswitz also wrote about space colonies.


title: Space colonization

text: The Russian rocket science pioneer Konstantin Tsiolkovsky foresaw elements of the space community in his book "Beyond Planet Earth" written about 1900. Tsiolkovsky had his space travelers building greenhouses and raising crops in space. Tsiolkovsky believed that going into space would help perfect human beings, leading to immortality and peace.


title: Space colonization

text: In the 1920s John Desmond Bernal, Hermann Oberth, Guido von Pirquet and Herman Noordung further developed the idea. Wernher von Braun contributed his ideas in a 1952 "Colliers" article. In the 1950s and 1960s, Dandridge M. Cole published his ideas.


title: Space colonization

text: Another seminal book on the subject was the book "The High Frontier: Human Colonies in Space" by Gerard K. O'Neill in 1977 which was followed the same year by "Colonies in Space " by T. A. Heppenheimer.


title: Space colonization

text: Marianne J. Dyson wrote "Home on the Moon; Living on a Space Frontier" in 2003; Peter Eckart wrote "Lunar Base Handbook" in 2006 and then Harrison Schmitt's "Return to the Moon" written in 2007.


title: Space colonization

text: Location is a frequent point of contention between space colonization advocates. The location of colonization can be on a physical body planet, dwarf planet, natural satellite, or asteroid or orbiting one. For settlements not on a body see also space habitat.


title: Space colonization

text: The Moon is discussed as a target for colonization, due to its proximity to Earth and lower escape velocity. Abundant ice in certain areas could provide support for the water needs of a lunar colony, However, the Moon's lack of atmosphere provides no protection from space radiation or meteoroids, so lunar lava tubes have been proposed sites to gain protection. The Moon's low surface gravity is also a concern, as it is unknown whether 1/6g is enough to maintain human health for long periods. Interest in establishing a moonbase has increased in the 21st century as an intermediate to Mars colonization, with such proposals as the Moon Village for research, mining, and trade facilities with permanent habitation.


title: Space colonization

text: Another near-Earth possibility are the stable Earth–Moon Lagrange points and , at which point a space colony can float indefinitely. The L5 Society was founded to promote settlement by building space stations at these points. Gerard K. O'Neill suggested in 1974 that the L point, in particular, could fit several thousands of floating colonies, and would allow easy travel to and from the colonies due to the shallow effective potential at this point.


title: Space colonization

text: Once thought to be a volatile-depleted body like our Moon, Mercury is now known to be volatile-rich, surprisingly richer in volatiles than any other terrestrial body in the inner Solar System. The planet also receives six and a half times the solar flux as the Earth/Moon system, making solar energy a very effective energy source; it could be harnessed through orbital solar arrays and beamed to the surface or exported to other planets.


title: Space colonization

text: Geologist Stephen Gillett suggested in 1996 that this could make Mercury an ideal place to build and launch solar sail spacecraft, which could launch as folded-up "chunks" by mass driver from Mercury's surface. Once in space, the solar sails would deploy. Solar energy for the mass driver should be easy to come by, and solar sails near Mercury would have 6.5 times the thrust they do near Earth. This could make Mercury an ideal place to acquire materials useful in building hardware to send to (and terraform) Venus. Vast solar collectors could also be built on or near Mercury to produce power for large-scale engineering activities such as laser-pushed light sails to nearby star systems.


title: Space colonization

text: As Mercury has essentially no axial tilt, crater floors near its poles lie in eternal darkness, never seeing the Sun. They function as cold traps, trapping volatiles for geological periods. It is estimated that the poles of Mercury contain 10–10 kg of water, likely covered by about 5.65×10 m of hydrocarbons. This would make agriculture possible. It has been suggested that plant varieties could be developed to take advantage of the high light intensity and the long day of Mercury. The poles do not experience the significant day-night variations the rest of Mercury do, making them the best place on the planet to begin a colony.


title: Space colonization

text: Another option is to live underground, where day-night variations would be damped enough that temperatures would stay roughly constant. There are indications that Mercury contains lava tubes, like the Moon and Mars, which would be suitable for this purpose. Underground temperatures in a ring around Mercury's poles can even reach room temperature on Earth, 22±1 °C; and this is achieved at a depths starting from only about 0.7 m. This presence of volatiles and abundance of energy has led Alexander Bolonkin and James Shifflett to consider Mercury preferable to Mars for colonization.


title: Space colonization

text: Yet a third option could be to continually move to stay on the night side, as Mercury's 176-day-long day-night cycle means that the terminator travels very slowly.


title: Space colonization

text: Because Mercury is very dense, its surface gravity is 0.38g like Mars, even though it is a smaller planet. This would be easier to adjust to than lunar gravity (0.16g), but still present advantages regarding lower escape velocity from the planet. Mercury's proximity gives it advantages over the asteroids and outer planets, and its low synodic period means that launch windows from Earth to Mercury are more frequent than those from Earth to Venus or Mars.


title: Space colonization

text: On the downside, a Mercury colony would require significant shielding from radiation and solar flares, and since Mercury is airless, decompression and temperature extremes would be constant risks.


title: Space colonization

text: Surface conditions on Venus are extremely hostile to human life: average surface temperature is 464 °C (hot enough to melt lead), and average surface pressure is 92 times Earth's atmospheric pressure – roughly equivalent to a depth of one kilometre under Earth's oceans. (There is some variation; due to its altitude, the peak of Maxwell Montes is at only 380 °C and 45 bar, making it the coolest and least pressurised location on Venus' surface. There are also some hot spots at about 700 °C.) Solar energy is not available at the surface due to the constant cloud cover, and the carbon dioxide atmosphere is poisonous.


title: Space colonization

text: However, the upper atmosphere of Venus has much more Earthlike conditions and has been suggested as a plausible colonization location since at least 1971 by Soviet scientists. At just over 50 km altitude (the cloud tops), atmospheric pressure is roughly equal to that on Earth's surface, and temperatures range from 0–50 °C. The volatile elements necessary for life are present (hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur), and above the clouds, solar energy is abundant. Pressurization would not be required; humans could even go outside the habitats safely with oxygen provision and clothing to protect against the sulfuric acid droplets. Geoffrey Landis has pointed out that breathable air is a lifting gas in Venus' atmosphere: a cubic meter of air would lift half a kilogram, and an oxygen- and nitrogen-filled aerostat the size of a city on Venus would be able to lift the mass of a city. This suggests floating aerostat cities as a colonization method for Venus. The lack of pressure differences between the outside and inside means that there is ample time to repair habitat breaches. With just over three times the land area of Earth, there would be space even for a billion such cities. The atmosphere provides enough radiation shielding at this altitude, and Venus' 0.90g gravity is likely sufficient to prevent the negative health effects of microgravity.


title: Space colonization

text: A day on Venus is very long on the surface, but the atmosphere rotates much faster than the planet (a phenomenon called superrotation), so a floating habitat would only have a day of about a hundred hours. Landis compares this favorably with polar days and nights on Earth. A floating habitat at higher latitudes on Venus would approach a normal 24-hour cycle. Mining the surface would give access to important industrial metals, and it could be accessed via airplanes, balloons, or fullerene cables meant to withstand high temperatures. To avoid the problem of the habitat being in motion relative to its mining devices, the habitat could descend into the lower atmosphere: this region is hotter, but Landis argues that a large-sized habitat would have enough heat capacity to have no problem with a short stay at higher temperatures.


title: Space colonization

text: The asteroid belt has significant overall material available, but it is thinly distributed as it covers a vast region of space. The largest asteroid is Ceres, which at about 940 km in diameter is big enough to be a dwarf planet. The next two largest are Pallas and Vesta, both about 520 km in diameter. Uncrewed supply craft should be practical with little technological advance, even crossing 500 million kilometers of space. The colonists would have a strong interest in assuring their asteroid did not hit Earth or any other body of significant mass, but would have extreme difficulty in moving an asteroid of any size. The orbits of the Earth and most asteroids are very distant from each other in terms of delta-v and the asteroidal bodies have enormous momentum. Rockets or mass drivers can perhaps be installed on asteroids to direct their path into a safe course.


title: Space colonization

text: Ceres has readily available water, ammonia, and methane, important for survival, fuel, and possibly terraforming of Mars and Venus. The colony could be established on a surface crater or underground. However, even Ceres only manages a tiny surface gravity of 0.03g, which is not enough to stave off the negative effects of microgravity (though it does make transportation to and from Ceres easier). Either medical treatments or artificial gravity would thus be required. Additionally, colonizing the main asteroid belt would likely require infrastructure to already be present on the Moon and Mars.


title: Space colonization

text: Some have suggested that Ceres could act as a main base or hub for asteroid mining. However, Geoffrey A. Landis has pointed out that the asteroid belt is a poor place for an asteroid-mining base if more than one asteroid is to be exploited: the asteroids are not close to each other, and two asteroids chosen at random are quite likely to be on opposite sides from the Sun from each other. He suggests that it would be better to construct such a base on an inner planet, such as Venus: inner planets have higher orbital velocities, making the transfer time to any specific asteroid shorter, and orbit the Sun faster, so that the launch windows to the asteroid are more frequent (a lower synodic period). Thus Venus is closer to the asteroids than Earth or Mars in terms of flight time. Transfer times for the journeys Venus–Ceres and Venus–Vesta are only 1.15 and 0.95 years respectively along minimum-energy trajectories, which is shorter even than Earth–Ceres and Earth–Vesta at 1.29 and 1.08 years respectively.


title: Space colonization

text: Human missions to the outer planets would need to arrive quickly due to the effects of space radiation and microgravity along the journey. In 2012, Thomas B. Kerwick wrote that the distance to the outer planets made their human exploration impractical for now, noting that travel times for round trips to Mars were estimated at two years, and that the closest approach of Jupiter to Earth is over ten times farther than the closest approach of Mars to Earth. However, he noted that this could change with "significant advancement on spacecraft design". Nuclear-thermal or nuclear-electric engines have been suggested as a way to make the journey to Jupiter in a reasonable amount of time. The cold would also be a factor, necessitating a robust source of heat energy for spacesuits and bases.


title: Space colonization

text: Robert Zubrin has suggested Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune as advantageous locations for colonization because their atmospheres are good sources of fusion fuels, such as deuterium and helium-3. Zubrin suggested that Saturn would be the most important and valuable as it is the closest and has an excellent satellite system. Jupiter's high gravity makes it difficult to extract gases from its atmosphere, and its strong radiation belt makes developing its system difficult. On the other hand, fusion power has yet to be achieved, and fusion power from helium-3 is more difficult to achieve than conventional deuterium–tritium fusion. Jeffrey Van Cleve, Carl Grillmair, and Mark Hanna instead focus on Uranus, because the delta-v required to get helium-3 from the atmosphere into orbit is half that needed for Jupiter, and because Uranus' atmosphere is five times richer in helium than Saturn's.


title: Space colonization

text: Jupiter's Galilean moons (Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto) and Saturn's Titan are the only moons that have gravities comparable to our Moon. Our Moon has a 0.17g gravity; Io, 0.18g; Europa, 0.13g; Ganymede, 0.15g; Callisto, 0.13g; and Titan, 0.14g. Neptune's Triton has about half the Moon's gravity (0.08g); other round moons provide even less (starting from Uranus' Titania and Oberon at about 0.04g).


title: Space colonization

text: Radiation levels on Io and Europa are extreme, enough to kill unshielded humans within an Earth day. Therefore, only Callisto and perhaps Ganymede could reasonably support a human colony. Callisto orbits outside Jupiter's radiation belt. Ganymede's low latitudes are partially shielded by the moon's magnetic field, though not enough to completely remove the need for radiation shielding. Both of them have available water, silicate rock, and metals that could be mined and used for construction.


title: Space colonization

text: Although Io's volcanism and tidal heating constitute valuable resources, exploiting them is probably impractical. Europa is rich in water (its subsurface ocean is expected to contain over twice as much water as all Earth's oceans together) and likely oxygen, but metals and minerals would have to be imported. If alien microbial life exists on Europa, human immune systems may not protect against it. Sufficient radiation shielding might, however, make Europa an interesting location for a research base. The private "Artemis Project" drafted a plan in 1997 to colonize Europa, involving surface igloos as bases to drill down into the ice and explore the ocean underneath, and suggesting that humans could live in "air pockets" in the ice layer. Ganymede and Callisto are also expected to have internal oceans.


title: Space colonization

text: In 2003, NASA performed a study called "HOPE" (Revolutionary Concepts for Human Outer Planet Exploration) regarding the future exploration of the Solar System. The target chosen was Callisto due to its distance from Jupiter, and thus the planet's harmful radiation. It could be possible to build a surface base that would produce fuel for further exploration of the Solar System. HOPE estimated a round trip time for a crewed mission of about 2–5 years, assuming significant progress in propulsion technologies.


title: Space colonization

text: Saturn has seven moons large enough to be round: in order of increasing distance from Saturn, they are Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, Dione, Rhea, Titan, and Iapetus. Titan is the largest and the only one with a Moon-like gravity: it is the only moon in the Solar System to have a dense atmosphere and is rich in carbon-bearing compounds, suggesting it as a colonization target. Titan has water ice and large methane oceans. Robert Zubrin identified Titan as possessing an abundance of all the elements necessary to support life, making Titan perhaps the most advantageous locale in the outer Solar System for colonization.


title: Space colonization

text: The small moon Enceladus is also of interest, having a subsurface ocean that is separated from the surface by only tens of meters of ice at the south pole, compared to kilometers of ice separating the ocean from the surface on Europa. Volatile and organic compounds are present there, and the moon's high density for an ice world (1.6 g/cm) indicates that its core is rich in silicates.


title: Space colonization

text: Saturn's radiation belt is much weaker than Jupiter's, so radiation is less of an issue here. Dione, Rhea, Titan, and Iapetus all orbit outside the radiation belt, and Titan's thick atmosphere would adequately shield against cosmic radiation.


title: Space colonization

text: Freeman Dyson suggested that within a few centuries human civilization will have relocated to the Kuiper belt.


title: Space colonization

text: Looking beyond the Solar System, there are up to several hundred billion potential stars with possible colonization targets. The main difficulty is the vast distances to other stars: roughly a hundred thousand times farther away than the planets in the Solar System. This means that some combination of very high speed (some more-than-fractional percentage of the speed of light), or travel times lasting centuries or millennia, would be required. These speeds are far beyond what current spacecraft propulsion systems can provide.


title: Space colonization

text: Space colonization technology could in principle allow human expansion at high, but sub-relativistic speeds, substantially less than the speed of light, "c".  An interstellar colony ship would be similar to a space habitat, with the addition of major propulsion capabilities and independent energy generation.


title: Space colonization

text: The above concepts appear limited to high, but still sub-relativistic speeds, due to fundamental energy and reaction mass considerations, and all would entail trip times which might be enabled by space colonization technology, permitting self-contained habitats with lifetimes of decades to centuries. Yet human interstellar expansion at average speeds of even 0.1% of "c"  would permit settlement of the entire Galaxy in less than one-half of the Sun's galactic orbital period of ~240,000,000 years, which is comparable to the timescale of other galactic processes. Thus, even if interstellar travel at near relativistic speeds is never feasible (which cannot be determined at this time), the development of space colonization could allow human expansion beyond the Solar System without requiring technological advances that cannot yet be reasonably foreseen. This could greatly improve the chances for the survival of intelligent life over cosmic timescales, given the many natural and human-related hazards that have been widely noted.


title: Space colonization

text: If humanity does gain access to a large amount of energy, on the order of the mass-energy of entire planets, it may eventually become feasible to construct Alcubierre drives. These are one of the few methods of superluminal travel which may be possible under current physics. However, it is probable that such a device could never exist, due to the fundamental challenges posed. For more on this see Difficulties of making and using an Alcubierre Drive.


title: Space colonization

text: The distances between galaxies are on the order of a million times farther than those between the stars, and thus intergalactic colonization would involve voyages of millions of years via special self-sustaining methods.


title: Space colonization

text: Space activity is legally based on the Outer Space Treaty, the main international treaty. But space law has become a larger legal field, which includes other international agreements such as the significantly less ratified Moon Treaty and diverse national laws.


title: Space colonization

text: The Outer Space Treaty established the basic ramifications for space activity in article one:"The exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries, irrespective of their degree of economic or scientific development, and shall be the province of all mankind."


title: Space colonization

text: And continued in article two by stating:"Outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means."


title: Space colonization

text: The development of international space law has revolved much around outer space being defined as common heritage of mankind. The "Magna Carta of Space" presented by William A. Hyman in 1966 framed outer space explicitly not as "terra nullius" but as "res communis", which subsequently influenced the work of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space.


title: Space colonization

text: The primary argument calling for space colonization is the long-term survival of human civilization and terrestrial life. By developing alternative locations off Earth, the planet's species, including humans, could live on in the event of natural or human-made disasters on our own planet.


title: Space colonization

text: On two occasions, theoretical physicist and cosmologist Stephen Hawking argued for space colonization as a means of saving humanity. In 2001, Hawking predicted that the human race would become extinct within the next thousand years unless colonies could be established in space. In 2010, he stated that humanity faces two options: either we colonize space within the next two hundred years, or we will face the long-term prospect of extinction.


title: Space colonization

text: In 2005, then NASA Administrator Michael Griffin identified space colonization as the ultimate goal of current spaceflight programs, saying:


title: Space colonization

text: Louis J. Halle, formerly of the United States Department of State, wrote in "Foreign Affairs" (Summer 1980) that the colonization of space will protect humanity in the event of global nuclear warfare. The physicist Paul Davies also supports the view that if a planetary catastrophe threatens the survival of the human species on Earth, a self-sufficient colony could "reverse-colonize" Earth and restore human civilization. The author and journalist William E. Burrows and the biochemist Robert Shapiro proposed a private project, the Alliance to Rescue Civilization, with the goal of establishing an off-Earth "backup" of human civilization.


title: Space colonization

text: Based on his Copernican principle, J. Richard Gott has estimated that the human race could survive for another 7.8 million years, but it is not likely to ever colonize other planets. However, he expressed a hope to be proven wrong, because "colonizing other worlds is our best chance to hedge our bets and improve the survival prospects of our species".


title: Space colonization

text: In a theoretical study from 2019, a group of researchers have pondered the long-term trajectory of human civilization. It is argued that due to Earth's finitude as well as the limited duration of the Solar System, mankind's survival into the far future will very likely require extensive space colonization. This 'astronomical trajectory' of mankind, as it is termed, could come about in four steps: First step, plenty of space colonies could be established at various habitable locations — be it in outer space or on celestial bodies away from Earth – and allowed to remain dependent on support from Earth for a start. In the second step, these colonies could gradually become self-sufficient, enabling them to survive if or when the mother civilization on Earth fails or dies. Third step, the colonies could develop and expand their habitation by themselves on their space stations or celestial bodies, for example via terraforming. In the fourth step, the colonies could self-replicate and establish new colonies further into space, a process that could then repeat itself and continue at an exponential rate throughout the cosmos. However, this astronomical trajectory may not be a lasting one, as it will most likely be interrupted and eventually decline due to resource depletion or straining competition between various human factions, bringing about some 'star wars' scenario.


title: Space colonization

text: Resources in space, both in materials and energy, are enormous. The Solar System alone has, according to different estimates, enough material and energy to support anywhere from several thousand to over a billion times that of the current Earth-based human population, mostly from the Sun itself.


title: Space colonization

text: Asteroid mining will also be a key player in space colonization. Water and materials to make structures and shielding can be easily found in asteroids. Instead of resupplying on Earth, mining and fuel stations need to be established on asteroids to facilitate better space travel. Optical mining is the term NASA uses to describe extracting materials from asteroids. NASA believes by using propellant derived from asteroids for exploration to the moon, Mars, and beyond will save $100 billion. If funding and technology come sooner than estimated, asteroid mining might be possible within a decade.


title: Space colonization

text: Although some items of the infrastructure requirements above can already be easily produced on Earth and would therefore not be very valuable as trade items (oxygen, water, base metal ores, silicates, etc.), other high-value items are more abundant, more easily produced, of higher quality, or can only be produced in space. These would provide (over the long-term) a very high return on the initial investment in space infrastructure.


title: Space colonization

text: Some of these high-value trade goods include precious metals, gemstones, power, solar cells, ball bearings, semi-conductors, and pharmaceuticals.


title: Space colonization

text: The mining and extraction of metals from a small asteroid the size of 3554 Amun or (6178) 1986 DA, both small near-Earth asteroids, would be 30 times as much metal as humans have mined throughout history. A metal asteroid this size would be worth approximately US$20 trillion at 2001 market prices


title: Space colonization

text: The main impediments to commercial exploitation of these resources are the very high cost of initial investment, the very long period required for the expected return on those investments ("The Eros Project" plans a 50-year development), and the fact that the venture has never been carried out before—the high-risk nature of the investment.


title: Space colonization

text: Expansion of humans and technological progress has usually resulted in some form of environmental devastation, and destruction of ecosystems and their accompanying wildlife. In the past, expansion has often come at the expense of displacing many indigenous peoples, the resulting treatment of these peoples ranging anywhere from encroachment to genocide. Because space has no known life, this need not be a consequence, as some space settlement advocates have pointed out. However, on some bodies of the Solar System, there is the potential for extant native lifeforms and so the negative consequences of space colonization cannot be dismissed.


title: Space colonization

text: Counterarguments state that changing only the location but not the logic of exploitation will not create a more sustainable future.


title: Space colonization

text: An argument for space colonization is to mitigate proposed impacts of overpopulation of Earth, such as resource depletion. If the resources of space were opened to use and viable life-supporting habitats were built, Earth would no longer define the limitations of growth. Although many of Earth's resources are non-renewable, off-planet colonies could satisfy the majority of the planet's resource requirements. With the availability of extraterrestrial resources, demand on terrestrial ones would decline. Proponents of this idea include Stephen Hawking and Gerard K. O'Neill.


title: Space colonization

text: Others including cosmologist Carl Sagan and science fiction writers Arthur C. Clarke, and Isaac Asimov, have argued that shipping any excess population into space is not a viable solution to human overpopulation. According to Clarke, "the population battle must be fought or won here on Earth". The problem for these authors is not the lack of resources in space (as shown in books such as "Mining the Sky"), but the physical impracticality of shipping vast numbers of people into space to "solve" overpopulation on Earth.


title: Space colonization

text: Advocates for space colonization cite a presumed innate human drive to explore and discover, and call it a quality at the core of progress and thriving civilizations.


title: Space colonization

text: Nick Bostrom has argued that from a utilitarian perspective, space colonization should be a chief goal as it would enable a very large population to live for a very long period of time (possibly billions of years), which would produce an enormous amount of utility (or happiness). He claims that it is more important to reduce existential risks to increase the probability of eventual colonization than to accelerate technological development so that space colonization could happen sooner. In his paper, he assumes that the created lives will have positive ethical value despite the problem of suffering.


title: Space colonization

text: In a 2001 interview with Freeman Dyson, J. Richard Gott and Sid Goldstein, they were asked for reasons why some humans should live in space. Their answers were:


title: Space colonization

text: Biotic ethics is a branch of ethics that values life itself. For biotic ethics, and their extension to space as panbiotic ethics, it is a human purpose to secure and propagate life and to use space to maximize life.


title: Space colonization

text: Space colonization has been seen as a relief to the problem of human overpopulation as early as 1758, and listed as one of Stephen Hawking's reasons for pursuing space exploration. Critics note, however, that a slowdown in population growth rates since the 1980s has alleviated the risk of overpopulation.


title: Space colonization

text: Critics also argue that the costs of commercial activity in space are too high to be profitable against Earth-based industries, and hence that it is unlikely to see significant exploitation of space resources in the foreseeable future.


title: Space colonization

text: Other objections include concerns that the forthcoming colonization and commodification of the cosmos is likely to enhance the interests of the already powerful, including major economic and military institutions e.g. the large financial institutions, the major aerospace companies and the military–industrial complex, to lead to new wars, and to exacerbate pre-existing exploitation of workers and resources, economic inequality, poverty, social division and marginalization, environmental degradation, and other detrimental processes or institutions.


title: Space colonization

text: Additional concerns include creating a culture in which humans are no longer seen as human, but rather as material assets. The issues of human dignity, morality, philosophy, culture, bioethics, and the threat of megalomaniac leaders in these new "societies" would all have to be addressed in order for space colonization to meet the psychological and social needs of people living in isolated colonies.


title: Space colonization

text: As an alternative or addendum for the future of the human race, many science fiction writers have focused on the realm of the 'inner-space', that is the computer-aided exploration of the human mind and human consciousness—possibly en route developmentally to a Matrioshka Brain.


title: Space colonization

text: Robotic spacecraft are proposed as an alternative to gain many of the same scientific advantages without the limited mission duration and high cost of life support and return transportation involved in human missions.


title: Space colonization

text: A corollary to the Fermi paradox—"nobody else is doing it"—is the argument that, because no evidence of alien colonization technology exists, it is statistically unlikely to even be possible to use that same level of technology ourselves.


title: Space colonization

text: Space colonization has been discussed as postcolonial continuation of imperialism and colonialism, calling for decolonization instead of colonization. Critics argue that the present politico-legal regimes and their philosophic grounding advantage imperialist development of space and that key decisionmakers in space colonization are often wealthy elites affiliated with private corporations, and that space colonization would primarily appeal to their peers rather than ordinary citizens. Furthermore, it is argued that there is a need for inclusive and democratic participation and implementation of any space exploration, infrastructure or habitation. According to space law expert Michael Dodge, existing space law, such as the Outer Space Treaty, guarantees access to space, but does not enforce social inclusiveness or regulate non-state actors.


title: Space colonization

text: Particularly the narrative of the "New Frontier", has been criticized as unreflected continuation of settler colonialism and manifest destiny, continuing the narrative of exploration as fundamental to the assumed human nature. Joon Yun considers space colonization as a solution to human survival and global problems like pollution to be imperialist, as such others have identified space as a new sacrifice zone of colonialism.


title: Space colonization

text: Natalie B. Trevino argues that not colonialism but coloniality will be carried into space if not reflected on.


title: Space colonization

text: More specifically the advocacy for territorial colonization of Mars opposed to habitation in the atmospheric space of Venus has been called "surfacism", a concept similar to Thomas Golds "surface chauvinism".


title: Space colonization

text: More generally space infrastructure such as the Mauna Kea Observatories have also been criticized and protested against as being colonialist. Guiana Space Centre has also been the site of anti-colonial protests, connecting colonization as an issue on Earth and in space.


title: Space colonization

text: In regard to the scenario of extraterrestrial first contact it has been argued that being used to employ colonial language would endanger such first impressions and encounters.


title: Space colonization

text: Furthermore spaceflight as a whole and space law more particularly has been criticized as a postcolonial project by being built on a colonial legacy and by not facilitating the sharing of access to space and its benefits, too often allowing spaceflight to be used to sustain colonialism and imperialism, most of all on Earth instead.


title: Space colonization

text: Robotic spacecraft to Mars are required to be sterilized, to have at most 300,000 spores on the exterior of the craft—and more thoroughly sterilized if they contact "special regions" containing water, or it could contaminate life-detection experiments or the planet itself.


title: Space colonization

text: It is impossible to sterilize human missions to this level, as humans are host to typically a hundred trillion microorganisms of thousands of species of the human microbiome, and these cannot be removed while preserving the life of the human. Containment seems the only option, but it is a major challenge in the event of a hard landing (i.e. crash). There have been several planetary workshops on this issue, but with no final guidelines for a way forward yet. Human explorers could also inadvertently contaminate Earth if they return to the planet while carrying extraterrestrial microorganisms.


title: Space colonization

text: The health of the humans who may participate in a colonization venture would be subject to increased physical, mental and emotional risks. NASA learned that – without gravity – bones lose minerals, causing osteoporosis. Bone density may decrease by 1% per month, which may lead to a greater risk of osteoporosis-related fractures later in life. Fluid shifts towards to the head may cause vision problems. NASA found that isolation in closed environments aboard the International Space Station led to depression, sleep disorders, and diminished personal interactions, likely due to confined spaces and the monotony and boredom of long space flight. Circadian rhythm may also be susceptible to the effects of space life due to the effects on sleep of disrupted timing of sunset and sunrise. This can lead to exhaustion, as well as other sleep problems such as insomnia, which can reduce their productivity and lead to mental health disorders. High-energy radiation is a health risk that colonizers would face, as radiation in deep space is deadlier than what astronauts face now in low Earth orbit. Metal shielding on space vehicles protects against only 25-30% of space radiation, possibly leaving colonizers exposed to the other 70% of radiation and its short and long-term health complications.


title: Space colonization

text: Building colonies in space would require access to water, food, space, people, construction materials, energy, transportation, communications, life support, simulated gravity, radiation protection and capital investment. It is likely the colonies would be located near the necessary physical resources. The practice of space architecture seeks to transform spaceflight from a heroic test of human endurance to a normality within the bounds of comfortable experience. As is true of other frontier-opening endeavors, the capital investment necessary for space colonization would probably come from governments, an argument made by John Hickman and Neil deGrasse Tyson.


title: Space colonization

text: In space settlements, a life support system must recycle or import all the nutrients without "crashing." The closest terrestrial analogue to space life support is possibly that of a nuclear submarine. Nuclear submarines use mechanical life support systems to support humans for months without surfacing, and this same basic technology could presumably be employed for space use. However, nuclear submarines run "open loop"—extracting oxygen from seawater, and typically dumping carbon dioxide overboard, although they recycle existing oxygen. Another commonly proposed life-support system is a closed ecological system such as Biosphere 2.


title: Space colonization

text: Although there are many physical, mental, and emotional health risks for future colonizers and pioneers, solutions have been proposed to correct these problems. Mars500, HI-SEAS, and SMART-OP represent efforts to help reduce the effects of loneliness and confinement for long periods of time. Keeping contact with family members, celebrating holidays, and maintaining cultural identities all had an impact on minimizing the deterioration of mental health. There are also health tools in development to help astronauts reduce anxiety, as well as helpful tips to reduce the spread of germs and bacteria in a closed environment. Radiation risk may be reduced for astronauts by frequent monitoring and focusing work away from the shielding on the shuttle. Future space agencies can also ensure that every colonizer would have a mandatory amount of daily exercise to prevent degradation of muscle.


title: Space colonization

text: Cosmic rays and solar flares create a lethal radiation environment in space. In Earth orbit, the Van Allen belts make living above the Earth's atmosphere difficult. To protect life, settlements must be surrounded by sufficient mass to absorb most incoming radiation, unless magnetic or plasma radiation shields were developed.


title: Space colonization

text: Passive mass shielding of four metric tons per square meter of surface area will reduce radiation dosage to several mSv or less annually, well below the rate of some populated high natural background areas on Earth. This can be leftover material (slag) from processing lunar soil and asteroids into oxygen, metals, and other useful materials. However, it represents a significant obstacle to manoeuvring vessels with such massive bulk (mobile spacecraft being particularly likely to use less massive active shielding). Inertia would necessitate powerful thrusters to start or stop rotation, or electric motors to spin two massive portions of a vessel in opposite senses. Shielding material can be stationary around a rotating interior.


title: Space colonization

text: The monotony and loneliness that comes from a prolonged space mission can leave astronauts susceptible to cabin fever or having a psychotic break. Moreover, lack of sleep, fatigue, and work overload can affect an astronaut's ability to perform well in an environment such as space where every action is critical.


title: Space colonization

text: Space colonization can roughly be said to be possible when the necessary methods of space colonization become cheap enough (such as space access by cheaper launch systems) to meet the cumulative funds that have been gathered for the purpose, in addition to estimated profits from commercial use of space.


title: Space colonization

text: Although there are no immediate prospects for the large amounts of money required for space colonization to be available given traditional launch costs, there is some prospect of a radical reduction to launch costs in the 2010s, which would consequently lessen the cost of any efforts in that direction. With a published price of per launch of up to payload to low Earth orbit, SpaceX Falcon 9 rockets are already the "cheapest in the industry". Advancements currently being developed as part of the SpaceX reusable launch system development program to enable reusable Falcon 9s "could drop the price by an order of magnitude, sparking more space-based enterprise, which in turn would drop the cost of access to space still further through economies of scale." If SpaceX is successful in developing the reusable technology, it would be expected to "have a major impact on the cost of access to space", and change the increasingly competitive market in space launch services.


title: Space colonization

text: The President's Commission on Implementation of United States Space Exploration Policy suggested that an inducement prize should be established, perhaps by government, for the achievement of space colonization, for example by offering the prize to the first organization to place humans on the Moon and sustain them for a fixed period before they return to Earth.


title: Space colonization

text: Experts have debated on the possible usage of money and currencies in societies that will be established in space. The Quasi Universal Intergalactic Denomination, or QUID, is a physical currency made from a space-qualified polymer PTFE for inter-planetary travelers. QUID was designed for the foreign exchange company Travelex by scientists from Britain's National Space Centre and the University of Leicester.


title: Space colonization

text: Other possibilities include the incorporation of cryptocurrency as the primary form of currency, as suggested by Elon Musk.


title: Space colonization

text: Colonies on the Moon, Mars, asteroids, or the metal rich planet Mercury, could extract local materials. The Moon is deficient in volatiles such as argon, helium and compounds of carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen. The LCROSS impacter was targeted at the Cabeus crater which was chosen as having a high concentration of water for the Moon. A plume of material erupted in which some water was detected. Mission chief scientist Anthony Colaprete estimated that the Cabeus crater contains material with 1% water or possibly more. Water ice should also be in other permanently shadowed craters near the lunar poles. Although helium is present only in low concentrations on the Moon, where it is deposited into regolith by the solar wind, an estimated million tons of He-3 exists over all. It also has industrially significant oxygen, silicon, and metals such as iron, aluminum, and titanium.


title: Space colonization

text: Launching materials from Earth is expensive, so bulk materials for colonies could come from the Moon, a near-Earth object (NEO), Phobos, or Deimos. The benefits of using such sources include: a lower gravitational force, no atmospheric drag on cargo vessels, and no biosphere to damage. Many NEOs contain substantial amounts of metals. Underneath a drier outer crust (much like oil shale), some other NEOs are inactive comets which include billions of tons of water ice and kerogen hydrocarbons, as well as some nitrogen compounds.


title: Space colonization

text: Solar energy in orbit is abundant, reliable, and is commonly used to power satellites today. There is no night in free space, and no clouds or atmosphere to block sunlight. Light intensity obeys an inverse-square law. So the solar energy available at distance "d" from the Sun is "E" = 1367/"d" W/m, where "d" is measured in astronomical units (AU) and 1367 watts/m is the energy available at the distance of Earth's orbit from the Sun, 1 AU.


title: Space colonization

text: In the weightlessness and vacuum of space, high temperatures for industrial processes can easily be achieved in solar ovens with huge parabolic reflectors made of metallic foil with very lightweight support structures. Flat mirrors to reflect sunlight around radiation shields into living areas (to avoid line-of-sight access for cosmic rays, or to make the Sun's image appear to move across their "sky") or onto crops are even lighter and easier to build.


title: Space colonization

text: Large solar power photovoltaic cell arrays or thermal power plants would be needed to meet the electrical power needs of the settlers' use. In developed parts of Earth, electrical consumption can average 1 kilowatt/person (or roughly 10 megawatt-hours per person per year.) These power plants could be at a short distance from the main structures if wires are used to transmit the power, or much farther away with wireless power transmission.


title: Space colonization

text: A major export of the initial space settlement designs was anticipated to be large solar power satellites (SPS) that would use wireless power transmission (phase-locked microwave beams or lasers emitting wavelengths that special solar cells convert with high efficiency) to send power to locations on Earth, or to colonies on the Moon or other locations in space. For locations on Earth, this method of getting power is extremely benign, with zero emissions and far less ground area required per watt than for conventional solar panels. Once these satellites are primarily built from lunar or asteroid-derived materials, the price of SPS electricity could be lower than energy from fossil fuel or nuclear energy; replacing these would have significant benefits such as the elimination of greenhouse gases and nuclear waste from electricity generation.


title: Space colonization

text: Transmitting solar energy wirelessly from the Earth to the Moon and back is also an idea proposed for the benefit of space colonization and energy resources. Physicist Dr. David Criswell, who worked for NASA during the Apollo missions, came up with the idea of using power beams to transfer energy from space. These beams, microwaves with a wavelength of about 12 cm, will be almost untouched as they travel through the atmosphere. They can also be aimed at more industrial areas to keep away from humans or animal activities. This will allow for safer and more reliable methods of transferring solar energy.


title: Space colonization

text: In 2008, scientists were able to send a 20 watt microwave signal from a mountain in Maui to the island of Hawaii. Since then JAXA and Mitsubishi has teamed up on a $21 billion project in order to place satellites in orbit which could generate up to 1 gigawatt of energy. These are the next advancements being done today in order to make energy be transmitted wirelessly for space-based solar energy.


title: Space colonization

text: However, the value of SPS power delivered wirelessly to other locations in space will typically be far higher than to Earth. Otherwise, the means of generating the power would need to be included with these projects and pay the heavy penalty of Earth launch costs. Therefore, other than proposed demonstration projects for power delivered to Earth, the first priority for SPS electricity is likely to be locations in space, such as communications satellites, fuel depots or "orbital tugboat" boosters transferring cargo and passengers between low Earth orbit (LEO) and other orbits such as geosynchronous orbit (GEO), lunar orbit or highly-eccentric Earth orbit (HEEO). The system will also rely on satellites and receiving stations on Earth to convert the energy into electricity. Because of this energy can be transmitted easily from dayside to nightside meaning power is reliable 24/7.


title: Space colonization

text: Nuclear power is sometimes proposed for colonies located on the Moon or on Mars, as the supply of solar energy is too discontinuous in these locations; the Moon has nights of two Earth weeks in duration. Mars has nights, relatively high gravity, and an atmosphere featuring large dust storms to cover and degrade solar panels. Also, Mars' greater distance from the Sun (1.52 astronomical units, AU) means that only "1/1.52" or about 43% of the solar energy is available at Mars compared with Earth orbit. Another method would be transmitting energy wirelessly to the lunar or Martian colonies from solar power satellites (SPSs) as described above; the difficulties of generating power in these locations make the relative advantages of SPSs much greater there than for power beamed to locations on Earth. In order to also be able to fulfill the requirements of a Moon base and energy to supply life support, maintenance, communications, and research, a combination of both nuclear and solar energy will be used in the first colonies.


title: Space colonization

text: For both solar thermal and nuclear power generation in airless environments, such as the Moon and space, and to a lesser extent the very thin Martian atmosphere, one of the main difficulties is dispersing the inevitable heat generated. This requires fairly large radiator areas.


title: Space colonization

text: Space manufacturing could enable self-replication. Some think it's the ultimate goal because it allows an exponential increase in colonies, while eliminating costs to and dependence on Earth. It could be argued that the establishment of such a colony would be Earth's first act of self-replication. Intermediate goals include colonies that expect only information from Earth (science, engineering, entertainment) and colonies that just require periodic supply of light weight objects, such as integrated circuits, medicines, genetic material and tools.


title: Space colonization

text: In 2002, the anthropologist John H. Moore estimated that a population of 150–180 would permit a stable society to exist for 60 to 80 generations—equivalent to 2,000 years.