title: The Boys (season 1)

text: Between 2008 and 2016, it was originally planned to make a film adaptation of "The Boys" having been in various stages of development. Columbia Pictures was initially the studio in charge to bring the adaptation with a budget of $100 million and Adam McKay as the director. However the project was abandoned due to a series of creatives differences between the studio and McKay. However the production of the film was revived by Paramount Pictures, having managed to get the rights of the project in August 2012, but then on April 6, 2016, it was announced that Cinemax would be developing a television series adaptation of the comic book instead, cancelling the original plans for a film adaptation. Eric Kripke, Evan Goldberg, and Seth Rogen were approached and then recruited during the production of the series "Preacher", with Kripke serving as the showrunner of the series and Goldberg and Rogen as directors. Kripke, Rogen and Robertson were also selected as executive producer. Garth Ennis and Darick Robertson were selected to serve as co-executive producers. The confirmed production companies to be involved with the series were Point Grey Pictures, Original Film, and Sony Pictures Television.


title: The Boys (season 1)

text: However, on November 8, 2017, Amazon Prime Video managed to get the rights of "The Boys" and started the production of the first season consisting of eight episodes, with the production expected to begin at the spring of 2018 for a planned release at 2019. At the time, Amazon was failing to get hits with its originals which led them to make several deals with auspices from other successful series hoping to make the next big genre drama hit show like "Game of Thrones", "The Walking Dead" and "Stranger Things". The series was confirmed to be at development for several months preceding the series order announcement and it was also confirmed that the creative team that were hired for the previous adaptations were still attached to the series. On April 30, 2018, Dan Trachtenberg replaced Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg as the directors of the show. Kripke, Goldberg, Rogen, Neal H. Moritz, Pavun Shetty, Ori Marmur, James Weaver, Ken Levin, and Jason Netter were confirmed to serve as the executive producers for the series. Garth Ennis and Darick Robertson were recruited to serve as the co-executive producers.


title: The Boys (season 1)

text: "The Boys" takes place in a universe where the superheroes are interpreted as corrupt celebrities who abuse their powers. Kripke wanted to explore how these heroes would be portrayed in real life, leading to several discussions of how to deconstruct the old myth of superheroes. He has admitted to being a fan of Marvel, but believes that the old superhero myth portrayed in the comics and films would not happen in the real world as he considers that the people are selfish, believing that a person won't do something noble once it suddenly gains superpowers. As a long time fan of the comic-book series "The Boys", Kripke began to follow every other work written by Garth Ennis during his college years. However he didn't intend to write the series exactly as the comics, feeling that it would disastrous, leading him to make some changes to the series. The writers agreed that they needed to adjust the characters to fit the story, so long as they were complex and recognizable. In order to balance the show's satire and superhero tropes, Kripke explained: "We let any comedy or absurdity emerge out of the natural contradictions of putting a fantasy element in the real world. And so when those people have to take shits and go get tacos, it just gets funny."


title: The Boys (season 1)

text: The season does not fully follow the storyline from the comics despite its faithfulness to the comic book series, as Kripke maintained the writers disciplined with the intention of retaining the show with a sense of reality by saying: "Anything that comes out of this drug is viable, and anything that doesn't we're not allowed to do". The show most difficult part was the moment when Starlight is sexually assaulted, due to the MeToo movement, leading to several debates and discussions of how to adapt it. It was originally intended that Starlight would payback during the behind-the-scenes ways inside the corporation, but it was eventually changed to make her go public instead. Another change of the sexual assault storyline is that the Deep assaults Starlight, instead of Homelander, A-Train, and Black Noir like the comics. Butcher's wife Becky storyline is also changed, as Kripke didn't wanted to use the convention of killing off female characters to motivate the heroes and wanted to surprise the readers by keeping her alive instead of killing her after giving birth. Another major change for the series is the plane scene, where Homelander and Queen Maeve attempts to save the citizens from the plane goes wrong and the former decides to let everyone die. In the comics the accident already succeeded before the events of the story in September 11, where the Seven instead of only Homelander and Queen Maeve intercepted a plane going to crash in the Twin Towers, but also goes awry when Homelander accidentally destroys the plane which killed everyone, including a member of the team. This was changed to explore deeper the dynamic between Homelander and Queen Maeve, and the show taking place in a modern day.


title: The Boys (season 1)

text: The show also includes characters that don't exist in the comics. Jack from Jupiter is replaced in the series with an original and more human character known as Translucent, although he keeps the power of his indestructible skin. Kripke revealed that he made the change, as he felt that the former alien-looking design was too fantastic for the world they were creating in the series and that would mess with the mythology of the human characters being born with powers. Oh Father was also replaced in the series for an original character Ezekiel who is also portrayed as a Christian themed supe but unlike the former, he is not portrayed as a pedophile but instead as a hypocritical homophobic. Another character introduced in the series is Mesmer though unlike the previous two, he is not based in any character introduced in the comics and is fully original for the show.


title: The Boys (season 1)

text: On December 18, 2017, it was announced that Erin Moriarty has been cast in the lead role of Annie January/Starlight. On January 17, 2018, it was reported that Antony Starr, Dominique McElligott, Chace Crawford, Jessie Usher, and Nathan Mitchell had joined the main cast as the Seven. In March 2018, Laz Alonso, Jack Quaid, and Karen Fukuhara joined the cast in series regular roles, as the members of the Boys. On April 5, 2018, it was confirmed that Karl Urban had been cast in the series' lead role of Billy Butcher. On May 16, 2018, it was announced that Elisabeth Shue had been cast in the series regular role of Madelyn Stillwell. On June 25, 2018, Tomer Kapon confirmed that he joined the main cast in the role of Frenchie. On August 30, 2018, Jennifer Esposito revealed that she was selected for the recurring role of CIA Agent Susan Raynor.


title: The Boys (season 1)

text: On October 5, 2018, it was announced during the annual New York Comic Con that Simon Pegg had been cast in the role of Hughie's father. According to the artist Robertson, Hughie was drawn in the comics to resemble Pegg after he saw Pegg in the sitcom "Spaced", but Pegg thought he was too old to play the role of Hughie in the TV series. Alex Hassell also made an appearance in the series as a guest actor, appearing as Translucent. Giancarlo Esposito made a guest appearance in the season finale as Vought International CEO, Stan Edgar. Haley Joel Osment also joined the cast in a recurring role, as the retired superhero Mesmer.


title: The Boys (season 1)

text: During the auditions, Starr and Usher admitted not being optimistic on getting their roles initially. Starr believed that he wasn't the man they were seeking and was convinced that he would never get his role. Starr only filmed a self tape to "spite" his representants, but managed to be cast in the role and decided to finally read the script. Usher believed that his own audition wasn't convincing and when he did it for the second time, he still wasn't convinced but eventually admitted being shocked at having managed to get the role. On the other side Moriarty, Urban and Quaid were more optimistic about being cast at their respective roles. Urban considered the character fun and that would be stupid to turn it down, while Moriarty get through several screen tests for an hour and half that impressed Kripke.


title: The Boys (season 1)

text: Despite the series taking place in New York City like in the comics, the show was confirmed to being filmed in Toronto, Canada. Kripke revealed that the show was intended to begin its filming on the spring of 2018 to release the show at the following year. The filming for the first season officially began on May 22, 2018, in Toronto, and was scheduled to last until September 25, 2018. However the production of the show officially ended its filming on October 11, 2018. It was also confirmed that the show would be partially filmed at the cities of Mississauga and Hamilton in a few locations that include the Central Parkway Mall, the Streetsville Gas Station, Tim Hortons Field stadium, and the Fallsview Residence.


title: The Boys (season 1)

text: For the exterior of the Vought International company headquarters, the crew used Roy Thomson Hall, located in Toronto's entertainment district. The building's structure was digitally altered and extended to become the Seven Tower. For the interior of the Tower, including some of the rooms and the modern lobby where the company celebrates the corporate parties, were filmed inside Roy Thomson Hall. For Times Square, the crew filmed in Yonge–Dundas Square located in Toronto and proceeded to digitally alter it with CGI. A-Train's race with Shockwave was filmed at Hamilton's Tim Hortons Field stadium. The Lower Bay Station was used for the subway scenes, which was also used for some scenes of "The Handmaid's Tale". The crew also filmed at the zinc-clad pavilion of the Sherbourne Common waterfront park for the funeral service for the victims of the hijacked plane. For the mansion where Dr. Jonah Vogelbaum lives, the crew filmed at Parkwood Estate in Oshawa, Ontario. For the scene where Annie refuses to help Hughie, the crew filmed at the Cathedral Church of St. James, located in Toronto.


title: The Boys (season 1)

text: "The Boys" featured over 1400 visual effects shots created by DNEG TV, Framestore, Folks VFX, Mavericks VFX, Method Studios, Monsters Aliens Robots Zombies VFX, Mr. X, Pixomondo, Rocket Science VFX, Rodeo FX, and Soho VFX. Visual effects supervisor Stephan Fleet, revealed that the studio decided to reduce a little amount of blood and gore for the show, with the intention of building a more believable world, following several discussions of how to interpret the comic book series in the show. Fleet explains that the death of Robin was complex to shoot as they needed to find out what a body looks like when it is atomized at 500 fps. The scene took over eight months of work to get the right look and tone for the storyline in the shot, using a Phantom camera and a giant robotic arm better known as a Bolt High-Speed Cinebot to get the right position of the camera. Ultimately it was made of full CGI due to the art direction and the specified time to bring a big amount of practical blood. For Translucent's death scene, a practical bomb was used as they only required to blow up a practical blood bomb inside the room where it was filmed. The first episode used over 300 shots, with some sequences that have five shots that took longer than sequences of 20.


title: The Boys (season 1)

text: Framestore's executive producer Christopher Gray revealed that the vehicle used for the opening scene of the first episode was indeed secured in the street and then destroyed for real, while Queen Maeve scenes was filmed apart and then added with CGI. Framestore was also in charge of the fight sequence at the final episode having worked for eight weeks in order to get the appropriate research of how light travels in slow motion. Femto-photography was used for the scene to visualize photons and allow the viewers to see the little details from a quick sequence. For the fight between Butcher and Translucent, a double actor for the latter used a gray tracking suit to be erased by Mr. X using it as an animation reference track a digi-double of the Translucent character and simulate blood on him and add effects of him turning on and off. Urban was forced to memorize the fight due to this and had to repeat this several times. DNEG was in charge of the scene where Homelander destroys a plane at the end of the first episode, where Urban was hanged on wires to represent the flight scene that was achieved via a greenscreen shoot. The VFX team was in charge to get refined the right kind of anamorphic lens flare for Homelander's laser eyes with the intention of making them unique to play into the character. Soho VFX was also in charge of the dolphin scene, revealing that a green dolphin was used to then proceed to change it into a CG version of it. Fleet revealed that he enjoyed the experience and said: "They also came up with the idea of him flopping on the ground before the truck hits him. Those little details make it great."


title: The Boys (season 1)

text: Christopher Lennertz was confirmed to be the composer of the show's soundtrack, having previously worked with the showrunner Kripke for other two shows which are Supernatural and Revolution. Lennertz was hired by Kripke while the former was working for the soundtrack of the adult animated film Sausage Party, where he learned that Rogen and Goldberg where working for a show about corrupt superheroes. Kripke wanted the soundtrack to be "dirt and grime of a messy garage band with the energy of British punk" in order to make a sloppy sound that would make fun of the superhero cliches. Lennertz revealed that the soundtrack combines traditional orchestra and electronics sounds in order to shatter of the comic book heroes. The original soundtrack album for the first season which consists of 50 songs was released digitally through Madison Gate Records on July 26, 2019, alongside the season's release.


title: The Boys (season 1)

text: On September 26, 2018, the official poster for the series was released which resembles the cover of "The Boys Issue #1". During the New York Comic Con at October 2018, it was released the first teaser trailer for the series. Three months later, on January 24, 2019, Seth Rogen released a teaser trailer through his Twitter account. Steve Seigh from JoBlo have noted that the show offers a look into a "sick, sad world of a superpowered CIA squad whose job it is to closely monitor a superhero community who've let their stature and powers go to their heads over time". He also considered the Seven as a "Justice League-like group of super-powered individuals who after continuously being propped up on society's pedestal, have devolved into villains who lie, drink, and rape their way through the day." On June 17, 2019, individual posters for the members of the Seven begin to be released, with the tagline "Never Meet Your Heroes" which reflects of how the each member of them behave in the series. On April 29, 2019, the show had its premiere at the Tribeca Film Festival presented by AT&T, where the first episode was previewed and Kripke alongside the cast members discussed about the show to the audience.


title: The Boys (season 1)

text: The first season of "The Boys" was released on July 26, 2019, on the streaming service Amazon Prime Video. On the day of its release it was confirmed that the show was released just a few hours earlier on July 25, 2019.


title: The Boys (season 1)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season holds an approval rating of 85% based on 104 reviews, with an average rating of 7.6/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Though viewers' mileage may vary, "The Boys" violent delights and willingness to engage in heavy, relevant themes are sure to please those looking for a new group of antiheroes to root for." On Metacritic, the season has a weighted average score of 74 out of 100, based on reviews from 19 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: The Boys (season 1)

text: Christopher Lawrence of the "Las Vegas Review-Journal" wrote: "Irreverent, deliciously cynical, "The Boys" follows the greed and corruption behind the superhero industrial complex." Mel Campbell of Screen Hub commented: "Shockingly violent and pointedly political, this Amazon series is an ironic but refreshing antidote to supe franchising. ... The Boys throws our ugly cultural obsessions back in our faces." Daniel Fienberg from "Hollywood Reporter" in a positive response commented: "I'll have to check in again on The Boys after a few more episodes to get a sense of whether or not the encroaching cynicism topples what I find initially promising here." Graeme Virtue from "The Guardian" gave the series four of five stars and wrote:"While both have an appealing innocence, it is Moriarty's maltreated but undaunted Starlight who, appropriately, feels like she is preventing the whole thing from collapsing into darkness." Kristy Puchko at "IGN" gives the first episode a score of 7.2/10 and appreciates how the story comes from the comics but with clever changes. Puchko praises the cast, particularly "Moriarty brings a nuance to her performance that refuses to let Starlight feel like a two-dimensional damsel. She's not naïve. She's hopeful. And she's a fighter. "The Boys" makes all of that clear in short order." She concludes: ""The Boys" could still be a thrilling ride as it subverts the expectations of the family-friendly genre, with dark twists and unapologetically graphic scenes of sex and violence. The premiere ep has a lot of heavy lifting to do in exposition, yet Kripke works in some stunner moments, jolts of fun, and stellar action sequences."


title: The Boys (season 1)

text: Liz Shannon Miller of "The A.V. Club" wrote: "Karl Urban proves to be a thoroughly committed performer as Billy Butcher, whose dedication to taking down "supes" of course has a personal edge, but then again, when you see what men like the blatantly fake and evil Homelander (Antony Starr) are getting up to it makes sense that he's devoted his life to taking down the cause." Matthew Dessem from "Slate" commented: ""The Boys" is an expert deconstruction of superhero stories, with an appropriately wintery view of institutional power, be it corporate, governmental, religious, or caped." Andrew Wyatt from "Cinema St. Louis" praised the series for its humor and themes by writing: "Yes, it's cynical and ultra-violent, but what distinguishes 'The Boys' is its sincere fascination with its characters' anxieties, compulsions, and human failings." Meagan Navarro of "Bloody Disgusting" praised the series for its entertaining story, scoring 4.5 of a 5 and wrote: "Not a frame is spared in crafting this nuanced and darkly humorous universe drenched in blood and violence. All eight episodes are expertly crafted and constructed to tell one cohesive story that will make you gasp, guffaw, and cheer in equal measure." Matthew Gilbert from "The Boston Globe" wrote: "The premise of the Amazon black comedy is never not fun, and the more we learn about this bizarro world, as the supes go on the late-night talk shows and stage team-up photo ops on various crimes, the better. ... The cast is fine, particularly Shue, who is icily effective; Quaid, whose neurotic but brave fumblings are endearing; and Urban, who is Hughie's gonzo guide. But the real star of “The Boys” is the situation itself."


title: The Boys (season 1)

text: Ben Travers from "IndieWire" gave the show a "B". He commented that "Given the top-notch special effects and sharp writing at the core of “The Boys,” there are still loads of potential within this well-realized universe. Let's just hope this ending really did save the cat." Mike Hale from "The New York Times" praised the series for its departure from the traditional superhero shows including the ones produced by Netflix stating: ""The Boys", meanwhile, is offering the kind of smart, easygoing pleasure that most of the Marvel Netflix shows, its closest analogues, didn't quite reach." Daniel D'Addario from "Variety" recognized the first episode for the potential, though criticized its tone by writing: "All viewers at Tribeca had to go on was a first episode, and “The Boys” could become any number of things as it rolls on. But the tone it struck in its first outing was a dully familiar one — the sense that to transgress, alone, is enough. If this show is to actually satirize the wide-open target of superhero entertainments, it'll need to find a second gear, and quickly." Vinnie Mancuso from "Collider" appreciated the show social commentary themes and scoring the entire season 5 out of 5 stars: "Like Alan Moore's "Watchmen" in the late-80s, "The Boys" TV series has the chance to be the superhero deconstruction of our time. Less a peek behind the curtain, and more a seedy glimpse behind the social media likes and box office numbers, a story that manages to be heartbreakingly relevant while still finding time to have Karl Urban kill a room full of goons with a super-powered baby."


title: The Boys (season 1)

text: In October 2019, Nielsen announced it had begun tracking viewership of Amazon Prime programs. It said "The Boys" had attracted 8million total viewers in its first 10 days of release, making it one of the most successful original programs on Amazon Prime.


title: The Boys (season 1)

text: Wade Barnett, David Barbee, Mason Kopeikin, Brian Dunlop, Ryan Briley, Chris Newlin, Christopher Brooks, Joseph T. Sabella and Jesi Ruppel was nominated for their work on "The Name of the Game" for the Outstanding Sound Editing for a Comedy or Drama Series (One-Hour) award at the 2020 Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards.


title: Partition (number theory)

text: In number theory and combinatorics, a partition of a positive integer , also called an integer partition, is a way of writing as a sum of positive integers. Two sums that differ only in the order of their summands are considered the same partition. (If order matters, the sum becomes a composition.) For example, can be partitioned in five distinct ways:


title: Partition (number theory)

text: The order-dependent composition is the same partition as , and the two distinct compositions and represent the same partition as .


title: Partition (number theory)

text: A summand in a partition is also called a part. The number of partitions of is given by the partition function . So . The notation means that is a partition of .


title: Partition (number theory)

text: Partitions can be graphically visualized with Young diagrams or Ferrers diagrams. They occur in a number of branches of mathematics and physics, including the study of symmetric polynomials and of the symmetric group and in group representation theory in general.


title: Partition (number theory)

text: Some authors treat a partition as a decreasing sequence of summands, rather than an expression with plus signs. For example, the partition 2 + 2 + 1 might instead be written as the tuple or in the even more compact form where the superscript indicates the number of repetitions of a part.


title: Partition (number theory)

text: This multiplicity notation for a partition can be written alternatively as formula_1, where "m" is the number of 1's, "m" is the number of 2's, etc. (Components with "m" = 0 may be omitted.) For example, the above partitions of "n" = 5 are written formula_2. This representation leads directly to the generating function formula described below: formula_3


title: Partition (number theory)

text: There are two common diagrammatic methods to represent partitions: as Ferrers diagrams, named after Norman Macleod Ferrers, and as Young diagrams, named after Alfred Young. Both have several possible conventions; here, we use "English notation", with diagrams aligned in the upper-left corner.


title: Partition (number theory)

text: The 14 circles are lined up in 4 rows, each having the size of a part of the partition. The diagrams for the 5 partitions of the number 4 are shown below:


title: Partition (number theory)

text: An alternative visual representation of an integer partition is its "Young diagram" (often also called a Ferrers diagram). Rather than representing a partition with dots, as in the Ferrers diagram, the Young diagram uses boxes or squares. Thus, the Young diagram for the partition 5 + 4 + 1 is


title: Partition (number theory)

text: While this seemingly trivial variation does not appear worthy of separate mention, Young diagrams turn out to be extremely useful in the study of symmetric functions and group representation theory: filling the boxes of Young diagrams with numbers (or sometimes more complicated objects) obeying various rules leads to a family of objects called Young tableaux, and these tableaux have combinatorial and representation-theoretic significance. As a type of shape made by adjacent squares joined together, Young diagrams are a special kind of polyomino.


title: Partition (number theory)

text: The partition function formula_4 equals the number of possible partitions of a non-negative integer formula_5. For instance, formula_6 because the integer formula_7 has the five partitions formula_8, formula_9, formula_10, formula_11, and formula_7.


title: Partition (number theory)

text: No closed-form expression for the partition function is known, but it has both asymptotic expansions that accurately approximate it and recurrence relations by which it can be calculated exactly. It grows as an exponential function of the square root of its argument. The multiplicative inverse of its generating function is the Euler function; by Euler's pentagonal number theorem this function is an alternating sum of pentagonal number powers of its argument.


title: Partition (number theory)

text: Srinivasa Ramanujan discovered that the partition function has nontrivial patterns in modular arithmetic, now known as Ramanujan's congruences. For instance, whenever the decimal representation of formula_5 ends in the digit 4 or 9, the number of partitions of formula_5 will be divisible by 5.


title: Partition (number theory)

text: In both combinatorics and number theory, families of partitions subject to various restrictions are often studied. This section surveys a few such restrictions.


title: Partition (number theory)

text: If we flip the diagram of the partition 6 + 4 + 3 + 1 along its main diagonal, we obtain another partition of 14:


title: Partition (number theory)

text: By turning the rows into columns, we obtain the partition 4 + 3 + 3 + 2 + 1 + 1 of the number 14. Such partitions are said to be "conjugate" of one another. In the case of the number 4, partitions 4 and 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 are conjugate pairs, and partitions 3 + 1 and 2 + 1 + 1 are conjugate of each other. Of particular interest is the partition 2 + 2, which has itself as conjugate. Such a partition is said to be "self-conjugate".


title: Partition (number theory)

text: Claim: The number of self-conjugate partitions is the same as the number of partitions with distinct odd parts.


title: Partition (number theory)

text: Proof (outline): The crucial observation is that every odd part can be ""folded"" in the middle to form a self-conjugate diagram:


title: Partition (number theory)

text: One can then obtain a bijection between the set of partitions with distinct odd parts and the set of self-conjugate partitions, as illustrated by the following example:


title: Partition (number theory)

text: Alternatively, we could count partitions in which no number occurs more than once. Such a partition is called a "partition with distinct parts". If we count the partitions of 8 with distinct parts, we also obtain 6:


title: Partition (number theory)

text: This is a general property. For each positive number, the number of partitions with odd parts equals the number of partitions with distinct parts, denoted by "q"("n"). This result was proved by Leonhard Euler in 1748 and later was generalized as Glaisher's theorem.


title: Partition (number theory)

text: For every type of restricted partition there is a corresponding function for the number of partitions satisfying the given restriction. An important example is "q"("n") (partitions into distinct parts). The first few values of "q"("n") are (starting with "q"(0)=1):


title: Partition (number theory)

text: By taking conjugates, the number of partitions of into exactly "k" parts is equal to the number of partitions of in which the largest part has size . The function satisfies the recurrence


title: Partition (number theory)

text: More generally, if "T" is a set of positive integers then the number of partitions of "n", all of whose parts belong to "T", has generating function


title: Partition (number theory)

text: This can be used to solve change-making problems (where the set "T" specifies the available coins). As two particular cases, one has that the number of partitions of "n" in which all parts are 1 or 2 (or, equivalently, the number of partitions of "n" into 1 or 2 parts) is


title: Partition (number theory)

text: and the number of partitions of "n" in which all parts are 1, 2 or 3 (or, equivalently, the number of partitions of "n" into at most three parts) is the nearest integer to ("n" + 3) / 12.


title: Partition (number theory)

text: was first obtained by G. H. Hardy and Ramanujan in 1918 and independently by J. V. Uspensky in 1920. A complete asymptotic expansion was given in 1937 by Hans Rademacher.


title: Partition (number theory)

text: and conversely if this asymptotic property holds for "p"("n") then "A" has natural density α. This result was stated, with a sketch of proof, by Erdős in 1942.


title: Partition (number theory)

text: If "A" is a finite set, this analysis does not apply (the density of a finite set is zero). If "A" has "k" elements whose greatest common divisor is 1, then


title: Partition (number theory)

text: One may also simultaneously limit the number and size of the parts. Let denote the number of partitions of with at most parts, each of size at most . Equivalently, these are the partitions whose Young diagram fits inside an rectangle. There is a recurrence relation


title: Partition (number theory)

text: obtained by observing that formula_31 counts the partitions of into exactly parts of size at most , and subtracting 1 from each part of such a partition yields a partition of into at most parts.


title: Partition (number theory)

text: The "rank" of a partition is the largest number "k" such that the partition contains at least "k" parts of size at least "k". For example, the partition 4 + 3 + 3 + 2 + 1 + 1 has rank 3 because it contains 3 parts that are ≥ 3, but does not contain 4 parts that are ≥ 4. In the Ferrers diagram or Young diagram of a partition of rank "r", the "r" × "r" square of entries in the upper-left is known as the Durfee square:


title: Partition (number theory)

text: The Durfee square has applications within combinatorics in the proofs of various partition identities. It also has some practical significance in the form of the h-index.


title: Partition (number theory)

text: A different statistic is also sometimes called the rank of a partition (or Dyson rank), namely, the difference formula_34 for a partition of "k" parts with largest part formula_35. This statistic (which is unrelated to the one described above) appears in the study of Ramanujan congruences.


title: Partition (number theory)

text: There is a natural partial order on partitions given by inclusion of Young diagrams. This partially ordered set is known as "Young's lattice". The lattice was originally defined in the context of representation theory, where it is used to describe the irreducible representations of symmetric groups "S" for all "n", together with their branching properties, in characteristic zero. It also has received significant study for its purely combinatorial properties; notably, it is the motivating example of a differential poset.


title: Emmanuel Dennis

text: Emmanuel Bonaventure Dennis (born 15 November 1997) is a Nigerian professional footballer who plays as a striker for Premier League club Nottingham Forest and the Nigeria national team.


title: Emmanuel Dennis

text: In March 2016, Dennis signed with Ukrainian Premier League club Zorya Luhansk. He made his debut in a game against Olimpik Donetsk on 24 July 2016, where he scored the opener in a 3–0 victory.


title: Emmanuel Dennis

text: Dennis started the season on the bench mostly before being given his UEFA Europa League debut to Feyenoord on 3 November, which ended 1–1. After impressing against Feyenoord, he also played in the Ukrainian side's other group stage games, to Fenerbahçe and Manchester United. Zorya lost 2–0 in both matches and were eliminated from the group having finished in last place.


title: Emmanuel Dennis

text: On 11 December, Dennis scored his second goal in a 2–0 win over Stal Kamianske. His performances attracted both Manchester City as well as an unknown Bundesliga side, who were interested in signing him in the winter transfer window. However, Dennis instead ended up staying with Zorya for the rest of the season, helping them to a third place in the league with his six goals in 22 league appearances.


title: Emmanuel Dennis

text: Club Brugge announced on 30 May 2017 that they had signed Dennis on a four-year-deal for a fee of €1.2 million. He was given the number 42 jersey shirt. Dennis started the season extremely well, scoring five goals in six matches, including one on his debut on 26 July 2017 to İstanbul Başakşehir, a 3–3 draw and a brace three days later in the league over Lokeren, which finished in a 4–0 victory.


title: Emmanuel Dennis

text: On 1 October 2019, Dennis scored twice in a 2–2 draw at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium against Real Madrid in the group stage of the 2019–20 UEFA Champions League season.


title: Emmanuel Dennis

text: On 25 January 2021, Bundesliga side 1. FC Köln announced that they had signed Dennis on a loan deal until the end of the season. He made a total of nine league appearances during his time in Germany.


title: Emmanuel Dennis

text: On 21 June 2021, Watford confirmed they had reached an agreement with Club Brugge for the transfer of Dennis. A five-year contract was signed two days later. On 14 August, Dennis scored on his Watford debut in their league opener against Aston Villa, where Watford won 3–2. Dennis was nominated for the Premier League Player of the Month award for November 2021 after scoring and grabbing two assists in a 4–1 thrashing of Manchester United and scoring in a 4–2 defeat at Leicester City.


title: Emmanuel Dennis

text: On 13 August 2022, Dennis signed with Premier League side Nottingham Forest for an undisclosed transfer fee.


title: Emmanuel Dennis

text: Dennis represented Nigeria at under-23 level before being called up to the senior team. He made his debut on 10 September 2019 in a 2–2 friendly draw to Ukraine, coming on as a 82nd-minute substitute for Samuel Chukwueze.


title: Emmanuel Dennis

text: The Nigeria Football Federation attempted to call Dennis up to the squad for the 2021 Africa Cup of Nations however accused Watford of refusing to release Dennis and 'baring their fangs'. Dennis was part of the Nigerian squad that lost on away goals with an aggregate score-line of 1–1 to the Black Stars of Ghana in the third round of the 2022 FIFA World Cup qualifying.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: Peter Andrew Beardsley MBE (born 18 January 1961) is an English football coach and former footballer who played as a forward or midfielder between 1979 and 1999.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: In 1987, he set a record transfer fee in the English game and represented his country 59 times between 1986 and 1996, once as captain, taking part in two FIFA World Cups (1986 and 1990) and UEFA Euro 1988. At club level, he played for Newcastle United, Liverpool and Everton with stints with the Toffees and Magpies resulting in over 200 Premier League appearances. Over the course of his career he also had spells with Carlisle United, Manchester United, Vancouver Whitecaps, Bolton Wanderers, Manchester City, Fulham, Hartlepool United and the Melbourne Knights.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: Between 2001 and 2018 he worked in various coaching roles at Newcastle United, varying from the first team to the youth academy. In 2010, he was briefly appointed as the caretaker manager.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: As a youth player, Beardsley played for Wallsend Boys Club in North Tyneside before joining Newcastle United. In 1977 Beardsley joined fellow former Wallsend Boys Club player Steve Bruce for a trial with Third Division club Gillingham. Although Gillingham signed Bruce as an apprentice, they turned Beardsley away. He also had unsuccessful trials with Burnley and Cambridge United.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: Beardsley eventually began his professional career with Carlisle United in 1978. He managed 22 goals in 104 league games, helping them win promotion to the Second Division at the end of the 1981–82 season.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: During 1982–83, he also spent time at Canadian club Vancouver Whitecaps and Manchester United, although his period at United was unsuccessful, making only one single appearance in a League Cup tie against AFC Bournemouth, and otherwise failing to break into the first team. Eventually, in September 1983 he was signed back to Newcastle United.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: Beardsley signed for Newcastle for a fee of £150,000, although when they had let him go earlier they could have signed him for nothing. He made his debut for the Magpies the day after he signed, 24 September, in the 1–1 Division 2 draw with Barnsley at Oakwell. Beardsley was an instant hit with the Newcastle supporters, scoring and setting up spectacular goals. He went on to celebrate promotion with his teammates, who were captained by Kevin Keegan in his final season as a player. They finished in the final promotion spot behind winners Chelsea and runners-up Sheffield Wednesday. He scored 20 league goals that season and formed an exciting strike partnership with former England striker Keegan, who had also won major honours with Liverpool.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: Beardsley scored his first goal for the Magpies on 19 October 1983 in their 2–0 victory over Cardiff City at Ninian Park. His first goals at St James' Park came in Newcastle's next fixture, against Manchester City. United beat City 5–0 and Beardsley scored his first ever hat-trick.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: In his first season in the First Division, Beardsley scored 17 goals in 38 league games as Newcastle finished in 14th position. These included a hat-trick on New Year's Day in a 3–1 home win over local rivals Sunderland, who finished the season relegated.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: During the following campaign he played in all of Newcastle's 42 league matches, scoring 19 goals. In one fixture against West Ham United, Beardsley ended the game as a stand-in goalkeeper. The game ended in an 8–1 defeat for Newcastle, with Beardsley conceding the last three goals.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: After returning from the 1986 World Cup, Beardsley helped a struggling Newcastle to avoid relegation in the 1986–87 season, eventually finishing 17th. He scored just five goals in 36 appearances that season, winning a further six caps for his country, before Liverpool manager Kenny Dalglish made a national record £1.9 million offer to Newcastle for Beardsley's services. Manager Willie McFaul accepted the offer and Beardsley was on his way to Merseyside after four seasons on Tyneside which had brought a total of a 61 goals (all in the league), his transfer completed on 14 July 1987.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: 12 years later, Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson revealed in his autobiography that he had made a £2 million bid for Beardsley, but McFaul had rejected the offer and told him that he wouldn't sell the player even if Ferguson offered £3 million.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: Beardsley joined Liverpool at the same time as John Barnes, the Watford winger. They were added to John Aldridge, who had signed during the previous campaign, with the three playing against Arsenal on Beardsley's debut at Highbury on the opening day of the 1987–88 season, 15 August 1987. Aldridge scored after just nine minutes, Liverpool went on to win 2–1, and this shaped the rest of the season for the Reds. The new-look striker partnership of Beardsley and Aldridge took over from the long-standing partnership of Dalglish and Ian Rush, which was arguably the most successful partnership in English football during the 1980s. Rush had departed to Juventus of Italy, while player-manager Dalglish had decided only to make occasional first-team appearances from 1987 to 1988 onwards, finally retiring as a player in August 1990.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: Beardsley's first goal for his new club came on 29 August 1987 in the 4–1 victory over Coventry City at Highfield Road, with Beardsley scoring in the 83rd minute. He helped Liverpool to a record-equalling 29 league matches undefeated as Liverpool convincingly strolled to the League title with just two defeats to their name. However, there was disappointment at the end when Wimbledon denied them the 'double' with a shock 1–0 win in the FA Cup final, a game in which Beardsley found the net, only for it to be ruled out by the referee who awarded Liverpool a free-kick for an earlier foul instead of allowing play to continue. Wimbledon scored the only goal of the game from a looping header by Lawrie Sanchez. John Aldridge missed a penalty for Liverpool in the second half.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: Beardsley scored 15 league goals in his first season for Liverpool, level with John Barnes as the club's highest scorer behind John Aldridge.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: Ian Rush rejoined the club in the 1988 close season and Liverpool returned to Wembley and won the FA Cup the following year, but lost their League championship with virtually the last kick of the last game of the season against Arsenal. Although Rush missed 14 games due to injury, when all three of Liverpool's strikers were fit, Dalglish played with a 4–3–3 formation that allowed Beardsley, Aldridge and Rush to play alongside each other when possible. Beardsley scored 11 league goals that season.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: In April 1989, after the Hillsborough disaster claimed the lives of 97 Liverpool fans, Beardsley was among many Liverpool stars left distraught by the tragedy, attending several funerals and visiting the injured in hospital. He was part of the team that won the FA Cup that season with a 3–2 win over neighbours Everton at Wembley Stadium, though the league title slipped away on the final day of the season when Liverpool conceded a last minute goal to champions Arsenal at Anfield.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: With the departure of John Aldridge a few weeks into the 1989–90 season, Dalglish reverted to a 4–4–2 formation with Beardsley and Rush as his main strikers, with Beardsley scoring 10 goals in 29 games.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: Liverpool won the championship again that season, but the arrival of Israeli international striker Ronny Rosenthal saw his first-team opportunities limited in the title run-in, in which Liverpool overcame a strong challenge by Aston Villa to finish champions by a nine-point margin. Despite UEFA lifting the ban on English clubs in European competitions for the 1990–91 season, Liverpool were unable to compete in the European Cup as (being the team present at the Heysel disaster that had sparked the ban in 1985) they had to serve an extra year of the ban before being allowed to play in European competitions again.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: Beardsley suffered another blow to his first team chances in January 1991 when Kenny Dalglish signed David Speedie. Dalglish stepped down the following month and was replaced a few weeks later by former Liverpool player Graeme Souness, after Ronnie Moran spent two months in charge on an interim basis. Beardsley managed 27 games that campaign and scored 11 goals – three of them in a 4–0 league win over Manchester United on 16 September 1990, and a further two in the Merseyside derby against Everton a week later.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: Beardsley's final league goal for the Reds came on 17 November 1990, when he scored the only goal in a 1–0 win at Coventry City. By this relatively early stage of the season he had scored an impressive 11 times in the league, but a failure to add any more goals over the Christmas period may have played a part in Dalglish's decision to sign another striker in the new year.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: His final competitive goals for Liverpool came in a dramatic fifth round FA Cup first replay against Everton at Goodison Park on 20 February 1991, which ended in a 4–4 draw and was the club's last game before the sudden resignation of manager Dalglish, who by the end of the season had been succeeded by Graeme Souness.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: Liverpool were top of the league at this stage, but in the new year were overhauled by Arsenal and the title went to Highbury at the end of the season. And with the arrival of Dean Saunders for a national record fee of £2.9 million after the end of the season, Beardsley's days at Anfield were looking even more numbered, despite the sale of David Speedie.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: During Beardsley's Anfield career he played in 175 matches and scored 59 goals, but it was his vision, guile and all action style of play that endeared him to the Anfield faithful, so much so he was voted in 19th position in the 2006 poll 100 Players Who Shook The Kop, conducted by the Liverpool Football Club web site; over 110,000 supporters worldwide voted for their 10 favourite players of all time.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: Liverpool's derby rivals, Everton succeeded in gaining 30-year-old Beardsley's signature when he joined them on 5 August 1991 for a fee of £1 million. He made his debut on 17 August in a 2–1 defeat to Nottingham Forest at the City Ground. Beardsley scored 25 goals in 81 appearances for the blue half of Merseyside, though Everton did not achieve anything greater than a mid table finish in the league during his time there, and failed to make an impact in the cup competitions.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: While at Everton he became – along with David Johnson – one of only two players to have scored for both sides in Merseyside derbies. He finished as the club's top scorer by the end of his first season at Goodison Park and again showed his dynamic quality during his second season, but off the field Everton were suffering financial difficulties and when former club Newcastle offered Everton £1.5 million for Beardsley, it was a sum they could not turn down for a 32-year-old player.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: On 16 July 1993, Beardsley rejoined Newcastle for £1.5 million, where his old teammate and strike partner Kevin Keegan was now manager. Newcastle had just won promotion to the Premier League as Division One champions, and in 1993–94 they finished third and qualified for the UEFA Cup, with Beardsley scoring a total of 25 goals and his strike-partner Andy Cole scoring a club record of 41 goals in all competitions. He played for a further four years at the club, almost captaining them to the Premier League title in 1996, but they were pipped to the title by Manchester United. They finished runners-up a year later as well, although 1996–97 was a trying season for the club as they failed to set the pace at the top of the table as they had the previous season, and halfway through the season Kevin Keegan had stunned the club with his resignation, with Kenny Dalglish then succeeding him.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: During his second spell at St James's Park he racked up 157 appearances and scored 56 goals, bringing his overall total after two spells with the club to 321 appearances and 117 goals. This equates to a goal every 2.74 matches, a decent ratio for a player who was seen by many as a provider rather than a goalscorer, particularly in the 1996–97 season when he was switched to midfield following Alan Shearer's arrival. It is this period of his career that Beardsley regards as the time when he peaked.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: Beardsley left Newcastle for the second time on 18 August 1997 for £450,000, joining Bolton Wanderers, where he made 21 appearances but was unable to save them from being relegated from the Premier League just one season after promotion. He then went on loan to Manchester City, where he played six times in Division One. This loan spell made Beardsley the only player to play for both top-flight teams in Liverpool and Manchester.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: He then moved to Fulham who were managed by his former manager Keegan, where he made 28 appearances in two separate loan spells, eventually signing for them permanently. He then went to Hartlepool United on a free transfer, and played 22 times in Division Three to secure their Football League status.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: He finally ended his career at the age of 38 when he played twice for the Melbourne Knights in Australia. In a professional career totalling some 20 years in English football, he managed 659 league games and 210 goals, and a total of 799 games and 238 goals in all competitions. He had collected three major trophies (all of them with Liverpool) and was capped 59 times by England, scoring nine times. He had also played in two promotion winning teams earlier in his career, although he had been sold by Carlisle just before they sealed promotion in 1982.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: During the 2012–13 season, Beardsley played in a friendly for Cambridge United against the Newcastle United reserve squad to celebrate Cambridge's 100th anniversary since they were founded.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: After reaching the First Division with Newcastle, Beardsley became a regular in the England side in the second half of the 1980s, and teamed up with striker Gary Lineker, who described Beardsley as "the best partner I could ever have".


title: Peter Beardsley

text: It was Lineker who made way for Beardsley when manager Bobby Robson gave him his debut as a substitute on 29 January 1986 in the 4–0 friendly victory over Egypt in Cairo. His first goal came in his fourth appearance, on 17 May 1986 in the 3–0 friendly win over Mexico in Los Angeles as England prepared for the forthcoming World Cup in Mexico.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: Having only made his debut on 29 January 1986 in a 4–0 friendly win over Egypt, Beardsley's performances for England won him a call-up for the 1986 World Cup finals in Mexico. England scored seven goals in the tournament, of which Lineker scored six (winning the Golden Boot for doing so); the other goal came from Beardsley in a 3–0 victory over Paraguay in the second round. England had failed to score a goal in the first two matches of the finals, but in the third match – Beardsley's first start in the tournament – they beat Poland 3–0. Beardsley contributed in that match with a spectacular cross to Steve Hodge, which allowed Hodge to make England's second goal for Lineker. The next match was to be the famous Argentina vs. England, in which Diego Maradona scored twice for the 2–1 victory that left England out of the tournament. Beardsley played the full game and was one of the five players passed by Maradona for the "Goal of the Century".


title: Peter Beardsley

text: He maintained his place in the England team and featured in both Euro 88 and the 1990 World Cup. He was named as England captain on 17 February 1988 when they drew 0–0 in a friendly with Israel.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: Beardsley was dropped by England manager Graham Taylor after the end of 1990, around the same time he lost his regular place in the Liverpool line-up, and, controversially, continued to be overlooked by him despite England's disappointing performance at Euro 92 as well as their unsuccessful attempt to qualify for the 1994 World Cup. Beardsley, meanwhile, was performing very well for his new club Everton, having signed for them in August 1991, although Everton's form as a team was far from impressive.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: During his second spell at Newcastle, Beardsley was recalled to the England team by new manager Terry Venables in early 1994 after an absence of three years, and ultimately ended his international career while still at Newcastle in 1996, when he was one of the three players dropped from the provisional squad of 25 for the final squad of 22 for Euro 96, along with Dennis Wise and Jason Wilcox, after gaining 59 caps and scoring nine goals.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: Beardsley once scored four goals for England against Aylesbury United. These did not count towards his international tally, however, as this was not an official international match. (Aylesbury became the only non-League side to face the full England team, as they hosted the national side in a warm-up match in 1988 in preparation for the European Championships. England won the game 7–0.)


title: Peter Beardsley

text: Beardsley joined the coaching staff at Newcastle United after his playing career was over. In early 1999, Beardsley also served as assistant manager to Howard Wilkinson during his first caretaker period as manager of England, between the dismissal of Glenn Hoddle and the appointment of Kevin Keegan. England faced – and lost to – world champions France in a friendly at Wembley. In 2003 Beardsley was the subject of a Premier League inquiry, after it was claimed that he had bullied two Newcastle United youth players. He was cleared of the charges. Bullying allegations were again raised against Beardsley in January 2018.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: Beardsley left Newcastle United in 2006, when Glenn Roeder took over as permanent manager of the club. He believed Newcastle should go in a different direction. Beardsley then worked in a media role at the club. In 2007, his former boss at Everton Howard Kendall stated he was interested in taking over as manager of Republic of Ireland with Beardsley as his assistant manager. Beardsley was also linked with a return to Newcastle in January 2008 when Kevin Keegan returned as manager for a second spell.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: In March 2009, Beardsley was re-appointed as an academy coach at Newcastle United, working primarily with young strikers. On 27 July 2010, he was appointed as Reserve Team Manager, with Steve Stone as his assistant manager. On 6 December 2010, following the dismissal of Chris Hughton, Beardsley was briefly placed in charge of the team on a temporary basis before Alan Pardew was brought in as Hughton's replacement.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: In January 2018 Beardsley was placed on leave by Newcastle following allegations of racism. In March 2019, Newcastle confirmed that he had left the club, and the Football Association later confirmed they were investigating him. He was subsequently charged with three counts of using racist language to players. In September 2019 he was suspended from all football-related activity for 32 weeks after being found guilty by the FA of making racist comments to players. Beardsley said he was "surprised and disappointed" at being found guilty. The FA panel said: "Even if he did not intend to do so, he plainly did cause offence." However, the panel said it did not believe Beardsley was racist, stating: "We are satisfied that Mr Beardsley is not a racist in the sense of being ill-disposed to persons on grounds of their race or ethnicity."


title: Peter Beardsley

text: Beardsley has been married since 1981 to his wife Sandra. They have a son, Drew (born 1989), and a daughter, Stacey (born 1993).


title: Peter Beardsley

text: Fictionalised versions of Beardsley and wife feature regularly in the podcast "Athletico Mince", both portrayed by Bob Mortimer. This Beardsley enjoys staring, puffa-puffa jackets, chicken wraps and telling jokes while supporting his wife's insatiable appetite for eggs.


title: Peter Beardsley

text: In the "Red Dwarf" episode "Better Than Life", he was mentioned as being a star in the fictional remake of Casablanca.


title: Languages of Russia

text: Of all the languages of Russia, Russian, the most widely spoken language, is the only official language at the national level. There are 35 languages which are considered official languages in various regions of Russia, along with Russian. There are over 100 minority languages spoken in Russia today.


title: Languages of Russia

text: The new approved amendments to the Russian Constitution stipulate that Russian be the language of the “state forming people”. With president Vladimir Putin’s signing of an executive order on 3 July 2020 to officially insert the amendments into the Russian Constitution, they took effect on 4 July 2020.


title: Languages of Russia

text: Russian lost its status in many of the new republics that arose following the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union. In Russia, however, the dominating status of the Russian language continued. Today, 97% of the public school students of Russia receive their education only or mostly in Russian, even though Russia is made up of approximately 80% ethnic Russians.


title: Languages of Russia

text: On 19 June 2018, the Russian State Duma adopted a bill that made education in all languages but Russian optional, overruling previous laws by ethnic autonomies, and reducing instruction in minority languages to only two hours a week. This bill has been likened by some commentators, such as in "Foreign Affairs", to a policy of Russification.


title: Languages of Russia

text: When the bill was still being considered, advocates for the minorities warned that the bill could endanger their languages and traditional cultures. The law came after a lawsuit in the summer of 2017, where a Russian mother claimed that her son had been "materially harmed" by learning the Tatar language, while in a speech Vladimir Putin argued that it was wrong to force someone to learn a language that is not their own. The later "language crackdown" in which autonomous units were forced to stop mandatory hours of native languages was also seen as a move by Putin to "build identity in Russian society".


title: Languages of Russia

text: Protests and petitions against the bill by either civic society, groups of public intellectuals or regional governments came from Tatarstan (with attempts for demonstrations suppressed), Chuvashia, Mari El, North Ossetia, Kabardino-Balkaria, the Karachays, the Kumyks, the Avars, Chechnya, and Ingushetia. Although the "hand-picked" Duma representatives from the Caucasus did not oppose the bill, it prompted a large outcry in the North Caucasus with representatives from the region being accused of cowardice. The law was also seen as possibly destabilizing, threatening ethnic relations and revitalizing the various North Caucasian nationalist movements. The International Circassian Organization called for the law to be rescinded before it came into effect. Twelve of Russia's ethnic autonomies, including five in the Caucasus called for the legislation to be blocked.


title: Languages of Russia

text: On 10 September 2019, Udmurt activist Albert Razin self-immolated in front of the regional government building in Izhevsk as it was considering passing the controversial bill to reduce the status of the Udmurt language. Between 2002 and 2010 the number of Udmurt speakers dwindled from 463,000 to 324,000. Other languages in the Volga region recorded similar declines in the number of speakers; between the 2002 and 2010 censuses the number of Mari speakers declined from 254,000 to 204,000 while Chuvash recorded only 1,042,989 speakers in 2010, a 21.6% drop from 2002. This is attributed to a gradual phasing out of indigenous language teaching both in the cities and rural areas while regional media and governments shift exclusively to Russian.


title: Languages of Russia

text: In the North Caucasus, the law came after a decade in which educational opportunities in the indigenous languages was reduced by more than 50%, due to budget reductions and federal efforts to decrease the role of languages other than Russian. During this period, numerous indigenous languages in the North Caucasus showed significant decreases in their numbers of speakers even though the numbers of the corresponding nationalities increased, leading to fears of language replacement. The numbers of Ossetian, Kumyk and Avar speakers dropped by 43,000, 63,000 and 80,000 respectively. As of 2018, it has been reported that the North Caucasus is nearly devoid of schools that teach in mainly their native languages, with the exception of one school in North Ossetia, and a few in rural regions of Dagestan; this is true even in largely monoethnic Chechnya and Ingushetia. Chechen and Ingush are still used as languages of everyday communication to a greater degree than their North Caucasian neighbours, but sociolinguistics argue that the current situation will lead to their degradation relative to Russian as well.


title: Languages of Russia

text: In 2020, a set of amendments to the Russian constitution was approved by the State Duma and later the Federation Council. One of the amendments is to enshrine Russian as the “language of the state-forming nationality” and the Russian people as the ethnic group that created the nation. The amendment has been met with criticism from Russia's minorities who argue that it goes against the principle that Russia is a multinational state and will only marginalize them further.


title: Languages of Russia

text: Although Russian is the only federally official language of Russia, there are several other officially recognized languages within Russia's various constituencies – article 68 of the Constitution of Russia only allows the various republics of Russia to establish official (state) languages other than Russian. This is a list of the languages that are recognized as official (state) in constitutions of the republics of Russia, as well as the number of native speakers according mostly to the 2010 Census or more recent ones:


title: Languages of Russia

text: The Constitution of Dagestan defines "Russian and the languages of the peoples of Dagestan" as the state languages, though no comprehensive list of the languages was given. 14 of these languages (including Russian) are literary written languages; therefore they are commonly considered to be the official languages of Dagestan. These are, besides Russian, the following: Aghul, Avar, Azerbaijani, Chechen, Dargwa, Kumyk, Lak, Lezgian, Nogai, Rutul, Tabasaran, Tat and Tsakhur. All of these, except Russian, Chechen and Nogai, are official only in Dagestan and in no other Russian republic.


title: Languages of Russia

text: In the project of the "Law on the languages of the Republic of Dagestan" 32 languages are listed; however, this law project never came to life.


title: Languages of Russia

text: Karelia is the only republic of Russia with Russian as the only official language. However, there exists the special law about state support and protection of the Karelian, Vepsian and Finnish languages in the republic, see next section.


title: Languages of Russia

text: The Government of the Republic of Bashkortostan adopted the Law on the Languages of Nations, which is one of the regional laws aimed at protecting and preserving minority languages. The main provisions of the law include General Provisions, Language names of geographic regions. objects and inscriptions, road and other signs, liability for violations of Bashkortostan in the languages of Bashkortostan. In the Republic of Bashkortostan, equality of languages is recognized. Equality of languages is a combination of the rights of peoples and people to preserve and fully develop their native language, freedom of choice and use of the language of communication. The writing of names of geographical objects and the inscription, road and other signs along with the state language of the Republic of Bashkortostan can be done in the languages of Bashkortostan in the territories where they are concentrated. Similar laws were adopted in Mari El, Tatarstan, Udmurtia, Khakassia and the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug.


title: Languages of Russia

text: The federal law "On the languages of the peoples of the Russian Federation" allows the federal subjects to establish additionally official languages in the areas where minority groups live. The following 15 languages benefit from various degrees of recognition in various regions under this law:


title: Languages of Russia

text: As a result of mass migration to Russia from the former USSR republics (especially from the Caucasus and Central Asia) many non-indigenous languages are spoken by migrant workers. For example, in 2014 2.4 million Uzbek citizens and 1.2 million Tajik citizens entered Russia.


title: Languages of Russia

text: For comparison, Russian citizens with ethnicities matching these of home countries of migrant workers of are much lower (from 2010 Russian Census, in thousands):


title: Languages of Russia

text: There are many endangered languages in Russia. Some are considered to be near extinction and put on the list of endangered languages in Russia, and some may have gone extinct since data was last reported. On the other hand, some languages may survive even with few speakers.


title: Languages of Russia

text: Some languages have doubtful data, like Serbian whose information in the Ethnologue is based on the 1959 census.


title: Languages of Russia

text: Most numbers are according to Michael Krauss, 1995. Given the time that has passed, languages with extremely few speakers might be extinct today. Since 1994, Kerek, Aleut, Medny Aleut, Akkala Sami and Yugh languages have become extinct.


title: Languages of Russia

text: According to the various studies made in 2005-2008 by Levada-Center 15% of Russians know a foreign language. From those who claim knowledge of at least one language:


title: Languages of Russia

text: Knowledge of at least one foreign language is predominant among younger and middle-aged population. Among aged 18–24 38% can read and "translate with a dictionary", 11% can freely read and speak. Among aged 25–39 these numbers are 26% and 4% respectively.


title: Languages of Russia

text: Knowledge of a foreign language varies among social groups. It is most appreciable (15-18%) in big cities with 100,000 and more inhabitants, while in Moscow it rises up to 35%. People with higher education and high economical and social status are most expected to know a foreign language.


title: Languages of Russia

text: The age and social profiling are the same: knowledge of a foreign language is predominant among the young or middle-aged population with higher education and high social status and who live in big cities.


title: Languages of Russia

text: In the 18th and 19th centuries, French was a common language among upper class Russians. The impetus came from Peter the Great's orientation of Russia towards Europe and accelerated after the French Revolution. After the Russians fought France in the Napoleonic Wars, Russia became less inclined towards French.


title: Languages of Russia

text: Every year the Russian Ministry of Education and Science publishes statistics on the languages used in schools. In 2014/2015 the absolute majority (13.1 million or 96%) of 13.7 million Russian students used Russian as a medium of education. Around 1.6 million or 12% students studied their (non-Russian) native language as a subject. The most studied languages are Tatar, Chechen and Chuvash with 347,000, 253,000 and 107,000 students respectively.


title: Astra (missile)

text: Astra (Sanskrit: "weapon") is an Indian family of all weather beyond-visual-range air-to-air missile, developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation. The missile is capable of engaging targets at varying ranges from a distance of up to . Astra Mk-1 has been integrated with Indian Air Force's Sukhoi Su-30MKI and will be integrated with Dassault Mirage 2000, HAL Tejas and Mikoyan MiG-29 in the future. Limited series production of Astra Mk-1 missiles began in 2017.


title: Astra (missile)

text: Astra Mk-1 is long with a diameter of and weighs . It uses mid-course inertial guidance driven by fibre optic gyroscope with terminal guidance through active radar homing. It is capable of receiving course corrections through a secure data link. The missile's active radar seeker, with a homing range of , was designed by Russia's Concern Morinformsystem-Agat but manufactured within India. The seeker can lock-on to a target with a radar cross section of 5 square metres from a distance of 15 km and enables off-boresight launches up to an angle of 45°. Some tests have been conducted in 2017 and 2018 using an indigenous seeker developed by Research Centre Imarat.


title: Astra (missile)

text: Astra Mk-1 is equipped with electronic counter-countermeasures to allow operation even during enemy attempts to jam the seeker using electronic countermeasures. It carries a high explosive pre-fragmented warhead activated by a proximity fuse. It uses a smokeless solid fuelled motor that can propel the missile to a speed of Mach 4.5 and allows operation from a maximum altitude of . Its maximum range is in tail chase mode and in head on chase mode. The maximum range is achieved when the missile launched from an altitude of . When it is fired from an altitude of , the range drops to and when it is launched from sea level, the range drops further to . Astra's low aspect ratio wings allow it to engage manoeuvring targets up to a range of in head-on chase mode and in tail chase mode. It can be launched in both autonomous and buddy mode operation and can lock on to its target before or after it is launched.


title: Astra (missile)

text: Preliminary work on Astra Mk-1 had begun by 1990 with the completion of a pre-feasibility study. It was revealed to the public for the first time at Aero India 1998. It was described as an elongated Matra Super 530D with a smaller diameter in front of the wings. The project to develop the missile was officially sanctioned in 2004 with a budget of . The project was to be led by Defence Research and Development Laboratory with assistance from Hindustan Aeronautics Limited and Electronics Corporation of India Limited. The initial version of Astra Mk-1 reportedly weighed with a range of and was planned to be integrated with HAL Tejas. It was tested for the first time in May 2003.


title: Astra (missile)

text: The missile was redesigned around 2006 due to control issues and performance deficiencies at high altitude. The initial design of four cruciform short-span long-chord wings were replaced by cropped delta wings placed near the nose. The redesigned missile had an improved propulsion system and was tested for the first time in 2008. By 2013, the missile had been redesigned again in response to multiple failures caused by adverse interactions between flight control surfaces. The control, guidance, and propulsion systems were also reconfigured. After the second redesign, the missile was lighter than the initial version by around . It was tested from the ground thrice in December 2012 and captive trials from a Sukhoi Su-30MKI were held in April 2013.


title: Astra (missile)

text: After the deployment of Astra Mk-1, several offshoot versions are being planned including an imaging Infra-red homing missile tentatively classified as Astra-IR, a longer range Astra Mk-2 version and a further development called Astra Mk-3.


title: Astra (missile)

text: India's DRDO is undertaking work on a Mk 2 version of the Astra missile and has planned to enhance its range using an in-house developed dual-pulse rocket motor by May 2022. The missile will have a similar design as well as share a smokeless propulsion of its predecessor Mk-1, boast a laser proximity fuze and some newer technologies like a home-grown AESA radar seeker. DRDO plans to extend the range of the Mk-2 version to , rivaling American AMRAAM AIM 120-D.


title: Astra (missile)

text: A future variant Mk-3 based on Solid Fuel Ducted Ramjet (SFDR) engine is being jointly developed by India and Russia. The missile was first tested on 30 May 2018 and further test was carried out on 8 February 2019. The aim of the program to develop an indigenous missile rivaling AIM-260 JATM and MBDA Meteor.


title: Astra (missile)

text: To fulfill the need of Indian Navy's replacement of Barak-1 short range surface-to-air missile system, DRDO successfully test fired two VL-SRSAM on 22 February 2021 at Odisha coast. The maiden launch tested the efficacy of vertical launch system and missile's maximum and minimum range. Both the missile successfully intercepted their target with pin point accuracy.


title: Astra (missile)

text: VL-SRSAM supersedes the cancelled Maitri missile project undertaken jointly by MBDA and DRDO based on the work done on MICA and Trishul. The missile will arm Indian Navy ships like Kamorta-class corvette with short range air defense system. The missile use jet vane based thrust vectoring control to give high maneuverability to the missile. The missile maybe guided by Revathi radar which is extensively being used in Indian Navy ship like Kamorta-class corvette.


title: Astra (missile)

text: Indian Air Force may also sport VL-SRSAM in truck-based launcher to supplement its Akash surface-to-air missile as a quick reaction system similar to Norwegian/American NASAM 2.


title: Astra (missile)

text: Astra Mk-1 went through a series of ground tests from 2003 till 2012 in three different configurations to validate the airframe, propulsion system, control system, dual mode guidance and night firing capability. Carriage trials were carried out in 2009 and 2013 on Sukhoi Su-30MKI. In May 2014, it was fired for the first time in air. On 18 March 2015, it successfully performed manoeuvre of upto 30g while engaging the target. The missile was fired in public during Iron Fist 2016 exercise from Sukhoi Su-30MKI. During a series of seven tests in September 2017, Astra Mk-1 was tested twice with an indigenous seeker. During user trials in 2019, it hit a target at a distance of .


title: Astra (missile)

text: Astra Mk-1 with an indigenous seeker (instead of a Russian variant supplied by AGAT) is expected to be tested for the first time in May 2022.


title: Astra (missile)

text: During an annual press conference on October 4, 2022, IAF released footage of Astra Mk-2 launched from Su-30MKI using Unified Common Launcher developed by DRDO with industry partners for air to air missiles.


title: Astra (missile)

text: Astra completed final development trials in September 2017 and was cleared for production by Bharat Dynamics Limited (BDL). The missile will be manufactured at Bhanur, Telangana for an initial order of 50 missiles. Additional order of 248 missiles were placed for Indian Air Force and Indian Navy for use on various platforms like Sukhoi Su-30MKI, HAL Tejas, MiG-29 / MiG-29K.


title: Astra (missile)

text: On 31 May 2022, Ministry of Defence (MoD) signed contract with BDL worth ₹2,971 crore (US$383 million) to produce 350+ units of Astra Mk-1 for Indian Air Force and Indian Navy under high priority Indian Designed, Developed and Manufactured (IDDM) category. DRDO already started the process of transferring technology of the missile and associated systems to BDL. Each missile will cost ₹7–8 crore. Astra Mk-1 along with other variants of this missile will progressively replace all Russian origin long range air to air missile in Indian fleet.


title: Dracaena cinnabari

text: Dracaena cinnabari, the Socotra dragon tree or dragon blood tree, is a dragon tree native to the Socotra archipelago, part of Yemen, located in the Arabian Sea. It is named after the blood-like color of the red sap that the trees produce.


title: Dracaena cinnabari

text: The dragon blood tree has a unique and strange appearance, with an "upturned, densely packed crown having the shape of an uprightly held umbrella". This evergreen species is named after its dark red resin, which is known as "dragon's blood". Unlike most monocot plants, "Dracaena" displays secondary growth, "D. cinnabari" even has growth zones resembling tree rings found in dicot tree species. Along with other arborescent "Dracaena" species it has a distinctive growth habit called "dracoid ". Its leaves are found only at the end of its youngest branches; its leaves are all shed every 3 or 4 years before new leaves simultaneously mature. Branching tends to occur when the growth of the terminal bud is stopped, due to either flowering or traumatic events (e.g. herbivory).


title: Dracaena cinnabari

text: Its fruits are small fleshy berries containing between 1 and 4 seeds. As they develop they turn from green to black, and then become orange when ripe. The berries are eaten by birds (e.g. "Onychognatus" species) and thereby dispersed. The seeds are 4–5 mm in diameter and weigh on average 68 mg. The berries exude a deep red resin, known as dragon's blood.


title: Dracaena cinnabari

text: Like other monocotyledons, such as palms, the dragon's blood tree grows from the tip of the stem, with the long, stiff leaves borne in dense rosettes at the end (4, 5, 7). It branches at maturity to produce an umbrella-shaped crown, with leaves that measure up to 60 cm long and 3 cm wide. The trunk and the branches of the dragon blood are thick and stout and display dichotomous branching, where each of the branches repeatedly divides into two sections.


title: Dracaena cinnabari

text: The dragon's blood tree usually produces its flowers around March, though flowering does vary with location. The flowers tend to grow at the end of the branches. The plants have inflorescences and bear small clusters of fragrant, white, or green flowers. The fruits take five months to completely mature. The fruits are described as a fleshy berry, which changes from green to black as it gradually ripens. The fleshy berry fruit ends up being an orange-red color that contains one to three seeds. The berries are usually eaten and dispersed by birds and other animals.


title: Dracaena cinnabari

text: The different shape of the dragon's blood tree is an adaptation for survival in arid conditions with low amounts of soil, such as in mountaintops. The large, packed crown provides shade and reduces evaporation. This shade also aids in the survival of seedlings growing beneath the adult tree, explaining why the trees tend to grow closer together.


title: Dracaena cinnabari

text: The first description of "D. cinnabari" was made during a survey of Socotra led by Lieutenant Wellsted of the East India Company in 1835. It was first named Pterocarpus draco, but in 1880, the Scottish botanist Isaac Bayley Balfour made a formal description of the species and renamed it as "Dracaena cinnabari". Of between 60 and 100 "Dracaena" species, "D. cinnabari" is one of only six species that grow as a tree.


title: Dracaena cinnabari

text: Along with other plants on Socotra, "D. cinnabari" is thought to have derived from the Tethyan flora. It is considered a remnant of the Mio-Pliocene Laurasian subtropical forests that are now almost extinct due to the extensive desertification of North Africa.


title: Dracaena cinnabari

text: Although most of its ecological habitats are still intact, there is an increasing population with industrial and tourism development. This is putting more pressure on the vegetation through the process of logging, overgrazing, woodcutting and infrastructure of development plans. Though the dragon's blood tree is highly widespread, it has become fragmented due to the development that has occurred in its habitats. Many of its populations are suffering due to poor regeneration. Human activities have greatly reduced the dragon's blood population through overgrazing, and feeding the flowers and fruits to the livestock of the island. One of the species' greatest threats is the gradual drying out of the Socotra Archipelago, which has been an ongoing process for the last few hundred years. This has resulted in non-flourishing trees, and the duration of the mist and cloud around the area seems to also be decreasing. Increasing arid environments is predicted to cause a 45 percent reduction in the available habitat for "D. cinnabari" by the year 2080.


title: Dracaena cinnabari

text: Additional threats to the dragon's blood tree include harvesting of its resin and use of the leaves to make rope. Presently some of the dragon's blood trees have been used to make beehives. This was generally prohibited; this displays how the species may be threatened by a breakdown in the traditional practices of the island.


title: Dracaena cinnabari

text: The best preserved and largest stand of "D. cinnabari" is on the limestone plateau named Rokeb di Firmihin. This approximately forest has numerous rare and endemic species. Research shows that in coming decades the number of trees in this forest will decrease due to the lack of natural regeneration.


title: Dracaena cinnabari

text: The unique flora and fauna of the Socotra Archipelago are in a World Heritage Site and a Global 200 ecoregion. It is a Centre of Plant Diversity and an Endemic Bird Area. It also lies within the Horn of Africa biodiversity hotspot. There are multiple efforts that are being developed to help create and support a sustainable habitat and biodiversity management programs on Socotra. The dragon's blood tree is considered as an important species for commodity and for conservation efforts on the island. The dragon's blood falls under an umbrella species. This is a species selected for making conservation related decisions, typically because protecting these species indirectly protects the many other species that make up the ecological community of its habitat. Species conservation can be subjective because it is difficult to determine the status of many species. Thus, the dragons blood protection efforts would also benefit many other plants and animals within the area.


title: Dracaena cinnabari

text: The dragon's blood tree is given some protection from international commercial trade under the listing of all "Dracaena" species on Appendix II of CITES (3), but if its populations are to be effectively preserved, a variety of measures will need to be taken. These include urgent monitoring of the species' natural regeneration and the expansion of Skund Nature Sanctuary to cover important areas of the habitats. Also, efforts to avoid road construction in the dragon blood's habitat, and limit grazing need to be brought to attention. Additional conservation efforts for the tree involve fencing against livestock, watering of seedlings in open areas, and involving local communities in planting seedlings.


title: Dracaena cinnabari

text: By the 21st century threats arising from global warming and over grazing has made it difficult for new dragon blood trees to grow in wild. A collaboration of local people with assistance from others such as UK based 'Friends of Socotra' and Mendel University has been aiding a number of slow growing saplings by watering them while they are too young to draw down sufficient water, and protecting them from hungry goats. As of 2022, about 600 saplings have reached the point where they no longer need regular watering, leading to hopes that a new generation of the tree may become established on Socotra.


title: Dracaena cinnabari

text: Dragon's blood is used as a stimulant and abortifacient. The root yields a gum-resin, used in gargle water as a stimulant, astringent and in toothpaste. The root is used in rheumatism, the leaves are a carminative.


title: Dracaena cinnabari

text: The trees can be harvested for their crimson red resin, called dragon's blood, which was highly prized in the ancient world and is still used today. Around the Mediterranean basin it is used as a dye and as a medicine, Socotrans use it ornamentally as well as dyeing wool, gluing pottery, a breath freshener, and lipstick. Because of the belief that it is the blood of the dragon it is also used in ritual magic and alchemy. In 1883, the Scottish botanist Isaac Bayley Balfour identified three grades of resin: the most valuable were tear-like in appearance, then a mixture of small chips and fragments, with a mixture of fragments and debris being the cheapest. The resin of "D. cinnabari" is thought to have been the original source of dragon's blood until during the medieval and renaissance periods when other plants were used instead.


title: Dracaena cinnabari

text: The local inhabitants of the city in the Socotra Island use the dragon's blood resin as a cure-all. Greeks, Romans, and Arabs use it in general wound healing, as a coagulant, cure for diarrhea, for dysentery diseases, for lowering fevers. It is also taken for ulcers in the mouth, throat, intestines and stomach.


title: Dracaena cinnabari

text: Dragon's blood from "D. cinnabari" was used as a source of varnish for 18th-century Italian violin-makers. It was also used as tooth-paste in the 18th century. It is still used as varnish for violins and for photoengraving. Dragon's blood is also listed in a 16th-century text, "Stahel und Eyssen", as an ingredient in a quenching bath for tempering steel. However this text is vague and poorly regarded as either an accurate description of smith's practice, or as a viable recipe.


title: Brian Robbins

text: Brian Levine (born November 22, 1963), known professionally as Brian Robbins, is an American film executive, actor, and filmmaker who is the current President and Chief Executive Officer of Paramount Pictures and Nickelodeon. He also serves as Chief Content Officer, Kids & Family, Paramount+.


title: Brian Robbins

text: Robbins was born Brian Levine in Brooklyn, New York City on November 22, 1963. When Robbins was 16, his family moved to Los Angeles. He graduated from Grant High School in 1982.


title: Brian Robbins

text: Following his father, prolific character actor Floyd Levine, into acting, Robbins made his television acting debut on an episode of "Trapper John, M.D." He guest starred on a number of television series and had a recurring role on "General Hospital". As an actor, he is perhaps best known for his role as Eric Mardian on the ABC sitcom "Head of the Class". He also hosted the children's version of the TV game show "Pictionary" in 1989.


title: Brian Robbins

text: In the 1990s, he started producing "All That" and its spin-offs on Nickelodeon. He has produced several sports films including "Coach Carter" and "Hardball" (2001). He produced "Smallville" and also "One Tree Hill". He has often collaborated with producer Michael Tollin.


title: Brian Robbins

text: Robbins is the founder of AwesomenessTV, a YouTube channel aimed at teenagers, which has spun off into a TV series, of which Robbins is the executive producer. DreamWorks Animation acquired the company in 2013. On February 22, 2017, following NBCUniversal/Comcast's acquisition of DreamWorks Animation, Brian Robbins stepped down as AwesomenessTV's CEO, thus ending his five-year run with the company.


title: Brian Robbins

text: On June 7, 2017, Robbins became the president of Paramount Players, a newly formed division of Paramount Pictures. Robbins will work with Viacom's Nickelodeon, MTV, Comedy Central and BET brands to generate projects while also focusing on "contemporary properties".


title: Brian Robbins

text: On October 1, 2018, Robbins left his position as the president of Paramount Players after Viacom tapped him to be the president of Nickelodeon, ending his 16-month run at the studio. Despite leaving the studio, he remained involved with Paramount Players' Nickelodeon films. He became head of Paramount Pictures in September 2021, replacing veteran studio head Jim Gianopulos.


title: Brian Robbins

text: Robbins is of Jewish faith. He was married to publicist Laura Cathcart, with whom he has two sons, Miles and Justin; they divorced in 2013. The following year, Robbins married Tracy James. They have a daughter named Stella.


title: Conrad Black

text: Conrad Moffat Black, Baron Black of Crossharbour (born 25 August 1944), is a Canadian-born British former newspaper publisher, businessman, and writer.


title: Conrad Black

text: His father was businessman George Montegu Black II, who had significant holdings in Canadian manufacturing, retail and media businesses through part-ownership of the holding company Ravelston Corporation. In 1978, two years after their father's death, Conrad and his older brother Montegu took majority control of Ravelston. Over the next seven years, Conrad Black sold off most of their non-media holdings in order to focus on newspaper publishing. Black controlled Hollinger International, once the world's third-largest English-language newspaper empire, which published "The Daily Telegraph" (UK), "Chicago Sun-Times" (US), "The Jerusalem Post" (Israel), "National Post" (Canada), and hundreds of community newspapers in North America, before controversy erupted over the sale of some of the company's assets.


title: Conrad Black

text: He was granted a peerage in 2001 and because of the Nickle Resolution, which bans British honours for Canadian citizens, gave up his Canadian citizenship in order to accept the title.


title: Conrad Black

text: In 2007, he was convicted on four counts of fraud in US District Court in Chicago. While two of the criminal fraud charges were overturned on appeal, a conviction for felony fraud and obstruction of justice was upheld in 2010 and he was re-sentenced to 42 months in prison and a fine of $125,000. In 2019,former president Donald Trump granted him a presidential pardon.


title: Conrad Black

text: Black is a longtime columnist and author, including having written a column for the "National Post" since he founded it in 1998. He has written over ten books, mostly in the fields of Canadian and American history, including biographies of Quebec premier Maurice Duplessis and US presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt, Richard Nixon and Donald Trump, as well as two memoirs. He has also hosted two interview shows on the Canadian cable network VisionTV. He is a political conservative, and belonged to the UK's Conservative Party, but also has some idiosyncratic views, including his support for Roosevelt's New Deal.


title: Conrad Black

text: Black was born in Montreal, Quebec, to a family originally from Winnipeg, Manitoba. His father, George Montegu Black Jr., a chartered accountant, was the president of Canadian Breweries Limited, a brewing conglomerate that had earlier absorbed Winnipeg Breweries, which he had inherited from his father George Montegu Black Sr. Conrad Black's mother was the former Jean Elizabeth Riley, a daughter of Conrad Stephenson Riley, whose father founded The Great-West Life Assurance Company, and a great-granddaughter of an early co-owner of "The Daily Telegraph". His father was a shareholder in "The Daily Telegraph".


title: Conrad Black

text: Biographer George Tombs said of Black's motivations: "He was born into a very large family of athletic, handsome people. He wasn't particularly athletic or handsome like they were, so he developed a different skill — wordplay, which he practised a lot with his father." Black has written that his father was "cultured [and] humorous" and that his mother was a "natural, convivial, and altogether virtuous person". Of his older brother George Montegu Black III (Monte), Black has written that he was "one of the greatest natural athletes I have known", and that though "generally more sociable than I was, he was never a cad or even inconstant, or ever an ungenerous friend or less than a gentleman". The Black family maintains a family plot at Mount Pleasant Cemetery in Toronto where Black's parents and brother are buried along with his good friend and his wife's former husband, journalist, poet and broadcaster, George Jonas.


title: Conrad Black

text: Black was first educated at Upper Canada College (UCC), during which time, at age eight, he invested his life savings of $60 in one share of General Motors. Six years later, he was expelled from UCC for selling stolen exam papers. He then attended Trinity College School in Port Hope, where he lasted less than a year, being expelled for insubordinate behaviour. Successfully completing the year as an extramural student, Black transferred to Thornton Hall, a private school in Toronto.


title: Conrad Black

text: Black continued his post-secondary education at Carleton University. He attended Toronto's Osgoode Hall Law School of York University, but his studies ended after he failed his first year exams. In 1970, he completed a law degree at Université Laval, and in 1973 completed a Master of Arts degree in history at McGill University.


title: Conrad Black

text: Black's thesis at McGill would become the first half of his first book on Quebec premier Maurice Duplessis. Black had been granted access to Duplessis' papers, housed in Duplessis' former residence in Trois-Rivières, which included "figures from the famous Union Nationale "caisse électorale" (the party war chest), a copy of the Leader of the Opposition's tax returns, [and] gossip from bishops", as well as


title: Conrad Black

text: Black subsequently had the principal items from the papers copied and microfilmed, and he donated copies to McGill, York, and Windsor universities.


title: Conrad Black

text: Black's first marriage was in 1978 to Joanna Hishon of Montreal, who worked as a secretary in his and his brother Montegu's brokerage office. The couple had two sons and a daughter. They separated in 1991. Their divorce was finalized in 1992; that same year Black married British-born Jewish-Canadian journalist Barbara Amiel. Black described Amiel, in the first volume of his autobiography as "beautiful, brilliant, ideologically a robust spirit" and "chic, humorous and preternaturally sexy". Courtroom evidence revealed that the couple exchanged over 11,000 emails.


title: Conrad Black

text: "My family", Black wrote in 2009, "was divided between atheism and agnosticism, and I followed rather unthinkingly and inactively in those paths into my twenties." By his early thirties he "no longer had any confidence in the non-existence of God". Thereafter, he "approached Rome at a snail's pace", and began to study the writings of Roman Catholic thinkers such as St. Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, Cardinal Newman, and Jacques Maritain. Having accepted the possibility of miracles and thus of the Resurrection of Christ, Black was received into the Roman Catholic Church on 18 June 1986 by Gerald Emmett Cardinal Carter, Archbishop of Toronto, at the cardinal's official residence. He had a dispensation to receive the sacraments of the Roman Catholic Church, from Cardinals Léger and Carter, starting in 1974.


title: Conrad Black

text: Black developed a close friendship with Cardinal Carter and relied on him as a spiritual advisor. On Carter's death, Black wrote:


title: Conrad Black

text: In 2001, Black was invested as a Knight Commander of the Order of St. Gregory the Great, a Papal order of chivalry awarded by Pope John Paul II and delivered by Cardinals Carter and Aloysius Ambrozic. He has written that his faith helped him endure his imprisonment in the United States. Black is also a major shareholder in "The Catholic Herald", and was the vice-president of Léger's charity from 1972 to 1990.


title: Conrad Black

text: Black became involved in a number of businesses, mainly publishing newspapers, starting when he was still in university. In 1966, Black bought his first newspaper, the "Eastern Townships Advertiser" in Quebec. Following the foundation as an investment vehicle of the Ravelston Corporation by the Black family in 1969, Black, together with friends David Radler and Peter G. White, purchased and operated the "Sherbrooke Record", the small English-language daily in Sherbrooke, Quebec. In 1971, the three formed Sterling Newspapers Limited, a holding company that acquired several other small Canadian regional daily and weekly newspapers, including the "Prince Rupert Daily News" and the Summerside, Prince Edward Island, "Journal Pioneer".


title: Conrad Black

text: George Black died in June 1976, ten days after his wife, leaving Conrad Black and his older brother, Montegu, a 22.4% stake in Ravelston Corporation, which by then owned 61% voting control of Argus Corporation, an influential holding company in Canada. Argus controlled large stakes in five Canadian corporations: Hollinger Mines, Standard Broadcasting, Dominion Stores, Domtar and Massey Ferguson. Hollinger controlled Labrador Mining and Exploration and had a large stake in Noranda Mines. Black succeeded his father as a director of Dominion Stores and Standard Broadcasting, owner of radio stations CFRB (Toronto) and CJAD (Montreal), and television station CJOH (Ottawa). Conrad Black became a director of the Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce in 1977.


title: Conrad Black

text: Through his father's position at Canadian Breweries, and his status as a co-founder of Ravelston, Black gained early association with two of Canada's most prominent businessmen: John A. "Bud" McDougald and E. P. Taylor, the first two presidents of Argus. Following McDougald's death in 1978, Black paid $18 million to McDougald's widow and her sister for control of Ravelston and thereby, control of Toronto-based Argus. Interviews with the two sisters in their retirement homes in Florida were aired 21 September 1980 in the episode of the CBC's "The Canadian Establishment", entitled "Ten Toronto Street". This episode covered the period during which Conrad Black became president of Argus Corporation following the death of McDougald. Black's new associate, Nelson M. Davis became chairman. Patrick Watson, the host and narrator of series interviewed the two widows in their Florida retirement homes. Black recorded that the widows "understood and approved every letter of every word of the agreement". Other observers admired Black for marshaling enough investor support to win control without committing a large block of personal assets. He brought in new partners to replace Mrs. McDougal and her sister Mrs. W. Eric Philips.