title: Isis (DC Comics)

text: A subsequent incarnation of the character named Adrianna Tomaz was introduced into the DC Universe in 2006 as a female counterpart to the character Black Adam, a part of the "Shazam!" family of characters. The Egyptian goddess character has been depicted within the comic book "Wonder Woman".


title: Isis (DC Comics)

text: The television series "Smallville" depicted Isis as a supervillain form taken on by Lois Lane (played by Erica Durance) when possessed by the Amulet of Isis, while Adrianna Tomaz appeared later in the episode, played by Erica Cerra. The Arrowverse television series "Legends of Tomorrow" introduced a new incarnation of the character, named Zari Tomaz, played by Tala Ashe. This version was portrayed as a wise-cracking hacker from the future with wind powers derived from an amulet and no superhero code name. After the fourth season, another version of Zari Tarazi was introduced as a social media influencer with the same actress portraying her. The Adrianna Tomaz version of the character appeared in the DC Extended Universe film "Black Adam" (2022), played by Sarah Shahi.


title: Isis (DC Comics)

text: had roots in ancient Egyptian mythology. The television series "The Secrets of Isis" starred Joanna Cameron as Andrea Thomas, a high school science teacher who gains the ability to call upon the powers of the goddess Isis after finding an Egyptian amulet during an archeological dig in Egypt, as revealed during the show's opening title sequence. Fifteen episodes of "The Secrets of Isis" were produced for "The Shazam! Isis Hour", and the character also appeared in three episodes of the "Shazam!" portion of the show. "The Secrets of Isis" was given its own timeslot in 1977, for which seven new episodes were broadcast alongside reruns from the first two seasons.


title: Isis (DC Comics)

text: Isis later appeared in animated form on Filmation's "Tarzan and the Super 7" show in 1980, as part of a segment called "The Freedom Force". She later guest starred on "The Kid Super Power Hour with Shazam!"'s "Hero High" segment, though Cameron did not voice the character.


title: Isis (DC Comics)

text: Isis demonstrated numerous powers that manifested when the need arose. These included flight, super speed, super strength (to a level comparable to Superman and Wonder Woman), telekinesis (the ability to move and levitate objects), geokinesis (the ability to control elements such as fire, earth, wind, and water), the ability to change the molecules of inanimate objects to allow people to pass through them, the ability to act as a human lightning rod, remote viewing, and (at her power's maximum) the ability to stop and reverse time. To activate these powers, Isis usually is shown reciting a rhyming chant (the most frequent being "Oh zephyr winds that blow on high, lift me now so I can fly!"). The medallion Andrea Thomas uses to change into Isis also gives her apparent limited powers even when in her non-Isis form, as she is shown communicating telepathically with her pet crow Tut and engaging in minor mind control even without changing. She also received superior hand-to-hand and weapons combat skills from the goddess.


title: Isis (DC Comics)

text: Andrea/Isis' love interest is fellow teacher Rick Mason (although this relationship is more implied than explicitly stated, the two characters are simply shown in many episodes enjoying each other's company: going on picnics, horseback riding, and going for dinner together). As in the classic Lois Lane example, Mason remains oblivious to the physical similarities between Andrea and Isis, beyond some idle speculation in early episodes. In one episode ("The Seeing Eye Horse") a blind character realizes that Isis and Andrea have almost identical voices, but otherwise the series never explored the secret identity dilemma in any serious way. During the abbreviated second season, cosmetic changes were made to the Isis character in terms of makeup and hairstyle.


title: Isis (DC Comics)

text: Isis' first appearance in comics was in "Shazam!" #25 (September – October 1976). She was later given her own TV tie-in book the following month, titled "The Mighty Isis", which ran for two years, out-surviving the TV series. The eight-issue run by DC Comics began in October 1976 and ended in January 1978; early issues featured a special "DC TV" logo. All stories starred the Andrea Thomas character from the television series; the book was edited by Denny O'Neil, written by Jack C. Harris and most issues illustrated by Mike Vosburg (the first issue was illustrated by Ric Estrada and Wallace Wood). Although early issues stayed within the format of the TV series, later issues covered storylines beyond the scope of the show, such as a story arc involving Andrea abandoning her "human" alter ego and cutting ties with her friends and family, resulting in Rick Mason revealing his love for her. Like other DC characters who have been reimagined, this version of Isis, though not mentioned or appearing in "Crisis on Infinite Earths", can be assumed to have been retconned out of existence following the 1985 DC miniseries.


title: Isis (DC Comics)

text: In January 2002, DC Comics re-introduced the goddess Isis as one of the chief gods worshipped by the Bana-Mighdallian Amazons in the Wonder Woman comic. Although the Bana tribe was introduced in 1989, their gods were not shown until 2002. Her introduction depicted her in a standard white sleeveless gown and Egyptian headdress containing her trademark symbol. Later, the various Amazon gods were depicted as selecting more modern appearances for themselves. After this, Isis was then shown as wearing a black business suit with skirt, long straight black hair, and a neck choker containing an ankh.


title: Isis (DC Comics)

text: The superhero Isis was re-introduced in the DC Universe in the weekly comic book "52", in issue #3 (May 2006). In this series, an Egyptian woman named Adrianna Tomaz (an homage to the "Andrea Thomas" character on the television program) is a refugee who is enslaved and brought to Black Adam as a gift from Intergang along with $2,000,000 in gold. Upon freeing her and killing the emissaries who had brought her to him, Black Adam found her to be unafraid and highly vocal about how he could change his country for the better.


title: Isis (DC Comics)

text: After weeks of discussion during which Adrianna changed the way Adam looked at the world and inspired him to commit kinder acts, Adam retrieved the magical amulet of Isis from the tomb of his wife and children, and asked Captain Marvel, now the Keeper of the Rock of Eternity, to confer its power on Adrianna. The "Amulet of Isis" had long ago belonged to another of the wizard Shazam's champions, Queen Pharaoh Hatshepsut of the 18th Dynasty, who had used it to bring peace to her kingdom. Upon Hatshepsut's death the amulet became dormant.


title: Isis (DC Comics)

text: Upon holding the amulet and speaking "I am Isis," Adrianna was transformed and instilled with the powers of the goddess. She and Adam then began traveling the Middle East and freeing enslaved children, hoping to find Adrianna's kidnapped brother. In Week 16 of the series, Adam proposes marriage to Isis, offering a jewel given to Cleopatra by Caesar; they are wed by Captain Marvel, who invokes the gods of all the universes and planets. Intergang unsuccessfully attempts to ruin the wedding with a suicide bomber. Several other "Shazam!" characters attend the ceremony, and Mary Marvel, Captain Marvel, Jr., Tawky Tawny and Uncle Dudley serve as members of the wedding party. Isis is a calming influence on Black Adam, transforming him from a ruthless dictator into a more benevolent figure.


title: Isis (DC Comics)

text: This incarnation of Isis has powers similar to Black Adam's. She can also heal wounds of nearly any severity. She has control over nature, related to her mood: rain falls when she's sad even if she is inside, flowers bloom when she is happy. Her first transformation is triggered by the phrase "I am Isis", but later transformations use the phrase, "Oh Mighty Isis" instead.


title: Isis (DC Comics)

text: Adrianna finally locates her brother Amon, who has been tortured and crippled by Whisper A'Daire for his refusal to join Intergang's religion of crime and for his multiple escape attempts. Isis stops Black Adam from taking revenge on the Intergang members. Isis is unable to fully heal Amon's wounds because they are too deep and complex. Black Adam asks Amon to say his name; upon doing so, Amon is struck by Shazam's mystic lightning bolt and transformed into Osiris. Reunited with her brother, Isis decides to change the world beginning with China. Osiris convinces her to also change the public perception of the Black Marvel Family. Isis coaxes Black Adam into joining them in a public unmasking of their secret identities and a public declaration of their good intentions for the future. The Black Marvels defeat the demon Sabbac at Halloween when he tries to sacrifice children to Neron, further increasing their popularity. During a charity dinner with Mrs. Sivana, Osiris befriends a humanoid crocodile, Sobek, that escaped from Sivana's lab.


title: Isis (DC Comics)

text: Amanda Waller is not convinced of the Black Marvels' good intentions, and she forms a new Suicide Squad. She sends the Persuader to attack Isis with his radioactive ax. Osiris rushes to help her and he cuts the Persuader in half. Osiris is distraught over the unintentional death, and Isis whisks him away from the scene. Photographic evidence of the incident turns public opinion against the Black Marvel Family. Osiris believes that his powers make him evil, and he blames Black Adam. A series of calculated events arranged by Intergang lead to Osiris' death at the hands of Sobek. The Black Marvels battle with the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, manifested in physical forms controlled by Intergang and Doctor Sivana.


title: Isis (DC Comics)

text: Isis dies when she is infected with diseases from the Horseman, Pestilence, while she defends Adam against the Horseman, Death. Before she dies, Isis tells Adam that she was wrong in trying to change him, and she begs him to avenge her and Osiris' deaths. Adam's path of vengeance instigates World War III. Several weeks later, an unidentified individual takes Isis' amulet; Adrianna appears to be trapped inside it.


title: Isis (DC Comics)

text: In "Black Adam: The Dark Age", Adam (now under his civilian title of "Teth-Adam") gets into Khandaq under a false name, and takes her remains despite a shootout in which nearly all his men are killed. In the mountains, he is forced to eat his servant Hassan who offers himself to Black Adam. He fails to notice that he has dropped one of her fingers and her ring at the tomb. He resurrects Isis using the Lazarus Pit. Her resurrection is short lived, as Adam is forced to kill Isis again upon seeing her new body rotting away as soon as she has come back to life. Her bones are then transferred to Doctor Fate's tower, where, with the assistance of Felix Faust, Adam turns them into a magical conduit to imbue himself with god-like powers taken from Isis' corpse itself. Apparently, Isis still could be revived, but every time Adam takes power from her, her bones become more brittle, jeopardizing a new attempt at resurrection. Faust reveals that it is Isis' amulet that can revive her, and that Mary Marvel and Captain Marvel Jr. broke it into four parts and scattered it across the globe. It is later revealed that the missing fragments of her body, the reason the Lazarus Pit failed, were being held by Atom-Smasher who found it when the Justice Society investigated the tomb. He meets Black Adam and gives them to him.


title: Isis (DC Comics)

text: Finally, Black Adam manages to find the pieces of the amulet and reunites it with the now-complete skeleton. The spell apparently backfires, resulting in a shambling, rotting corpse. A séance takes place in which Isis' spirit swears eternal hate for her husband, before returning to death. Black Adam flees, laden with guilt, emptiness, and rage; then Faust begins the real rite, having shown Black Adam the skeleton of Ralph Dibny as a way to hide the real Isis from him and blame "her" rotten condition on Black Adam's abuse of their now-shared powers. So Isis is able to be fully restored to life, even if bound by powerful spells to drain her will and bind her to mindless obedience. Now a mere puppet in Faust's hands, Isis' magic is used to free him from his imprisonment in Fate's tower by creating a magical doorway through the tower wall. Felix Faust then drags her away to a hideout, where it is strongly implied that he sexually assaults the paralyzed Isis.


title: Isis (DC Comics)

text: Later, Black Adam, still mourning for her, finds a bloodied flower sprouting in their family shrine. He takes it as a sign that Isis is trying to communicate with him, which becomes apparent when he finds a larger collection of flowers in the shape of the Shazam lightning bolt symbol, pointing in the direction Adam must go to find her. Eventually, Black Adam finds Isis and Felix Faust, and Adam forces Faust to release Isis from his control. The resurrected Isis is far less merciful and forgiving than before, and castrates Faust for his treatment of her. Reunited, Isis and Adam travel to the Rock of Eternity, where they banish Captain Marvel back to Earth as a powerless Billy Batson (Isis has turned him back using magic lightning from saying Shazam from a spell book) and begin setting a plan in motion to "cleanse the Earth" of evil their way, even recruiting Mary Marvel to their crusade. The Justice Society come to the Rock of Eternity, seeking to help Billy, only for Isis to brutally attack them, even throwing Jay Garrick into the mists covering the Rock, from which there is no escape. During the course of the fight, the combatants end up in Kahndaq, where the people praise Black Adam's return. Isis then kills several of the followers, claiming that they are tainted by this new Earth. Black Adam attempts to protect his people, only to be attacked by Mary and Billy, who had been tainted by Mary's power. At that point, Jay Garrick appears with the spirit of Billy's father, and Shazam, whom the former had helped Jay recover from the Rock of Finality. Adam is convinced to return his power to Shazam so that the wizard's spirit can save Isis from her corruption. Shazam is released from his stone form. In turn, Shazam takes the power from Isis, Billy, and Mary, and transforms Teth-Adam and Adrianna into statues. Some time later, a shadowy figure appears to the statues in a bolt of lightning, wanting them to be his "champions."


title: Isis (DC Comics)

text: After the events of the "Blackest Night" storyline, Osiris is resurrected by the White Lantern Entity and returns to Khandaq, vowing to restore the kingdom to its former prosperity. Osiris takes the petrified bodies of Adam and Isis and flies off to an unknown destination. Despite his best efforts, Osiris is unable to return Adam and Adrianna to their living states. He ultimately aligns himself with Deathstroke and his new team of after being told that the mercenary can help him return his family to life. Both Adrianna and Teth-Adam are currently stored in Deathstroke's base of operations, the Labyrinth.


title: Isis (DC Comics)

text: It is ultimately revealed by the White Lantern Entity that Osiris was resurrected with the express purpose of saving Adrianna from her fate. During a battle with a drug kingpin named Elijah, Osiris experiences a vision of Isis after falling asleep due to the villain Pisces. He is told that he is guilty for his hand in the murder of Ryan Choi, and that in order to free her, he will have to kill more people. Osiris accidentally electrocutes Elijah after waking from his vision after yelling 'Isis,' and returns home to find that more cracks have appeared on Isis' statue. He then surmises that it was Elijah's death which caused the cracks, and states that he will indeed have to kill more people to free Isis from her prison. He then kills a guard at Arkham Asylum using his lightning channelled by saying 'Isis' again, although he seems to not enjoy this action, saying 'Great Ra forgive me.' After killing two bank robbers, Osiris is confronted by Freddy Freeman. Somehow, Osiris manages to steal Freddy's power and give it to Isis. However, Isis' first words upon being reunited with her brother are "What have you done to me?" It is soon revealed that the killings Osiris did in her name have corrupted her soul, causing her to haphazardly shift between her kind, caring personality and a callous, cruel one. When Osiris' back is turned, Isis breaks out of the Labyrinth. She goes on a rampage, unable to stop herself from using nature to try to destroy the world. In desperation, she attempts to commit suicide by lightning, but Osiris shields her with his own body. When they awake, Isis discovers that the corruption has left her, but she still feels it inside Osiris, and it worries her.


title: Isis (DC Comics)

text: It was later revealed by the Entity that Isis was brought back to life because she's the one that will aid the Swamp Thing.


title: Isis (DC Comics)

text: Later, Isis aids her brother Osiris in stopping the Quraci soldiers who are attacking Kahndaq. Isis learns that Osiris has become more violent, killing the soldiers. When the Justice League attacks Deathstroke's Titans, they are stopped by Isis, who forces them to leave Kahndaq at once. She declares her rulership of Kahndaq, and withdraws the country from the United Nations, stating that they will outlaw outsiders and recognize no power but their own, and that any intrusion will incite "World War III". The Justice League's only option is to leave, and Deathstroke's Titans leave as well. Isis then tells Osiris that he is not welcome in Kahndaq, because of his bloodlust.


title: Isis (DC Comics)

text: In September 2011, The New 52 rebooted DC's continuity. In this new timeline, Adrianna Tomaz is a young woman who, by fighting specifically against Khandaq's evil rule, is opposed to her brother Amon entering The Sons of Adam terrorist group. However, after he is killed by Khandaq's forces and she is forced to resurrect Black Adam, Adrianna decides to follow a path of violence, with an unknown voice saying that she will be chosen to wield power.


title: Isis (DC Comics)

text: In order to change form, Adrianna must be able to say "I am Isis", thereby invoking spells involving the energies of the extra-dimensional being once known as Isis on Earth. This spell adds almost a hundred pounds of impervious godly muscle and tissue to her frame. This spell seems to be solely vocal; she cannot access this spell if she is gagged or hampered in some way from talking (the precision of this spell is somewhat erratic). All Adrianna has to say is "I am Isis" and she is mystically transformed and instilled with the powers of the goddess. It was later revealed that the powers that Adrianna draws from Isis are the most powerful of the eight Egyptian Gods. When her powers were possessed by Black Adam, he was able to fight off most of the superheroes on Earth alone. When Black Adam transferred both his and Isis's powers to Mary Marvel, she was able to easily withstand Darkseid's Omega Beams.


title: Isis (DC Comics)

text: After transforming, Adrianna/Isis gains physical abilities similar to her brother, husband, and the other Marvels. She is superhumanly strong and is easily capable of lifting far in excess of 100 tons, putting her on the same level as Supergirl, Power Girl, Mary Marvel, Donna Troy, Big Barda and Wonder Woman. Isis is also incredibly durable and cannot be harmed by physical force unless the being she is engaged with is stronger than her. She is also totally bulletproof and bladed weapons shatter against her skin. She is superhumanly fast, capable of moving at speeds past mach 10 on Earth. Isis also has far superior reflexes and agility when compared to normal humans or even other superhumans. She is also able to mystically fly through the air at incredible speeds and can travel across and around the planet in minutes. Like the other Marvels, Isis possesses an immense degree of superhuman intelligence, allowing her to come up with solutions to complicated problems quickly. Unlike the other Marvels, Isis's powers focus on the control of nature. She has control over water, fire, earth, air and electricity, and can control the weather and the lava within the Earth. These powers are tied to her emotions. When she cried, it began to rain and when she grew angry, enormous roses crushed the buildings around her. Simply put, Isis is nature and can control its every aspect. In addition to her manipulation of natural materials, Isis possesses the power of telekinesis, allowing her to lift objects, fire blasts of telekinetic force, and to create telekinetic shields. Isis's godly energies are able to heal nearly any wound that has been inflicted upon her with surprising speed (though she has died before). Using a second amulet, Isis is able to achieve clairvoyance and is able to see events happening in the present at remote locations. However, she cannot use this power to see into the past or the future. Due to her death and subsequent resurrection, Isis had a bit of trouble controlling her powers for a time. She stated that this was because Nature had deemed her a failed subject, but she has since regained full control.


title: Isis (DC Comics)

text: In the alternate timeline of the "Flashpoint" event, Isis is mentioned by her brother, Osiris, believing that she has been killed by the Atlanteans/Amazons war. It is revealed that Isis was held captive by the Outsider for Black Adam into selling the Outsider his home country, Khandaq. The Outsider then shot Black Adam and threw him off of his train, joining Isis as his trophy/prisoner.


title: Isis (DC Comics)

text: Adrianna Tomaz appears in "Black Adam", portrayed by Sarah Shahi. This version is an archaeologist and resistance fighter in Intergang-controlled Kahndaq.


title: Ruth Jones

text: Ruth Alexandra Elisabeth Jones (born 22 September 1966) is a Welsh actress, comedian, writer and producer. She co-wrote and co-starred in the award-winning BBC sitcom "Gavin & Stacey" (2007–2010, 2019).


title: Ruth Jones

text: Jones has also appeared in various television series, including "Fat Friends" (2000–2005), "Little Britain" (2003–2007), "Nighty Night" (2004–2005), "Saxondale" (2006–2007), "The Street" (2009), and "Stella" (2012–2017) for which she was nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Female Comedy Performance and won the BAFTA Cymru Award for Best Screenwriter. Jones was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2014 New Year Honours for services to entertainment.


title: Ruth Jones

text: Ruth Jones was born on 22 September 1966 in Bridgend, Glamorgan, Wales. Her father was a lawyer for British Steel Corporation, Port Talbot, and her mother was a general practitioner. She has two older brothers and a younger sister. Jones was brought up in Porthcawl, where she attended Porthcawl Comprehensive School, the same school as the actor and comedian Rob Brydon. At school, she participated enthusiastically every year in musical theatre productions. After graduating from the University of Warwick with a degree in Theatre Studies and Dramatic Arts, she trained at the Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama in Cardiff.


title: Ruth Jones

text: In November 1989, Jones took her first professional role, with Dominic Cooke's company, Pan Optic, playing the Countess Almaviva in Cooke's adaptation of "The Marriage of Figaro", which toured the UK for six months. After the tour finished she found it difficult to get acting work, temping as a clerical assistant in the Education Contracts department of the Kensington and Chelsea Borough Council.


title: Ruth Jones

text: At that point, she considered giving up acting and training as a solicitor. However, in 1990, comedian and pantomime producer Stan Stennett offered her an Equity contract, shifting scenery and playing a Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtle (Michelangelo) in "Dick Whittington" at the Porthcawl Pavilion, where she had performed in school musicals. Her first television job was a non-broadcast sketch show for BBC Wales, which included Rob Brydon and Steve Speirs. Soon after, she joined an improv group in Bath. The group included Julia Davis, with whom Jones would later appear in "Nighty Night" and "Gavin & Stacey".


title: Ruth Jones

text: She first worked in TV and radio comedy for BBC Wales in 1991. Theatre roles with the RSC and The National Theatre were followed by her performance in 1999 hit British film "East Is East". In 1996, she appeared in the BBC television period drama "Drover’s Gold", billed as a "Welsh Western", the story of a cattle drove that went from West Wales to London. Jones later commented, "I loved that job. I visited places like Lampeter and Llandeilo for the first time, as well as Abergavenny and Crickhowell. I fell in love with them all. There was something so unspoilt about them, and I’ve been back several times since."


title: Ruth Jones

text: Jones appeared on television as Kelly in four series of ITV's comedy "Fat Friends". This was where she met James Corden. Afterwards she appeared in several BBC comedies, playing Myfanwy in "Little Britain", Magz in "Saxondale" and Linda in "Nighty Night".


title: Ruth Jones

text: Jones achieved prominence in 2007 as both co-writer with James Corden of the BBC Three sitcom "Gavin & Stacey", and playing a lead role in it as Nessa Jenkins. The series became a hit and was moved to BBC One. Jones said, "It wasn't as deliberate as us saying, 'Right, we're going to react against cynical comedy'. We just wrote what we wanted. And it just so happens that the show does generate a lot of warmth. People seem to like that, especially when things aren't terribly jolly. It's nice to have your cockles warmed."


title: Ruth Jones

text: The series won several awards, including two BAFTAs and four British Comedy Awards. Jones and co-star Rob Brydon recorded "Islands in the Stream" (a song performed by their characters in the programme) as a single for Comic Relief in 2009; the song reached No. 1 in the chart.


title: Ruth Jones

text: In 2008, Jones featured in two BBC One television period costume dramas, "Tess of the d'Urbervilles" and "Little Dorrit", as well as two episodes of "The Street". In December 2009, she starred in "A Child's Christmases in Wales". In 2010, she starred in BBC Four comedy "The Great Outdoors" alongside Mark Heap, and, in December, presented the first of four chat shows on BBC2, "Ruth Jones' Christmas Cracker". In January 2011, she starred as Hattie Jacques in BBC Four drama "Hattie", which recounts Jacques' affair with her young driver John Schofield while she was married to actor John Le Mesurier, later known for his role in "Dad's Army".


title: Ruth Jones

text: In 2008, Jones co-founded Tidy Productions with producer David Peet. The company produced the series Jones presented on BBC Radio Wales in 2008-9, "Ruth Jones' Sunday Brunch". In 2010, the company had comedy and light entertainment production credits with BBC Two and BBC Three. It has made two 90-minute comedy dramas for S4C and light-entertainment shows for BBC Wales, and topical radio series What's the Story? for Radio Wales, predecessor to The Leek.


title: Ruth Jones

text: Tidy Productions also produced 58 episodes of the comedy drama "Stella" for Sky TV. The first series aired in 2012. It was Jones' first major comedy project since "Gavin & Stacey"; she created, executive produced and storylined the show with Peet. Jones stars in the title role, and wrote several episodes as well as co-writing episodes with Rob Gittins, Rob Evans, David Peet and Steve Speirs. Jones has stated she was worried about comparisons to "Gavin & Stacey" when setting a second programme in Wales and the company originally thought to set it in Bristol, but the decision was made to set it in the Rhondda Valley "I know people from the Valleys and it is just a joyously colourful place and full of characters." A second series of "Stella" was filmed in summer 2012 and aired in early 2013. A further four series plus two Christmas specials completed the run, with the final episode broadcast in October 2017.


title: Ruth Jones

text: In January 2018, Jones took the part of Mandy Haveez in Radio Wales comedy series "Splott", written by David Peet and made by Tidy Productions. In March 2018, Jones worked with director Debbie Issit, appearing in the film "Nativity 4." In April 2018, Jones's first novel, ""Never Greener"", was published. Based on a screenplay she’d written in 2004, it tells the story of a rekindled affair and the dangers of taking second chances. She signed a two-book deal with Transworld after a bidding war between ten publishing companies. The novel went into the Sunday Times bestseller list at number 7 after just three days of sales, before reaching the number-one slot for two consecutive weeks. Jones' second novel, ""Us Three"", is due to be published in September 2020. It follows the story of three friends whose futures become unpredictable after an unexpected turn in events.


title: Ruth Jones

text: In October 2018, Jones returned to the stage after a 12-year absence in the new play ""The Nightingales"" by William Gaminara, produced by Jenny Topper and Theatre Royal, Bath.


title: Ruth Jones

text: In 2020, she participated in ('Language Road Trip'), a show for S4C where she and several other celebrities learned Welsh, broadcast in April 2020. An extra episode, ('Language Road Trip: Christmas') was broadcast at the end of 2020, interviewing each of the celebrities about whether they were still making use of their Welsh and the opportunities they had had to use Welsh during lockdown.


title: Ruth Jones

text: Jones was judged the Best Female Comedy Newcomer at the 2007 British Comedy Awards, and was also nominated for Best Television Comedy Actress. She was also recipient of the Ultimate Funny Woman award at the annual Cosmopolitan Ultimate Women of the Year Awards in November 2009. In July 2013, Jones received an honorary degree from the University of Warwick. In November 2022, she was conferred the honorary degree of Doctor of the University of The Open University by The Open University in Wales, at the International Convention Centre Wales in Newport.


title: Ruth Jones

text: Jones was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2014 New Year Honours for services to entertainment.


title: Ruth Jones

text: Jones was awarded the BAFTA Cymru Sian Phillips Special Recognition Award in 2009. In 2012, Jones received a nomination for the British Academy Television Award for Best Female Comedy Performance for her performance in "Stella".


title: Ruth Jones

text: Jones married David Peet, the TV and radio producer, in 1999. Jones is step-mother to the three children from Peet's previous marriage.


title: Ruth Jones

text: In 2010, Jones took part in "Channel 4's Comedy Gala", a benefit show held in aid of Great Ormond Street Children's Hospital, filmed live at the O2 Arena in London on 30 March.


title: Ruth Jones

text: In January 2019 Jones was the guest for BBC Radio 4's "Desert Island Discs." Her favourite music track was "Smooth" by Santana featuring Rob Thomas. Her choice of Bible was a family Welsh Bible, her own book choice was "Halliwell's Film Guide" and her luxury item was the back catalogue of "The Archers."


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The Hungarian Revolution of 1848 or fully Hungarian Civic Revolution and War of Independence of 1848–1849 () was one of many European Revolutions of 1848 and was closely linked to other revolutions of 1848 in the Habsburg areas. Although the revolution failed, it is one of the most significant events in Hungary's modern history, forming the cornerstone of modern Hungarian national identity.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: In April 1848, Hungary became the third country of Continental Europe (after France (1791), and Belgium (1831)) to enact law about democratic parliamentary elections.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The new suffrage law (Act V of 1848) transformed the old feudal parliament (Estates General) into a democratic representative parliament. This law offered the widest suffrage right in Europe at the time.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The crucial turning point of events was when the new young Austrian monarch Franz Joseph I arbitrarily revoked the April laws (ratified by King Ferdinand I) without any legal competence. This unconstitutional act irreversibly escalated the conflict between the Hungarian parliament and Franz Joseph. The new constrained Stadion Constitution of Austria, the revocation of the April laws, and the Austrian military campaign against the Kingdom of Hungary resulted in the fall of the pacifist Batthyány government (who sought


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: agreement with the court) and led to the sudden emergence of Lajos Kossuth's followers in the parliament, who demanded the full independence of Hungary. The Austrian military intervention in the Kingdom of Hungary resulted in strong anti-Habsburg sentiment among Hungarians, thus the events in Hungary grew into a war for total independence from the Habsburg dynasty. Around 40% of the private soldiers in the Hungarian Revolutionary Army consisted of ethnic minorities of the country.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: After a series of serious Austrian defeats in 1849, the Austrian Empire came close to the brink of collapse. The young emperor Franz Joseph I had to call for Russian help in the name of the Holy Alliance. Tsar Nicholas I answered, and sent a 200,000 strong army with 80,000 auxiliary forces. Finally, the joint army of Russian and Austrian forces defeated the Hungarian forces. After the restoration of Habsburg power, Hungary was placed under martial law.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The Kingdom of Hungary had always maintained a separate legal system and separate parliament, the Diet of Hungary, even after the Austrian Empire was created in 1804. Unlike other Habsburg-ruled areas, the Kingdom of Hungary had an old historic constitution, which had limited the power of the Crown and greatly increased the authority of the parliament since the 13th century.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The administration and government of the Kingdom of Hungary (until 1848) remained largely untouched by the government structure of the overarching Austrian Empire. Hungary's central government structures remained well separated from the imperial government. The country was governed by the Council of Lieutenancy of Hungary (the Gubernium) - located in Pozsony (now Bratislava) and later in Pest - and by the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery in Vienna.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: While in most Western European countries (like France and England) the king's reign began immediately upon the death of his predecessor, in Hungary the coronation was absolutely indispensable as, if it were not properly executed, the Kingdom stayed "orphaned".


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Even during the long personal union between the Kingdom of Hungary and other Habsburg ruled areas, the Habsburg monarchs had to be crowned as King of Hungary in order to promulgate laws there or exercise royal prerogatives in the territory of the Kingdom of Hungary. Since the Golden Bull of 1222, all Hungarian monarchs were obliged to take a coronation oath during the coronation ceremony, where the new monarch had to agree to uphold the constitutional arrangement of the country, to preserve the liberties of its subjects and the territorial integrity of the realm.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: From 1526 to 1851, the Kingdom of Hungary maintained its own customs borders, which separated Hungary from the united customs system of other Habsburg ruled territories.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: After the death of the Holy Roman Emperor, Joseph II, in February 1790, enlightened reforms in Hungary ceased, which outraged many reform-oriented francophone intellectuals who were followers of new radical ideas based on French philosophy and enlightenment. Ignác Martinovics worked as a secret agent for the new Holy Roman Emperor, Leopold II, until 1792. In his Oratio pro Leopoldo II, he explicitly declares that only authority derived from a social contract should be recognized; he saw the aristocracy as the enemy of mankind, because they prevented people from becoming educated. In another of his works, Catechism of People and Citizens, he argued that citizens tend to oppose any repression and that sovereignty resides with the people. He also became a Freemason, and was in favour of the adoption of a federal republic in Hungary. As a member of the Hungarian Jacobins, he was considered an idealistic forerunner of revolutionary thought by some, and an unscrupulous adventurer by others. He was in charge of stirring up a revolt against the nobility among the Hungarian serfs. For these subversive acts, Francis II, the Holy Roman Emperor, dismissed Martinovics and his boss, Ferenc Gotthardi, the former chief of the secret police. He was executed, together with six other prominent Jacobins, in May 1795. More than 42 members of the republican secret society were arrested, including the poet János Batsányi and linguist Ferenc Kazinczy.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Though the Hungarian Jacobin republican movement did not affect the policy of the Hungarian Parliament and the parliamentary parties, it had strong ideological ties with the extra-parliamentary forces: the radical youths and students like the poet Sándor Petőfi, the novel-writer Mór Jókai, the philosopher and historian Pál Vasvári, and the journalist József Irinyi who sparked the revolution in the Pilvax coffee palace on 15 March 1848.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The frequent diets held in the earlier part of the reign occupied themselves with little else but war subsidies; after 1811 they ceased to be summoned. In the latter years of Francis I the dark shadow of Metternich's policy of "stability" fell across the kingdom, and the forces of reactionary absolutism were everywhere supreme. But beneath the surface a strong popular current was beginning to run in a contrary direction. Hungarian society, affected by western Liberalism, but without any direct help from abroad, was preparing for the future emancipation. Writers, savants, poets, artists, noble and plebeian, layman and cleric, without any previous concert, or obvious connection, were working towards that ideal of political liberty which was to unite all the Magyars. Mihály Vörösmarty, Ferenc Kölcsey, Ferencz Kazinczy and his associates, to mention but a few of many great names, were, consciously or unconsciously, as the representatives of the renascent national literature, accomplishing a political mission, and their pens proved no less efficacious than the swords of their ancestors.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: In 1825 Emperor Francis II convened the Diet in response to growing concerns amongst the Hungarian nobility about taxes and the diminishing economy, after the Napoleonic wars. This – and the reaction to the reforms of Joseph II – started what is known as the Reform Period (). But the Nobles still retained their privileges of paying no taxes and not giving the vote to the masses.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The influential Hungarian politician Count István Széchenyi recognized the need to bring the country the advances of the more developed West European countries, such as England.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: It was a direct attack upon the constitution which, to use the words of István Széchenyi, first "startled the nation out of its sickly drowsiness". In 1823, when the reactionary powers were considering joint action to suppress the revolution in Spain, the government, without consulting the diet, imposed a war-tax and called out the recruits. The county assemblies instantly protested against this illegal act, and Francis I was obliged, at the diet of 1823, to repudiate the action of his ministers. But the estates felt that the maintenance of their liberties demanded more substantial guarantees than the dead letter of ancient laws.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Széchenyi, who had resided abroad and studied Western institutions, was the recognized leader of all those who wished to create a new Hungary out of the old. For years he and his friends educated public opinion by issuing innumerable pamphlets in which the new Liberalism was eloquently expounded. In particular Széchenyi insisted that the people must not look exclusively to the government, or even to the diet, for the necessary reforms. Society itself must take the initiative by breaking down the barriers of class exclusiveness and reviving a healthy public spirit.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The effect of this teaching was manifest at the diet of 1832, when the Liberals in the Lower Chamber had a large majority, prominent among whom were Ferenc Deák and Ödön Beothy. In the Upper House, however, the magnates united with the government to form a conservative party obstinately opposed to any project of reform, which frustrated all the efforts of the Liberals.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The journalist Lajos Kossuth became the new rising star of the Hungarian Parliament in the mid 1830s, who began to rival Szécheny's popularity due to his talent as orator in the liberal fraction of the parliament. Kossuth called for broader parliamentary democracy, rapid industrialization, general taxation, economic expansion through exports, and the abolition of serfdom and aristocratic privileges (equality before the law). The alarm of the government at the power and popularity of the Liberal party induced it, soon after the accession of the new king, the emperor Ferdinand I (1835–1848), to attempt to crush the reform movement by arresting and imprisoning the most active agitators among them, Lajos Kossuth and Miklós Wesselényi. But the nation was no longer to be cowed.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The diet of 1839 refused to proceed to business till the political prisoners had been released, and, while in the Lower Chamber the reforming majority was larger than ever, a Liberal party was now also formed in the Upper House under the leadership of Count Louis Batthyány and Baron Joseph Eotvos.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: From 1000AD up to 1844, Latin language was the official language of administration, legislation and schooling in the Kingdom of Hungary. Two progressive measures of the highest importance were passed by this diet, one made Magyar the official language of Hungary; the other freed the peasants' holdings from all feudal obligations.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The results of the diet of 1839 did not satisfy the advanced Liberals, while the opposition of the government and of the Upper House still further embittered the general discontent. The chief exponent of this temper was the "Pesti Hirlap", Hungary's first political newspaper, founded in 1841 by Kossuth, whose articles, advocating armed reprisals if necessary, inflamed the extremists but alienated Széchenyi, who openly attacked Kossuth's opinions. The polemic on both sides was violent; but, as usual, the extreme views prevailed, and on the assembling of the diet of 1843 Kossuth was more popular than ever, while the influence of Széchenyi had sensibly declined. The tone of this diet was passionate, and the government was fiercely attacked for interfering with the elections. A new party called as Opposition party was created, which united the reform oriented Liberals, to oppose the conservatives. Fresh triumphs were won by the Liberals (the Opposition Party). Magyar was now declared to be the language of the schools and the law-courts as well as of the legislature; mixed marriages were legalized; and official positions were thrown open to non-nobles.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The interval between the Diet of 1843 and that of 1847 saw a complete disintegration and transformation of the various political parties. Széchenyi openly joined the government, while the moderate Liberals separated from the extremists and formed a new party, the Centralists.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: In his 1841 pamphlet "People of the East" ("Kelet Népe"), Count Széchenyi analyzed Kossuth's policy and responded to Kossuth's reform proposals. Széchenyi believed that economic, political and social reforms should proceed slowly and with care, in order to avoid the potentially disastrous prospect of violent interference from the Habsburg dynasty. Széchenyi was aware of the spread of Kossuth's ideas in Hungarian society, which he felt overlooked the need for a good relationship with the Habsburg dynasty.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Kossuth, for his part, rejected the role of the aristocracy, and questioned the established norms of social status. In contrast to Széchenyi, Kossuth believed that in the process of social reform it would be impossible to restrain civil society in a passive role. He warned against attempting to exclude wider social movements from political life, and supported democracy, rejecting the primacy of elites and the government. In 1885, he labeled Széchenyi a liberal elitist aristocrat, while Széchenyi considered Kossuth to be a democrat.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Széchenyi was an isolationist politician, while Kossuth saw strong relations and collaboration with international liberal and progressive movements as essential for the success of liberty.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Széchenyi based his economic policy on the "laissez-faire" principles practised by the British Empire, while Kossuth supported protective tariffs due to the comparatively weak Hungarian industrial sector. While Kossuth envisaged the construction of a rapidly industrialized country, Széchenyi wanted to preserve the traditionally strong agricultural sector as the main bedrock of the economy.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The conservatives - who usually opposed most of the reforms - thought they could maintain a slim majority in the old feudal parliament, as the reformer liberals were divided between the ideas of Széchenyi and Kossuth. Immediately before the elections, however, Deák succeeded in reuniting all the Liberals on the common platform of "The Twelve Points". The twelve points served as basis for the later April laws.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The ensuing parliamentary elections resulted in a complete victory for the Progressives. This was also the last election which was based on the parliamentary system of the old feudal estates. All efforts to bring about an understanding between the government and the opposition were fruitless. Kossuth demanded not merely the redress of actual grievances, but a liberal reform which would make grievances impossible in the future. In the highest circles a dissolution of the diet now seemed to be the sole remedy; but, before it could be carried out, tidings of the February revolution in Paris reached Pressburg on the 1st of March, and on the 3rd of March Kossuth's motion for the appointment of an independent, responsible ministry was accepted by the Lower House. The moderates, alarmed not so much by the motion itself as by its tone, again tried to intervene; but on the 13th of March the Vienna revolution broke out, and the Emperor, yielding to pressure or panic, appointed Count Louis Batthyány premier of the first Hungarian responsible ministry, which included Kossuth, Széchenyi and Deák.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The crisis came from abroad - as Kossuth expected - and he used it to the full. On 3 March 1848, shortly after the news of the revolution in Paris had arrived, in a speech of surpassing power he demanded parliamentary government for Hungary and constitutional government for the rest of Austria. He appealed to the hope of the Habsburgs, "our beloved Archduke Franz Joseph" (then seventeen years old), to perpetuate the ancient glory of the dynasty by meeting half-way the aspirations of a free people. He at once became a massively popular revolutionary speaker across Austria and most of continental Europe; his speech was read aloud in the streets of Vienna to the mob by which Metternich was overthrown (13 March), and when a deputation from the Diet visited Vienna to receive the assent of Emperor Ferdinand to their petition it was Kossuth who received the chief ovation.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The arrival of the news of the revolution in Paris, and Kossuth's German speech about freedom and human rights had whipped up the passions of Austrian crowd in Vienna on March 13.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: While the Viennese masses celebrated Kossuth as their hero, revolution broke out in Buda on 15 March; Kossuth traveled home immediately.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: We can constate, the process of commodity production and capitalization not only slowly reshaped the social conditions and the world view of the nobility, which began to advocate the human and civil rights in Hungary since the reform era. Recent studies of social history have also suggested that the so-called "youth of March", the plebeian intelligentsia, should not be seen as a separate phenomenon in itself, but as an intellectual vanguard of an emerging societal strata that can be classified as the petty bourgeoisie. They did not represent a measurable political and economic force in a comparison with the nobility in the nationwide scene, but in historically critical situations, especially in the more developed, larger urban centers, they could still prove to became a significant or even the deteminant factor. Politically, the petty bourgeoisie was the bearer of radical, republican aspirations similar to the French and German political events.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The revolution started in the Pilvax coffee palace() at Pest, which was a favourite meeting point of the young extra-parliamentary radical liberal intellectuals in the 1840s.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Early that morning, Sándor Petőfi hurried to the Pilvax café, where the young people gathered. He found Pál Vasvári and Gyula Bulyovszky there, invited them to the apartment of Mór Jókai, where a proclamation was edited for the 12 points. Around 8 o'clock, Petőfi and his companions went to the Pilvax café , and only six appeared at the set time (Petőfi, Jókai, Bulyovszky, Sebő, Ernő Gaál and Dániel Hamary). Here Jókai read out the 12 points and the proclamation. Petofi recited his new poem the National Song.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: From here, - according to a preliminary agreement - they went first to the University of Law on University Street. A group of students was already waiting for them in the yard and they immediately brought a chair for Petőfi and Jókai, here Petőfi recited his poem written the night before, the National Song, and Jókai read the 12 points. From here they went to the Medical University on Újvilág Street, where the students also interrupted their university lectures and acted similarly in the courtyard, and later in front of the students of the Faculty of Engineering and Philosophy; the very same choreography happened in the University Square too. By this time, not only were they surrounded by a large crowd of youth, but they were also joined by a large audience from the street, which grew. Petőfi has decided that the people would fulfill the first point of the 12 points, the freedom of the press, by his own authority, which he did. At 10 O'clock they went to the Landerer Publishing and Press company (the largest in the city) on the Hatvani street. Saw the enthusianism of the crowd, Petőfi renamed the Hatvani Street to Street of the Free Press. " The print owner gave in, and immediately translating the desired documents into German, a few moments later, thousands came out of the fast press, copies of which were distributed to a gathering audience incessantly despite the pouring rain."


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: It was only around noon that the raging crowd dispersed, agreeing to go to Buda in the afternoon to release Mihály Táncsics, a political prisoner. A symbol of Petőfi's famous day, activists distributed a three-colored Hungarian cockade to the crowd.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: At 3 p.m., a mass demonstration was held in Museum Square at the front of the building of the Hungarian National Museum, and thousands of copies of the National Song and 12 points were distributed; from there they went to the town hall, urging the adoption of the 12 points. The gathered people decided to head to the town hall and there called on the city council to sign their wishes. The council hall opened, the items of the program were submitted to the council, which were accepted by the council members and was signed by the clerk of the town council too.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: They immediately elected a regular commission, of which Petőfi was a member. The people, appointing their temporary committee, wished the political prisoner Mihály Táncsics - who had been arrested in Buda by the censor's officers - to be released from prison. In order to fulfill this wish, he moved to Buda around 5 o'clock pm, and gathered around his battalion in the courtyard of the official building, steadfastly stood by his wishes, while his constituency declared: the election of a press court from among the people; . Ferenc Zichy, the chairman of the council, immediately released Táncsics, dragged his car from Buda to the National Theater Square with his own hands, and entered the theater.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: On the afternoon of this day, the people wanted József Bajza, the deputy director of the national theater, to perform the banned opera Bánk bán in the theater with full lighting for the celebration of this day. The actors took the stage with cockades of national color, Gábor Egressy sang the National Song, the choir sang the Hungarian Hymn and the National Song. The majority of the audience wanted Táncsics to appear on the stage, but when he became aware of its ailing condition, he gave up his wish. Eventually, the people dispersed alongside the Rákóczi runner-up. However, the standing committee sat together until morning.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The next day, on March 16, Pál Nyáry, the deputy mayor of Pest County, Lipót Rottenbiller, the deputy mayor of Pest and others, took the head of the movement and thus the events became of national significance. It was the very first task of the troubled people to demand the immediate entry of the National Guard, and by this time they had begun collecting signatures, and in a few hours thousands of signatures had been collected. The people demanded the weapons. The military authority reported that it could only give 500 weapons because the rest were taken to Komárom. And below, the people, who had already gone to about 20-25 thousand, demanded the weapons and threatened to break the arsenal if they did not get the weapon. A subcommittee was then appointed on the distribution of weapons for the national guards, and after an hour of deliberation, Deputy Mayor Rottenbiller reassured the people gathered in the hall, and Jókai reassured the crowd by announcing a bill alternately as national guards at night to take care of law and order.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: In the evening, the two sister cities were fully illuminated, a crowd of enthusiastic people roared in the streets, shouting, "Long live freedom!" From the windows hung national flags embroidered with the name of freedom. Throughout the night, order and tranquility guarded the city, with raiding national guards who arrested wanted criminals, vagrants, and looters hiding in several locations who wanted to take advantage of the turbulent situation of the day.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The bloodless mass demonstrations in Pest and Buda forced the Imperial governor to accept all twelve of their demands.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Austria had its own problems with the revolution in Vienna that year, and it initially acknowledged Hungary's government. Therefore, the Governor-General's officers, acting in the name of the King appointed Hungary's new parliament with Lajos Batthyány as its first Prime Minister. The Austrian monarchy also made other concessions to subdue the Viennese masses: on 13 March 1848, Prince Klemens von Metternich was made to resign his position as the Austrian Government's Chancellor. He then fled to London for his own safety.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: On 17 March 1848 the Emperor assented and Batthyány created the first Hungarian responsible government. On 23 March 1848, as head of government, Batthyány commended his government to the Diet.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: With the exception of Lajos Kossuth, all members of the government were the supporters of Széchenyi's ideas.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The Twelve Points, or the March Laws as they were now called, were then adopted by the legislature and received royal assent on 10 April. Hungary had, to all intents and purposes, become an independent state bound to Austria only by the Austrian Archduke as Palatine. The new government approved a sweeping reform package, referred to as the "April laws", which created a democratic political system. The newly established government also demanded that the Habsburg Empire spend all taxes they received from Hungary in Hungary itself, and that the Parliament should have authority over the Hungarian regiments of the Habsburg Army.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The new suffrage law (Act V of 1848) transformed the old feudal estates based parliament (Estates General) into a democratic representative parliament. This law offered the widest suffrage right in Europe at the time.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The first general parliamentary elections were held in June, which were based on popular representation instead of feudal forms. The reform oriented political forces won the elections. The electoral system and franchise were similar to the contemporary British system.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: At that time the internal affairs and foreign policy of Hungary were not stable, and Batthyány faced many problems. His first and most important act was to organize the armed forces and the local governments. He insisted that the Austrian army, when in Hungary, would come under Hungarian law, and this was conceded by the Austrian Empire. He tried to repatriate conscript soldiers from Hungary. He established the Organisation of Militiamen, whose job was to ensure internal security of the country.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Batthyány was a very capable leader, but he was stuck in the middle of a clash between the Austrian monarchy and the Hungarian separatists. He was devoted to the constitutional monarchy and aimed to keep the constitution, but the Emperor was dissatisfied with his work.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Josip Jelačić was "Ban" (Viceroy) of Croatia and Dalmatia, regions in personal union with the Kingdom of Hungary. He was opposed to the new Hungarian government, and raised troops in his domains.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Legally this meant that a monarch was preparing to attack one of his country's appointed and lawful government with another of his country's army.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: In the summer of 1848, the Hungarian government, seeing the civil war ahead, tried to get the Habsburgs' support against Jelačić. They offered to send troops to northern Italy. In August 1848, the Imperial Government in Vienna officially ordered the Hungarian government in Pest not to form an army.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: On 29 August, with the assent of parliament, Batthyány went with Ferenc Deák to the Emperor to ask him to order the Serbs to capitulate and stop Jelačić, who was going to attack Hungary. But Jelačić went ahead and invaded Hungary to dissolve the Hungarian government, without any order from Austria.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Though the Emperor formally relieved Jelačić of his duties, Jelačić and his army invaded Muraköz (Međimurje) and the Southern Transdanubian parts of Hungary on 11 September 1848.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: After the Austrian revolution in Vienna was defeated, Franz Joseph I of Austria replaced his uncle Ferdinand I of Austria, who was not of sound mind. Franz Joseph didn't recognise Batthyány's second premiership, which began on 25 September. In addition, Franz Joseph was not recognized as "King of Hungary" by the Hungarian parliament, and he was not crowned "King of Hungary" until 1867. In the end, the final break between Vienna and Pest occurred when Field-Marshal Count Franz Philipp von Lamberg was given control of all armies in Hungary (including Jelačić's). He went to Hungary where he was mobbed and brutally murdered. Following his murder the Imperial court dissolved the Hungarian Diet and appointed Jelačić as Regent.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Meanwhile, Batthyány travelled again to Vienna to seek a compromise with the new Emperor. His efforts remained unsuccessful, because Franz Joseph refused to accept the reforms, which were known as the "April laws". This was unconstitutional, as the laws had already been signed by his uncle King Ferdinand, and he had no right to revoke them.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Hungarian liberals in Pest saw this as an opportunity. In September 1848, the Diet made concessions to the Pest Uprising, so as not to break up the Austro-Hungarian Union. But the counter-revolutionary forces were gathering. After many local victories, the combined Bohemian and Croatian armies entered Pest on 5 January 1849.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Consequently, Batthyány and his government resigned, except for Kossuth, Szemere, and Mészáros. Later, on Palatine Stephen's request, Batthyány became Prime Minister again. On 13 September Batthyány announced a rebellion and requested that the Palatine lead them. However the Palatine, under the Emperor's orders, resigned and left Hungary.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Hungary now had war raging on three fronts: Jelačić's Croatian troops to the South, Romanians in Banat and in Transylvania to the East, and Austria to the west.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The Hungarian government was in serious military crisis due to the lack of soldiers, therefore they sent Kossuth (a brilliant orator) to recruit volunteers for the new Hungarian army. While Jelačić was marching on Pest, Kossuth went from town to town rousing the people to the defence of the country, and the popular force of the Honvéd was his creation.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: With the help of Kossuth's recruiting speeches, Batthyány quickly formed the Hungarian Revolutionary Army. 40% of private soldiers in the revolutionary army consisted of ethnic minorities of the country. The new Hungarian army defeated the Croatians on 29 September at the Battle of Pákozd.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The battle became an icon for the Hungarian army for its effect on politics and morale. Kossuth's second letter for the Austrian people and this battle were the causes of the second revolution in Vienna on 6 October.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Batthyány slowly realized that he could not reach his main goal, which was peaceful compromise with the Habsburg dynasty. On 2 October he resigned and simultaneously resigned his seat in parliament. The ministers of his cabinet also resigned on the same day.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The Habsburg government in Vienna proclaimed a new constitution, the so-called Stadion Constitution on 4 March 1849. The centralist Stadion Constitution provided very strong power for the monarch, and marked the way of neo-absolutism. The new March Constitution of Austria was drafted by the Imperial Diet of Austria, where Hungary had no representation. Austrian legislative bodies like the Imperial Diet traditionally had no power in Hungary. Despite this, the Imperial Diet also tried to abolish the Diet of Hungary (which had existed as the supreme legislative power in Hungary since the late 12th century.)The Austrian Stadion constitution attempted to contradict the existing constitution of Hungary, with a view to its abolition. Moreover, on 7 March an imperial proclamation was issued in the name of the emperor Francis Joseph establishing a united constitution for the whole empire, of which the Kingdom of Hungary would be administered by five military districts.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: When Batthyány resigned he was appointed with Szemere to carry on the government provisionally, and at the end of September he was made President of the Committee of National Defence.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: From a constitutional point of view, and according to the coronation oath, a crowned Hungarian King cannot abdicate the Hungarian throne during his lifetime. If the king is alive but unable do his duty as ruler, a governor (or, in English, regent) had to undertake the royal duties. Therefore, Ferdinand remained still the legal king of Hungary. If there was no possibility of inheriting the throne automatically due to the death of the predecessor king (as king Ferdinand was still alive), but the monarch was wanting to relinquish his throne and appoint another king before his death, there was technically only one legal solution: the parliament had the power to dethrone the monarch and elect his successor as the new king of Hungary. Owing to the legal and military tensions, the Hungarian parliament did not grant Franz Joseph this honour.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: This event gave to the Hungarian resistance a solid foundation of legality. From this time until the collapse of the revolution, Lajos Kossuth, as head of state of Hungary, became the de facto and de jure ruler of the country.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Minister of Defence: Lázár Mészáros (14 April 1849 – 1 May 1849) Artúr Görgey (7 May 1849 – 7 July 1849) and Lajos Aulich (14 July 1849 – 11 August 1849)


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: From this time he had an increased amount of power. The direction of the whole government was in his hands. Without military experience, he had to control and direct the movements of armies; he was unable to keep control over the generals or to establish that military co-operation so essential to success. Arthur Görgey in particular, whose abilities Kossuth was the first to recognize, refused obedience; the two men were very different personalities. Twice Kossuth deposed him from the command; twice he had to restore him. It would have been well if Kossuth had had something more of Görgey's calculated ruthlessness, for, as has been rightly said, the revolutionary power he had seized could only be held by revolutionary means; but he was by nature soft-hearted and always merciful; though often audacious, he lacked decision in dealing with men. It has been said that he showed a want of personal courage; this is not improbable, the excess of feeling which made him so great an orator could hardly be combined with the coolness in danger required of a soldier; but no one was able, as he was, to infuse courage into others.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Throughout the terrible winter which followed, his energy and spirit never failed him. It was he who overcame the reluctance of the army to march to the relief of Vienna; after the defeat at the Battle of Schwechat, at which he was present, he sent Józef Bem to carry on the war in Transylvania. At the end of the year, when the Austrians were approaching Pest, he asked for the mediation of Mr William Henry Stiles (1808–1865), the American envoy. Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz, however, refused all terms, and the Diet and government fled to Debrecen, Kossuth taking with him the Crown of St Stephen, the sacred emblem of the Hungarian nation. In November 1848, Emperor Ferdinand abdicated in favour of Franz Joseph. The new Emperor revoked all the concessions granted in March and outlawed Kossuth and the Hungarian government – set up lawfully on the basis of the April laws. In April 1849, when the Hungarians had won many successes, after sounding the army, Kossuth issued the celebrated Hungarian Declaration of Independence, in which he declared that "the house of Habsburg-Lorraine, perjured in the sight of God and man, had forfeited the Hungarian throne." It was a step characteristic of his love for extreme and dramatic action, but it added to the dissensions between him and those who wished only for autonomy under the old dynasty, and his enemies did not hesitate to accuse him of aiming for kingship. The dethronement also made any compromise with the Habsburgs practicably impossible.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Kossuth played a key role in tying down the Hungarian army for weeks for the siege and recapture of Buda castle, finally successful on 21 May 1849. The hopes of ultimate success were, however, frustrated by the intervention of Russia; all appeals to the western powers were vain, and on 11 August Kossuth abdicated in favor of Görgey, on the ground that in the last extremity the general alone could save the nation. Görgey capitulated at Világos (now Şiria, Romania) to the Russians, who handed over the army to the Austrians.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: In 1848 and 1849, the Hungarian people or Magyars, who wanted independence, formed a majority only in the central areas of the country. The Hungarians were surrounded by other nationalities.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: In 1848–49, the Austrian monarchy and those advising them manipulated the Croatians, Serbians and Romanians, making promises to the Magyars one day and making conflicting promises to the Serbs and other groups the next. Some of these groups were led to fight against the Hungarian Government by their leaders who were striving for their own independence; this triggered numerous brutal incidents between the Magyars and Romanians among others.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: In 1848 and 1849, however, the Hungarians were supported by most Slovaks, Germans, Rusyns and Hungarian Slovenes, the Hungarian Jews, and many Polish, Austrian and Italian volunteers.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: On 28 July 1849, the Hungarian Revolutionary Parliament proclaimed and enacted the first laws on ethnic and minority rights in Europe, but these were overturned after the Russian and Austrian armies crushed the Hungarian Revolution.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Occasionally, the Austrian throne would overplay their hand in their tactics of divide and conquer in Hungary – with some quite unintended results. This happened in the case of the Slovaks who had begun the war as at least indifferent if not positively anti-Magyar, but came to support the Hungarian Government against the Dynasty. But in another case, the Austrians' double-dealing brought some even more surprising new allies to the Hungarian cause during the war in 1849.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The Kingdom of Croatia had been in a personal union with the kingdom of Hungary since the 12th century. Croatian nationalism was weak in the beginning of the 19th century, but grew with increasing Hungarian pressure, especially the April Laws that ignored Croatian autonomy under Hungarian Kingdom.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: In response, Croatian leaders called for a distinct Triune Kingdom. Ban Josip Jelačić, who would go on to be a revered Croatian hero, sought to free Croatia from Hungary as a separate entity under the Habsburgs. Eventually, he traveled to Vienna to take oaths to become counsel of Austrian Emperor. Soon after Lajos Kossuth declared an independent Kingdom of Hungary dethroning the Habsburgs, the Croats rebelled against the Hungarians and declared their loyalty to Austria. The first fighting in the Hungarian revolution was between the Croats and Magyars, and Austria's intervention on the part of their loyal Croatian subjects caused an upheaval in Vienna. Josip sent his army under the order of him, hoping to suppress the increasing power of Hungarian revolutionaries, but failed and was repelled by the Hungarians in September 29 near Pákozd.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: With the end of Hungarian Revolution, Croatia would be directly ruled by Austria until the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement in the 1860s.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Vojvodina became a Hungarian Crown Land after the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in the Great Turkish War.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Between the Tisza river and Transylvania, north of the Danube lies the former region of Hungary called the "Banat". After the Battle of Mohács, under Ottoman rule the area north of the Danube saw an influx of Southern Slavs along with the invading Ottoman army. In 1804 the semi-independent Principality of Serbia had formed south of the Danube with Belgrade as its capital. So in 1849, the Danube divided Serbia from the Kingdom of Hungary. The Hungarian district on the northern side of the river was called "Vojvodina", and by that time it was home to almost half a million Serbian inhabitants. According to the census of 1840 in Vojvodina Serbs comprised 49% of the total population. The Serbs of Vojvodina had sought their independence or attachment with the Principality of Serbia on the other side of the Danube. In face of the emerging Hungarian independence movement leading up to the 1848 Revolution the Austrian monarchy had promised an independent status for the Serbs of Vojvodina within the Austrian Empire.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Toward this end, Josif Rajačić was appointed Patriarch of Vojvodina in February 1849. Rajačić was a supporter of the Serbian national movement, although somewhat conservative with pro-Austrian leanings. At a crucial point during the war against the Hungarian Government, in late March 1849 when the Austrians needed more Serbian soldiers to fight the war, the Austrian General Georg Rukavina Baron von Vidovgrad, who commanded the Austrian troops in Hungary, officially re-stated this promise of independence for Vojvodina and conceded to all the demands of the Patriarch regarding Serbian nationhood. Acquiescence to the demands of the Patriarch should have meant a relaxation of the strict military administration of Vojvodina. Under this military administration in the border areas, any male between the ages of 16 years and 60 years of age could be conscripted into the army.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The Serbs of Vojvodina were expecting their requirement for Austrian military conscription to be the first measure to be relaxed. But the new Emperor Franz Joseph had other ideas and this promise was broken not more than two weeks after it had been made to the people of Vojvodina. This caused a split in the population of the Vojvodina and at least part of the Serbs in that province began to support the elected Hungarian Government against the Austrians. Some Serbs sought to ingratiate the Serb nation with the Austrian Empire to promote the independence of Vojvodina.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: With war on three fronts the Hungarian Government should have been squashed immediately upon the start of hostilities. However, events early in the war worked in favor of the Government. The unity of the Serbs on the southern front was ruined by Austrian perfidy over the legal status of Vojvodina.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Some right-wing participants in the Serbian national movement felt that a "revolution" in Hungary more threatened the prerogatives of landowners, and the nobles in Serbian Vojvodina, than the occupying Austrians.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: At the start of the war, the Hungarian Defence Forces ("Honvédség") won some battles against the Austrians, for example at the Battle of Pákozd in September 1848 and at the Isaszeg in April 1849, at which time they even stated the Hungarian Declaration of Independence from the Habsburg Empire. The same month, Artúr Görgey became the new Commander-in-Chief of all the Hungarian Republic's armies.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: After the fall of the Hungarian revolution in 1849, Vojvodina became an Austrian Crown Land. In 1860 it became again a Hungarian Crown Land and was part of Hungary until the end of World War I.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The Slovak volunteers units were a reactionary armed movement opposed to the Hungarian Revolution. Organized in the Western parts of modern Slovakia, the volunteers led multiple campaign across majority Slovak areas in Upper Hungary, all the way to Kassa (Košice) in the east. The leaders of the Slovak Volunteers, Ľudovít Štúr, Jozef Miloslav Hurban and Michal Miloslav Hodža, struggled to elicit total support from the Slovak nation. Many Slovak peasants were more concerned with the abolition of feudal servitude, and not with wider national goals. Religious differences also played a key role, as the leaders of the Slovak volunteers were predominantly Protestant, which led to difficulties in eliciting support in regions with a catholic Slovak majority. As a result, they could recruit only up to 2000 people, while a much higher percentage of the Slovak population was serving in the Hungarian Honvédség (Home Guard) among the Hungarian revolutionaries.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The Slovak nation and people had been poorly defined up to this point, as the Slovak people lacked a definitive border or national identity. However, in the years leading up to the revolution, the Hungarians had taken steps to Magyarize the Slovak region under Hungarian control. The aim of this was to bring the varied ethnic groups around Hungary into a common culture. At the outbreak of the Hungarian Revolution this process was seen as more imminent and threatening to ethnic groups, especially many Slovak intellectuals. Slovaks made demands that their culture be spared Magyarization and that they be given certain liberties and rights. These demands soon broke out into wider demonstrations clamouring for the rights of ethnic minorities in Hungary. Arrests were made that further enraged the demonstrators and eventually a Pan-Slavic Congress was held in Prague. A document was drafted at this congress and sent to the Hungarian government demanding the rights of the Slovak people. The Hungarians responded by imposing martial law on the Slovak region.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: The Imperial government recognized that all across the Empire, ethnic minorities were seeking more autonomy, but it was only Hungary that desired a complete break. They used this by supporting the ethnic national movements against the Hungarian government. Slovak volunteer units were commissioned in Vienna to join campaigns against the Hungarians across the theatre. A Slovak regiment then marched to Myjava where a Slovak council openly seceded from Hungary. Tensions rose as the Hungarian army executed a number of Slovak leaders for treason and the fighting became more bloody.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: However, the leaders of the Slovak Volunteers also wanted its autonomy from Hungary. They hoped that the Slovak lands would become a direct part of the Austrian empire. Tensions caused due to unfulfilled promises from the Austrians soon began to rise. Lacking support and with increased Hungarian efforts, the Slovak volunteer corps had little impact for the rest of the war until the Russians marched in. It was used in 'mopping up' resistance in the wake of the Russian advance and then soon after was disbanded, ending Slovak involvement in the Revolution. The conclusion of the uprising is unclear, as the Slovaks fell back under Imperial authority and lacked any autonomy for some time.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: On 29 May 1848, at Kolozsvár (now Cluj, Romania), the Transylvanian Diet (formed of 116 Hungarians, 114 Székelys and 35 Saxons) ratified the re-union with Hungary. Romanians and Germans disagreed with the decision.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: On 10 June 1848 the newspaper Wiener Zeitung wrote: "In any case, the union of Transylvania, proclaimed against all human rights, is not valid, and the courts of law in the entire world must admit the justness of the Romanian people's protest"


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: On 25 February 1849 the representatives of the Romanian population sent to the Habsburg Emperor "The Memorandum of the Romanian nation from the Great Principality of Transylvania, Banat, from neighbouring territories to Hungary and Bukovina" where they demanded "the union of Bukovina, Transylvania and Banat under a government (...) the union of all Romanians in the Austrian state into one single


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: In the first days of October 1848, Stephan Ludwig Roth considered that there were two options for the Saxons: "The first is to side with the Hungarians, and thus turn against the Romanians and the empire; the second is to side with the Romanians, and thus support the empire against the Hungarians. In this choice, the Romanians and Hungarians are incidental factors. The most important principle is that of a united empire, for it guarantees the extension of Austria's proclaimed constitution."


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Because of the success of revolutionary resistance, Franz Joseph had to ask for help from the ""gendarme of Europe"" Tsar Nicholas I of Russia in March 1849. A Russian army, composed of about 8,000 soldiers, invaded Transylvania on 8 April 1849. But as they crossed the Southern Carpathian mountain passes (along the border of Transylvania and Wallachia), they were met by a large Hungarian revolutionary army led by Józef Bem, a Polish-born General.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Bem had been a participant in the Polish insurrection of 1830–31, had been involved in the uprising in Vienna in 1848 and, finally, became one of the top army commanders for the Hungarian Republic from 1848 to 1849. When he encountered the Russians, Bem defeated them and forced them back out of the towns of Hermannstadt (now Sibiu, Romania) and Kronstadt (now Brașov) in Transylvania, back over the Southern Carpathian Mountains through the Roterturm Pass into Wallachia. Only 2,000 Russian soldiers made it out of Transylvania back into Wallachia, the other 6,000 troops being killed or captured by the Hungarian Army. After securing all of Transylvania, Bem moved his 30,000–40,000-man Hungarian army against Austrian forces in the northern Banat capturing the city of Temesvár (now Timișoara, Romania).


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Laval Nugent von Westmeath was the Austrian Master of Ordnance, but was serving as the general in the field attempting to marshall all the Serbs still loyal to the Austrian throne, for another offensive against the Hungarian Government. Here, even on the southern front the Hungarian Armies were proving successful, initially.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: This combat led to the Vienna Uprising of October 1848, when insurgents attacked a garrison on its way to Hungary to support forces. However, the Austrian army was able to quell the rebellion. At the same time, at Schwechat, the Austrians defeated a Hungarian attempt to capture Vienna. After this victory, General Windischgrätz and 70,000 troops were sent to Hungary to crush the Hungarian revolution. The Austrians followed the Danube down from Vienna and crossed over into Hungary to envelope Komorn (now Komárom, Hungary and Komárno, Slovakia). They continued down the Danube to Pest, the capital of the Hungarian Kingdom. After some fierce fighting, the Austrians, led by Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz, captured Buda and Pest. (the town was known in German as Ofen and later Buda and Pest were united into Budapest).


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: In April 1849, after these defeats, the Hungarian Government recovered and scored several victories on this western front. They stopped the Austrian advance and retook Buda and Pest. Then, the Hungarian Army relieved the siege of Komárom. The spring offensive hence proved to be a great success for the revolution.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Thus, the Hungarian Government was equally successful on its eastern front (Transylvania) against the Russians, and on its western front against the Austrians. But there was a third front – the southern front in the Banat, fighting the troops of the Serbian national movement and the Croatian troops of Jelačić within the province of Vojvodina itself. Mór Perczel, the General of the Hungarian forces in the Banat, was initially successful in battles along the southern front.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: In April 1849, Ludwig Baron von Welden replaced Windischgrätz as the new supreme commander of Austrian forces in Hungary. Instead of pursuing the Austrian army, the Hungarians stopped to retake the Fort of Buda and prepared defenses. At the same time, however, victory in Italy had freed many Austrian troops which had hitherto been fighting on this front. In June 1849 Russian and Austrian troops entered Hungary heavily outnumbering the Hungarian army. After all appeals to other European states failed, Kossuth abdicated on August 11, 1849, in favour of Artúr Görgey, who he thought was the only general who was capable of saving the nation.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: However, in May 1849, Tsar Nicholas I pledged to redouble his efforts against the Hungarian Government. He and Emperor Franz Joseph started to regather and rearm an army to be commanded by Anton Vogl, the Austrian lieutenant-field-marshal who had actively participated in the suppression of the national liberation movement in Galicia in 1848. But even at this stage Vogl was occupied trying to stop another revolutionary uprising in Galicia. The Tsar was also preparing to send 30,000 Russian soldiers back over the Eastern Carpathian Mountains from Poland. Austria held Galicia and moved into Hungary, independent of Vogl's forces. At the same time, the able Julius Jacob von Haynau led an army of 60,000 Austrians from the West and retook the ground lost throughout the spring. On July 18, he finally captured Buda and Pest. The Russians were also successful in the east and the situation of the Hungarians became increasingly desperate.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: On August 13, after several bitter defeats, especially the battle of Segesvár against the Russians and the battles of Szöreg and Temesvár against the Austrian army, it was clear that Hungary had lost. In a hopeless situation, Görgey signed a surrender at Világos (now Şiria, Romania) to the Russians (so that the war would be considered a Russian victory and because the rebels considered the Russians more lenient), who handed the army over to the Austrians.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Julius Jacob von Haynau, the leader of the Austrian army, was appointed plenipotentiary to restore order in Hungary after the conflict. He ordered the execution of The 13 Martyrs of Arad (now Arad, Romania) and Prime Minister Batthyány was executed the same day in Pest.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: After the failed revolution, in 1849 there was nationwide "passive resistance". In 1851 Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen was appointed as Regent, which lasted until 1860, during which time he implemented a process of Germanisation.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Kossuth went into exile after the revolution, initially gaining asylum in the Ottoman Empire, where he resided in Kütahya until 1851. That year the US Congress invited him to come to the United States. He left the Ottoman Empire in September, stopped in Britain, then arrived in New York in December. In the US he was warmly received by the general public as well as the then US Secretary of State, Daniel Webster, which made relations between the US and Austria somewhat strained for the following twenty years. Kossuth County, Iowa was named for him. He left the United States for England in the summer of 1852. He remained there until 1859, when he moved to Turin, at the time the capital of Piedmont-Sardinia, in hopes of returning to Hungary. He never did.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Kossuth thought his biggest mistake was to confront the Hungarian minorities. He set forth the dream of a multi-ethnic confederation of republics along the Danube, which might have prevented the escalation of hostile feelings between the ethnic groups in these areas.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: Many of Kossuth's comrades-in-exile joined him in the United States, including the sons of one of his sisters. Some of these "Forty-Eighters" remained after Kossuth departed, and fought on the Union side in the US Civil War. Hungarian lawyer George Lichtenstein, who served as Kossuth's private secretary, fled to Königsberg after the revolution and eventually settled in Edinburgh where he became noted as a musician.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: After the Hungarian Army's surrender at Világos in 1849, their revolutionary banners were taken to Russia by the Tsarist troops, and were kept there both under the Tsarist and Communist systems. In 1940 the Soviet Union offered the banners to the Horthy government in exchange for the release of the imprisoned Hungarian Communist leader Mátyás Rákosi – the Horthy government accepted the offer.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: According to legend, Hungarians do not clink beer glasses together, in memory of Austrians doing so after the revolution's suppression.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: In 1861 the number of Hungarians in America barely reached 4000, yet of these, 1000 entered the service of the Union Army, a percentage unattained by any other alien race. It is an eloquent testimony to the military qualities of the Magyar people that of this comparatively small number who rose to the rank of Major-General, while five became Brigadier-Generals, fifteen Colonels, two Lieutenant-Colonels, fourteen Majors and fifteen Captains. General Julius Stahel-Számwald commanded a brigade; General Alexander Asbóth was made Commandant of an entire military zone. Among the staff officers, special distinction was won by Colonel Philip Figyelmessy, Colonel Géza Mihalóczy, organiser of the Lincoln Rifles, and Colonel George Utassy, organiser and commander of the New York Infantry Regiment which was named Garibaldi Guard. Colonel Charles Zágonyi, at the head of his own Frémont Guard took the Heights of Springfield from greatly superior hostile forces in a reckless charge known in American history as Zágonyi's Death Ride.


title: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

text: President Abraham Lincoln appointed Ladislas Ujházy as Consul in Ancona at the beginning of the Civil War, and after its conclusion many other Hungarians were given posts in the American diplomatic and consular services as well as in other public services.


title: Alexandra Palace

text: Alexandra Palace is a Grade II listed entertainment and sports venue in London, situated between Wood Green and Muswell Hill in the London Borough of Haringey. It is built on the site of Tottenham Wood and the later Tottenham Wood Farm. Originally built by John Johnson and Alfred Meeson, it opened in 1873 but following a fire two weeks after its opening, was rebuilt by Johnson. Intended as "The People's Palace" and often referred to as "Ally Pally", its purpose was to serve as a public centre of recreation, education and entertainment; North London's counterpart to the Crystal Palace in South London.


title: Alexandra Palace

text: At first a private venture, in 1900, the owners planned to sell it and Alexandra Park for development. A group of neighbouring local authorities managed to acquire it. An Act of Parliament created the Alexandra Palace and Park Trust. The Act required the trustees to maintain the building and park and make them available for the free use and recreation of the public forever. The present trustee is the London Borough of Haringey, whose coat of arms shows lightning bolts depicting Alexandra Palace's pioneering role in the development of television.


title: Alexandra Palace

text: In 1935, the trustees leased part of the palace to the BBC for use as the production and transmission centre for their new television service. In 1936, it became the home of the BBC's first regular public television service. The broadcasting system was the 405-line monochrome analogue televisionthe first fully electronic television system to be used in regular broadcasting. Although other facilities soon superseded it after the war, Alexandra Palace continued to be used by the BBC for many years and its radio and television mast is still in use.


title: Alexandra Palace

text: The original studios 'A' and 'B' still survive in the southeast wing with their producers' galleries and are used for exhibiting original historical television equipment. The original Victorian theatre with its stage machinery also survives and as of 2019, is back in use. The theatre and stage structure is on English Heritage's Buildings at Risk register. Alexandra Palace became a listed building in 1996, at the instigation of the Hornsey Historical Society.


title: Alexandra Palace

text: A planned commercial development of the building into a mixed leisure complex including a hotel, replacement ice-skating rink, cinema, ten-pin bowling alley and exhibition centre, encountered opposition from public groups and was blocked by the High Court in 2007.


title: Alexandra Palace

text: The Great Hall and West Hall are typically used for exhibitions, music concerts, and conferences, operated by the trading arm of the charitable trust that owns the building and park on behalf of the public. There is also a pub, ice rink, palm court, and a panoramic view of central London.


title: Alexandra Palace

text: In 2013, Alexandra Park was declared a local nature reserve and is also a Site of Borough Importance for Nature Conservation, Grade 1.


title: Alexandra Palace

text: The nearest railway stations are the Alexandra Palace with Great Northern services from Moorgate and London Underground station Wood Green on the Piccadilly line. Alexandra Palace is also served by London Buses routes W3 and W7.


title: Alexandra Palace

text: The "Palace of the People" was conceived by Owen Jones in 1859. The Great Northern Palace Company had been established by 1860, but was initially unable to raise financing for the construction of the Palace. Construction materials were acquired and recycled from the large 1862 International Exhibition building in South Kensington after it was demolished: the Government had declined to take it over. In 1863 Alexandra Park Co. Ltd. acquired the land of Tottenham Wood Farm for conversion to a park and to build the People's Palace, on a site that stands on a ridge more than high, part of Muswell Hill. Alexandra Park was opened to the public on 23 July 1863.


title: Alexandra Palace

text: The planned building was originally named "The Palace of the People"; it and its park were renamed to commemorate the popular new Princess of Wales, Alexandra of Denmark, who had married Prince Albert Edward on 10 March 1863. The Palace of the People, or the People's Palace, remained as alternative names. In September 1865, construction commenced but to a design by John Johnson and Alfred Meeson rather than the glass structure initially proposed by Jones.


title: Alexandra Palace

text: In 1871, work started on the Edgware, Highgate and London Railway to connect the site to Highgate station. Work on both the railway and the palace was completed in 1873 and, on 24 May of that year, Alexandra Palace and Park was opened. The structure covers some . The palace was built by Kelk and Lucas, who also built the Royal Albert Hall in South Kensington at around the same time. Sims Reeves sang on the opening day before an audience of 102,000. Only 16 days later, Alexandra Palace was destroyed by a fire which also killed three members of staff. Only the outer walls survived; a loan exhibition of a collection of English pottery and porcelain, comprising some 4,700 items of historic and intrinsic value, was also destroyed.


title: Alexandra Palace

text: The palace was quickly rebuilt and reopened on 1 May 1875. The new Alexandra Palace contained a concert hall, art galleries, a museum, lecture hall, library, banqueting room and large theatre. The stage of the theatre incorporated machinery which enabled special effects for the pantomimes and melodramas then popular – artists could disappear, reappear and be propelled into the air. The theatre was also used for political meetings. An open-air swimming pool was constructed at the base of the hill in the surrounding park; it is long since closed and little trace remains except some reeds.


title: Alexandra Palace

text: The grounds included a horse racing course with grandstand (named Alexandra Park Racecourse and nicknamed the "Frying Pan" and the "Pan Handle" because of its layout), which was London's only racecourse from 1868 until its closure in 1970, a Japanese village, a switchback ride, a boating lake and a 9-hole pitch-and-putt golf course. Alexandra Park cricket and football clubs have also played within the grounds (in the middle of the old racecourse) since 1888. A Henry Willis organ installed in 1875, vandalised in 1918 and restored and reopened in 1929, survives. In its 1929 restored form, Willis's masterpiece was declared by Marcel Dupré to be the finest concert organ in Europe.