title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: Before the destruction of the Second Temple, Judaism was divided into antagonistic factions. The main camps were the Pharisees, Saducees, and Zealots, but also included other less influential sects. The 1st century BCE and 1st century CE saw a number of charismatic religious leaders, contributing to what would become the Mishnah of Rabbinic Judaism, including Yochanan ben Zakai and Hanina Ben Dosa.


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: Following the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE and the expulsion of the Jews from the Roman province of Judea, Jewish worship stopped being centrally organized around the Temple, prayer took the place of sacrifice, and worship was rebuilt around rabbis who acted as teachers and leaders of individual communities.


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: The destruction of the Second Temple was a profoundly traumatic experience for the Jews, who were now confronted with difficult and far-reaching questions:


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: How people answered these questions depended largely on their position prior to the revolt. But the destruction of the Second Temple by the Romans not only put an end to the revolt, it marked the end of an era. Revolutionaries like the Zealots had been crushed by the Romans, and had little credibility (the last Zealots died at Masada in 73). The Sadducees, whose teachings were so closely connected to the Temple cult, disappeared. The Essenes also vanished, perhaps because their teachings so diverged from the issues of the times that the destruction of the Second Temple was of no consequence to them; precisely for this reason, they were of little consequence to the vast majority of Jews.


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: Two organized groups remained: the Early Christians, and Pharisees. Some scholars, such as Daniel Boyarin and Paula Fredricksen, suggest that it was at this time, when Christians and Pharisees were competing for leadership of the Jewish people, that accounts of debates between Jesus and the apostles, debates with Pharisees, and anti-Pharisaic passages, were written and incorporated into the New Testament.


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: Of all the major Second Temple sects, only the Pharisees remained. Their vision of Jewish law as a means by which ordinary people could engage with the sacred in their daily lives, provided them with a position from which to respond to all four challenges, in a way meaningful to the vast majority of Jews.


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: Following the destruction of the Temple, Rome governed Judea through a Procurator at Caesarea and a Jewish Patriarch. A former leading Pharisee, Yohanan ben Zakkai, was appointed the first Patriarch (the Hebrew word, Nasi, also means prince, or president), and he reestablished the Sanhedrin at Javneh under Pharisee control. Instead of giving tithes to the priests and sacrificing offerings at the Temple, the rabbis instructed Jews to give money to charities and study in local synagogues, as well as to pay the "Fiscus Iudaicus".


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: In 132, the Emperor Hadrian threatened to rebuild Jerusalem as a pagan city dedicated to Jupiter, called Aelia Capitolina. Some of the leading sages of the Sanhedrin supported a rebellion (and, for a short time, an independent state) led by Simon bar Kozeba (also called Simon bar Kokhba, or "son of a star"); some, such as Rabbi Akiva, believed Bar Kokhba to be a messiah. Up until this time, a number of Christians were still part of the Jewish community. However, they did not support or take part in the revolt. Whether because they had no wish to fight, or because they could not support a second messiah in addition to Jesus, or because of their harsh treatment by Bar Kokhba during his brief reign, these Christians also left the Jewish community around this time.


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: This revolt ended in 135 when Bar Kokhba and his army were defeated. The Romans then barred Jews from Jerusalem, until Constantine allowed Jews to enter for one day each year, during the holiday of Tisha B'Av.


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: After the suppression of the revolt the vast majority of Jews were sent into exile; shortly thereafter (around 200), Judah haNasi edited together judgments and traditions into an authoritative code, the Mishnah. This marks the transformation of Pharisaic Judaism into Rabbinic Judaism.


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: Although the rabbis traced their origins to the Pharisees, Rabbinic Judaism nevertheless involved a radical repudiation of certain elements of Pharisaism, elements that were basic to Second Temple Judaism. The Pharisees had been partisan. Members of different sects argued with one another over the correctness of their respective interpretations. After the destruction of the Second Temple, these sectarian divisions ended. The term "Pharisee" was no longer used, perhaps because it was a term more often used by non-Pharisees, but also because the term was explicitly sectarian. The rabbis claimed leadership over all Jews, and added to the Amidah the "birkat haMinim", a prayer which in part exclaims, "Praised are You O Lord, who breaks enemies and defeats the arrogant," and which is understood as a rejection of sectarians and sectarianism. This shift by no means resolved conflicts over the interpretation of the Torah; rather, it relocated debates between sects to debates within Rabbinic Judaism.


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: The survival of Pharisaic or Rabbinic Judaism is attributed to Rabbi Yohanan ben Zakkai, the founder of the Yeshiva (religious school) in Yavne. Yavneh replaced Jerusalem as the new seat of a reconstituted Sanhedrin, which reestablished its authority and became a means of reuniting Jewry.


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: The destruction of the Second Temple brought about a dramatic change in Judaism. Rabbinic Judaism built upon Jewish tradition while adjusting to new realities. Temple ritual was replaced with prayer service in synagogues which built upon practices of Jews in the diaspora dating back to the Babylonian exile.


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: As the rabbis were required to face two shattering new realities, Judaism without a Temple (to serve as the center of teaching and study) and Judea without autonomy, there was a flurry of legal discourse and the old system of oral scholarship could not be maintained. It is during this period that rabbinic discourse began to be recorded in writing. The theory that the destruction of the Temple and subsequent upheaval led to the committing of Oral Law into writing was first explained in the Epistle of Sherira Gaon and often repeated.


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: The Oral Law was subsequently codified in the Mishnah and Gemarah, and is interpreted in rabbinic literature detailing subsequent rabbinic decisions and writings. Rabbinic Jewish literature is predicated on the belief that the Written Law cannot be properly understood without recourse to the Oral Law (the Mishnah).


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: Much rabbinic Jewish literature concerns specifying what behavior is sanctioned by the law; this body of interpretations is called "halakha" ("the way").


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: The Talmud contains discussions and opinions regarding details of many oral laws believed to have originally been transmitted to Moses. Some see Exodus 18 and Numbers 11 as a display of Moses' appointing elders as judges to govern with him and judge disputes, imparting to them details and guidance of how to interpret the laws of God while carrying out their duties. The Oral Torah includes rules intended to prevent violations of the laws of the Torah and Talmud, sometimes referred to as "a fence around the Torah". For example, the written Torah prohibits certain types of travelling on the Sabbath; consequently, the Oral Torah prohibits walking great distances on the Sabbath to ensure that one does not accidentally engage in a type of travelling prohibited by the written Torah. Similarly, the written Torah prohibits plowing on the Sabbath; the Oral Torah prohibits carrying a stick on the Sabbath to ensure that one does not drag the stick and accidentally engage in prohibited plowing.


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: As the rabbis were required to face a new reality, that of Judaism without a Temple (to serve as the location for sacrifice and study) and Judea without autonomy, there was a flurry of legal discourse, and the old system of oral scholarship could not be maintained. It is during this period that rabbinic discourse began to be recorded in writing. The theory that the destruction of the Temple and subsequent upheaval led to the committing of Oral Torah into writing was first explained in the Epistle of Sherira Gaon and often repeated.


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: The Oral Torah was subsequently codified in the Mishnah and Gemara, and is interpreted in rabbinic literature detailing subsequent rabbinic decisions and writings. Rabbinic Jewish literature is predicated on the belief that the Torah cannot be properly understood without recourse to the Oral Torah. It states that many commandments and stipulations contained in the Written Torah would be difficult, if not impossible, to keep without the Oral Torah to define them. For example, the prohibition to do any "creative work" ("melakha") on the Sabbath, which is given no definition in the Torah, is given a practical meaning in the Oral Torah, which provides definition of what constitutes "melakha". Numerous examples exist of this general prohibitive language in the Torah (such as, "don't steal", without defining what is considered theft, or ownership and property laws), requiring—according to rabbinic thought—a subsequent definition through the Oral Torah. Thus Rabbinic Judaism claims that almost all directives, both positive and negative, in the Torah are non-specific in nature and require the existence of either an Oral Torah or some other method to explain them.


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: Originally, Jewish scholarship was oral. Rabbis expounded and debated the law (the written law expressed in the Hebrew Bible) and discussed the Tanakh without the benefit of written works (other than the biblical books themselves), though some may have made private notes (""), for example of court decisions. This situation changed drastically, however, mainly as the result of the destruction of the Jewish commonwealth in the year 70 CE and the consequent upheaval of Jewish social and legal norms. As the rabbis were required to face a new reality—mainly Judaism without a Temple (to serve as the center of teaching and study) and Judea without autonomy—there was a flurry of legal discourse and the old system of oral scholarship could not be maintained. It is during this period that rabbinic discourse began to be recorded in writing.


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: The earliest recorded oral law may have been of the midrashic form, in which halakhic discussion is structured as exegetical commentary on the Pentateuch (Torah). But an alternative form, organized by subject matter instead of by biblical verse, became dominant about the year 200 CE, when Rabbi Judah haNasi redacted the Mishnah ().


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: The Oral Law was far from monolithic; rather, it varied among various schools. The most famous two were the School of Shammai and the School of Hillel. In general, all valid opinions, even the non-normative ones, were recorded in the Talmud.


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: The Talmud has two components: the Mishnah (c. 200 CE), the first written compendium of Judaism's Oral Law; and the Gemara (c. 500 CE), a discussion of the Mishnah and related Tannaitic writings that often ventures onto other subjects and expounds broadly on the Tanakh.


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: The rabbis of the Mishnah are known as "Tannaim" (sing. "Tanna" תנא). The rabbis of the Gemara are referred to as "Amoraim" (sing. "Amora" אמורא).


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: The Mishnah does not claim to be the development of new laws, but merely the collection of existing oral laws, traditions and traditional wisdom. The rabbis who contributed to the Mishnah are known as the "Tannaim", of whom approximately 120 are known. The period during which the Mishnah was assembled spanned about 130 years, and five generations.


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: Most of the Mishnah is related without attribution (""). This usually indicates that many sages taught so, or that Judah haNasi who redacted the Mishnah together with his academy/court ruled so. The "halakhic" ruling usually follows that view. Sometimes, however, it appears to be the opinion of a single sage, and the view of the sages collectively (, "hachamim") is given separately.


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: The Talmud records a tradition that unattributed statements of the law represent the views of Rabbi Meir (Sanhedrin 86a), which supports the theory (recorded by Rav Sherira Gaon in his famous "Iggeret") that he was the author of an earlier collection. For this reason, the few passages that actually say "this is the view of Rabbi Meir" represent cases where the author intended to present Rabbi Meir's view as a "minority opinion" not representing the accepted law.


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: Judah haNasi is credited with publishing the Mishnah, although there have been a few edits since his time (for example, those passages that cite him or his grandson, Rabbi Yehuda Nesi'ah; in addition, the Mishnah at the end of Tractate Sotah refers to the period after Judah haNasi's death, which could not have been written by Judah haNasi himself). According to the "Iggeret" of Sherira Gaon, after the tremendous upheaval caused by the destruction of the Temple and the Bar Kokhba revolt, the Oral Torah was in danger of being forgotten. It was for this reason that Judah haNasi chose to redact the Mishnah.


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: In addition to redacting the Mishnah, Judah haNasi and his court also ruled on which opinions should be followed, although the rulings do not always appear in the text.


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: As he went through the tractates, the Mishnah was set forth, but throughout his life some parts were updated as new information came to light. Because of the proliferation of earlier versions, it was deemed too hard to retract anything already released, and therefore a second version of certain laws were released. The Talmud refers to these differing versions as "Mishnah Rishonah" ("First Mishnah") and "Mishnah Acharonah" ("Last Mishnah"). David Zvi Hoffmann suggests that "Mishnah Rishonah" actually refers to texts from earlier sages upon which Judah haNasi based his Mishnah.


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: One theory is that the present Mishnah was based on an earlier collection by Rabbi Meir. There are also references to the "Mishnah of Rabbi Akiva", although this may simply mean his teachings in general. It is possible that Rabbi Akiva and Rabbi Meir established the divisions and order of subjects in the Mishnah, but this would make them the authors of a school curriculum rather than of a book.


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: Authorities are divided on whether Judah haNasi recorded the Mishnah in writing or established it as an oral text for memorisation. The most important early account of its composition, the "Iggeret of Rabbi Sherira Gaon" of Sherira Gaon, is ambiguous on the point, although the "Spanish" recension leans to the theory that the Mishnah was written.


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: The Gemara is the part of the Talmud that contains rabbinical commentaries and analysis of the Mishnah. In the three centuries following the redaction of the Mishnah by Judah ha-Nasi (c. 200 CE), rabbis throughout Palestine and Babylonia analyzed, debated and discussed that work. These discussions form the Gemara (). "Gemara" means "completion" (from the Hebrew ' : "to complete") or "learning" (from the Aramaic: "to study"). The Gemara mainly focuses on elucidating and elaborating the opinions of the Tannaim. The rabbis of the Gemara are known as (sing. ' ).


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: Much of the Gemara consists of legal analysis. The starting point for the analysis is usually a legal statement found in a Mishnah. The statement is then analyzed and compared with other statements used in different approaches to biblical exegesis in rabbinic Judaism (or—simpler—interpretation of text in Torah study) exchanges between two (frequently anonymous and sometimes metaphorical) disputants, termed the ' (questioner) and ' (answerer). Another important function of Gemara is to identify the correct biblical basis for a given law presented in the Mishnah and the logical process connecting one with the other: this activity was known as "talmud" long before the existence of the Talmud as a text.


title: Rabbinic Judaism

text: Orthodox Judaism does not accept the scholarly view that Rabbinic Judaism came into being in the post-Second Temple era. Rather, it sees the Judaism of this period as continuing organically from the religious and cultural heritage of the Israelites, stemming from the Law given to Moses at Sinai onwards. According to this view, while the title "rabbi" was not used earlier, Moses was the first rabbi (and is commonly referred to by Orthodox Jews as "Moses our Rabbi"), with the knowledge and laws received at Sinai being passed down from teachers to students through the era of the Judges, and the prophets (most of whom are seen as the "rabbis" of their time), through the sages of the late Second Temple period, and continuing until today.


title: Jack Hughes (ice hockey, born 2001)

text: Jack Hughes (born May 14, 2001) is an American professional ice hockey center and alternate captain for the New Jersey Devils of the National Hockey League (NHL). A product of the U.S. National Development Team, Hughes was drafted first overall by the Devils in the 2019 NHL Entry Draft, a draft in which he was widely regarded as the top prospect.


title: Jack Hughes (ice hockey, born 2001)

text: While playing with the Mississauga Rebels of the Greater Toronto Hockey League (GTHL), Hughes applied for exceptional status to be able to enter the Canadian Hockey League a year early. After his application was denied, he played his final year with the Toronto Marlboros, putting up 159 points.


title: Jack Hughes (ice hockey, born 2001)

text: After completing his minor career with the Marlboros, Hughes was drafted eighth overall by the Mississauga Steelheads in the Ontario Hockey League, despite his commitment to the U.S. National Team Development Program (USNTDP). Hughes kept his commitment and played with the USNTDP for the 2017–18 season. Splitting his time between the U17 and U18 team, he put up 116 points, nearly beating Auston Matthews's record. At the conclusion of the 2017–18 season, Hughes was awarded the Dave Tyler Junior Player of the Year Award as the best American-born player in junior hockey.


title: Jack Hughes (ice hockey, born 2001)

text: During the 2018–19 season, Hughes broke the NTDP all-time points record that was previously held by Clayton Keller. In a 12–4 win over the Green Bay Gamblers on March 15, 2019, he recorded five points to give him 190 overall. In the same game, teammate Cole Caufield broke the NTDP record for most goals.


title: Jack Hughes (ice hockey, born 2001)

text: On June 21, 2019, at the 2019 NHL Entry Draft, Hughes was selected first overall by the New Jersey Devils. On July 12, Hughes signed a three-year entry level contract with the Devils. Hughes recorded his first career NHL point on October 17, in a game against the New York Rangers. In doing so, he became the third-youngest player in franchise history to record a point. Two days later, he recorded his first career NHL goal in a 1–0 win over the Vancouver Canucks.


title: Jack Hughes (ice hockey, born 2001)

text: On November 30, 2021, Hughes signed an eight-year, $64 million contract extension with the Devils. The following 2021–22 season was considered a breakout year for Hughes, despite missing seventeen games in October after dislocating his shoulder. He was selected to his first NHL All-Star Game in 2022, becoming the first player from the 2019 NHL draft class to be selected as an All-Star. After scoring a new career high of 26 goals and 30 assists in 49 games, the season ended on a disappointing note in early April when Hughes sustained an MCL sprain after a hit by New York Islanders right wing Oliver Wahlstrom, as a result of which he missed the final thirteen games.


title: Jack Hughes (ice hockey, born 2001)

text: In the 2018 IIHF World U18 Championships Hughes was selected as the tournament MVP, named to the All-star team, and was chosen as the best forward of the tournament. He was also the best scorer of the tournament with 12 points in 7 games.


title: Jack Hughes (ice hockey, born 2001)

text: On December 23, 2018, Hughes was selected to compete at the 2019 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships alongside his brother Quinn. Hughes missed three games of the tournament with an undisclosed injury but returned to the lineup in time to help Team USA beat the Czech Republic. He recorded an assist on Noah Cates's goal in his return. Hughes ended the tournament with four assists as Team USA lost to Team Finland in the gold medal match. He later competed at the 2019 IIHF World U18 Championships where he broke Alexander Ovechkin's goals scored record as Team USA won a bronze medal.


title: Jack Hughes (ice hockey, born 2001)

text: On May 1, 2019, Hughes was named to the senior United States roster to compete at the 2019 IIHF World Championship alongside his brother. At the age of 17, Hughes became the youngest player to represent Team USA at an IIHF World Championship. On December 6, 2019, Hughes' NHL team, the New Jersey Devils, announced they would not release him to play for Team USA at the 2020 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships.


title: Jack Hughes (ice hockey, born 2001)

text: Hughes was born in Orlando, Florida, but grew up in Toronto, Ontario. He cited his favorite player as Patrick Kane due to their similar smaller stature. Hughes played a variety of sports growing up, including hockey and baseball. Hughes is Jewish, had a bar mitzvah, and grew up celebrating Passover. His mother is Jewish and his father is Catholic, and he studied at Iona Catholic Secondary School.


title: Jack Hughes (ice hockey, born 2001)

text: Hughes comes from a family of ice hockey athletes. His older brother, Quinn, was drafted seventh overall in the 2018 NHL Entry Draft by the Vancouver Canucks. His younger brother Luke plays for the University of Michigan, and was drafted fourth overall by the Devils in the 2021 NHL Entry Draft. Their father, Jim Hughes, is a former hockey player and team captain for Providence College, an assistant coach for the Boston Bruins, and the director of player development for the Toronto Maple Leafs. His mother, Ellen Weinberg-Hughes, played ice hockey, lacrosse, and soccer at the University of New Hampshire and, in 2012, was inducted into the University of New Hampshire Athletics Hall of Fame. She also played for the United States women's national ice hockey team, and won a silver medal at the 1992 World Championship. His uncle Marty, and his cousin, Teddy Doherty, were also both involved in ice hockey. Marty last played in the British National League for the Dundee Stars, and Teddy last played for the Manchester Monarchs of the ECHL.


title: Enhanced Fujita scale

text: The Enhanced Fujita scale (abbreviated as EF-Scale) rates tornado intensity based on the severity of the damage they cause. It is used in some countries, including the United States, Canada, China, and Mongolia.


title: Enhanced Fujita scale

text: The Enhanced Fujita scale replaced the decommissioned Fujita scale that was introduced in 1971 by Ted Fujita. Operational use began in the United States on February 1, 2007, followed by Canada on April 1, 2013. It has also been proposed for use in France. The scale has the same basic design as the original Fujita scale—six intensity categories from zero to five, representing increasing degrees of damage. It was revised to reflect better examinations of tornado damage surveys, in order to align wind speeds more closely with associated storm damage. Better standardizing and elucidating what was previously subjective and ambiguous, it also adds more types of structures and vegetation, expands degrees of damage, and better accounts for variables such as differences in construction quality. An "EF-Unknown" (EFU) category was later added for tornadoes that cannot be rated due to a lack of damage evidence.


title: Enhanced Fujita scale

text: The newer scale was publicly unveiled by the National Weather Service at a conference of the American Meteorological Society in Atlanta on February 2, 2006. It was developed from 2000 to 2004 by the Fujita Scale Enhancement Project of the Wind Science and Engineering Research Center at Texas Tech University, which brought together dozens of expert meteorologists and civil engineers in addition to its own resources.


title: Enhanced Fujita scale

text: As with the Fujita scale, the Enhanced Fujita scale remains a damage scale and only a proxy for actual wind speeds. While the wind speeds associated with the damage listed have not undergone empirical analysis (such as detailed physical or any numerical modeling) owing to excessive cost, the wind speeds were obtained through a process of expert elicitation based on various engineering studies since the 1970s as well as from the field experience of meteorologists and engineers. In addition to damage to structures and vegetation, radar data, photogrammetry, and cycloidal marks (ground swirl patterns) may be utilized when available.


title: Enhanced Fujita scale

text: The scale was used for the first time in the United States a year after its public announcement when parts of central Florida were struck by multiple tornadoes, the strongest of which were rated at EF3 on the new scale. It was used for the first time in Canada shortly after its implementation there when a tornado developed near the town of Shelburne, Ontario, on April 18, 2013, causing up to EF1 damage.


title: Enhanced Fujita scale

text: The seven categories for the EF scale are listed below, in order of increasing intensity. Although the wind speeds and photographic damage examples have been updated, the damage descriptions given are based on those from the Fujita scale, which are more or less still accurate. However, for the actual EF scale in practice, damage indicators (the type of structure which has been damaged) are predominantly used in determining the tornado intensity.


title: Enhanced Fujita scale

text: The EF scale currently has 28 damage indicators (DI), or types of structures and vegetation, each with a varying number of degrees of damage (DoD). Each structure has a maximum DoD value, which is given by total destruction. Lesser damage to a structure will yield lower DoD values. The links in the right column of the following table describe the degrees of damage for the damage indicators listed in each row.


title: Enhanced Fujita scale

text: The new scale takes into account the quality of construction and standardizes different kinds of structures. The wind speeds on the original scale were deemed by meteorologists and engineers as being too high, and engineering studies indicated that slower winds than initially estimated cause the respective degrees of damage. The old scale lists an F5 tornado as wind speeds of , while the new scale lists an EF5 as a tornado with winds above , found to be sufficient to cause the damage previously ascribed to the F5 range of wind speeds. None of the tornadoes in the United States recorded before February 1, 2007, will be re-categorized.


title: Enhanced Fujita scale

text: Essentially, there is no functional difference in how tornadoes are rated. The old ratings and new ratings are smoothly connected with a linear formula. The only differences are adjusted wind speeds, measurements of which were not used in previous ratings, and refined damage descriptions; this is to standardize ratings and to make it easier to rate tornadoes which strike few structures. Twenty-eight Damage Indicators (DI), with descriptions such as "double-wide mobile home" or "strip mall", are used along with Degrees of Damage (DoD) to determine wind estimates. Different structures, depending on their building materials and ability to survive high winds, have their own DIs and DoDs. Damage descriptors and wind speeds will also be readily updated as new information is learned. Some differences do exist between the two scales in the ratings assigned to damage. An EF5 rating on the new scale requires a higher standard of construction in houses than does an F5 rating on the old scale. So, the complete destruction and sweeping away of a typical American frame home, which would likely be rated F5 on the Fujita scale, would be rated EF4 or lower on the Enhanced Fujita scale.


title: Enhanced Fujita scale

text: Since the new system still uses actual tornado damage and similar degrees of damage for each category to estimate the storm's wind speed, the National Weather Service states that the new scale will likely not lead to an increase in the number of tornadoes classified as EF5. Additionally, the upper bound of the wind speed range for EF5 is open—in other words, there is no maximum wind speed designated.


title: Enhanced Fujita scale

text: For purposes such as tornado climatology studies, Enhanced Fujita scale ratings may be grouped into classes. Classifications are also used by NOAA's Storm Prediction Center to determine whether the tornado was "significant". This same classification is also used by the National Weather Service.


title: Rukmini

text: Rukmini (, , ) is a Hindu goddess and the first queen and chief wife of Krishna. In Vaishnava tradition, she is described as Krishna's principal queen in Dvaraka, as well as the chief of his wives. She is an incarnation of the goddess of prosperity, Lakshmi. The goddess is regarded to be the chief or principal consort of Krishna in various pieces of literature and is venerated primarily in Warkari and Haridasa tradition, and additionally in Sri Vaishnavism where Lakshmi-Narayana are revered and worshipped.


title: Rukmini

text: Rukmini is mainly worshipped in Maharashtra and South India. The people of Maharashtra venerate her with Vithoba (a regional form of Krishna) and call her Rakhumai. In South India, she is worshipped along with Krishna and his other primary consort Satyabhama.


title: Rukmini

text: The name "Rukmini" is derived from the Sanskrit word "Rukma" which means 'Radiant', 'Clear' or 'Bright'. The name can also mean 'decorated with gold ornaments'. Other names and epithets include:


title: Rukmini

text: According to the "Vaikhanasagama", Rukmini should be depicted on the right side of Krishna, her image golden-yellow in complexion. Her hair is supposed to be tied up in a fashionable knot, and should also be adorned with flowers. Her right arm should be hanging down, and she should hold a lotus in her left hand. She is supposed to be adorned with various ornaments.


title: Rukmini

text: The Brahman dispatched by Rukmini to request Krishna to elope with her on her svayamvara describes the princess poetically as bearing beautiful hands, braided tresses, and a face that resembles the moon. She is consistently described as beautiful in other accounts.


title: Rukmini

text: In south Indian iconographic tradition, Rukmini, along with Satyabhama, appear as the primary consorts of Krishna.


title: Rukmini

text: According to the epic "Mahabharata" and other "Puranic" scriptures, Princess Rukmini was born to Bhishmaka—the king of Vidarbha kingdom—and had five elder brothers Rukmi, Rukmaratha, Rukmabahu, Rukmakesa and Rukmanetra. Many Puranas such as "Vishnu Purana", "Bhagavata Purana," and "Padma Purana" praise her as an incarnation of Goddess Lakshmi, the wife of the God Vishnu.


title: Rukmini

text: The "Bhagavata Purana" narrates that Rukmini once heard about Krishna and his heroic deeds, such as slaying the tyrant king Kamsa, and opposing the evil king Jarasandha. She fell in love with him and desired to marry him. The episode of "Rukmini Kalyanam," and the devotion of Rukmini towards her desired husband is narrated by the sage Shuka to King Parikshit.


title: Rukmini

text: Rukmini's parents rejoiced and gave their permission, but Rukmi – who was an ally of Jarasandha – strongly opposed it. Instead, he proposed that she be married to his friend Shishupala— the crown prince of Chedi Kingdom, and a cousin of Krishna. Bhishmaka agreed, and a distressed Rukmini immediately sent for a trusted Brahman and asked him to deliver a message to Krishna. In the message, she wrote to Krishna about her love and asked him to abduct her when she visited the temple of Goddess Ambika (Parvati) before her wedding. Krishna, having received the message in Dvaraka, told the messenger to inform Rukmini that he had received her letter and would come to make her his wife. Krishna then immediately set out for Vidarbha with Balarama, his elder brother.


title: Rukmini

text: Meanwhile, in Vidarbha's capital Kundina, Bhishmaka had prepared for Rukmini's marriage. Rukmini grew anxious as she observed the host of kings, wondering if the Brahman she had dispatched had not reached safely or not, and if the Almighty would assist her in her efforts. Her face grew pale and her thoughts grew distressed as she shunned herself from the rest of the world. Her sorrow of Krishna not having yet arrived to marry her yet was so immense that she refused to eat, sing to her parrot, or play her lyre. Shishupala, along with his allies including Jarasandha had arrived. Krishna and Balarama had also arrived, and Bhishmaka welcomed them. At the palace, Rukmini had lost all hope, but the messenger turned up and informed that Krishna had accepted her request. The next day, she went to the temple to offer her prayers to Ambika. As she proceeded towards the wedding venue, she saw Krishna and he soon swept her into his chariot with him. All of Jarasandha's forces quickly started chasing them, but they were repulsed by Balarama and his army.


title: Rukmini

text: Rukmi chased after Krishna and Rukmini. He challenged Krishna to a fight, but was easily overpowered by the former. Rukmini begged Krishna to spare her brother's life, and the latter agreed. However, he shaved Rukmi's hair and moustache as a mark of punishment, and let him go free. Krishna and Rukmini reached Dvaraka, where they were welcomed with great pomp and ceremony, followed by a wedding.


title: Rukmini

text: The Bhagavata Purana describes an episode through the sage Shuka where the yet unwed Rukmini takes a bejewelled whisk and starts fanning her prospective husband Krishna, wearing an expensive girdle and a dazzling necklace. Even though he is pleased, Krishna points to the fact that the princess had been desired by a number of handsome and energetic monarchs and states that he was not their equal, and that he had also almost lost his realm rescuing her. He remarks that she had not been far-sighted in choosing him as her groom and that she must now instead choose a Kshatriya like her. Rukmini's heart shuddered, her red nails scratched the floor, and tears flowed from her eyes that were decorated with collyrium. She fell to the floor, her hair dishevelled. Krishna swiftly raised her back to her feet and assures her that he was merely joking, as householders do with their beloved. Her fear of abandonment seeping away from her, the princess eulogises him, praising his glories and addressing him as her atman, her sense of self. Krishna praises her single-minded devotion to him.


title: Rukmini

text: The Bhagavata Purana states that Rukmini and Krishna had ten sons—Pradyumna, Charudeshna, Sudeshna, Charudeha, Sucharu, Charugupta, Bhadracharu, Charuchandra, Vicharu, and Charu. In the "Harivamsa", Rukmini's sons are Pradyumna, Charudeshna, Charuchandra, Charugarbha, Sudangstra, Druma, Sushena, Charugupta, Charuvinda, and Chharuvahu. A different listing is found in "Anushasana Parva" of the "Mahabharata", where Pradyumna, Charudeshna, Sucharu, Charuvesa, Yasodhana, Charusravas, Charuyasas, and Sambhu are Rukmini's sons. These scriptures also mention that Rukmini had a daughter named Charumati.


title: Rukmini

text: Though Krishna married many other women, Rukmini remained his chief consort and the queen of Dvaraka. When she longed for a child, Krishna flew to Kailash upon his mount Garuda, and expressed his wife's desire to Shiva. Obliging, Shiva blessed Rukmini to be the bearer of the new incarnation of Kamadeva, whom he had previously immolated with his third eye. Thus was Pradyumna born. Many scriptures have mentioned that Rukmini and other wives of Krishna lived like sisters.


title: Rukmini

text: According to a folktale of Odisha, the divine sage Narada once arrived in Dvaraka and asked for Krishna to be given to him as alms. Krishna's queens requested him to take anything else and Narada asked them to give wealth equal to Krishna's weight. They arranged for a big scale (Tulabharama) to be put up. Satyabhama put all of her coins, gems and jewellery on the scale, but it doesn't budge. Other wives gave their jewels, but it was of no use. At last, Rukmini came and put a single leaf of Tulasi on the scale and chanted that it represented her love for Krishna. The scales then became balanced. Though this story is absent in the main scriptures pertaining to Krishna's life, it is often repeated to enunciate the worth of Rukmini's love over Satyabhama's material wealth. The only known versions of this story are from Padma Purana and Devi Bhagvata Purana, where Satyabhama succeeds in weighing Krishna normally with gold items.


title: Rukmini

text: In the "Bhagavata Purana", another well-known incident in Rukmini's married life is narrated. When Krishna's childhood friend, Sudama, visited Dvaraka, Rukmini welcomed Sudama and gave him food. She and Krishna fanned him as he rested from his long journey. This type of devotion is a characteristic of Rukmini, an attribute of her that is prevalent.


title: Rukmini

text: According to the Skanda Purana, the famously short-tempered sage Durvasa met Krishna and Rukmini when he was on a pilgrimage. Durvasa asked the couple to be yoked onto his chariot while he held the reins. In the process of pulling the chariot forward, Rukmini grew exhausted and requested Krishna fpr water. Krishna struck his foot against the ground causing a spring of the Ganga river to appear. Observing her quench her thirst without seeking his permission, the infuriated Durvasa cursed her to be separated from her beloved Krishna. Rukmini grew perturbed and started to cry. To pacify her, Krishna blessed her with the boon that if his devotees were to only see him and not her, they would receive only half the merit.


title: Rukmini

text: Despite this consolation, Rukmini grew distressed due to her separation from her consort and fell unconscious. The sea-god and the sage Narada arrived to comfort her. Narada informed her that her husband - a manifestation of Vishnu - was the Supreme Being himself, he rhetorically wondered how she could expect to keep his company in an exclusive garden. The sea affirmed the divine sage's words, promising her that as the companion of Vishnu, she would always retain her permanence in his being. The goddess Bhagirathi, the personification of the Ganga, produced a richly-endowed forest on the spot, laden with fruits and flowers, quickly to be frequented by the inhabitants of Dvaraka. Durvasa vengefully burnt the forest with his powers. Rukmini grew depressed and contemplated suicide. Krishna arrived and stopped her. She felt ashamed and furious with herself even as her husband reassured her of his devotion. The repentant Durvasa begged Krishna to reunite with Rukmini, and the deity consented, blessing the sage with virtue as well as saluting the river Ganga, who then became the liberator of sorrows.


title: Rukmini

text: After the disappearance of Krishna following the Yadu massacre in the Mausala Parva, Rukmini, along with Jambavati, self-immolated herself on the funeral pyre.


title: Rukmini

text: Rukmini primarily appears in literature that may be classified under the epic Mahabharata and the Puranas, as well as occasionally being featured in regional Vaishnava texts.


title: Rukmini

text: The "Brihad Bhagavatamrita" offers the following adulations to Rukmini, identifying her with Lakshmi and Krishna as the Supreme God, the source of all avatars. It states that she assumes partial avatars to accompany Krishna's avatars like Vamana and serves Krishna as his "perfectly complete divine consort".


title: Rukmini

text: The "Narada Purana" instructs a devotee on the manner of offering worship to Krishna, offering precedence to the role of Rukmini in his devotion. Rukmini is worshipped with Krishna on his left-hand side; she is equated with Rajas.


title: Rukmini

text: The Skanda Purana describes the process of the worship of the goddess with Krishna. A devotee is said to acquire wish fulfillment, male progeny and physical beauty by pleasing Rukmini.


title: Rukmini

text: The worship of Rukmini as the consort of Krishna precedes his association with his other consorts, including Radha. According to D.C. Sircar, a sculpture from Paharpur in northern Bengal, attributed to the sixth or seventh century, represents Krishna and his consort, which he concludes is likely Rukmini. Her identification with Radha is rendered unlikely by the historian, owing to the fact that, "we have no undoubted reference to Radha in genuine epigraphic or literary records of an early date".


title: Rukmini

text: "Rukmini Ashtami" is the occasion that celebrates the birthday of Rukmini, the chief wife of Krishna. Vaishnava Hindus worship Rukmini as an incarnation of the goddess Lakshmi. Her birthday is primarily celebrated by women, who venerate her, her husband, and her son. It is a day of fasting. Married women see that honouring Rukmini is a way to ensure conjugal happiness, and they also entreat her assistance in finding a proper spouse for their unwed daughters. Rukmini Ashtami is observed on the eighth day of the waning moon in the Hindu lunar month of "Pausha" (December—January on the Common Era calendar). Rukmini is acknowledged with special pujas and rituals in all of the temples dedicated to Krishna, especially those in those parts of India, especially associated with him such as Mathura and Vrindavan.


title: Rukmini

text: Rukmini is mainly worshipped in west and south Indian states such as Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Goa, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala. Rukmini's kingdom, Vidarbha, is believed to be located in present-day Maharashtra. Along with Vithoba (a regional form of Krishna), Rukmini is worshipped as "Rakhumai" in the Pandharpur region. She is also worshipped in Pandava Thoothar Perumal Temple as the chief goddess, with Krishna being the primary deity.


title: Rukmini

text: The Mishmi people of Arunachal Pradesh believe that Rukmini belonged to their tribe. The plays and dances on 'Rukmini Haran' are common. There is a legend that Krishna asked the Mishmi people to cut their hair as a form of punishment for not allowing him to marry Rukmini. Due to this Idu-Mishmi people are also called "chulikata" (chuli-hair, kata- cut).


title: Rukmini

text: In 1480, the Vaishnava saint Vadiraja Tirtha (1480–1600) has composed a famous work Rukminisha Vijaya glorifying Rukmini and Krishna in 1241 verses spread over 19 chapters.


title: Rukmini

text: The Kantajew Temple at Kantanagar, is a late-medieval Hindu temple in Dinajpur, Bangladesh. The Kantajew Temple is one of the most magnificent religious edifices belonging to the 18th century. This beautiful temple is dedicated to Krishna and his wife Rukmini Built by Maharaja Pran Nath, its construction started in 1704 CE and ended in the reign of his son Raja Ramnath in 1722 CE. It boasts one of the greatest examples of terracotta architecture in Bangladesh and once had nine spires, but all were destroyed in an earthquake that took place in 1897


title: Phonics

text: Phonics is a method for teaching people how to read and write an alphabetic language (such as English, Arabic or Russian). It is done by demonstrating the relationship between the sounds of the spoken language (phonemes), and the letters or groups of letters (graphemes) or syllables of the written language. In English, this is also known as the alphabetic principle or the "Alphabetic code".


title: Phonics

text: a) learning "individual" sounds and their corresponding letters (e.g. the word cat has three letters and three sounds c - a - t, (in IPA: , , ), whereas the word flower has six letters but four sounds: f - l - ow - er, (IPA , , , ), or


title: Phonics

text: b) learning the sounds of letters or groups of letters, at the word level, such as similar sounds (e.g., cat, can, call), or rimes (e.g., hat, mat and sat have the same rime, "at"), or consonant blends (also consonant clusters in linguistics) (e.g. bl as in black and st as in last), or syllables (e.g., pen-cil and al-pha-bet), or


title: Phonics

text: c) having students read books, play games and perform activities that contain the sounds they are learning.


title: Phonics

text: Reading by using phonics is often referred to as "decoding words", "sounding-out words" or using "print-to-sound relationships". Since phonics focuses on the sounds and letters within words (i.e. sublexical), it is often contrasted with whole language (a word-level-up philosophy for teaching reading) and a compromise approach called balanced literacy (the attempt to combine whole language and phonics).


title: Phonics

text: Some phonics critics suggest that learning phonics prevents children from reading "real books". However, the Department of Education in England says children should practise phonics by reading books consistent with their developing phonic knowledge and skill; and, at the same time they should hear, share and discuss "a wide range of high-quality books to develop a love of reading and broaden their vocabulary". In addition, researchers say that "the phonological pathway is an essential component of skilled reading" and "for most children it requires instruction, hence phonics". Some recommend 20–30 minutes of daily phonics instruction in grades K–2, about 200 hours.


title: Phonics

text: The National Reading Panel in the United States concluded that systematic phonics instruction is more effective than unsystematic phonics or non-phonics instruction. Some critics suggest that systematic phonics is "skill and drill" with little attention to meaning. However, researchers point out that this impression is false. Teachers can use engaging games or materials to teach letter-sound connections, and it can also be incorporated with the reading of meaningful text.


title: Phonics

text: The term "phonics" during the 19th century and into the 1970s was used as a synonym of phonetics. The use of the term in reference to the method of teaching is dated to 1901 by the Oxford English Dictionary. The relationship between sounds and letters is the backbone of traditional phonics.


title: Phonics

text: This principle was first presented by John Hart in 1570. Prior to that children learned to read through the ABC method, by which they recited the letters used in each word, from a familiar piece of text such as Genesis. It was John Hart who first suggested that the focus should be on the relationship between what is now referred to as graphemes and phonemes.


title: Phonics

text: Phonemic awareness (PA) is sometimes confused with Phonics, however, PA is the ability to hear, identify, and manipulate the "individual spoken sounds" — unrelated to their letters. PA, a subset of phonological awareness, is strongly related to the learner's oral language skills and is critical in learning to read. To assess PA, or teach it explicitly, learners are given a variety of exercises, such as adding a sound (e.g., "Add the th sound to the beginning of the word ink"), changing a sound (e.g. "In the word sing, change the ng sound to the t sound)", or removing a sound (e.g., "In the word park, remove the p sound)". Phonemic awareness and the resulting knowledge of spoken language is the most important determinant of a child's early reading success. PA is sometimes taught separately from phonics and at other times it is the result of phonics instruction (i.e. segmenting or blending phonemes with letters).


title: Phonics

text: English spelling is based on the alphabetic principle. In the education field it is also referred to as "the alphabetic code". In an alphabetic writing system, letters are used to represent speech sounds, or phonemes. For example, the word "cat" is spelled with three letters, "c", "a", and "t", each representing a phoneme, respectively, , , and .


title: Phonics

text: The spelling structures for some alphabetic languages, such as Spanish, Russian and German, are comparatively orthographically transparent, or orthographically shallow, because there is nearly a one-to-one correspondence between sounds and the letter patterns that represent them. English spelling is more complex, a deep orthography, partly because it attempts to represent the 40+ phonemes of the spoken language with an alphabet composed of only 26 letters (and no accent marks or diacritics). As a result, two letters are often used together to represent distinct sounds, referred to as "digraphs". For example, "t" and "h" placed side by side to represent either as in "math" or as in "father".


title: Phonics

text: English has absorbed many words from other languages throughout its history, usually without changing the spelling of those words. As a result, the written form of English includes the spelling patterns of many languages (Old English, Old Norse, Norman French, Classical Latin and Greek, as well as numerous modern languages) superimposed upon one another. These overlapping spelling patterns mean that in many cases the same sound can be spelled differently (e.g. tr"ay" and br"ea"k) and the same spelling can represent different sounds (e.g. r"oo"m and b"oo"k). However, the spelling patterns usually follow certain conventions. In addition, the Great Vowel Shift, a historical linguistic process in which the quality of many vowels in English changed while the spelling remained as it was, greatly diminished the transparency of English spelling in relation to pronunciation.


title: Phonics

text: The result is that English spelling patterns vary considerably in the degree to which they follow rules. For example, the letters "ee" almost always represent (e.g. "meet"), but the sound can also be represented by the letters "e", "i" and "y" and digraphs "ie", "ei", or "ea" (e.g. sh"e", sard"i"ne, sunn"y", ch"ie"f, s"ei"ze, "ea"t). Similarly, the letter cluster "ough" represents as in en"ough", as in th"ough", as in thr"ough", as in c"ough", as in b"ough", as in b"ough"t, and as in hicc"ough", while in sl"ough" and l"ough", the pronunciation varies.


title: Phonics

text: Although the patterns are inconsistent, when English spelling rules take into account syllable structure, phonetics, etymology, and accents, there are dozens of rules that are 75% or more reliable. This level of reliability can only be achieved by extending the rules far outside the domain of phonics, which deals with letter-sound correspondences, and into the morphophonemic and morphological domains.


title: Phonics

text: The following are a selection of the alternative spellings of the 40+ sounds of the English language based on General American English pronunciation, recognizing there are many regional variations. Teachers of synthetic phonics emphasize the letter sounds not the letter names (i.e. "mmm not em, sss not ess, fff not ef"). It is usually recommended that teachers of English-reading introduce the "most frequent sounds" and the "common spellings" first and save the more infrequent sounds and complex spellings for later. (e.g. the sounds /s/ and /t/ before /v/ and /w/; and the spellings cake before eight and cat before duck).


title: Phonics

text: For a more complete list of alternative spellings of the sounds, see English orthography#Sound-to-spelling correspondences.


title: Phonics

text: These patterns are just a few examples out of dozens that can be used to help learners unpack the challenging English alphabetic code. While complex, many believe English spelling does retain order and reason.


title: Phonics

text: There are many ways that phonics is taught and it is often taught together with some of the following: oral language skills, concepts about print, phonological awareness, phonemic awareness, phonology, oral fluency, vocabulary, syllables, reading comprehension, spelling, word study, cooperative learning, multisensory learning, and guided reading. And, phonics is often featured in discussions about science of reading, and evidence-based practices.


title: Phonics

text: The National Reading Panel (U.S. 2000) suggests that phonics be taught together with phonemic awareness, oral fluency, vocabulary and comprehension. Timothy Shanahan, a member of that panel, suggests that primary students receive 60–90 minutes per day of explicit, systematic, literacy instruction time; and that it be divided equally between a) words and word parts (e.g. letters, sounds, decoding and phonemic awareness), b) oral reading fluency, c) reading comprehension, and d) writing. Furthermore, he states that "the phonemic awareness skills found to give the greatest reading advantage to kindergarten and first-grade children are "segmenting and blending"".


title: Phonics

text: The Ontario Association of Deans of Education (Canada) published research Monograph # 37 entitled "Supporting early language and literacy" with suggestions for parents and teachers in helping children prior to grade one. It covers the areas of letter names and letter-sound correspondence (phonics), as well as conversation, play-based learning, print, phonological awareness, shared reading, and vocabulary.


title: Phonics

text: Some researchers report that teaching reading without teaching phonics is harmful to large numbers of students; yet not all phonics teaching programs produce effective results. The reason is that the effectiveness of a program depends on using the right curriculum together with the appropriate approach to instruction techniques, classroom management, grouping, and other factors.


title: Phonics

text: Interest in evidence-based education appears to be growing. In 2019, Best Evidence Encyclopedia (BEE) released a review of research on 48 different programs for struggling readers in elementary schools. Many of the programs used phonics-based teaching and/or one or more of the following: cooperative learning, technology-supported adaptive instruction (see Educational technology), metacognitive skills, phonemic awareness, word reading, fluency, vocabulary, multisensory learning, spelling, guided reading, reading comprehension, word analysis, structured curriculum, and balanced literacy (non-phonetic approach).


title: Phonics

text: The BEE review concludes that a) outcomes were positive for one-to-one tutoring, b) outcomes were positive but not as large for one-to-small group tutoring, c) there were no differences in outcomes between teachers and teaching assistants as tutors, d) technology-supported adaptive instruction did not have positive outcomes, e) whole-class approaches (mostly cooperative learning) and whole-school approaches incorporating tutoring obtained outcomes for struggling readers as large as those found for one- to-one tutoring, and benefitted many more students, and f) approaches mixing classroom and school improvements, with tutoring for the most at-risk students, have the greatest potential for the largest numbers of struggling readers.


title: Phonics

text: Robert Slavin, of BEE, goes so far as to suggest that states should "hire thousands of tutors" to support students scoring far below grade level – particularly in elementary school reading. Research, he says, shows "only tutoring, both one-to-one and one-to-small group, in reading and mathematics, had an effect size larger than +0.10 ... averages are around +0.30", and "well-trained teaching assistants using structured tutoring materials or software can obtain outcomes as good as those obtained by certified teachers as tutors".


title: Phonics

text: Other evidence-based comparison databases featuring phonics and other methods include Evidence for ESSA (Center for Research and Reform in Education) (meeting the standards of the U.S. Every Student Succeeds Act, and the What Works Clearinghouse.


title: Phonics

text: Sight words (i.e. high-frequency or common words) are "not" a part of the phonics method. They are usually associated with whole language and balanced literacy where students are expected to memorize common words such as those on the Dolch word list and the Fry word list (e.g. a, be, call, do, eat, fall, gave, etc.). The supposition (in whole language) is that students will learn to read more easily if they memorize the most common words they will encounter, especially words that are not easily decoded (i.e. exceptions). However, according to research, whole-word memorisation is "labor-intensive", requiring on average about 35 trials per word.


title: Phonics

text: On the other hand, phonics advocates say that most words are decodable, so comparatively few words have to be memorized. And because a child will over time encounter many low-frequency words, "the phonological recoding mechanism is a very powerful, indeed essential, mechanism throughout reading development". Furthermore, researchers suggest that teachers who withhold phonics instruction to make it easier on children "are having the opposite effect" by making it harder for children to gain basic word-recognition skills. They suggest that learners should focus on understanding the principles of phonics so they can recognize the phonemic overlaps among words (e.g. have, had, has, having, haven't, etc.), making it easier to decode them all.


title: Phonics

text: Sight vocabulary is a part of the phonics method. It describes words that are stored in long-term memory and read automatically. Skilled fully-alphabetic readers learn to store words in long-term memory without memorization (i.e. a mental dictionary), making reading and comprehension easier. The process, called "orthographic mapping", involves "decoding, crosschecking, mental marking and rereading". It takes significantly less time than memorization. This process works for fully-alphabetic readers when reading simple decodable words from left to right through the word. "Irregular words" pose more of a challenge, yet research in 2018 concluded that "fully-alphabetic students" learn irregular words more easily when they use a process called "hierarchical decoding". In this process, students, rather than decode from left to right, are taught to focus attention on the irregular elements such as a vowel-digraph and a silent-e; for example, "break (b - r - ea - k), height (h - eigh - t), touch (t - ou - ch), and make (m - a- ke)". Consequentially, they suggest that teachers and tutors should focus on "teaching decoding with more advanced vowel patterns before expecting young readers to tackle irregular words".


title: Phonics

text: "Systematic phonics" is not one specific method of teaching phonics; it is a term used to describe phonics approaches that are taught "explicitly" and in a structured, systematic manner. They are "systematic" because the letters and the sounds they relate to are taught in a specific sequence, as opposed to incidentally or on a "when needed" basis.


title: Phonics

text: Systematic phonics is sometimes mischaracterized as "skill and drill" with little attention to meaning. However, researchers point out that this impression is false. Teachers can use engaging games or materials to teach letter-sound connections, and it can also be incorporated with the reading of meaningful text.


title: Phonics

text: Phonics can be taught systematically in a variety of ways, such as: synthetic phonics, analytic phonics and analogy phonics. However, their effectiveness vary considerably because the methods differ in such areas as the range of letter-sound coverage, the structure of the lesson plans, and the time devoted to specific instructions.


title: Phonics

text: Systematic phonics has gained increased acceptance in different parts of the world since the completion of three major studies into teaching reading; one in the United States in 2000, another in Australia in 2005, and another in the UK in 2006.


title: Phonics

text: In 2009, the UK Department of Education published a curriculum review that added support for systematic phonics, which in the UK is known as synthetic phonics. Beginning as early as 2014, several States in the United States have changed their curriculum to include systematic phonics instruction in elementary school. In 2018, the State Government of Victoria, Australia, published a website containing a comprehensive Literacy Teaching Toolkit including Effective Reading Instruction, Phonics, and Sample Phonics Lessons.


title: Phonics

text: "Synthetic phonics", also known as blended phonics, is a method employed to teach students to read by "sounding out" the letters then "blending" the sounds to form the word. This method involves learning how letters or letter groups represent individual sounds, and that those sounds are blended to form a word. For example, "shrouds" would be read by pronouncing the sounds for each spelling, "sh,r,ou,d,s" (IPA ), then blending those sounds orally to produce a spoken word, "sh - r - ou - d - s = shrouds" (IPA ). The goal of either a blended phonics or synthetic phonics instructional program is that students identify the sound-symbol correspondences and blend their phonemes automatically. Since 2005, synthetic phonics has become the accepted method of teaching reading (by phonics instruction) in the United Kingdom and Australia. In the United States, a pilot program using the Core Knowledge Early Literacy program that used this type of phonics approach showed significantly higher results in K–3 reading compared with comparison schools. In addition, several States such as California, Ohio, New York and Arkansas, are promoting the principles of synthetic phonics (see synthetic phonics in the US).


title: Phonics

text: "Analytic phonics" does not involve pronouncing individual sounds (phonemes) in isolation and blending the sounds, as is done in synthetic phonics. Rather, it is taught at the word level and students learn to analyze letter-sound relationships once the word is identified. For example, students analyze letter-sound correspondences such as the "ou" spelling of in shrouds. Also, students might be asked to practice saying words with similar sounds such as ball, bat and bite. Furthermore, students are taught consonant blends (separate, adjacent consonants) as units, such as break or shrouds".


title: Phonics

text: "Analogy phonics" is a particular type of "analytic phonics" in which the teacher has students analyze phonic elements according to the speech sounds (phonograms) in the word. One method is referred to as the "onset-rime)" approach. The onset is the initial sound and the rime is the vowel and the consonant sounds that follow it. For example, in the words "cat, mat and sat," the rime is at.) Teachers using the analogy method may have students memorize a bank of phonograms, such as "-at" or "-am".


title: Phonics

text: Teachers might also teach students about "word families" (e.g. can, ran, man, or may, play, say). When students are exposed to different word families, they are able to identify, analyze and construct different rhyming word patterns. An example of a student's increasing ability to construct a rhyming word pattern with the "oa" grapheme would be as follows: "road, toad, load and goad". Examples of other recognizable graphemes that allow students to construct rhyming word patterns are "at, igh, ew, oo, ou" and "air". More letter combinations or graphemes can be viewed in the table below to support students increasing ability to construct a rhyming word pattern of similar phonemes or speech sound:


title: Phonics

text: Letter combinations or graphemes of new words should have letters students have already learned and can recognize on their own.


title: Phonics

text: There have been many experimental research studies and correlational data studies conducted on the effectiveness of instruction using analytic phonics and synthetic phonics. Johnston et al. (2012) conducted experimental research studies that tested the effectiveness of phonics learning instruction among 10 year old boys and girls. They used comparative data from the Clackmannanshire Report and chose 393 participants to compare synthetic phonics instruction and analytic phonics instruction. The boys taught by the synthetic phonics method had better word reading than the girls in their classes, and their spelling and reading comprehension was as good. On the other hand, with analytic phonics teaching, although the boys performed as well as the girls in word reading, they had inferior spelling and reading comprehension. Overall, the group taught by synthetic phonics had better word reading, spelling, and reading comprehension. And, synthetic phonics did not lead to any impairment in the reading of irregular words.


title: Phonics

text: "Embedded phonics", also known as "Incidental phonics", is the type of phonics instruction used in whole language programs. It is not "systematic phonics". Although phonics skills are de-emphasised in whole language programs, some teachers include phonics "mini-lessons" when students struggle with words while reading from a book. Short lessons are included based on phonics elements the students are having trouble with, or on a new or difficult phonics pattern that appears in a class reading assignment. The focus on meaning is generally maintained, but the mini-lesson provides some time for focus on individual sounds and the letters that represent them. Embedded phonics is different from other methods because instruction is always in the context of literature rather than in separate lessons about distinct sounds and letters; and skills are taught when an opportunity arises, not systematically.


title: Phonics

text: For some teachers this is a method of teaching spelling by using the sounds (phonemes). However, it can also be a method of teaching reading by focusing on the sounds and their spelling (i.e. phonemes and syllables). It is taught systematically with guided lessons conducted in a direct and explicit manner including appropriate feedback. Sometimes mnemonic cards containing individual sounds are used to allow the student to practice saying the sounds that are related to a letter or letters (e.g. "a", "e", "i", "o", "u"). Accuracy comes first, followed by speed. The sounds may be grouped by categories such as vowels that sound short (e.g. c-a-t and s-i-t). When the student is comfortable recognizing and saying the sounds, the following steps might be followed: a) the tutor says a target word and the student repeats it out loud, b) the student writes down each individual sound (letter) until the word is completely spelled, saying each sound as it is written, and c) the student says the entire word out loud. An alternate method would be to have the student use mnemonic cards to sound-out (spell) the target word.


title: Phonics

text: Typically, the instruction starts with sounds that have only one letter and simple CVC words such as "sat" and "pin". Then it progresses to longer words, and sounds with more than one letter (e.g. hear and day), and perhaps even syllables (e.g. wa-ter). Sometimes the student practices saying (or sounding-out) cards that contain entire words.


title: Phonics

text: Governments and non-profit organizations around the world offer phonics instruction resources for teachers, tutors and parents. Not surprisingly, they often overlap with instruction on related areas such as ‘'phonemic awareness, fluency, vocabulary, comprehension and multi-sensory learning<nowiki>"</nowiki>. The following are some examples:


title: Phonics

text: A debate has been going on for decades about the merits of phonics vs. whole language. It is sometimes referred to as the "Reading Wars".


title: Phonics

text: Phonics was a popular way to learn reading in the 19th century. William Holmes McGuffey (1800–1873), an American educator, author, and Presbyterian minister who had a lifelong interest in teaching children, compiled the first four of the McGuffey Readers in 1836.


title: Phonics

text: Then, in 1841 Horace Mann, the Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education, advocated for a whole-word method of teaching reading to replace phonics. Rudolf Flesch advocated for a return to phonics in his book "Why Johnny Can't Read" (1955). The whole-word method received support from Kenneth J. Goodman who wrote an article in 1967 entitled "Reading: A psycholinguistic guessing game". Although not supported by scientific studies, the theory became very influential as the whole language method. Since the 1970s some whole language supporters such as Frank Smith, are unyielding in arguing that phonics should be taught little, if at all.


title: Phonics

text: Yet other researchers say instruction in phonics and phonemic awareness are "critically important" and "essential" to develop early reading skills. In 2000, the US National Reading Panel identified five ingredients of effective reading instruction, of which phonics is one; the other four are phonemic awareness, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension. Reports from other countries, such as the Australian report on "Teaching reading" (2005) and the Independent review of the teaching of early reading (Rose Report 2006) from the UK have also supported the use of phonics.


title: Phonics

text: Some notable researchers have clearly stated their disapproval of whole language. Cognitive neuroscientist Stanislas Dehaene has said, "cognitive psychology directly refutes any notion of teaching via a 'global' or 'whole language' method." He goes on to talk about "the myth of whole-word reading" (also: sight words), saying it has been refuted by recent experiments. "We do not recognize a printed word through a holistic grasping of its contours, because our brain breaks it down into letters and graphemes." Mark Seidenberg refers to whole language as a "theoretical zombie" because it persists in spite of a lack of supporting evidence.


title: Phonics

text: Furthermore, a 2017 study published in the "Journal of Experimental Psychology" compared teaching with phonics vs. teaching whole written words and concluded that phonics is more effective. It states "Our results suggest that early literacy education should focus on the systematicities present in print-to-sound relationships in alphabetic languages, rather than teaching meaning-based strategies, in order to enhance both reading aloud and comprehension of written words".


title: Phonics

text: More recently, some educators have advocated for the theory of balanced literacy purported to combine phonics and whole language yet not necessarily in a consistent or systematic manner. It may include elements such as word study and phonics mini-lessons, differentiated learning, cueing, leveled reading, shared reading, guided reading, independent reading and sight words. According to a survey in 2010, 68% of K–2 teachers in the United States practice balanced literacy; however, only 52% of teachers included "phonics" in their definition of "balanced literacy". In addition, 75% of teachers teach the three-cueing system (i.e., meaning/structure/visual or semantic/syntactic/graphophonic) that has its roots in whole language.


title: Phonics

text: In addition, some phonics supporters assert that "balanced literacy" is merely "whole language" by another name. And critics of whole language and sceptics of balanced literacy, such as neuroscientist Mark Seidenberg, state that struggling readers should "not" be encouraged to skip words they find puzzling or rely on semantic and syntactic cues to guess words.


title: Phonics

text: Over time a growing number of countries and states have put greater emphasis on phonics and other evidence-based practices (see Practices by country or region below).


title: Phonics

text: The "simple view of reading" is a scientific theory about reading comprehension. The creators of the theory hoped it would help to end the reading wars. According to the theory, in order to comprehend what they are reading students need both "decoding skills" and oral "language comprehension ability"; neither is enough on their own.


title: Phonics

text: Students are not reading if they can decode words but do not understand their meaning. Similarly, students are not reading if they cannot decode words that they would ordinarily recognize and understand if they heard them spoken out loud.


title: Phonics

text: On 30 November 2004 Brendan Nelson, Minister for Education, Science and Training, established a National Inquiry into the Teaching of Literacy in Australia. The Inquiry examined the way reading is taught in schools, as well as the effectiveness of teacher education courses in preparing teachers for reading instruction. In the resulting report in 2005, "Teaching Reading", the first two recommendations make clear the committee's conviction about the need to base the teaching of reading on evidence and the importance of teaching systematic, explicit phonics within an integrated approach.


title: Phonics

text: The executive summary states, "The evidence is clear ... that direct systematic instruction in phonics during the early years of schooling is an essential foundation for teaching children to read. Findings from the research evidence indicate that all students learn best when teachers adopt an integrated approach to reading that explicitly teaches phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary knowledge and comprehension." The Inquiry Committee also states that the apparent dichotomy between phonics and the whole-Language approach to teaching "is false". However, it goes on to say "It was clear, however, that systematic phonics instruction is critical if children are to be taught to read well, whether or not they experience reading difficulties."


title: Phonics

text: "Overall we conclude that the synthetic phonics approach, as part of the reading curriculum, is more effective than the analytic phonics approach, even when it is supplemented with phonemic awareness training. It also led boys to reading words significantly better than girls, and there was a trend towards better spelling and reading comprehension. There is evidence that synthetic phonics is best taught at the beginning of Primary 1, as even by the end of the second year at school the children in the early synthetic phonics programme had better spelling ability, and the girls had significantly better reading ability."


title: Phonics

text: As of October 5, 2018, The State Government of Victoria, Australia, publishes a website containing a comprehensive Literacy Teaching Toolkit including Effective Reading Instruction, Phonics, and Sample Phonics Lessons. It contains elements of synthetic phonics, analytical phonics, and analogy phonics.


title: Phonics

text: In Canada, public education is the responsibility of the Provincial and Territorial governments. As in other countries there has been much debate on the value of phonics in teaching reading in English; however, phonemic awareness and phonics appears to be receiving some attention. The curriculum of all of the Canadian provinces include some of the following: phonics, phonological awareness, segmenting and blending, decoding, phonemic awareness, graphophonic cues, and letter-sound relationships. In addition, systematic phonics and synthetic phonics receive attention in some publications.


title: Phonics

text: Consequentially, with the exception of those indicated below, there appears to be no evidence of a comprehensive or systematic practice of phonics in most of Canada's public schools.


title: Phonics

text: In 2016, amongst 50 countries, Canada ranked 23rd in the PIRLS reading achievement for fourth grade students.


title: Phonics

text: In 2018, Canada ranked 6th out of 78 countries in the PISA reading scores for 15-year-old students. However, critics say PISA is fundamentally flawed, and in 2014 more than 100 academics from around the world called for a moratorium on PISA.


title: Phonics

text: In 2021, the province of New Brunswick introduced a new English Language Arts curriculum that includes phonological awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and reading comprehension. Notably, the teaching of alphabetic skills based on the science of reading has replaced the use of various cueing systems and a variety of strategies to construct meaning from text.


title: Phonics

text: On January 27, 2022, the Ontario Human Rights Commission (OHRC) released a report on its public inquiry into the right to read. It followed the unanimous decision of the Supreme Court of Canada, on November 9, 2012, recognizing that learning to read is not a privilege, but a basic and essential human right.


title: Phonics

text: The OHRC's report deals with all students, not just those with learning disabilities. The inquiry found that Ontario is not fulfilling its obligations to meet students' right to read. Specifically, foundational word-reading skills are not effectively targeted in Ontario's education system. With science-based approaches to reading instruction, early screening, and intervention, we should see only about 5% of students reading below grade level. However, in 2018–2019, 26% of all Ontario Grade 3 students and 53% of Grade 3 students with special education needs (students who have an Individual Education Plan), were not meeting the provincial EQAO standard. The results improved only slightly for Grade 6 students, where 19% of all students and 47% of students with special education needs did not meet the provincial standard.


title: Phonics

text: The Ontario curriculum encourages the use of the three-cueing system and balanced literacy, which are ineffective because they teach children to "guess" the meaning of a word rather than sound it out. What is required is a) evidence-based curriculum and instruction (including explicit and systematic instruction in phonemic awareness and phonics), b) evidence-based screening assessments, c) evidence-based reading interventions, d) accommodations that are not used as a substitute for teaching students to read, and e) professional assessments (yet, not required for interventions or accommodations).


title: Phonics

text: The Minister of Education for Ontario responded to this report by saying the government is taking immediate action to improve student literacy and making longer-term reforms to modernize the way reading is taught and assessed in schools, with a focus on phonics. Their plan includes "revising the elementary Language curriculum and the Grade 9 English course with scientific, evidence-based approaches that emphasize direct, explicit and systematic instruction and removing references to unscientific discovery and inquiry-based learning, including the three-cueing system, by 2023."


title: Phonics

text: There has been a resurgence of interest in synthetic phonics in recent years, particularly in England. As of 2013, all (local-authority-maintained) primary schools in England have a statutory requirement to teach synthetic phonics in years one and two. In addition, any pupil who is struggling to decode words properly by year three must "urgently" receive help through a "rigorous and systematic phonics programme".


title: Phonics

text: Prior to that, synthetic phonics was promoted by a cross-party group of Parliamentarians, particularly Nick Gibb MP. A report by the House of Commons Education and Skills Committee called for a review of the phonics content in the National Curriculum. Subsequently, the Department for Education and Skills announced a review into early years reading, headed by Sir Jim Rose, former Director of Inspection for Ofsted (responsible for the education standards in the UK). The review, entitled Independent review of the teaching of early reading (Rose Report 2006), addresses the question of why children's reading and writing (especially for boys) have not been meeting expectations. Paragraph 3.25 of the Final Report states "This suggests that it is far more often the nature of the teaching than the nature of the child which determines success or failure in learning the 'basic' skills of reading and writing." It goes on to say it is not suggesting teachers are unable or unwilling to develop the required expertise, only that there has been systematic confusion and conflicting views about phonics. It also makes it clear that, when it comes to the wider knowledge and skills required for reading and writing, phonics work is "necessary but not sufficient". It concludes by suggesting the challenge will be resolved as research continues to support systematic phonics, and that teacher training and systematic phonics programs will produce "good results for children".


title: Phonics

text: By November 2010, a government white paper contained plans to train all primary school teachers in phonics. The 2013 curriculum has "statutory requirements" that, amongst other things, students in years one and two be capable in using systematic synthetic phonics in regards to Word Reading, Reading Comprehension, Fluency, and Writing. This includes having skills in "sound to graphemes", "decoding", and "blending". Following this, Ofsted updated their guidance for school inspectors in 2014 to include tips on how schools should teach reading with systematic phonics, including "Getting them Reading Early". It includes a description of the simple view of reading as "the word recognition processes" (recognizing the words on the page, free of context and using phonics) and the "language recognition processes" (understanding the meaning of the language). It also includes some videos to illustrate its principles.


title: Phonics

text: In 2015, the Carter Review of Initial Teacher Training (published by the Department for Education calls for evidence-based teaching to be part of the framework for initial teacher training. It gives an example of a case study in which "trainees on the Early Reading placement are required to work alongside a literacy specialist to plan and teach a phonics lesson to a group, evaluate the lesson and deliver a second lesson in light of their evaluation".


title: Phonics

text: The 2016 Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) awarded England its best results since the studies began in 2001. Nick Gibb attributes this success to the use of systematic synthetic phonics. In March of that year the Secretary of State for Education released a report entitled "Educational Excellence Everywhere". The report states that in 2010 33% percent of primary school students did not achieve the expected standard in reading, however "since the introduction of the phonics reading check in 2012", that number is down to 20%. The report goes on to say they still have much to do, particularly with students who are disadvantaged. The phonics check involves pupils reading aloud 40 words (including 20 non-words). In 2016, 81 per cent of pupils reached the expected standard of 32 correct words – up from 77 per cent in 2015.


title: Phonics

text: In 2016 the London School of Economics published a paper supporting the teaching of synthetic phonics to disadvantaged children because it helps to close the literacy gap.


title: Phonics

text: In 2018 Ofsted, as part of its curriculum research, has produced a YouTube video on Early Reading. It states "It is absolutely essential that every child master the phonic code as quickly as possible ... So, successful schools firstly teach phonics first, fast and furious."


title: Phonics

text: In January, 2019 Ofsted published a report entitled "Education inspection framework: overview of research" that further supports "systematic synthetic phonics" together with phonemic awareness, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension.


title: Phonics

text: While there has been concern expressed about the phonics screening test at the end of year one, some report that phonics is especially valuable for poor readers and those without English as a first language.


title: Phonics

text: Before the beginning of school, usually at the age of 7, most children in Finland participate in one year of preprimary education. Most children already learn to read before they start school.


title: Phonics

text: Since letters in Finnish words almost always represent the same sounds (and almost all sounds are represented by only one letter), most words are orthographically transparent making them comparatively easy to read.


title: Phonics

text: At the primary level, reading and writing difficulties are the second most common reason (after speech disorders) for part-time special education. The most commonly used standardized reading test is the Comprehensive School Reading Test, covering linguistic awareness, "decoding", and reading comprehension.


title: Phonics

text: In the case of minor reading difficulties, the classroom teacher may give remedial instruction to students, whereas a special education teacher will help with more severe or more persistent reading difficulties. If these support measures are inadequate, students may receive enhanced support or be transferred to full-time special education, depending on individual teaching and learning plans.


title: Phonics

text: In grade four, the basic teaching techniques consist of ample practice of "sound-letter correspondence"; breaking down speech into words, syllables, and sounds; word recognition; and spelling at the sound and sentence level; daily reading and writing; and comprehension strategies.


title: Phonics

text: In 2016, amongst 50 countries, Finland ranked 5th in reading achievement for fourth-graders according to the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS).


title: Phonics

text: There has been a strong debate in France on the teaching of phonics ("méthode syllabique") versus whole language ("méthode globale"). After the 1990s, supporters of the later started defending a so-called "mixed method" (also known as balanced literacy) in which approaches from both methods are used. France is home to some of the most influential researchers in psycho-pedagogy, cognitive sciences and neurosciences, such as Stanislas Dehaene and , who support phonics.


title: Phonics

text: More recently, with the appointment of the academic Jean-Michel Blanquer as minister of education, the ministry created a science educational council chaired by Dehaene. This council openly supported phonics. In April 2018, the minister issued a set of four guiding documents for early teaching of reading and mathematics and a booklet detailing phonics recommendations. Teachers unions and a few educationalists were very critical of his stances, and classified his perspective as "traditionalist", trying to bring the debate to the political sphere. But Blanquer has openly declared that the so-called mixed approach is no serious choice.


title: Phonics

text: In 2016, France is slightly above average in Reading Achievement for fourth-graders according to the "Progress in International Reading Literacy Study" (PIRLS).


title: Phonics

text: The official language and the language of instruction in the Republic of Hungary is the Hungarian language. However, in 2010 4.6% of minority students (Croatians, Germans, Romanians, Serbians, Slovaks, and Slovenes) attended minority operated mother tongue, bilingual, or language teaching schools or kindergartens.


title: Phonics

text: Crèche (nursery school) in Hungary is a "welfare institution" catering for children aged 20 weeks to 3 years and providing professional day care and development. In addition, kindergarten education and care is free and compulsory for children aged 3–6. Socially disadvantaged children are given priority in enrolment. Pre-school programmes focus on developing children's emergent literacy skills through play rather than systematic training in phonics or teaching the alphabet.


title: Phonics

text: According to the PIRLS Encyclopedia, the Ministry of Education does not explicitly recommend one particular reading method over another, however all the accredited textbook series use the "sounding-analyzing method". The "European Literacy Policy Network" (ELINET) 2016 reports that Hungarian children in grades one and two receive explicit instruction in phonemic awareness and phonics "as the route to decode words". In grades three and four they continue to apply their knowledge of phonics, however the emphasis shifts to the more meaning-focused technical aspects of reading and writing (i.e., vocabulary, types of texts, reading strategies, spelling, punctuation and grammar).


title: Phonics

text: In 2016, amongst 50 countries, Hungary achieved the 13th highest score in reading literacy for fourth graders according to the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS). 19% of their students performed at or below the low benchmark on overall reading, just above the EU average of 20%.


title: Phonics

text: The school curriculum in Ireland focuses on ensuring children are literate in both the English language and the Irish language. In 2011, the Department of Education and Skills (Ireland) developed a national strategy to improve literacy and numeracy.


title: Phonics

text: The 2014 teachers' Professional Development guide covers the seven areas of attitude and motivation, fluency, comprehension, word identification, vocabulary, phonological awareness, phonics, and assessment. It recommends that phonics be taught in a systematic and structured way and is preceded by training in phonological awareness.


title: Phonics

text: In 2016, amongst 50 countries, Ireland achieved the 4th highest score in Reading Literacy for fourth graders according to the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS).


title: Phonics

text: The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) for 2018 showed Ireland's 15-year-old students were significantly above average in reading, science and mathematics.


title: Phonics

text: The 2019 Primary Language Curriculum specifies that reading outcomes must include phonics, phonological awareness, and phonemic awareness.


title: Phonics

text: According to the 2019 Campbell Systematic Reviews approximately 250 million children across the world are not acquiring basic reading and math skills, even though about 50% of them have spent at least 4 years in school (UNESCO 2014). And, more than 60% of third‐grade students in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) have only achieved basic reading skills, in part because of the lack of evidence‐based training, preparation and support for teachers.


title: Phonics

text: The review summarizes the findings of 107 studies of early grade literacy interventions (EGL) in LAC. They conclude that teacher training, nutrition, and technology‐in‐education programs on average do not show positive effects on EGL outcomes in the LAC region. However, some factors have the potential for positive impacts; including combining teacher training with coaching, targeting school feeding and other nutrition programs to low‐income countries with high rates of stunting and wasting, and combining technology‐in‐education programs with "a strong focus on pedagogical practices".


title: Phonics

text: They also suggest that "the quantitative nonintervention studies indicate that phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, and comprehension are associated with reading ability", and that the poor reading levels of children "may be the consequence of not providing them with adequate instructions on meta-phonological strategies and explicit and systematic phonics". However, the available studies are unable to provide conclusive evidence on the effects of teaching phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, and comprehension on reading ability, suggesting a need for even more high-quality research.


title: Phonics

text: The "Progress in International Reading Literacy Study" (PIRLS 2016) describes the special reading initiatives in Trinidad and Tobago. In 2013, the National Commission for UNESCO launched the "Leading for Literacy" project to develop the literacy skills of grade 1 and 2 students. The project facilitates the training of primary school teachers in the use of a synthetic phonics program.


title: Phonics

text: From 2013 to 2015, the Trinidad and Tobago Ministry of Education appointed seven reading specialist to help primary and secondary school teachers improve their literacy instruction. From February 2014 to January 2016, literacy coaches were hired in selected primary schools to assist teachers of kindergarten, grade 1 and grade 2 with pedagogy and content of early literacy instruction. Primary schools have been provided with literacy resources for instruction, including phonemic awareness, word recognition, vocabulary manipulatives, phonics and comprehension.


title: Phonics

text: As of 2018, the Ministry of Education in New Zealand has online information to help teachers to support their students in years 1–3 in relation to sounds, letters, and words. It has specific suggestions in the areas of oral language, phonological awareness, phonemic awareness, phonemes and phonics. There are also examples and recommended books concerning phonics instruction, hearing sounds in spoken words, syllables, phoneme blending, onset and rime, and sounds and letters (initial, ending and medial). In its introduction it states that phonics instruction "is not an end in itself" and it is "not" necessary to teach students "every combination of letters and sounds".


title: Phonics

text: New Zealand's score (523) in the 2016 PIRLS report on the reading achievement of fourth grade students was above the average of 500 and below other English speaking countries such as Canada (543), United States (549), England (559), Northern Ireland (565) and Ireland (567).


title: Phonics

text: In 2007 the Department of Education (DE) in Northern Ireland was required by law to teach children foundational skills in phonological awareness and the understanding "that words are made up of sounds and syllables and that sounds are represented by letters (phoneme/grapheme awareness)".


title: Phonics

text: In 2010 the DE went further by outlining a new strategy with standards requiring that teachers receive support in using evidence-based practices to teach literacy and numeracy. It outlined ten requirements, including a "systematic programme of high-quality phonics" that is explicit, structured, well-paced, interactive, engaging, and applied in a meaningful context.


title: Phonics

text: In 2016, amongst 50 countries, Northern Ireland achieved the 7th highest score in Reading Literacy for fourth graders according to the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS).


title: Phonics

text: In 2018, in the PISA Reading Performance of 15-year-old students, Northern Ireland students achieved a score of 505 as compared to England at 507 and the OECD average of 487.


title: Phonics

text: Norwegian is Norway's main language and English is taught beginning in grade one. Children enter first grade in August of the year they turn age 6. The majority of students are enrolled in public (government-owned) schools as opposed to private schools.


title: Phonics

text: In the Norwegian curriculum, basic skills include "decoding and comprehension of simple texts" (i.e. phonics). At the end of grade two students are expected to demonstrate an understanding of the relationship between "speech sound and letter".


title: Phonics

text: In 2016, amongst 50 countries, Norway achieved the 8th highest score in Reading Literacy for fourth graders according to the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS), and 20th out of 78 for 15-year-olds in PISA 2018.


title: Phonics

text: The national curriculum of Poland considers reading to be the main goal of primary education, defining it as the technical skill of "decoding graphemes into phonemes and understanding, using, and processing written texts" (i.e. phonics). Instruction often consists of telling students how things should be done instead of letting them experiment for themselves and experience the results. According to researchers, teachers seldom use the internet and other digital technologies during reading instruction. Polish schools do not have trained reading specialists, however speech and educational therapists are available to assist students with special needs or learning disabilities. In 1998 a national campaign was introduced to encourage parents to read aloud to their children for 20 minutes every day.


title: Phonics

text: In 2014, 10.6% of 15-year-olds had underachievement in reading, lower than the EU average of 17.8%. Beginning in 2014, a program to provide free schoolbooks was introduced gradually across Poland. Students' socioeconomic background was a matter of concern in 2015, and six year-olds commenced compulsory schooling in that year.


title: Phonics

text: According to the 2000 International Student Assessment (PISA) 15‑year‑old Polish students read significantly below the OECD average. However, with a renewed emphasis on reading, by 2018 Poland made the most progress in reading since 1994 and Poles ages 16 to 19 exceeded their European peers in reading (10th out of 72 countries in PISA).


title: Phonics

text: During the late 1990s the whole language approach gained popularity in Portugal, but in a non-explicit form. Emphasis was placed on meaning, reading for pleasure, and developing a critical approach to the texts. Explicit phonemic awareness and explicit training for reading fluency were considered outdated by some teachers' organizations.


title: Phonics

text: Poor results in international comparisons led parents and schools to react to this approach and to insist on direct instruction methods. Later, during minister Nuno Crato's tenure (2011–2015), who is known to be a vocal critic of constructivist approaches and a supporter of cognitive psychology findings, new standards ("metas") were put in place. The ministry convened a team led by a well-known specialist in reading, José Morais. This team introduced an explicit phonics teaching approach, putting emphasis on decoding and reading fluency.