title: 1992–93 UEFA Champions League

text: However, soon after Marseille's victory allegations of match fixing were levelled at them and their president Bernard Tapie. This involved a league game that took place 6 days before the final where Marseille, it emerged, had fixed their title-clinching Division 1 game against Valenciennes so they could concentrate on the Final against Milan. It is believed that Tapie bribed Valenciennes to lose so that Marseille would win the French league earlier, and above all that they would not injure the Marseille players before the Final against Milan. Before the 1991 European Cup final against the Red Star Belgrade, Marseille had a few injured players, Tapie did not want to repeat this mistake. This resulted in Marseille being stripped of their league title by the French Football Federation (although not the European Cup, as the match in question was not in that competition). They were banned from defending their European title in the 1993–94 season, and contesting the Intercontinental Cup and Super Cup. During the 1995 trial over Marseille's financial accounts, it was revealed that they had an annual budget of Fr5 million (about €760,000) dedicated to the purchase of matches from 1989 to 1993. The UEFA, along with the French Federation (FFF) and France authorities, investigated several Marseille matches during the 1992-1993 season. These investigations have not established any formal proof concerning alleged match-fixing in the Champions League. Therefore, Marseille's status as 1993 European champion was not affected. Barcelona, the defending champions, were eliminated in the second round by CSKA Moscow.


title: 1992–93 UEFA Champions League

text: The group stage began on 25 November 1992 and ended on 21 April 1993. The eight teams were divided into two groups of four, and the teams in each group played against each other on a home-and-away basis, meaning that each team played a total of six group matches. For each win, teams were awarded two points, with one point awarded for each draw. At the end of the group stage, the first team in each group advanced to the final.


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: Immigration of Han Chinese to the Penghu islands started as early as the 13th century, while settlement of the main island occurred from the 16th century during the Ming–Qing transition. Further immigration occurred when workers were imported from Fujian in the 17th century. According to governmental statistics, in the early 21st century, 95% to 97% of Taiwan's population are Han Chinese, while about 2.3% are Taiwanese of Austronesian ethnicity. Half the population are followers of one or a mixture of 25 recognized religions.


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: During the 20th century, the population of Taiwan rose more than sevenfold, from about 3 million in 1905 to more than 22 million by 2001. This high growth was caused by a combination of factors, such as very high fertility rates up to the 1960s, and low mortality rates. In addition, there was a surge in population as the Chinese Civil War ended and the Kuomintang (KMT) forces retreated, bringing an influx of 1.2 million soldiers and civilians to Taiwan in 19481949, representing less than 15% of the population at the time (who constitute approximately 10% of the population in 2004). Consequently, the population growth rate after that was very rapid, especially in the late 1940s and 1950s, with an effective annual growth rate as high as 3.68% during 19511956.


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: Fertility rates decreased gradually thereafter; in 1984 the rate reached the replacement level (2.1 children per woman, which is needed to replace the existing population). Fertility rates have continued to decline. In 2010, Taiwan had a population growth of less than 0.2% and a fertility rate of only 0.9, the lowest rate ever recorded in that country. The population of Taiwan peaked at 23.6 million in 2019 and has been continuously decreasing ever since.


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: Most Taiwanese speak Mandarin. Around 70% of the people also speak Taiwanese Hokkien and 10% speak Hakka. Japanese speakers are becoming rare as the elderly generation who lived under Japanese colonization are dying out. The Formosan languages are endangered as the indigenous peoples have become acculturated under Chinese culture.


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: According to February 2022 statistics from the Ministry of the Interior, the population of Taiwan was 23,319,776, 99.6% of whom live on the island of Taiwan. The remaining 0.4% live on offshore islands (Penghu, Lanyu, Green, Kinmen, and Matsu).


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: The number of Chinese people living on the island in 1624, prior to Dutch colonial rule, was about 25,000. During Dutch Formosa rule, between 1624 and 1662, the Dutch began to encourage large-scale Han immigration to the island for labour, mainly from the south of Fujian.


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: It is estimated that prior to the Kingdom of Tungning (1661), the population of Taiwan was no greater than 100,000 people, and the initial Zheng army with families and retainers that settled in Taiwan is estimated to be 30,000 at minimum. During Qing rule (1683–1895), the population of Han Chinese in Taiwan grew rapidly from 100,000 to ≈2.5 million, while the aboriginal population was estimated to be at least 200,000 by 1895. (The plains aboriginal population is estimated to have decreased by 90% over the hundred years from 1800 to 1900.)


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: The Japanese Colonial Government performed detailed censuses every five years starting in 1905. Statistics showed a population growth rate of about 1% to 3% per year throughout Japanese rule. In 1905, the population of Taiwan was roughly 3 million; by 1940, the population had grown to 5.87 million, and after the Second World War in 1946 it numbered 6.09 million.


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: During 2004 – 2010, Taiwan's migration rate was positive. On average, the annual net migration amounted to 22,000 people during that period, which is equivalent to a rate of 1.0 per 1,000 inhabitants per year.


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: Demographic transition models (DTM) show how population pyramids change and go through specific stages. By looking at Taiwan's population pyramid, the country is in stage 4 of the DTM and its shape contracts but it will soon enter stage 5. In stage 5 of the DTM, death rate gradually exceeds fertility rate and a country starts to experience overall population loss. Access to good medical care increases the lifespan of a population. Knowledge of and access to contraception, along with an increase in women's participation in the workforce, cause a sharp decline in the fertility rate.


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: National statistics of Taiwan in 2018 indicate that there are approximately 140,000 more females than males. The birth rate (8.3 births/1,000 population) is slightly higher than the death rate (7.4 deaths/1,000 population). The total dependency ratio in Taiwan is 35.2%, which is relatively low. The low dependency ratio indicates that the dependent part of the population is less than half of the working part. Experts estimate the dependency ratio will rise to 92.9% by 2060. A rising dependency ratio and longer life expectancy will most likely require the government to support part of the elderly population as the working-age population is shrinking and thus less able to support the elderly directly.


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: The process of population aging is primarily determined by fertility and mortality rate. The proportions of elderly people are different across countries. For example, developing countries with limited access to healthcare and contraceptives, where populations have a high fertility rate, tend to have a lower proportion of older people. Medical advancements, industrial developments, and better knowledge of sanitation, which started in the 18th century in many developed countries, have caused a decline in mortality rates and an increase in fertility rates, factors which raise the number of older people worldwide. According to the United Nations, many developed countries are in more advanced stages (4 or 5) of the demographic transition model and their number of elderly will remain high compared to less developed countries. This phenomenon is known as population aging.


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: According to the World Health Organization (WHO), since 1993, Taiwan has reached the threshold of an aging society. It was estimated the percentage of people over 65 was 8%. The Council for Economic Planning and Development (CEPD) has estimated that Taiwan will become an aged society as early as 2017. The CEPD estimated that the percentage of people 65 years or older will be over 20% in 2025, which means Taiwan will soon become a "super aged society". The critical factors that accelerate the speed of aging in Taiwan are high life expectancy and low fertility rate. The average life expectancy in 2014 was 80 years. The total fertility rate in 2014 was 1.1 (per 1,000 women) and dropped to 0.9 in 2017.


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: The ROC government reports that 95 to 97 percent of Taiwan's population is of the Han Chinese ethnicity, which includes Hoklo, Hakka, and other ethnic groups originating from mainland China. Over 2% of the population consists of indigenous Taiwanese. 21,000 Westerners live in Taiwan, accounting for 0.1% of its total population.


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: The total population of recognized indigenous people in Taiwan is approximately 533,600, or approximately 2.28% of Taiwan's population. These groups primarily inhabit the eastern half of Taiwan, which consists mostly of mountainous terrain. Their population growth rate (1.2%) and population pyramid are considerably more youthful than the overall population. Including migrant workers, the Austronesian population of Taiwan is approaching 1 million.


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: The Taiwanese government officially recognizes sixteen ethnic groups of Taiwanese indigenous peoples (). In the early 1910s, research in the Japanese era recognized nine ethnic groups: Amis, Atayal, Bunun, Paiwan, Puyuma, Rukai, Saisiyat, Tsou, and Yami. After the 2000s, indigenous cultural revitalization movements forced the government to change its attitude towards the indigenous people of Taiwan. The Yami people were renamed to Tao. New ethnic groups were also recognized by the government, including Thao in 2001, Kavalan in 2002, Truku (Taroko) in 2004, Sakizaya in 2007, Seediq in 2008, Kanakanavu in 2014, and Saaroa in 2014. There are at least another dozen groups that are not officially recognized by the government.


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: Unrecognized indigenous groups may include extinct tribes (mostly Plains indigenous peoples) or communities currently classified with other groups. There are also 25,943 indigenous people who are currently not classified in any group.


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: The majority of Han Chinese descend from immigrants who arrived to the island prior to Japanese rule (1895–1945) and can be classified as the Hoklo and Hakka, on the basis of language and customs. As the majority of early immigrants were Hokkien speakers from Fujian who arrived starting in the 17th century, the Hoklos account for about 70% of the total population today. During Qing rule, a large number of Hoklo men took indigenous brides. Some of the plains aboriginals also adopted Chinese customs and language so as to be indistinguishable from the Han. Thus, many who categorize themselves as Han have some degree of indigenous ancestry.


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: A significant minority of Han Chinese are Hakka, and they constitute about 15% of the total population. The Hakkas emigrated chiefly from eastern Guangdong, speak Hakka Chinese, and originally took up residence in the hills of the indigenous border districts.


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: "Waishengren" form another significant mixed ethnic group in Taiwan. The term refers to migrants who moved from China to Taiwan between 1945, when the ROC took control of Taiwan from the Japanese empire, and 1949 during the relocation of the ROC from mainland China to Taiwan. Estimates vary regarding how many "waishengren" migrated, with most estimates ranging between 950,000 and 2 million, with 1.2 million being the most commonly cited figure in Taiwan, which would have constituted less than 15% of the population at the time (who constitute approximately 10% of the population in 2004).


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: During Japanese rule (between 1895 and 1945), Japanese was the medium of instruction and could be fluently spoken by many of those educated during that period. Almost everyone in Taiwan born after the early 1950s can speak Mandarin, which was the official language and has been the medium of instruction in schools ever since.


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: Hanyu Pinyin, the official romanization system in mainland China, has also been the standard of Taiwan since 2009. A number of romanization systems are still seen in Taiwan, including Tongyong, the official romanization in Taiwan between 2002 and 2008, Wade–Giles, often found on passports, and Postal.


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: Other Sinitic languages can also be seen in Taiwan. The majority speak Taiwanese Hokkien, a branch of Southern Min, which had formerly been the most commonly spoken language. On Matsu Islands, the Eastern Min Fuzhou dialect is prevalent. Although people on Kinmen (Quemoy) also speak Southern Min, it is not the case in the Wuqiu Islands, for they speak a dialect of the Pu-Xian Min. The ethnic Hakka speak various Taiwanese Hakka dialects including Sixian, Hailu, Dabu, Raoping, and Zhao'an.


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: The most widely spoken Formosan languages today are Amis, Atayal, Bunun, and Paiwan. The other aboriginal languages that have gained official recognition are Kanakanavu, Kavalan, Puyuma, Rukai, Hla’alua, Saisiyat, Sakizaya, Seediq (closely related to Truku), Thao, Tsou, and Yami (also known as Tao).


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: Article 13 of the Constitution of the Republic of China guarantees freedom of religion as a right of all its citizens. , the Republic of China government recognizes 27 religions which are registered with the Civil Affairs Department of the Ministry of the Interior (MOI).


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: About 81.3% of the population can be considered religious believers, most of whom identify as Buddhists (35%) or Taoists (33%). Chinese folk religion is generally practised under the aegis of Taoism, while more than 10% of the population adheres to popular movements of salvation. Confucianism also is an honored school of thought and ethical codes. Christian churches have been active in Taiwan for centuries; a majority of them are Protestant, with Presbyterians playing a particularly significant role. The Republic of China's government has diplomatic relations with the Holy See, which is the only European nation to formally recognize the Republic of China and is its longest-lasting diplomatic ally, having established relations in 1942. Islam has seen a surge in recent years as a result of foreign Muslims seeking work in Taiwan, most notably from Indonesia. There is also a small group of Shinto followers under the Tenriist sect, which was introduced in the 1970s.


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: The table below shows official statistics on religion issued by the Department of Civil Affairs, Ministry of the Interior ("MOI"), in 2005. The Taiwanese government recognises 26 religions in Taiwan. The statistics are reported by the various religious organisations to the MOI:


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: The figures for The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints are not from the MOI, rather they are based on self-reported data from LDS Newsroom. The figures for Jehovah's Witnesses are not from the MOI either, they are based on the Witnesses' own 2007 Service Year Report. In the original report, both of them were counted as part of Protestantism.


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: The fertility rate in Taiwan is one of the lowest ever recorded in the world in historical times. It reached its lowest level in 2010: 0.90 children per female. In 1980, the rate was still well above replacement level (2.515), but it dropped to 1.88 in 1985, 1.81 in 1990, 1.78 in 1995, 1.68 in 2000, 1.12 in 2005.


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: In developed countries, trends like late marriage, no marriage, and having fewer children are growing. Developed countries tend to have lower fertility rates because access to birth control and contraceptives are easier and having children could become an economic burden caused by housing, education cost, and other costs for childcare. Most women in developed countries are in the workforce and tend to have higher educations and professional careers. As a result, many women tend to have children late in life or no children at all.


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: According to the BBC, the total fertility rate in Taiwan had decreased to 0.9 children per woman in 2010. This figure is much lower than the replacement level and one of the lowest in the world. This indicates the population is experiencing negative growth and population aging is happening fast. According to a Central News Agency Report, total births in 2017 were below 200,000. Compared to previous decades, the total number of births since 2000 has been between 197,000 and 230,000. If this trend continues, the senior population in Taiwan will be almost 5 times higher than the youth population by 2060.


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: The first reported case of HIV/AIDS occurred in December 1984 and the first local infection was recorded in February 1986. As of May 2006, there were 11,486 recorded cases of HIV, of which 2,631 were confirmed with AIDS. There were 1,425 deaths, leaving 10,029 people living with HIV/AIDS. This is less than 0.05% of the total population of Taiwan. Statistics by the Center for Disease Control show that the gender distribution of infected persons was 90% male and 10% female.


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: The Republic of China has a compulsory military draft for males aged 19–35 years of age with a service obligation of 12 months (2008).


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: Of the available population, the following are fit for military service. Defined as 19–49 years of age.


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: Taiwan has a nine-year compulsory education program initiated by the Ministry of Education in 1968. This consists of six years in elementary education and three years in junior high education. About 94.7% of junior high graduates continue their studies in either a senior high or vocational school . Reflecting a strong commitment to education, in FY 2001 16% of the ROC budget was allocated for education . The enrollment rate was 96.77% for the 2004–2005 school year. For the 2005–2006 school year, there were 5,283,855 students in both public and private schools, about a quarter of the entire population. The literacy rate is above 95%.


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: Since the mid-1990s, the government has introduced several education reforms in a bid to further improve education standards such as the replacement in 2002 of the 48-year-long Joint University Entrance Examination (JUEE; 大學聯考; Dàxué liánkǎo), which had been set up in 1954.


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: "International Comparison of Education Statistical Indicators – 2012 Edition", Ministry of Education, 2012. pp. 17. Retrieved on 2012-10-05. (Table 1-2-5. Literacy Rate for Age 15 Plus by Gender).


title: Demographics of Taiwan

text: 2.02 Population of 15 Years and Over by Educational Attainment , "Statistical Yearbook of Interior", Ministry of the Interior, Republic of China (Taiwan). 2012. Retrieved on 10-05-2012.


title: Bilberry

text: Bilberries (), or sometimes European blueberries, are a primarily Eurasian species of low-growing shrubs in the genus "Vaccinium" (family Ericaceae), bearing edible, dark blue berries. The species most often referred to is "Vaccinium myrtillus" L., but there are several other closely related species.


title: Bilberry

text: The name "bilberry" appears to have a Scandinavian origin, possibly from as early as 1577, being similar to the Danish word "bølle" for whortleberry with the addition of "berry".


title: Bilberry

text: In Scandinavian languages bilberries have names that translate to "blueberry": "blåbär" in Swedish and "blåbær" in Danish and Norwegian. The bilberry (especially "Vaccinium myrtillus") is also known by a number of other names including blaeberry in Scottish and Northern English regional dialects and the Scots language, whortleberry in southern England, and w(h)imberry or w(h)inberry in Derbyshire, Lancashire, along the Anglo-Welsh border, and south Wales, amongst other places.


title: Bilberry

text: Bilberries – which are native to Europe – are different from North American blueberries, although the species are closely related and belong to the same genus, "Vaccinium". Bilberry are non-climacteric fruits with a smooth, circular outline at the end opposite the stalk, whereas blueberries retain persistent sepals there, leaving a rough, star-shaped pattern of five flaps. Bilberries grow singly or in pairs rather than in clusters, as blueberries do, and blueberries have more evergreen leaves. Bilberries are dark in colour, and often appear near black with a slight shade of purple.


title: Bilberry

text: Bilberries and blueberries contain diverse anthocyanins, specifically anthocyanidins, including delphinidin and cyanidin glycosides. While blueberry fruit pulp is light green, bilberry is red or purple. The high anthocyanin content may cause staining of the fingers, lips, and tongue.


title: Bilberry

text: Bilberries are found in acidic, nutrient-poor soils throughout the temperate and subarctic regions of the world. They are difficult to grow and the fruit is small, so they are seldom cultivated. Fruits are mostly collected from wild plants growing on publicly accessible lands throughout northern and central Europe, where they are plentiful – for example, up to a fifth (17–21%) of the land area of Sweden contains bilberry bushes, where it is called blåbär (lit. "blueberry", which is a source of confusion with the American blueberry). Bilberries can be picked by a berry-picking rake like lingonberries, but are more susceptible to damage. They are softer and juicier than blueberries, making them difficult to transport. Because of these factors, fresh bilberries are only available from markets and gourmet stores. Frozen bilberries, however, are available all year round in many parts of Europe.


title: Bilberry

text: In Iceland, bilberries (known as "aðalbláber", or "prime blueberry") grow predominantly in Westfjords and the surrounding area. In most of the country, the closely related bláber occupy the same habitat. Both species are commonly found growing with dwarf birch and crowberries. Wild growth is vast compared to the population of Iceland and wild harvesting is legal, and a popular activity in August when the berry season peaks.


title: Bilberry

text: In Ireland, the fruit is known as "fraughan", from the Irish "fraochán", and is traditionally gathered on the last Sunday in July, known as "Fraughan Sunday". Bilberries were also collected at the Celtic festival of Lughnasadh in August, the first traditional harvest festival of the year. The crop of bilberries was said to indicate how well the rest of the crops would fare in their harvests later in the year.


title: Bilberry

text: Bilberry is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species (see the list of Lepidoptera that feed on "Vaccinium").


title: Bilberry

text: The fruits are eaten fresh or made into jams, fools, juices or pies. In France and Italy they are used as a base for liqueurs and are a popular flavoring for sorbets and other desserts. In Brittany they are often used as a flavoring for crêpes, and in the Vosges and the Massif Central bilberry tart ("tarte aux myrtilles") is a traditional dessert. In Romania they are used as a base for a liqueur called "afinată" – the name of the fruit in Romanian is "afină". In the Nordic countries, they are eaten fresh or made into jams and other dishes, including bilberry pie (Finnish "mustikkapiirakka", Swedish "blåbärspaj") and "blåbärssoppa", a bilberry soup served hot or cold. In Iceland they are popularly eaten with skyr (a cultured dairy product similar to yoghurt). In Poland, they are either eaten fresh (mixed with sugar), put into sweet buns as a filling (known as a "jagodzianka" and a popular bakery product during the summer), or used to make jams (known for their health benefits in the treatment of diarrhea). They are sometimes served with sweet śmietana (a soured cream).


title: Bilberry

text: RAF pilots were said to have consumed bilberry jam during World War II to sharpen their night vision for missions in the dark, although there is no medical evidence for bilberries providing such an effect. One review of low-quality clinical research concluded there was no evidence that consuming bilberries improves night vision. Bilberries have been used in a variety of folklore and traditional medicine, but there are no proven health benefits or anti-disease effects from consuming them.


title: Bilberry

text: Bilberry plants can suffer from bilberry blight, caused by "Phytophthora kernoviae". There have been severe outbreaks in Staffordshire, England.


title: Levee

text: A levee (), dike (American English), dyke (Commonwealth English), embankment, floodbank, or stop bank is a structure that is usually earthen and that often runs parallel to the course of a river in its floodplain or along low-lying coastlines.


title: Levee

text: The purpose of a levee is to keep the course of rivers from changing and to protect against flooding of the area adjoining the river or coast. Levees can be naturally occurring ridge structures that form next to the bank of a river, or be an artificially constructed fill or wall that regulates water levels.


title: Levee

text: Ancient civilizations in the Indus Valley, ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia and China all built levees. Today, levees can be found around the world, and failures of levees due to erosion or other causes can be major disasters.


title: Levee

text: Speakers of American English (notably in the Midwest and Deep South) use the word "levee", from the French word (from the feminine past participle of the French verb , 'to raise'). It originated in New Orleans a few years after the city's founding in 1718 and was later adopted by English speakers. The name derives from the trait of the levee's ridges being raised higher than both the channel and the surrounding floodplains.


title: Levee

text: The modern word "dike" or "dyke" most likely derives from the Dutch word , with the construction of dikes well attested as early as the 11th century. The Westfriese Omringdijk, completed by 1250, was formed by connecting existing older dikes. The Roman chronicler Tacitus mentions that the rebellious Batavi pierced dikes to flood their land and to protect their retreat (70 CE). The word originally indicated both the trench and the bank. It closely parallels the English verb "to dig".


title: Levee

text: In Anglo-Saxon, the word already existed and was pronounced as "dick" in northern England and as "ditch" in the south. Similar to Dutch, the English origins of the word lie in digging a trench and forming the upcast soil into a bank alongside it. This practice has meant that the name may be given to either the excavation or to the bank. Thus Offa's Dyke is a combined structure and Car Dyke is a trench – though it once had raised banks as well. In the English Midlands and East Anglia, and in the United States, a dike is what a ditch is in the south of England, a property-boundary marker or drainage channel. Where it carries a stream, it may be called a running dike as in "Rippingale Running Dike", which leads water from the catchwater drain, Car Dyke, to the South Forty Foot Drain in Lincolnshire (TF1427). The Weir Dike is a soak dike in Bourne North Fen, near Twenty and alongside the River Glen, Lincolnshire. In the Norfolk and Suffolk Broads, a dyke may be a drainage ditch or a narrow artificial channel off a river or broad for access or mooring, some longer dykes being named, e.g. Candle Dyke.


title: Levee

text: In parts of Britain, particularly Scotland and Northern England, a dyke may be a field wall, generally made with dry stone.


title: Levee

text: The main purpose of artificial levees is to prevent flooding of the adjoining countryside and to slow natural course changes in a waterway to provide reliable shipping lanes for maritime commerce over time; they also confine the flow of the river, resulting in higher and faster water flow. Levees can be mainly found along the sea, where dunes are not strong enough, along rivers for protection against high-floods, along lakes or along polders. Furthermore, levees have been built for the purpose of empoldering, or as a boundary for an inundation area. The latter can be a controlled inundation by the military or a measure to prevent inundation of a larger area surrounded by levees. Levees have also been built as field boundaries and as military defences. More on this type of levee can be found in the article on dry-stone walls.


title: Levee

text: Levees can be permanent earthworks or emergency constructions (often of sandbags) built hastily in a flood emergency.


title: Levee

text: Some of the earliest levees were constructed by the Indus Valley civilization (in Pakistan and North India from circa 2600 BC) on which the agrarian life of the Harappan peoples depended. Levees were also constructed over 3,000 years ago in ancient Egypt, where a system of levees was built along the left bank of the River Nile for more than , stretching from modern Aswan to the Nile Delta on the shores of the Mediterranean. The Mesopotamian civilizations and ancient China also built large levee systems. Because a levee is only as strong as its weakest point, the height and standards of construction have to be consistent along its length. Some authorities have argued that this requires a strong governing authority to guide the work, and may have been a catalyst for the development of systems of governance in early civilizations. However, others point to evidence of large scale water-control earthen works such as canals and/or levees dating from before King Scorpion in Predynastic Egypt, during which governance was far less centralized.


title: Levee

text: Another example of a historical levee that protected the growing city-state of Mēxihco-Tenōchtitlan and the neighbouring city of Tlatelōlco, was constructed during the early 1400s, under the supervision of the tlahtoani of the altepetl Texcoco, Nezahualcoyotl. Its function was to separate the brackish waters of Lake Texcoco (ideal for the agricultural technique "Chināmitls") from the fresh potable water supplied to the settlements. However, after the Europeans destroyed Tenochtitlan, the levee was also destroyed and flooding became a major problem, which resulted in the majority of The Lake to be drained in the 17th Century.


title: Levee

text: Levees are usually built by piling earth on a cleared, level surface. Broad at the base, they taper to a level top, where temporary embankments or sandbags can be placed. Because flood discharge intensity increases in levees on both river banks, and because silt deposits raise the level of riverbeds, planning and auxiliary measures are vital. Sections are often set back from the river to form a wider channel, and flood valley basins are divided by multiple levees to prevent a single breach from flooding a large area. A levee made from stones laid in horizontal rows with a bed of thin turf between each of them is known as a "spetchel".


title: Levee

text: Artificial levees require substantial engineering. Their surface must be protected from erosion, so they are planted with vegetation such as Bermuda grass in order to bind the earth together. On the land side of high levees, a low terrace of earth known as a "banquette" is usually added as another anti-erosion measure. On the river side, erosion from strong waves or currents presents an even greater threat to the integrity of the levee. The effects of erosion are countered by planting suitable vegetation or installing stones, boulders, weighted matting or concrete revetments. Separate ditches or drainage tiles are constructed to ensure that the foundation does not become waterlogged.


title: Levee

text: Prominent levee systems have been built along the Mississippi River and Sacramento River in the United States, and the Po, Rhine, Meuse River, Rhône, Loire, Vistula, the delta formed by the Rhine, Maas/Meuse and Scheldt in the Netherlands and the Danube in Europe. During the Chinese Warring States period, the Dujiangyan irrigation system was built by the Qin as a water conservation and flood control project. The system's infrastructure is located on the Minjiang (), which is the longest tributary of the Chang Jiang, in Sichuan, China.


title: Levee

text: The Mississippi levee system represents one of the largest such systems found anywhere in the world. It comprises over of levees extending some along the Mississippi, stretching from Cape Girardeau, Missouri, to the Mississippi delta. They were begun by French settlers in Louisiana in the 18th century to protect the city of New Orleans. The first Louisiana levees were about high and covered a distance of about along the riverside. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, in conjunction with the Mississippi River Commission, extended the levee system beginning in 1882 to cover the riverbanks from Cairo, Illinois to the mouth of the Mississippi delta in Louisiana. By the mid-1980s, they had reached their present extent and averaged in height; some Mississippi levees are as high as . The Mississippi levees also include some of the longest continuous individual levees in the world. One such levee extends southwards from Pine Bluff, Arkansas, for a distance of some . The scope and scale of the Mississippi levees has often been compared to the Great Wall of China.


title: Levee

text: The United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) recommends and supports cellular confinement technology (geocells) as a best management practice. Particular attention is given to the matter of surface erosion, overtopping prevention and protection of levee crest and downstream slope. Reinforcement with geocells provides tensile force to the soil to better resist instability.


title: Levee

text: Artificial levees can lead to an elevation of the natural river bed over time; whether this happens or not and how fast, depends on different factors, one of them being the amount and type of the bed load of a river. Alluvial rivers with intense accumulations of sediment tend to this behavior. Examples of rivers where artificial levees led to an elevation of the river bed, even up to a point where the river bed is higher than the adjacent ground surface behind the levees, are found for the Yellow River in China and the Mississippi in the United States.


title: Levee

text: Levees are very common on the marshlands bordering the Bay of Fundy in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, Canada. The Acadians who settled the area can be credited with the original construction of many of the levees in the area, created for the purpose of farming the fertile tidal marshlands. These levees are referred to as dykes. They are constructed with hinged sluice gates that open on the falling tide to drain freshwater from the agricultural marshlands, and close on the rising tide to prevent seawater from entering behind the dyke. These sluice gates are called "aboiteaux". In the Lower Mainland around the city of Vancouver, British Columbia, there are levees (known locally as dikes, and also referred to as "the sea wall") to protect low-lying land in the Fraser River delta, particularly the city of Richmond on Lulu Island. There are also dikes to protect other locations which have flooded in the past, such as the Pitt Polder, land adjacent to the Pitt River and other tributary rivers.


title: Levee

text: Coastal flood prevention levees are also common along the inland coastline behind the Wadden Sea, an area devastated by many historic floods. Thus the peoples and governments have erected increasingly large and complex flood protection levee systems to stop the sea even during storm floods. The biggest of these are of course the huge levees in the Netherlands, which have gone beyond just defending against floods, as they have aggressively taken back land that is below mean sea level.


title: Levee

text: These typically man-made hydraulic structures are situated to protect against erosion. They are typically placed in alluvial rivers perpendicular, or at an angle, to the bank of the channel or the revetment, and are used widely along coastlines. There are two common types of spur dyke, permeable and impermeable, depending on the materials used to construct them.


title: Levee

text: Natural levees commonly form around lowland rivers and creeks without human intervention. They are elongate ridges of mud and/or silt that form on the river floodplains immediately adjacent to the cut banks. Like artificial levees, they act to reduce the likelihood of floodplain inundation.


title: Levee

text: Deposition of levees is a natural consequence of the flooding of meandering rivers which carry high proportions of suspended sediment in the form of fine sands, silts, and muds. Because the carrying capacity of a river depends in part on its depth, the sediment in the water which is over the flooded banks of the channel is no longer capable of keeping the same amount of fine sediments in suspension as the main thalweg. The extra fine sediments thus settle out quickly on the parts of the floodplain nearest to the channel. Over a significant number of floods, this will eventually result in the building up of ridges in these positions, and reducing the likelihood of further floods and episodes of levee building.


title: Levee

text: If aggradation continues to occur in the main channel, this will make levee overtopping more likely again, and the levees can continue to build up. In some cases this can result in the channel bed eventually rising above the surrounding floodplains, penned in only by the levees around it; an example is the Yellow River in China near the sea, where oceangoing ships appear to sail high above the plain on the elevated river.


title: Levee

text: Levees are common in any river with a high suspended sediment fraction, and thus are intimately associated with meandering channels, which also are more likely to occur where a river carries large fractions of suspended sediment. For similar reasons, they are also common in tidal creeks, where tides bring in large amounts of coastal silts and muds. High will cause flooding, and result in the building up of levees.


title: Levee

text: Both natural and man-made levees can fail in a number of ways. Factors that cause levee failure include overtopping, erosion, structural failures, and levee saturation. The most frequent (and dangerous) is a levee breach. Here, a part of the levee actually breaks or is eroded away, leaving a large opening for water to flood land otherwise protected by the levee. A breach can be a sudden or gradual failure, caused either by surface erosion or by subsurface weakness in the levee. A breach can leave a fan-shaped deposit of sediment radiating away from the breach, described as a crevasse splay. In natural levees, once a breach has occurred, the gap in the levee will remain until it is again filled in by levee building processes. This increases the chances of future breaches occurring in the same location. Breaches can be the location of meander cutoffs if the river flow direction is permanently diverted through the gap.


title: Levee

text: Sometimes levees are said to fail when water overtops the crest of the levee. This will cause flooding on the floodplains, but because it does not damage the levee, it has fewer consequences for future flooding.


title: Levee

text: Among various failure mechanisms that cause levee breaches, soil erosion is found to be one of the most important factors. Predicting soil erosion and scour generation when overtopping happens is important in order to design stable levee and floodwalls. There have been numerous studies to investigate the erodibility of soils. Briaud et al. (2008) used Erosion Function Apparatus (EFA) test to measure the erodibility of the soils and afterwards by using Chen 3D software, numerical simulations were performed on the levee to find out the velocity vectors in the overtopping water and the generated scour when the overtopping water impinges the levee. By analyzing the results from EFA test, an erosion chart to categorize erodibility of the soils was developed. Hughes and Nadal in 2009 studied the effect of combination of wave overtopping and storm surge overflow on the erosion and scour generation in levees. The study included hydraulic parameters and flow characteristics such as flow thickness, wave intervals, surge level above levee crown in analyzing scour development. According to the laboratory tests, empirical correlations related to average overtopping discharge were derived to analyze the resistance of levee against erosion. These equations could only fit to the situation, similar to the experimental tests, while they can give a reasonable estimation if applied to other conditions.


title: Levee

text: Osouli et al. (2014) and Karimpour et al. (2015) conducted lab scale physical modeling of levees to evaluate score characterization of different levees due to floodwall overtopping.


title: Levee

text: Another approach applied to prevent levee failures is electrical resistivity tomography (ERT). This non-destructive geophysical method can detect in advance critical saturation areas in embankments. ERT can thus be used in monitoring of seepage phenomena in earth structures and act as an early warning system, e.g. in critical parts of levees or embankments.


title: Partnership

text: A partnership is an arrangement where parties, known as business partners, agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests. The partners in a partnership may be individuals, businesses, interest-based organizations, schools, governments or combinations. Organizations may partner to increase the likelihood of each achieving their mission and to amplify their reach. A partnership may result in issuing and holding equity or may be only governed by a contract.


title: Partnership

text: Partnerships have a long history; they were already in use in medieval times in Europe and in the Middle East. According to a 2006 article, the first partnership was implemented in 1383 by Francesco di Marco Datini, a merchant of Prato and Florence. The Covoni company (1336-40) and the Del Buono-Bencivenni company (1336-40) have also been referred to as early partnerships, but they were not formal partnerships.


title: Partnership

text: In Europe, the partnerships contributed to the Commercial Revolution which started in the 13th century. In the 15th century the cities of the Hanseatic League would mutually strengthen each other; a ship from Hamburg to Gdansk would not only carry its own cargo but was also commissioned to transport freight for other members of the league. This practice not only saved time and money, but also constituted a first step toward partnership. This capacity to join forces in reciprocal services became a distinctive feature, and a long lasting success factor, of the Hanseatic team spirit.


title: Partnership

text: A close examination of medieval trade in Europe shows that numerous significant credit based trades were not bearing interest. Hence, pragmatism and common sense called for a fair compensation for the risk of lending money, and a compensation for the opportunity cost of lending money without using it for other fruitful purposes. In order to circumvent the usury laws edicted by the Church, other forms of reward were created, in particular through the widespread form of partnership called commenda, very popular with Italian merchant bankers. Florentine merchant banks were almost sure to make a positive return on their loans, but this would be before taking into account solvency risks.


title: Partnership

text: In the Middle East, the "Qirad" and "Mudarabas" institutions developed when trade with the Levant, namely the Ottoman Empire and the Muslim Near East, flourished and when early trading companies, contracts, bills of exchange and long-distance international trade were established. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the Levant trade revived in the 10th to 11th centuries in Byzantine Italy. The eastern and western Mediterranean formed part of a single commercial civilization in the Middle Ages, and the two regions were economically interdependent through trade (in varying degrees).


title: Partnership

text: The Mongols adopted and developed the concepts of liability in relation to investments and loans in Mongol–ortoq partnerships, promoting trade and investment to facilitate the commercial integration of the Mongol Empire. The contractual features of a Mongol-"ortoq" partnership closely resembled that of qirad and commenda arrangements, however, Mongol investors used metal coins, paper money, gold and silver ingots and tradable goods for partnership investments and primarily financed money-lending and trade activities. Moreover, Mongol elites formed trade partnerships with merchants from Central and Western Asia and Europe, including Marco Polo’s family.


title: Partnership

text: In order to come into being, every partnership necessarily involves a partnership agreement, even if it has not been reduced to writing. In common law jurisdictions a written partnership agreement is not legally required, but partners may benefit from a partnership agreement that articulates the important terms of the relationship between them.


title: Partnership

text: In business, two or more companies join forces in a joint venture, a buyer-supplier relationship, a strategic alliance or a consortium to i) work on a project (e.g. industrial or research project) which would be too heavy or too risky for a single entity, ii) join forces to have a stronger position on the market, iii) comply with specific regulation (e.g. in some emerging countries, foreigners can only invest in the form of partnerships with local entrepreneurs. In this case, the alliance may be structured in a process comparable to a Mergers & Acquisitions transaction. A large literature in business and management has paid attention to the formation and management of partnership agreements. It has, in particular, shown the role of contracts and relational mechanisms to organize business partnerships.


title: Partnership

text: Partnerships present the involved parties with complex negotiation and special challenges that must be navigated unto agreement. Overarching goals, levels of give-and-take, areas of responsibility, lines of authority and succession, how success is evaluated and distributed, and often a variety of other factors must all be negotiated. Once an agreement is reached, the partnership is typically enforceable by civil law, especially if well documented. Partners who wish to make their agreement affirmatively explicit and enforceable typically draw up Articles of Partnership. Trust and pragmatism are also essential as it cannot be expected that everything can be written in the initial partnership agreement, therefore quality governance and clear communication are critical success factors in the long run. It is common for information about formally partnered entities to be made public, such as through a press release, a newspaper ad, or public records laws.


title: Partnership

text: Partner compensation will often be defined by the terms of a partnership agreement. Partners who work for the partnership may receive compensation for their labor before any division of profits between partners.


title: Partnership

text: In certain partnerships of individuals, particularly law firms and accountancy firms, equity partners are distinguished from salaried partners (or contract or income partners). The degree of control which each type of partner exerts over the partnership depends on the relevant partnership agreement.


title: Partnership

text: Although individuals in both categories are described as partners, equity partners and salaried partners have little in common other than joint and several liability. In many legal systems, salaried partners are not technically "partners" at all in the eyes of the law. However, if their firm holds them out as partners, they are nonetheless subject to joint and several liabilities.


title: Partnership

text: In their most basic form, equity partners enjoy a fixed share of the partnership (usually, but not always an equal share with the other partners) and, upon distribution of profits, receive a portion of the partnership's profits proportionate to that share. In more sophisticated partnerships, different models exist for determining either ownership interest, profit distribution, or both. Two common alternate approaches to distribution of profit are "lockstep" and "source of origination" compensation (sometimes referred to, more graphically, as "eat what you kill").


title: Partnership

text: The source of origination compensation is rarely seen outside of law firms. The principle is simply that each partner receives a share of the partnership profits up to a certain amount, with any additional profits being distributed to the partner who was responsible for the "origination" of the work that generated the profits.


title: Partnership

text: British law firms tend to use the lockstep principle, whereas American firms are more accustomed to source of origination. When British firm Clifford Chance merged with American firm Rogers & Wells, many of the difficulties associated with that merger were blamed on the difficulties of merging a lockstep culture with a source of origination culture.


title: Partnership

text: Partnerships recognized by a government body may enjoy special benefits from taxation policy. Among developed countries, for example, business partnerships are often favored over corporations in taxation policy, since dividend taxes only occur on profit before they are distributed to the partners. However, depending on the partnership structure and the jurisdiction in which it operates, owners of a partnership may be exposed to greater personal liability than they would as shareholders of a corporation. In such countries, partnerships are often regulated via antitrust laws, so as to inhibit monopolistic practices and foster free market competition. Enforcement of the laws, however, varies considerably. Domestic partnerships recognized by governments typically enjoy tax benefits, as well.


title: Partnership

text: At common law, members of a business partnership are personally liable for the debts and obligations of the partnership. Forms of partnership have evolved that may limit a partner's liability.


title: Partnership

text: The general partnership, in which all partners manage the business and are personally liable for its debts, developed under common law. General partners have an obligation of strict liability to third parties injured by the Partnership. General partners may have joint liability or joint and several liability depending upon circumstances.


title: Partnership

text: The limited partnership (LP), is a partnership in which general partners manage the partnership's operations, and limited partners forego the right to manage the business in exchange for limited liability for the partnership debts. The liability of limited partners is limited to their investment in the partnership. This form of partnership was developed in the 19th Century, the U.K. where it was imparted by charter, and in the U.S. where it was created by statute.


title: Partnership

text: A silent partner or sleeping partner is one who still shares in the profits and losses of the business, but who is not involved in its management. Sometimes the silent partner's interest in the business will not be publicly known. A silent partner is often an investor in the partnership, who is entitled to a share of the partnership's profits. Silent partners may prefer to invest in limited partnerships in order to insulate their personal assets from the debts or liabilities of the partnership.


title: Partnership

text: Summarising s. 5 of the "Partnership Act 1958" (Vic), for a partnership in Australia to exist, four main criteria must be satisfied. They are:


title: Partnership

text: Partners share profits and losses. A partnership is basically a settlement between two or more groups or firms in which profit and loss are equally divided


title: Partnership

text: In Bangladesh, the relevant law for regulating partnership is the Partnership Act 1932. A partnership is defined as the relation between persons who have agreed to share the profits of a business carried on by all or any of them acting for all. The law does not require written partnership agreement between the partners to form a partnership. A partnership is not required to be registered, but a partnership is considered as a separate legal identity from its owners only if the partnership is registered. There must be a minimum of 2 partners and maximum of 20 partners.


title: Partnership

text: According to section 4 of the Partnership Act of 1932,"Partnership is defined as the relation between two or more persons who have agreed to share the profits of a business carried on by all or any one of them acting for all". This definition superseded the previous definition given in section 239 of Indian Contract Act 1872 as – “Partnership is the relation which subsists between persons who have agreed to combine their property, labor, skill in some business, and to share the profits thereof between them”. The 1932 definition added the concept of mutual agency. The Indian Partnerships have the following common characteristics:


title: Partnership

text: 1) A partnership firm is not a legal entity apart from the partners constituting it. It has limited identity for the purpose of tax law as per section 4 of the Partnership Act of 1932.


title: Partnership

text: 2) Partnership is a concurrent subject. Contracts of partnerships are included in the Entry no.7 of List III of The Constitution of India (the list constitutes the subjects on which both the State government and Central (National) Government can legislate i.e. pass laws on).


title: Partnership

text: 3) Unlimited Liability. The major disadvantage of partnership is the unlimited liability of partners for the debts and liabilities of the firm. Any partner can bind the firm and the firm is liable for all liabilities incurred by any firm on behalf of the firm. If property of partnership firm is insufficient to meet liabilities, personal property of any partner can be attached to pay the debts of the firm.


title: Partnership

text: 4) Partners are Mutual Agents.The business of firm can be carried on by all or any of them acting for all. Any partner has authority to bind the firm. Act of any one partner is binding on all the partners. Thus, each partner is ‘agent’ of all the remaining partners. Hence, partners are ‘mutual agents’. Section 18 of the Partnership Act, 1932 says "Subject to the provisions of this Act, a partner is the agent of the firm for the purpose of the business of the firm"


title: Partnership

text: 5) Oral or Written Agreements. The Partnership Act, 1932 nowhere mentions that the Partnership Agreement is to be in written or oral format. Thus the general rule of the Contract Act applies that the contract can be 'oral' or 'written' as long as it satisfies the basic conditions of being a contract i.e. the agreement between partners is legally enforceable. A written agreement is advisable to establish existence of partnership and to prove rights and liabilities of each partner, as it is difficult to prove an oral agreement.


title: Partnership

text: 6) Number of Partners is minimum 2 and maximum 50 in any kind of business activities. Since partnership is ‘agreement’ there must be minimum two partners. The Partnership Act does not put any restrictions on maximum number of partners. However, section 464 of Companies Act 2013, and Rule 10 of Companies (Miscellaneous) Rules, 2014 prohibits partnership consisting of more than 50 for any businesses, unless it is registered as a company under Companies Act, 2013 or formed in pursuance of some other law. Some other law means companies and corporations formed via some other law passed by Parliament of India.


title: Partnership

text: 7) Mutual agency is the real test. The real test of ‘partnership firm’ is ‘mutual agency’ set by the Courts of India, i.e. whether a partner can bind the firm by his act, i.e. whether he can act as agent of all other partners.


title: Partnership

text: Statutory regulation of partnerships in Canada fall under provincial jurisdiction. A partnership is not a separate legal entity and partnership income is taxed at the rate of the partner receiving the income. It can be deemed to exist regardless of the intention of the partners. Common elements considered by courts in determining the existence of a partnership are that two or more legal persons:


title: Partnership

text: Under U.S. law a partnership is a business association of two or more individuals, through which partners share the profits and responsibility for the liabilities of their venture. U.S. states recognize forms of limited partnership that may allow a partner who does not participate in the business venture to avoid liability for the partnership's debts and obligations. Partnerships typically pay less taxes than corporations in fields like fund management.


title: Partnership

text: The federal government of the United States does not have specific statutory law governing the establishment of partnerships. Instead, every U.S. state and the District of Columbia has its own statutes and common law that govern partnerships. The National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws has issued non-binding model laws (called uniform act) in which to encourage the adoption of uniformity of partnership law into the states by their respective legislatures. Model laws include the Uniform Partnership Act and the Uniform Limited Partnership Act. Most U.S. states have adopted a form of the Uniform Partnership Act, which includes provisions regulating general partnerships, limited partnerships and limited liability partnerships.


title: Partnership

text: Although the federal government does not have specific statutory law for establishing partnerships, it has an extensive statutory and regulatory scheme for the taxation of partnerships, set forth in the Internal Revenue Code (IRC) and Code of Federal Regulations. The IRC defines federal tax obligations for partnership operations that effectively serve as federal regulation of some aspects of partnerships.


title: Partnership

text: A partnership in Hong Kong is a business entity formed by the Hong Kong Partnerships Ordinance, which defines a partnership as "the relation between persons carrying on a business in common with a view of profit" and is not a joint stock company or an incorporated company. If the business entity registers with the Registrar of Companies it takes the form of a limited partnership defined in the Limited Partnerships Ordinance. However, if this business entity fails to register with the Registrar of Companies, then it becomes a general partnership as a default.


title: Partnership

text: If they do, they become liable for all the debts and obligations of the firm up to the amount drawn out or received back or incurred while taking part in the management, as the case may be.


title: The Girl on the Train (2021 film)

text: The Girl on the Train is a 2021 Indian Hindi-language mystery thriller film directed by Ribhu Dasgupta and produced by Reliance Entertainment, based on British author Paula Hawkins's 2015 novel of the same name. The film stars Parineeti Chopra, Avinash Tiwary, Aditi Rao Hydari and Kirti Kulhari and was released worldwide on 26 February 2021 on Netflix.


title: The Girl on the Train (2021 film)

text: The film revolves around Mira Kapoor (Parineeti Chopra), an alcoholic and troubled divorcee who gets embroiled in a big murder investigation.


title: The Girl on the Train (2021 film)

text: The film begins with Nusrat being chased by someone in the forest and Mira is standing at the station. in flashback its shows that Mira met her husband Shekhar at a wedding where they fell in love. They both get married and Mira is pregnant. Mira is fighting a case against Jimmy Bhagga where she successfully wins and Jimmy has to go to jail. A few days later she is hit by a car. Mira suffers from anterograde amnesia caused by a car accident. She is also an alcoholic, which doesn’t exactly help the memory loss either. She and Shekhar have separated and Shekhar married someone else.


title: The Girl on the Train (2021 film)

text: Obsessed with a seemingly perfect couple she sees from the train window on her commute to London, one drunken night Mira follows the young woman into the forest but doesn’t recall what happens next.


title: The Girl on the Train (2021 film)

text: Mira is actually a bit of a badass. The police have a decent amount of circumstantial evidence against her and even move to make an arrest but Mira escapes out the window and calls in a favour from the family member of a former client. Get me a phone, cash, and a gun, she says.


title: The Girl on the Train (2021 film)

text: Mira discovers that the missing girl Nusrat wasn’t as happily married as she looked and that she was having an affair. It’s entirely plausible that Mira is the killer – in a drunken rage which she accidentally records on her phone, Mira fantasizes about smashing Nusrat’s head in, angry that she is ruining her own marriage.


title: The Girl on the Train (2021 film)

text: There are plenty of other suspects too, though, including Nusrat’s sex pest dance teacher, a blackmailing private eye, and more than one aggressive and abusive husband.


title: The Girl on the Train (2021 film)

text: In the story, we learn that Mira’s philandering ex-husband Shehkar has been gaslighting her for years. She’s a blackout drunk but she isn’t the violent, offensive brute that he’s been claiming, and she isn’t responsible for him losing his job.


title: The Girl on the Train (2021 film)

text: Though Nusrat was unhappy in her marriage to abusive Anand and was pregnant by someone else, Anand didn’t kill her. Nor did the kindly therapist who was trying to help Nusrat. It turns out the Nusrat’s baby was Shehkar’s, and the night Mira followed Nusrat into “Greenwich Forest” Shehkar was there too and it was him who bashed Mira over the head with a rock and left her there. Nusrat told him of the pregnancy, they fought, and Shehkar strangled Nusrat, leaving her for dead.


title: The Girl on the Train (2021 film)

text: But, she wasn’t dead, and here’s where the film diverts. It turns out there were two other people in Greenwich Forest that night. These are the police woman in charge of the case, Inspector Dalbir, and a private detective named Walter, who was hired by Anand to follow Nusrat.


title: The Girl on the Train (2021 film)

text: Walter’s pictures from the night reveal that, unbelievably, Dalbir killed Nusrat. The daughter of an organized crime boss Mira had sent down and who had killed himself in jail(Jimmy Bhagga), Dalbir had a vendetta against Mira. It was she who crashed the jeep into Mira and Shekhar, causing Mira to lose her baby and get amnesia. It’s Dalbir who later mows down and kills Walter.


title: The Girl on the Train (2021 film)

text: Dalbir had been tailing Mira for a time, and followed her into the forest. Finding her unconscious having been hit by Shekhar, Dalbir saw an opportunity to murder her in revenge. But Nusrat, who had just woken up, caught Dalbir trying to off Mira. Dalbir can’t leave a witness, so instead she decides to kill Nusrat and frame Mira for the murder.


title: The Girl on the Train (2021 film)

text: Following the trail to Walter’s house, Mira solves the crime, and when Dalbir turns up to kill her and destroy the evidence ,a fight ensues and badass Mira ends up shooting Dalbir.


title: The Girl on the Train (2021 film)

text: Then there’s a musical montage, a voiceover about a train where Mira decides to quit alcohol and begin a new life.


title: The Girl on the Train (2021 film)

text: The film was announced on 24 April 2019. In May 2019 it was revealed that first schedule will be in England. Kirti Kulhari was roped in to play a British cop.


title: The Girl on the Train (2021 film)

text: Principal photography began in early August 2019 in London. Railway scenes were shot on location on the Mid-Norfolk Railway.


title: The Girl on the Train (2021 film)

text: "The Girl on the Train" was scheduled for release on 8 May 2020. The release was delayed due to COVID-19 pandemic. The film was released on 26 February 2021 on Netflix.


title: The Girl on the Train (2021 film)

text: The film's music was composed by Sunny and Inder Bawra and Vipin Patwa while lyrics written by Kumaar.


title: The Girl on the Train (2021 film)

text: Umesh Punwani of "Koimoi" rated it 3.5 out of 5 stars, calling it "A Mysterious Journey With No Stops Led By A Deadly Kohl-Eyed Parineeti Chopra!". Bollywood Hungama rated it 2.5/5 stars saying "The Girl On the Train is an average fare".


title: The Girl on the Train (2021 film)

text: Saibal Chatterjee of "NDTV" gave 1.5 out of 5 stars. Anna M. M. Vetticad of "Firstpost" rated 2 out of 5 praising Parineeti Chopra 's sincere performance and saying rest of the cast a mixed bag. "The Times of India" rated the film 3 stars out of 5 praising Chopra's and Kulhari's performances


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: The Spirit of St. Louis (formally the Ryan NYP, registration: N-X-211) is the custom-built, single-engine, single-seat, high-wing monoplane that was flown by Charles Lindbergh on May 20–21, 1927, on the first solo nonstop transatlantic flight from Long Island, New York, to Paris, France, for which Lindbergh won the $25,000 Orteig Prize.


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: Lindbergh took off in the "Spirit" from Roosevelt Airfield, Garden City, New York, and landed 33 hours, 30 minutes later at Aéroport Le Bourget in Paris, France, a distance of approximately 3,600 miles (5,800 km). One of the best-known aircraft in the world, the "Spirit" was built by Ryan Airlines in San Diego, California, owned and operated at the time by Benjamin Franklin Mahoney, who had purchased it from its founder, T. Claude Ryan, in 1926. The "Spirit" is on permanent display in the main entryway's "Milestones of Flight" gallery at the Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C.


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: Officially known as the "Ryan NYP" (for "N"ew "Y"ork to "P"aris), the single-engine monoplane was designed by Donald A. Hall of Ryan Airlines and named the "Spirit of St. Louis" in honor of Lindbergh's supporters from the St. Louis Raquette Club in his then hometown of St. Louis, Missouri. To save design time, the NYP was loosely based on the company's 1926 Ryan M-2 mailplane, the main difference being the NYP's range. As a nonstandard design, the government assigned it the registration number N-X-211 (for "experimental"). Hall documented his design in "Engineering Data on the "Spirit of St. Louis"", which he prepared for the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) and is included as an appendix to Lindbergh's 1953 Pulitzer Prize winning book "The Spirit of St. Louis".


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: B.F. "Frank" Mahoney and Claude Ryan had co-founded the company as an airline in 1925 and Ryan remained with the company after Mahoney bought out his interest in 1926, although there is some dispute as to how involved Ryan may have been in its management after selling his share. It is known, however, that Hawley Bowlus was the factory manager who oversaw construction of the Ryan NYP, and that Mahoney was the sole owner at the time of Donald A. Hall's hiring.


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: The "Spirit" was designed and built in San Diego to compete for the $25,000 Orteig Prize for the first nonstop flight between New York and Paris. Hall and Ryan Airlines staff worked closely with Lindbergh to design and build the "Spirit" in just 60 days. Although what was actually paid to Ryan Airlines for the project is not clear, Mahoney agreed to build the plane for $6,000 and said that there would be no profit; he offered an engine, instruments, etc. at cost. After first approaching several major aircraft manufacturers without success, in early February 1927 Lindbergh, who as a U.S. Air Mail pilot was familiar with the good record of the M-1 with Pacific Air Transport, wired, "Can you construct Whirlwind engine plane capable flying nonstop between New York and Paris ...?"


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: Mahoney was away from the factory, but Ryan answered, "Can build plane similar M-1 but larger wings... delivery about three months." Lindbergh wired back that due to competition, delivery in less than three months was essential. Many years later, John Vanderlinde, chief mechanic of Ryan Airlines, recalled, "But nothing fazed B.F. Mahoney, the young sportsman who had just bought Ryan." Mahoney telegraphed Lindbergh back the same day: "Can complete in two months."


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: Lindbergh arrived in San Diego on February 23 and toured the factory with Mahoney, meeting Bowlus, chief engineer Donald Hall, and sales manager A. J. Edwards. After further discussions between Mahoney, Hall and Lindbergh, Mahoney offered to build the "Spirit" for $10,580, restating his commitment to deliver it in 60 days. Lindbergh contributed $2,000 toward the cost of the "Spirit" that he had saved from his earnings as an Air Mail pilot for Robertson Aircraft Corporation. The rest was provided by the Spirit of St. Louis Organization.


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: Lindbergh was convinced: "I believe in Hall's ability; I like Mahoney's enthusiasm. I have confidence in the character of the workmen I've met." He then went to the airfield to familiarize himself with a Ryan aircraft, either an M-1 or an M-2, then telegraphed his St. Louis backers and recommended the deal, which was quickly approved.


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: Mahoney lived up to his commitment. Working exclusively on the aircraft and closely with Lindbergh, the staff completed the "Spirit of St. Louis" 60 days after Lindbergh arrived in San Diego. Powered by a Wright Whirlwind J-5C 223-hp radial engine, it had a 14 m (46-foot) wingspan, 3 m (10 ft) longer than the M-1, to accommodate the heavy load of 1,610 L (425 gal) of fuel. In his 1927 book "We", Lindbergh acknowledged the builders' achievement with a photograph captioned "The Men Who Made the Plane", identifying: "B. Franklin Mahoney, president, Ryan Airlines", Bowlus, Hall and Edwards standing with the aviator in front of the completed aircraft.


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: Lindbergh believed that multiple engines resulted in a greater risk of failure while a single-engine design would give him greater range. To increase fuel efficiency, the "Spirit of St. Louis" was also one of the most advanced and aerodynamically streamlined designs of its era.


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: Lindbergh believed that a flight made in a single-seat monoplane designed around the dependable Wright J-5 Whirlwind radial engine provided the best chance of success. The Ryan NYP had a total fuel capacity of or of gasoline, which was necessary in order to have the range to make the anticipated flight non-stop. The fuel was stored in five fuel tanks, a forward tank – , the main – , and three wing tanks – total of . Lindbergh modified the design of the plane's "trombone struts" attached to the landing gear to provide a wider wheelbase in order to accommodate the weight of the fuel.


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: At Lindbergh's request, the large main and forward fuel tanks were placed in the forward section of the fuselage, in front of the pilot, with the oil tank acting as a firewall. This arrangement improved the center of gravity and reduced the risk of the pilot being crushed to death between the main tank and the engine in the event of a crash. This design decision meant that there could be no front windshield, and that forward visibility would be limited to the side windows. This did not concern Lindbergh as he was accustomed to flying in the rear cockpit of mail planes with mail bags in the front. When he wanted to see forward, he would slightly yaw the aircraft and look out the side. To provide some forward vision as a precaution against hitting ship masts, trees, or structures while flying at low altitude, a Ryan employee who had served in the submarine service installed a periscope which Lindbergh helped design. It is unclear whether the periscope was used during the flight. The instrument panel housed fuel pressure, oil pressure and temperature gauges, a clock, altimeter, tachometer, airspeed indicator, bank and turn indicator, and a liquid magnetic compass. The main compass was mounted behind Lindbergh in the cockpit, and he read it using the mirror from a women's makeup case which was mounted to the ceiling using chewing gum. Lindbergh also installed a newly developed Earth Inductor Compass made by the Pioneer Instrument Company which allowed him to more accurately navigate while taking account of the magnetic declination of the earth. Lindbergh's ultimate arrival in Ireland deviated from his flight plan by just a few miles.


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: Lindbergh sat in a cramped cockpit which was 94 cm wide, 81 cm long and 130 cm high (36 in × 32 in × 51 in). The cockpit was so small, Lindbergh could not stretch his legs, nevertheless it was to be his home for nearly two days and nights over the Atlantic. The "Spirit of St. Louis" was powered by a , air-cooled, nine-cylinder Wright J-5C Whirlwind radial engine. The engine was rated for a maximum operating time of 9,000 hours (more than one year if operated continuously) and had a special mechanism that could keep it clean for the entire New York-to-Paris flight. It was also, for its day, very fuel-efficient, enabling longer flights carrying less fuel weight for given distances. Another key feature of the Whirlwind radial engine was that it was rated to self-lubricate the engine's valves for 40 hours continuously. Lubricating, or "greasing," the moving external engine parts was a necessity most aeronautical engines of the day required, to be done manually by the pilot or ground crew prior to every flight and would have been otherwise required somehow to be done during the long flight.


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: The engine was built at Wright Aeronautical in Paterson, New Jersey by a 24-year-old engine builder, Tom Rutledge, who was disappointed that he was assigned to the unknown aviator, Lindbergh. Four days after the flight, he received a letter of congratulations from the Wright management.


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: The race to win the prize required time-saving design compromises. Donald A. Hall decided that the empennage (tail assembly) and wing control surfaces would not be altered from his original Ryan M-2 design, thus minimizing redesign time that was not available without delaying the flight. The result was less aerodynamic stability; nevertheless, the experienced Lindbergh approved the unaltered design. This setup resulted in a negatively stable design that tended to randomly introduce unanticipated pitch, yaw, and bank (roll) elements into its overall flight characteristics. There is a dispute regarding whether Hall and Lindbergh also preferred this design because they anticipated that the continuous corrections to the random movements of the aircraft would help to keep Lindbergh awake during the estimated 40-hour flight. Whether or not the unstable design was deliberately retained to help fight fatigue, Lindbergh did later write how these random unanticipated movements helped keep him awake at various times during the flight. The stiff wicker seat in the cockpit was also purposely uncomfortable, although custom-fitted to Lindbergh's tall and lanky frame.


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: Lindbergh also insisted that unnecessary weight be eliminated, even going so far as to cut the top and bottom off of his flight map. He carried no radio in order to save weight and because the radios of the period were unreliable and difficult to use while flying solo. Also, although he was an airmail pilot, he refused to carry souvenir letters on the transatlantic journey, insisting that every spare ounce be devoted to fuel. The fuselage was made of treated fabric over a metal tube frame, while the wings were made of fabric over a wood frame. The plywood material that was used to build most of Lindbergh's plane was made at the Haskelite Manufacturing Corporation in Grand Rapids, Michigan.


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: A small, left-facing Indian-style swastika was painted on the inside of the original propeller spinner of the "Spirit of St. Louis" along with the names of all the Ryan Aircraft employees who designed and built it. It was meant as a message of good luck prior to Lindbergh's solo Atlantic crossing as the symbol was often used as a popular good luck charm with early aviators and others. The inside of the original propeller spinner can be viewed at the National Air and Space Museum. This propeller spinner was found to be cracked when Lindbergh arrived at New York prior to his transatlantic flight. The propeller spinner that is on the "Spirit of St. Louis" now was hastily made in New York to replace the cracked original and was on the aircraft during the transatlantic flight.


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: Lindbergh's New York-to-Paris flight made him an instant celebrity and media star. In winning the Orteig Prize, Lindbergh stirred the public's imagination. He wrote: "I was astonished at the effect my successful landing in France had on the nations of the world. It was like a match lighting a bonfire." Lindbergh subsequently flew the "Spirit of St. Louis" to Belgium and England before President Calvin Coolidge sent the light cruiser to bring them back to the United States. Arriving on June 11, Lindbergh and the "Spirit" were escorted up the Potomac River to Washington, D.C., by a fleet of warships, multiple flights of military pursuit aircraft, bombers, and the rigid airship (which was itself a veteran of one of the earliest transatlantic flights), where President Coolidge presented the 25-year-old U.S. Army Reserve aviator with the Distinguished Flying Cross.


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: On the same day, the U.S Post Office issued a commemorative 10-cent "Lindbergh Air Mail" stamp depicting the "Spirit" over a map of its flight from New York to Paris, and which was also the first stamp issued by the post office that bore the name of a living person.


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: Over the next 10 months, Lindbergh flew the "Spirit of St. Louis" on promotional and goodwill tours across the United States and Latin America. According to the published log of the "Spirit," during his 3-month tour of the US, he allowed Major Thomas Lamphier (Commander of the 1st Pursuit Squadron, Selfridge Field) and Lieutenant Philip R. Love (classmate in flight school and colleague of Lindbergh's in the airmail service of Robertson Aircraft Corporation) to pilot the "Spirit of St. Louis" for ten minutes each on July 1 and August 8, 1927, respectively. These two are apparently the only persons other than Lindbergh who ever piloted the "Spirit of St. Louis."


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: One year and two days after making their first flight at Dutch Flats in San Diego, California, on April 28, 1927, Lindbergh and the "Spirit of St. Louis" flew together for the final time while making a hop from St. Louis to Bolling Field, in Washington, D.C., on April 30, 1928. There he presented the plane to the Smithsonian Institution where for more than eight decades it has been on display, hanging for 48 years (1928–76) in the Arts and Industries Building, and since 1976 hanging in the atrium of the National Air and Space Museum alongside the Bell X-1 and SpaceShipOne. At the time of its retirement, the "Spirit" had made 174 flights, totaling 489:28 hours in the air.


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: The "Spirit of St. Louis" appears today much as it appeared on its accession into the Smithsonian collection in 1928, except that the gold color of the aircraft's aluminum nose panels is an artifact of well-intended early conservation efforts: Not long after the museum took possession of the "Spirit", conservators applied a clear layer of varnish or shellac to the forward panels in an attempt to preserve the flags and other artwork painted on the engine cowling. This protective coating has yellowed with age, resulting in the golden hue seen today. Smithsonian officials at some point planned to remove the varnish and restore the nose panels to their original silver appearance when the aircraft was to be taken down for conservation,


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: but later decided that the golden hue on the engine cowling will remain, as it is part of the aircraft's natural state after acquisition and during its years on display. The effort to preserve artifacts is not to alter them but to maintain them as much as possible in the state in which the Smithsonian acquired them.


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: In 2015 the aircraft was lowered to the floor of the museum's Milestone's gallery, and the tires were replaced with "forklift" style tires. This was done to preserve the Spirit's original tires which, due to age and lessening of vulcanization, are unable to sustain the aircraft's weight without disintegration (conservation was also likely undertaken on the wheel assembly itself).


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: NYP-2, an exact duplicate of the "Spirit of St. Louis", was built 45 days after the transatlantic flight, for the Japanese newspaper "Mainichi". The NYP-2 carrying serial number 29 was registered as "J-BACC" and achieved a number of record-breaking flights early in 1928 before a crash ended its career.


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: Although Ryan capitalized on the notoriety of the NYP special, further developments were only superficially comparable to the "Spirit of St. Louis". An offshoot of the Ryan B-1 Brougham emerged as a five-seater with the same J-5 engine but modified with a conventional cockpit layout and a shorter wingspan. Under the newly restructured B.F. Mahoney Company, further development continued with the six-place Model B-7 utilizing a engine and the Model C-1 with the basic engine.


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: Shortly after the original "Spirit" was retired in April 1928, the Mahoney Aircraft Corporation presented Lindbergh with a Mahoney Ryan B-1 "Brougham". In 1928, Mahoney built a B-1X as a gift for Charles Lindbergh.


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: Pilot Frank Hawks purchased a Mahoney Ryan B-1 Brougham (NC3009) with money from his wife, naming the plane the "Spirit of San Diego." In the aftermath of the media exposure surrounding Lindbergh's transatlantic flight, he flew to Washington with his wife on board to greet the triumphant Lindbergh. Due to the ensuing publicity, Hawks was hired by the Ryan Aircraft company to be its official representative. Hawks went on to tour the country, selling rides in the aircraft "like Lindy flew."


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: The Mahoney Ryan B-1 "Brougham" was also used as the basis of a reproduction of the "Spirit of St. Louis". The reproduction was used in the 1938 Paramount film "Men with Wings" starring Ray Milland.


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: All three reproductions from the Warner Bros. film "The Spirit of St Louis" (1957) have survived with B-153 on display at the Missouri History Museum, in St. Louis, B-156 is part of the collection at The Henry Ford museum in Dearborn, Michigan, and B-159 belongs to the Cradle of Aviation Museum located in Garden City, Long Island, New York, not far from the site of Roosevelt Field from which the original departed in 1927. According to information at the Henry Ford Museum, their copy (B-156) was actually owned by James Stewart, who portrayed Lindbergh in the film. Stewart is credited as having donated the aircraft to the museum. Lindbergh was reputed to have flown one of the reproductions during the film's production, however, the connection to Lindbergh is now considered a myth.


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: On the 40th anniversary of Lindbergh's flight, a new reproduction named "Spirit 2" was built by a movie stunt pilot, Frank Tallman. It first flew on April 24, 1967, and appeared at the 1967 Paris Air Show where it made several flights over Paris. In 1972, "Spirit 2" was bought for $50,000 by the San Diego Air & Space Museum (formerly San Diego Aerospace Museum) and placed on public display until it was destroyed by arson in 1978. The museum built a replacement named "Spirit 3" which first flew on April 28, 1979; it made seven flights before being placed on display. In August 2003, the "Spirit 3" was removed from display and was flown as a 75th Anniversary tribute to Lindbergh. The aircraft is now on display in the museum's rotunda.


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: Through the efforts of both staff and volunteers, the Experimental Aircraft Association in Oshkosh, Wisconsin produced two reproductions of the "Spirit of St. Louis", powered by Continental R-670-4 radial engines, the first in 1977 (of which was to be based on a conversion from a B-1 Brougham; the aircraft proved to be too badly deteriorated to be used in that manner), flown by EAA founder Paul Poberezny to commemorate the 50th anniversary of Lindbergh's flight across the Atlantic Ocean and subsequent tour of the United States. This example is now on display in the main museum gallery. A second reproduction, started from scratch in 1977 and first flown in November 1990, continues to fly at air shows and commemorative events. Both of the EAA reproductions were registered under the original's N-X-211.


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: Another airworthy reproduction was built by David Cannavo and first flown in 1979, powered by a Lycoming R-680 engine. In 1995, it was bought by Kermit Weeks for his Fantasy of Flight Museum in Polk City, Florida.


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: A reproduction of the "Spirit" (Registration ES-XCL), which had been built and certified in Estonia in 1997, was written off on May 31, 2003. Shortly after takeoff at an air show in Coventry, England, structural failure occurred, resulting in a fatal crash, killing its owner-pilot, Captain Pierre Holländer.


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: A recently completed "Spirit" reproduction, intended for airworthiness is owned by the Old Rhinebeck Aerodrome (ORA), fulfilling a lifelong dream of its primary founder, Cole Palen (1925–1993). The reproduction project had been started by Cole before his own death and has mostly been subsequently built by former ORA pilot and current vintage aircraft maintenance manager Ken Cassens, receiving its wing covering, completed with doped fabric in 2015. A restored Wright J-5 Whirlwind radial was obtained by Palen in the 1970s for the project's start, with original, and still-functional 1920s-era flight instruments being incorporated — including the same basic type of earth inductor compass used by Lindbergh — matching the ones in the original "Spirit" at the NASM.


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: This reproduction aircraft successfully flew in early December 2015 in upstate New York, piloted by aircraft restorer/builder Ken Cassens of Stone Ridge, New York. The aircraft made its public debut flight on May 21, 2016, the 89th anniversary of Lindbergh's flight.


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: Over a period of 7 years and 3 months, John Norman of Burlington, Washington crafted to-date the most authentic "Spirit" reproduction ever built. With the intention of creating a copy of the aircraft "as it sits now," with all the patches, updates or modifications recreated in pain-staking detail and the added bonus of being airworthy Norman completed the project in 2019. The maiden flight was performed July 28th, 2019 and the public debut flight was September 8th, piloted by John's friend and seasoned pilot, Ron Fowler.


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: In 2015, with coordinated efforts by fellow "Spirit" researcher Ty Sundstrom and the National Air & Space Museum, Norman took detailed measurements to correct errors he had discovered in the existing "Morrow" drawings. During the same trip, in an attempted search for Lindbergh's missing logbook, Norman used a video boroscope to inspect never-before seen areas of the fuselage and discovered an original pair of pliers thought to have been used by Lindbergh to adjust the fuel valves during flight.


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: In 2021, a documentary feature film centered on the project and its builder began production. A tentative spring 2023 release is expected.


title: Spirit of St. Louis

text: A 90% static reproduction, built in 1956 for "The Spirit of St Louis" film by studio employees, is now on display at the Wings of the North Air Museum in Eden Prairie, MN. In 1999, the San Diego Air & Space Museum built a non-flying example that was fitted with an original Wright J-5 engine. It is on display at San Diego International Airport. A static reproduction of the "Spirit of St. Louis" was built in 2002 and is on display at St. Louis Lambert International Airport. The Octave Chanute Aerospace Museum at Rantoul, Illinois also has a static reproduction built by museum volunteers. Two reproductions are also found in Germany, one at the Frankfurt International Airport with the second in the "Luftfahrtmuseum Hannover".


title: Fourteenth Doctor

text: The Fourteenth Doctor is the current incarnation of the Doctor, the fictional protagonist of the BBC science fiction television programme, "Doctor Who". The Fourteenth Doctor is portrayed by Scottish actor, David Tennant, who previously portrayed the Tenth Doctor and was last seen in the programme in that role in 2013.


title: Fourteenth Doctor

text: Within the series' narrative, the Doctor is a millennia-old, alien Time Lord from the planet Gallifrey, with somewhat unknown origins, who travels in time and space in the TARDIS, frequently with companions. At the end of life, the Doctor regenerates; as a result, the physical appearance and personality of the Doctor changes.


title: Fourteenth Doctor

text: Ncuti Gatwa had previously been announced as Jodie Whittaker's successor as the programme's lead, and many reports stated he would play the Fourteenth Doctor and that Whittaker's Thirteenth Doctor would regenerate into an incarnation portrayed by Gatwa. Upon Jodie Whittaker's final appearance as the character, she instead regenerated into a form similar to the Tenth Doctor. This character, also portrayed by Tennant, was confirmed to be the Fourteenth Doctor, with later clarification that Ncuti Gatwa would actually portray the Fifteenth Doctor.


title: Fourteenth Doctor

text: The Fourteenth Doctor is set to appear in the 60th anniversary specials in November 2023, executive produced by Russell T Davies, who also returns to the series having previously cast Tennant as the Doctor in 2005.


title: Fourteenth Doctor

text: The Fourteenth Doctor has the same appearance and voice as the Tenth, though slightly older, as well as a similar hairstyle. His clothes are also very similar, only with a tartan plaid design on top of the colour, and a blue overcoat rather than the brown trench coat the Tenth Doctor wore. These clothes regenerated with his appearance from the Thirteenth Doctor's, rather than him choosing them like in most of his previous regenerations. Davies later explained that he wished for the Doctor's clothes to change as part of the first regeneration from a female to a male Doctor, not wanting to invite associations with drag culture by having Tennant appearing in clothing designed for Whittaker.


title: Fourteenth Doctor

text: In an interview with BBC News following the announcement of his role reprisal, Tennant commented on his Doctor's appearance saying that "to a sort of casual viewer, I look like I'm sort of dressed in the same way as I used to be. But actually we've gone for something that's sort of the same but different. That has echoes of the past but it's also a bit something of the now as well."


title: Fourteenth Doctor

text: Rwandan-Scottish actor Ncuti Gatwa was announced in May 2022 as the actor who would take over from English actress Jodie Whittaker in the role following a series of special episodes throughout 2022. During the special, "The Power of the Doctor", it was revealed following Whittaker's regeneration the Doctor had regenerated into an incarnation again portrayed by David Tennant. Tennant had previously starred in the programme as the Tenth Doctor from 2005 to 2010, and is the first actor to portray two different incarnations of the character over multiple episodes. The return of a previous actor as a new incarnation of the Doctor was previously proposed by "Doctor Who" creator Sydney Newman in a 1986 exchange with then BBC One controller Michael Grade after the dismissal of Colin Baker; Newman specifically envisioned Patrick Troughton, who portrayed the Second Doctor, returning for one series before regenerating into a female incarnation. Fourth Doctor actor Tom Baker had also returned in the 2013 special "The Day of the Doctor" playing The Curator, alluded as a possible incarnation of The Doctor.


title: Fourteenth Doctor

text: Gatwa was confirmed to eventually be starring in the role as the Fifteenth Doctor, with executive producer Russell T Davies stating "The path to Ncuti's 15th Doctor is laden with mystery, horror, robots, puppets, danger and fun!"


title: Fourteenth Doctor

text: Tennant and Catherine Tate are set to reprise their roles in three special episodes to commemorate the programme's 60th anniversary in November 2023. Yasmin Finney is also set to make her debut as Rose.


title: Integer factorization

text: In number theory, integer factorization is the decomposition of a composite number into a product of smaller integers. If these factors are further restricted to prime numbers, the process is called prime factorization.


title: Integer factorization

text: When the numbers are sufficiently large, no efficient non-quantum integer factorization algorithm is known. However, it has not been proven that such an algorithm does not exist. The presumed difficulty of this problem is important for the algorithms used in cryptography such as RSA public-key encryption and the RSA digital signature. Many areas of mathematics and computer science have been brought to bear on the problem, including elliptic curves, algebraic number theory, and quantum computing.


title: Integer factorization

text: In 2019, Fabrice Boudot, Pierrick Gaudry, Aurore Guillevic, Nadia Heninger, Emmanuel Thomé and Paul Zimmermann factored a 240-digit (795-bit) number (RSA-240) utilizing approximately 900 core-years of computing power. The researchers estimated that a 1024-bit RSA modulus would take about 500 times as long.


title: Integer factorization

text: Not all numbers of a given length are equally hard to factor. The hardest instances of these problems (for currently known techniques) are semiprimes, the product of two prime numbers. When they are both large, for instance more than two thousand bits long, randomly chosen, and about the same size (but not too close, for example, to avoid efficient factorization by Fermat's factorization method), even the fastest prime factorization algorithms on the fastest computers can take enough time to make the search impractical; that is, as the number of digits of the primes being factored increases, the number of operations required to perform the factorization on any computer increases drastically.


title: Integer factorization

text: Many cryptographic protocols are based on the difficulty of factoring large composite integers or a related problem—for example, the RSA problem. An algorithm that efficiently factors an arbitrary integer would render RSA-based public-key cryptography insecure.


title: Integer factorization

text: By the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, every positive integer has a unique prime factorization. (By convention, 1 is the empty product.) Testing whether the integer is prime can be done in polynomial time, for example, by the AKS primality test. If composite, however, the polynomial time tests give no insight into how to obtain the factors.


title: Integer factorization

text: Given a general algorithm for integer factorization, any integer can be factored into its constituent prime factors by repeated application of this algorithm. The situation is more complicated with special-purpose factorization algorithms, whose benefits may not be realized as well or even at all with the factors produced during decomposition. For example, if where are very large primes, trial division will quickly produce the factors 3 and 19 but will take "p" divisions to find the next factor. As a contrasting example, if "n" is the product of the primes 13729, 1372933, and 18848997161, where , Fermat's factorization method will begin with formula_1 which immediately yields formula_2 and hence the factors and . While these are easily recognized as composite and prime respectively, Fermat's method will take much longer to factor the composite number because the starting value of formula_3 for "a" is nowhere near 1372933.