title: Photovoltaic system

text: Solar insolation is made up of direct, diffuse, and reflected radiation. The absorption factor of a PV cell is defined as the fraction of incident solar irradiance that is absorbed by the cell. At high noon on a cloudless day at the equator, the power of the sun is about 1 kW/m, on the Earth's surface, to a plane that is perpendicular to the sun's rays. As such, PV arrays can track the sun through each day to greatly enhance energy collection. However, tracking devices add cost, and require maintenance, so it is more common for PV arrays to have fixed mounts that tilt the array and face solar noon (approximately due south in the Northern Hemisphere or due north in the Southern Hemisphere). The tilt angle, from horizontal, can be varied for season, but if fixed, should be set to give optimal array output during the peak electrical demand portion of a typical year for a stand-alone system. This optimal module tilt angle is not necessarily identical to the tilt angle for maximum annual array energy output. The optimization of the photovoltaic system for a specific environment can be complicated as issues of solar flux, soiling, and snow losses should be taken into effect. In addition, later work has shown that spectral effects can play a role in optimal photovoltaic material selection. For example, the spectral albedo can play a significant role in output depending on the surface around the photovoltaic system and the type of solar cell material. For the weather and latitudes of the United States and Europe, typical insolation ranges from 4 kWh/m/day in northern climes to 6.5 kWh/m/day in the sunniest regions. A photovoltaic installation in the northern latitudes of Europe or the United States may expect to produce 1 kWh/m/day. A typical 1 kW photovoltaic installation in Australia or the southern latitudes of Europe or United States, may produce 3.5–5 kWh per day, dependent on location, orientation, tilt, insolation and other factors. In the Sahara desert, with less cloud cover and a better solar angle, one could ideally obtain closer to 8.3 kWh/m/day provided the nearly ever present wind would not blow sand onto the units. The area of the Sahara desert is over 9 million km. 90,600 km, or about 1%, could generate as much electricity as all of the world's power plants combined.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: Modules are assembled into arrays on some kind of mounting system, which may be classified as ground mount, roof mount or pole mount. For solar parks a large rack is mounted on the ground, and the modules mounted on the rack.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: For buildings, many different racks have been devised for pitched roofs. For flat roofs, racks, bins and building integrated solutions are used. Solar panel racks mounted on top of poles can be stationary or moving, see Trackers below. Side-of-pole mounts are suitable for situations where a pole has something else mounted at its top, such as a light fixture or an antenna. Pole mounting raises what would otherwise be a ground mounted array above weed shadows and livestock, and may satisfy electrical code requirements regarding inaccessibility of exposed wiring. Pole mounted panels are open to more cooling air on their underside, which increases performance. A multiplicity of pole top racks can be formed into a parking carport or other shade structure. A rack which does not follow the sun from left to right may allow seasonal adjustment up or down.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: Due to their outdoor usage, solar cables are designed to be resistant against UV radiation and extremely high temperature fluctuations and are generally unaffected by the weather. Standards specifying the usage of electrical wiring in PV systems include the IEC 60364 by the International Electrotechnical Commission, in section 712 "Solar photovoltaic (PV) power supply systems", the British Standard BS 7671, incorporating regulations relating to microgeneration and photovoltaic systems, and the US UL4703 standard, in subject 4703 "Photovoltaic Wire".


title: Photovoltaic system

text: A solar cable is the interconnection cable used in photovoltaic power generation. Solar cables interconnect solar panels and other electrical components of a photovoltaic system. Solar cables are designed to be UV resistant and weather resistant. They can be used within a large temperature range.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: Specific performance requirements for material used for wiring a solar panel installation are given in national and local electrical codes which regulate electrical installations in an area. General features required for solar cables are resistance to ultraviolet light, weather, temperature extremes of the area and insulation suitable for the voltage class of the equipment. Different jurisdictions will have specific rules regarding grounding (earthing) of solar power installations for electric shock protection and lightning protection.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: A solar tracking system tilts a solar panel throughout the day. Depending on the type of tracking system, the panel is either aimed directly at the Sun or the brightest area of a partly clouded sky. Trackers greatly enhance early morning and late afternoon performance, increasing the total amount of power produced by a system by about 20–25% for a single axis tracker and about 30% or more for a dual axis tracker, depending on latitude.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: Trackers are effective in regions that receive a large portion of sunlight directly. In diffuse light (i.e. under cloud or fog), tracking has little or no value. Because most concentrated photovoltaics systems are very sensitive to the sunlight's angle, tracking systems allow them to produce useful power for more than a brief period each day. Tracking systems improve performance for two main reasons. First, when a solar panel is perpendicular to the sunlight, it receives more light on its surface than if it were angled. Second, direct light is used more efficiently than angled light. Special anti-reflective coatings can improve solar panel efficiency for direct and angled light, somewhat reducing the benefit of tracking.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: Trackers and sensors to optimise the performance are often seen as optional, but they can increase viable output by up to 45%. Arrays that approach or exceed one megawatt often use solar trackers. Considering clouds, and the fact that most of the world is not on the equator, and that the sun sets in the evening, the correct measure of solar power is insolation – the average number of kilowatt-hours per square meter per day. For the weather and latitudes of the United States and Europe, typical insolation ranges from 2.26 kWh/m/day in northern climes to 5.61 kWh/m/day in the sunniest regions.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: For large systems, the energy gained by using tracking systems can outweigh the added complexity. For very large systems, the added maintenance of tracking is a substantial detriment. Tracking is not required for flat panel and low-concentration photovoltaic systems. For high-concentration photovoltaic systems, dual axis tracking is a necessity. Pricing trends affect the balance between adding more stationary solar panels versus having fewer panels that track.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: As pricing, reliability and performance of single-axis trackers have improved, the systems have been installed in an increasing percentage of utility-scale projects. According to data from WoodMackenzie/GTM Research, global solar tracker shipments hit a record 14.5 gigawatts in 2017. This represents growth of 32 percent year-over-year, with similar or greater growth projected as large-scale solar deployment accelerates.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: Systems designed to deliver alternating current (AC), such as grid-connected applications need an inverter to convert the direct current (DC) from the solar modules to AC. Grid connected inverters must supply AC electricity in sinusoidal form, synchronized to the grid frequency, limit feed in voltage to no higher than the grid voltage and disconnect from the grid if the grid voltage is turned off. Islanding inverters need only produce regulated voltages and frequencies in a sinusoidal waveshape as no synchronisation or co-ordination with grid supplies is required.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: A solar inverter may connect to a string of solar panels. In some installations a solar micro-inverter is connected at each solar panel. For safety reasons a circuit breaker is provided both on the AC and DC side to enable maintenance. AC output may be connected through an electricity meter into the public grid. The number of modules in the system determines the total DC watts capable of being generated by the solar array; however, the inverter ultimately governs the amount of AC watts that can be distributed for consumption. For example, a PV system comprising 11 kilowatts DC (kW) worth of PV modules, paired with one 10-kilowatt AC (kW) inverter, will be limited to the inverter's output of 10 kW. As of 2019, conversion efficiency for state-of-the-art converters reached more than 98 percent. While string inverters are used in residential to medium-sized commercial PV systems, central inverters cover the large commercial and utility-scale market. Market-share for central and string inverters are about 44 percent and 52 percent, respectively, with less than 1 percent for micro-inverters.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is a technique that grid connected inverters use to get the maximum possible power from the photovoltaic array. In order to do so, the inverter's MPPT system digitally samples the solar array's ever changing power output and applies the proper resistance to find the optimal "maximum power point".


title: Photovoltaic system

text: Anti-islanding is a protection mechanism to immediately shut down the inverter, preventing it from generating AC power when the connection to the load no longer exists. This happens, for example, in the case of a blackout. Without this protection, the supply line would become an "island" with power surrounded by a "sea" of unpowered lines, as the solar array continues to deliver DC power during the power outage. Islanding is a hazard to utility workers, who may not realize that an AC circuit is still powered, and it may prevent automatic re-connection of devices. Anti-Islanding feature is not required for complete Off-Grid Systems.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: Although still expensive, PV systems increasingly use rechargeable batteries to store a surplus to be later used at night. Batteries used for grid-storage also stabilize the electrical grid by leveling out peak loads, and play an important role in a smart grid, as they can charge during periods of low demand and feed their stored energy into the grid when demand is high.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: Common battery technologies used in today's PV systems include the valve regulated lead-acid battery – a modified version of the conventional lead–acid battery – nickel–cadmium and lithium-ion batteries. Compared to the other types, lead-acid batteries have a shorter lifetime and lower energy density. However, due to their high reliability, low self discharge as well as low investment and maintenance costs, they are currently the predominant technology used in small-scale, residential PV systems, as lithium-ion batteries are still being developed and about 3.5 times as expensive as lead-acid batteries. Furthermore, as storage devices for PV systems are stationary, the lower energy and power density and therefore higher weight of lead-acid batteries are not as critical as, for example, in electric transportation Other rechargeable batteries considered for distributed PV systems include sodium–sulfur and vanadium redox batteries, two prominent types of a molten salt and a flow battery, respectively. In 2015, Tesla Motors launched the Powerwall, a rechargeable lithium-ion battery with the aim to revolutionize energy consumption.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: PV systems with an integrated battery solution also need a charge controller, as the varying voltage and current from the solar array requires constant adjustment to prevent damage from overcharging. Basic charge controllers may simply turn the PV panels on and off, or may meter out pulses of energy as needed, a strategy called PWM or pulse-width modulation. More advanced charge controllers will incorporate MPPT logic into their battery charging algorithms. Charge controllers may also divert energy to some purpose other than battery charging. Rather than simply shut off the free PV energy when not needed, a user may choose to heat air or water once the battery is full.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: The metering must be able to accumulate energy units in both directions, or two meters must be used. Many meters accumulate bidirectionally, some systems use two meters, but a unidirectional meter (with detent) will not accumulate energy from any resultant feed into the grid. In some countries, for installations over 30 kW a frequency and a voltage monitor with disconnection of all phases is required. This is done where more solar power is being generated than can be accommodated by the utility, and the excess can not either be exported or stored. Grid operators historically have needed to provide transmission lines and generation capacity. Now they need to also provide storage. This is normally hydro-storage, but other means of storage are used. Initially storage was used so that baseload generators could operate at full output. With variable renewable energy, storage is needed to allow power generation whenever it is available, and consumption whenever needed.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: The two variables a grid operator has are storing electricity for "when" it is needed, or transmitting it to "where" it is needed. If both of those fail, installations over 30kWp can automatically shut down, although in practice all inverters maintain voltage regulation and stop supplying power if the load is inadequate. Grid operators have the option of curtailing excess generation from large systems, although this is more commonly done with wind power than solar power, and results in a substantial loss of revenue. Three-phase inverters have the unique option of supplying reactive power which can be advantageous in matching load requirements.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: Photovoltaic systems need to be monitored to detect breakdown and optimize operation. There are several photovoltaic monitoring strategies depending on the output of the installation and its nature. Monitoring can be performed on site or remotely. It can measure production only, retrieve all the data from the inverter or retrieve all of the data from the communicating equipment (probes, meters, etc.). Monitoring tools can be dedicated to supervision only or offer additional functions. Individual inverters and battery charge controllers may include monitoring using manufacturer specific protocols and software. Energy metering of an inverter may be of limited accuracy and not suitable for revenue metering purposes. A third-party data acquisition system can monitor multiple inverters, using the inverter manufacturer's protocols, and also acquire weather-related information. Independent smart meters may measure the total energy production of a PV array system. Separate measures such as satellite image analysis or a solar radiation meter (a pyranometer) can be used to estimate total insolation for comparison.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: Data collected from a monitoring system can be displayed remotely over the World Wide Web, such as OSOTF.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: Knowing the annual energy consumption in Kwh formula_1 of an institution or a family, for example of 2300Kwh, legible in its electricity bill, it is possible to calculate the number of photovoltaic panels necessary to satisfy its energy needs. By connecting to the site https://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pvg_tools/en/ , after selecting the location in which to install the panels or clicking on the map or typing the name of the location, you must select "Grid connected" and "Visualize results" obtaining the following table for example relating to the city of Palermo:


title: Photovoltaic system

text: Using the wxMaxima program, the number of panels required for an annual consumption of 2300 kWh and for a crystalline silicon technology with a slope angle of 35°, an azimut angle of 0° and total losses equal to 21.88 % is 6 rounded up:


title: Photovoltaic system

text: On average, each family manages to consume 30% of energy directly from the photovoltaic. The storage system can bring its self-consumption to a maximum of 70%, therefore the battery storage capacity that should be in the specific case is: 4.41 Kwh which rounded up is 4.8 Kwh


title: Photovoltaic system

text: So if a 300W panel costs €200, the 4.8Kwh battery costs €3000, the inverter to convert the direct current into alternating current €1000, the charge regulator €100, the installation costs €1000 the total cost will be €6,300 :


title: Photovoltaic system

text: This section includes systems that are either highly specialized and uncommon or still an emerging new technology with limited significance. However, standalone or off-grid systems take a special place. They were the most common type of systems during the 1980s and 1990s, when PV technology was still very expensive and a pure niche market of small scale applications. Only in places where no electrical grid was available, they were economically viable. Although new stand-alone systems are still being deployed all around the world, their contribution to the overall installed photovoltaic capacity is decreasing. In Europe, off-grid systems account for 1 percent of installed capacity. In the United States, they account for about 10 percent. Off-grid systems are still common in Australia and South Korea, and in many developing countries.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: Concentrator photovoltaics (CPV) and "high concentrator photovoltaic" (HCPV) systems use optical lenses or curved mirrors to concentrate sunlight onto small but highly efficient solar cells. Besides concentrating optics, CPV systems sometime use solar trackers and cooling systems and are more expensive.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: Especially HCPV systems are best suited in location with high solar irradiance, concentrating sunlight up to 400 times or more, with efficiencies of 24–28 percent, exceeding those of regular systems. Various designs of systems are commercially available but not very common. However, ongoing research and development is taking place.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: CPV is often confused with CSP (concentrated solar power) that does not use photovoltaics. Both technologies favor locations that receive much sunlight and directly compete with each other.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: A hybrid system combines PV with other forms of generation, usually a diesel generator. Biogas is also used. The other form of generation may be a type able to modulate power output as a function of demand. However more than one renewable form of energy may be used e.g. wind. The photovoltaic power generation serves to reduce the consumption of non renewable fuel. Hybrid systems are most often found on islands. Pellworm island in Germany and Kythnos island in Greece are notable examples (both are combined with wind). The Kythnos plant has reduced diesel consumption by 11.2%.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: In 2015, a case-study conducted in seven countries concluded that in all cases generating costs can be reduced by hybridising mini-grids and isolated grids. However, financing costs for such hybrids are crucial and largely depend on the ownership structure of the power plant. While cost reductions for state-owned utilities can be significant, the study also identified economic benefits to be insignificant or even negative for non-public utilities, such as independent power producers.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: There has also been work showing that the PV penetration limit can be increased by deploying a distributed network of PV+CHP hybrid systems in the U.S. The temporal distribution of solar flux, electrical and heating requirements for representative U.S. single family residences were analyzed and the results clearly show that hybridizing CHP with PV can enable additional PV deployment above what is possible with a conventional centralized electric generation system. This theory was reconfirmed with numerical simulations using per second solar flux data to determine that the necessary battery backup to provide for such a hybrid system is possible with relatively small and inexpensive battery systems. In addition, large PV+CHP systems are possible for institutional buildings, which again provide back up for intermittent PV and reduce CHP runtime.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: Floating solar arrays are PV systems that float on – or are built over – the surface of drinking water reservoirs, quarry lakes, irrigation canals or remediation and tailing ponds. These systems are called "floatovoltaics" when used only for electrical production or "aquavoltaics" when such systems are used to synergistically enhance aquaculture. A small number of such systems exist in France, India, Japan, South Korea, the United Kingdom, Singapore and the United States.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: The systems are said to have advantages over photovoltaics on land. The cost of land is more expensive, and there are fewer rules and regulations for structures built on bodies of water not used for recreation. Unlike most land-based solar plants, floating arrays can be unobtrusive because they are hidden from public view. They achieve higher efficiencies than PV panels on land, because water cools the panels. The panels have a special coating to prevent rust or corrosion.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: In May 2008, the Far Niente Winery in Oakville, California, pioneered the world's first floatovoltaic system by installing 994 solar PV modules with a total capacity of 477 kW on to 130 pontoons and floating them on the winery's irrigation pond. The primary benefit of such a system is that it avoids the need to sacrifice valuable land area that could be used for another purpose. In the case of the Far Niente Winery, it saved that would have been required for a land-based system. Another benefit of a floatovoltaic system is that the panels are kept at a cooler temperature than they would be on land, leading to a higher efficiency of solar energy conversion. The floating PV array also reduces the amount of water lost through evaporation and inhibits the growth of algae.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: Utility-scale floating PV farms are starting to be built. The multinational electronics and ceramics manufacturer Kyocera will develop the world's largest, a 13.4 MW farm on the reservoir above Yamakura Dam in Chiba Prefecture using 50,000 solar panels. Salt-water resistant floating farms are also being considered for ocean use, with experiments in Thailand. The largest so far announced floatovoltaic project is a 350 MW power station in the Amazon region of Brazil.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: DC grids are found in electric powered transport: railways trams and trolleybuses. A few pilot plants for such applications have been built, such as the tram depots in Hannover Leinhausen, using photovoltaic contributors and Geneva (Bachet de Pesay). The 150 kW Geneva site feeds 600 V DC directly into the tram/trolleybus electricity network whereas before it provided about 15% of the electricity at its opening in 1999.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: A stand-alone or off-grid system is not connected to the electrical grid. Standalone systems vary widely in size and application from wristwatches or calculators to remote buildings or spacecraft. If the load is to be supplied independently of solar insolation, the generated power is stored and buffered with a battery. In non-portable applications where weight is not an issue, such as in buildings, lead acid batteries are most commonly used for their low cost and tolerance for abuse.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: A charge controller may be incorporated in the system to avoid battery damage by excessive charging or discharging. It may also help to optimize production from the solar array using a maximum power point tracking technique (MPPT). However, in simple PV systems where the PV module voltage is matched to the battery voltage, the use of MPPT electronics is generally considered unnecessary, since the battery voltage is stable enough to provide near-maximum power collection from the PV module.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: In small devices (e.g. calculators, parking meters) only direct current (DC) is consumed. In larger systems (e.g. buildings, remote water pumps) AC is usually required. To convert the DC from the modules or batteries into AC, an inverter is used.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: In agricultural settings, the array may be used to directly power DC pumps, without the need for an inverter. In remote settings such as mountainous areas, islands, or other places where a power grid is unavailable, solar arrays can be used as the sole source of electricity, usually by charging a storage battery. Stand-alone systems closely relate to microgeneration and distributed generation.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: The cost of producing photovoltaic cells has dropped because of economies of scale in production and technological advances in manufacturing. For large-scale installations, prices below $1.00 per watt were common by 2012. A price decrease of 50% had been achieved in Europe from 2006 to 2011, and there was a potential to lower the generation cost by 50% by 2020. Crystal silicon solar cells have largely been replaced by less expensive multicrystalline silicon solar cells, and thin film silicon solar cells have also been developed at lower costs of production. Although they are reduced in energy conversion efficiency from single crystalline "siwafers", they are also much easier to produce at comparably lower costs.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: The table below shows the total (average) cost in US cents per kWh of electricity generated by a photovoltaic system. The row headings on the left show the total cost, per peak kilowatt (kW), of a photovoltaic installation. Photovoltaic system costs have been declining and in Germany, for example, were reported to have fallen to USD 1389/kW by the end of 2014. The column headings across the top refer to the annual energy output in kWh expected from each installed kW. This varies by geographic region because the average insolation depends on the average cloudiness and the thickness of atmosphere traversed by the sunlight. It also depends on the path of the sun relative to the panel and the horizon.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: Panels are usually mounted at an angle based on latitude, and often they are adjusted seasonally to meet the changing solar declination. Solar tracking can also be utilized to access even more perpendicular sunlight, thereby raising the total energy output.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: The calculated values in the table reflect the total (average) cost in cents per kWh produced. They assume a 10% total capital cost (for instance 4% interest rate, 1% operating and maintenance cost, and depreciation of the capital outlay over 20 years). Normally, photovoltaic modules have a 25-year warranty.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: Photovoltaic systems demonstrate a learning curve in terms of levelized cost of electricity (LCOE), reducing its cost per kWh by 32.6% for every doubling of capacity. From the data of LCOE and cumulative installed capacity from International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) from 2010 to 2017, the learning curve equation for photovoltaic systems is given as


title: Photovoltaic system

text: Increasing use of photovoltaic systems and integration of photovoltaic power into existing structures and techniques of supply and distribution increases the need for general standards and definitions for photovoltaic components and systems. The standards are compiled at the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and apply to efficiency, durability and safety of cells, modules, simulation programs, plug connectors and cables, mounting systems, overall efficiency of inverters etc.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: In the UK, PV installations are generally considered permitted development and do not require planning permission. If the property is listed or in a designated area (National Park, Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, Site of Special Scientific Interest or Norfolk Broads) then planning permission is required.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: In the United States, article 690 of the National Electric Code provides general guidelines for the installation of photovoltaic systems; these may be superseded by local laws and regulations. Often a permit is required necessitating plan submissions and structural calculations before work may begin. Additionally, many locales require the work to be performed under the guidance of a licensed electrician.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: The Authority Having Jurisdiction (AHJ) will review designs and issue permits, before construction can lawfully begin. Electrical installation practices must comply with standards set forth within the National Electrical Code (NEC) and be inspected by the AHJ to ensure compliance with building code, electrical code, and fire safety code. Jurisdictions may require that equipment has been tested, certified, listed, and labeled by at least one of the Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratories (NRTL). Many localities require a permit to install a photovoltaic system. A grid-tied system normally requires a licensed electrician to connect between the system and the grid-connected wiring of the building. Installers who meet these qualifications are located in almost every state. Several states prohibit homeowners' associations from restricting solar devices.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: Although Spain generates around 40% of its electricity via photovoltaic and other renewable energy sources, and cities such as Huelva and Seville boast nearly 3,000 hours of sunshine per year, in 2013 Spain issued a solar tax to account for the debt created by the investment done by the Spanish government. Those who do not connect to the grid can face up to a fine of 30 million euros (US$40 million). Such measures were finally withdrawn by 2018, when new legislation was introduced banning any taxes on renewable energy self-consumption.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: With the increasing levels of rooftop photovoltaic systems, the energy flow becomes two-way. When there is more local generation than consumption, electricity is exported to the grid. However, electricity network traditionally is not designed to deal with the two-way energy transfer. Therefore, some technical issues may occur. For example, in Queensland, Australia, there have been more than 30% of households with rooftop PV by the end of 2017. The famous Californian 2020 duck curve appears very often for a lot of communities from 2015 onwards. An over-voltage issue may come out as the electricity flows back to the network. There are solutions to manage the over voltage issue, such as regulating PV inverter power factor, new voltage and energy control equipment at electricity distributor level, re-conductor the electricity wires, demand side management, etc. There are often limitations and costs related to these solutions.


title: Photovoltaic system

text: Customers have different specific situations, e.g. different comfort/convenience needs, different electricity tariffs, or different usage patterns. An electricity tariff may have a few elements, such as daily access and metering charge, energy charge (based on kWh, MWh) or peak demand charge (e.g. a price for the highest 30min energy consumption in a month). PV is a promising option for reducing energy charge when electricity price is reasonably high and continuously increasing, such as in Australia and Germany. However, for sites with peak demand charge in place, PV may be less attractive if peak demands mostly occur in the late afternoon to early evening, for example residential communities. Overall, energy investment is largely an economic decision and investment decisions are based on systematical evaluation of options in operational improvement, energy efficiency, onsite generation and energy storage.


title: Jurisdiction

text: Jurisdiction (from Latin 'law' + 'declaration') is the legal term for the legal authority granted to a legal entity to enact justice. In federations like the United States, areas of jurisdiction apply to local, state, and federal levels.


title: Jurisdiction

text: Jurisdiction draws its substance from international law, conflict of laws, constitutional law, and the powers of the executive and legislative branches of government to allocate resources to best serve the needs of society.


title: Jurisdiction

text: Generally, international laws and treaties provide agreements which nations agree to be bound to. Such agreements are not always established or maintained. The exercise of extraterritorial jurisdiction by three principles outlined in the UN charter. These are equality of states, territorial sovereignty and non-intervention. This raises the question of when can many states prescribe or enforce jurisdiction. The "Lotus" case establishes two key rules to the prescription and enforcement of jurisdiction. The case outlines that jurisdiction is territorial and that a state may not exercise its jurisdiction in the territory of another state unless there is a rule that permits this. On that same note, states enjoy a wide measure of discretion to prescribe jurisdiction over persons, property and acts within their own territory unless there was a rule that prohibits this.


title: Jurisdiction

text: Supranational organizations provide mechanisms whereby disputes between nations may be resolved through arbitration or mediation. When a country is recognized as , it is an acknowledgment by the other "" nations that the country has sovereignty and the right to exist.


title: Jurisdiction

text: However, it is often at the discretion of each nation whether to co-operate or participate. If a nation does agree to participate in activities of the supranational bodies and accept decisions, the nation is giving up its sovereign authority and thereby allocating power to these bodies..


title: Jurisdiction

text: Insofar as these bodies or nominated individuals may resolve disputes through judicial or quasi-judicial means, or promote treaty obligations in the nature of laws, the power ceded to these bodies cumulatively represents its own jurisdiction. But no matter how powerful each body may appear to be, the extent to which any of their judgments may be enforced, or proposed treaties and conventions may become, or remain, effective within the territorial boundaries of each nation is a political matter under the sovereign control each nation.


title: Jurisdiction

text: The fact that international organizations, courts and tribunals have been created raises the difficult question of how to co-ordinate their activities with those of national courts. If the two sets of bodies do not have "concurrent" jurisdiction but, as in the case of the International Criminal Court (ICC), the relationship is expressly based on the principle of "complementarity", i.e., the international court is subsidiary or complementary to national courts, the difficulty is avoided. But if the jurisdiction claimed is concurrent or, as in the case of International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), the international tribunal is to prevail over national courts, the problems are more difficult to resolve politically.


title: Jurisdiction

text: The idea of universal jurisdiction is fundamental to the operation of global organizations such as the United Nations and the International Court of Justice (ICJ), which jointly assert the benefit of maintaining legal entities with jurisdiction over a wide range of matters of significance to nations (the ICJ should not be confused with the ICC and this version of "universal jurisdiction" is not the same as that enacted in the War Crimes Law (Belgium), which is an assertion of extraterritorial jurisdiction that will fail to gain implementation in any other state under the standard provisions of public policy). Under Article 34 Statute of the ICJ only nations may be parties in cases before the Court and, under Article 36, the jurisdiction comprises all cases which the parties refer to it and all matters specially provided for in the Charter of the United Nations or in treaties and conventions in force. But, to invoke the jurisdiction in any given case, all the parties have to accept the prospective judgment as binding. This reduces the risk of wasting the Court's time.


title: Jurisdiction

text: Despite the safeguards built into the constitutions of most of these organizations, courts and tribunals, the concept of universal jurisdiction is controversial among those nations which prefer unilateral to multilateral solutions through the use of executive or military authority, sometimes described as "realpolitik"-based diplomacy.


title: Jurisdiction

text: Within other international contexts, there are intergovernmental organizations such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) that have socially and economically significant dispute resolution functions but, again, even though their jurisdiction may be invoked to hear the cases, the power to enforce their decisions is at the will of the nations affected, save that the WTO is permitted to allow retaliatory action by successful nations against those nations found to be in breach of international trade law. At a regional level, groups of nations can create political and legal bodies with sometimes complicated patchworks of overlapping provisions detailing the jurisdictional relationships between the member states and providing for some degree of harmonization between their national legislative and judicial functions, for example, the European Union and African Union both have the potential to become federated nations although the political barriers to such unification in the face of entrenched nationalism will be very difficult to overcome. Each such group may form transnational institutions with declared legislative or judicial powers. For example, in Europe, the European Court of Justice has been given jurisdiction as the ultimate appellate court to the member states on issues of European law. This jurisdiction is entrenched, and its authority could only be denied by a member nation if that member nation asserts its sovereignty and withdraws from the union.


title: Jurisdiction

text: The standard treaties and conventions leave the issue of implementation to each nation, i.e. there is no general rule in international law that treaties have direct effect in municipal law, but some nations, by virtue of their membership of supranational bodies, allow the direct incorporation of rights or enact legislation to honor their international commitments. Hence, citizens in those nations can invoke the jurisdiction of local courts to enforce rights granted under international law wherever there is incorporation. If there is no direct effect or legislation, there are two theories to justify the courts incorporating international into municipal law:


title: Jurisdiction

text: In the United States, the Supremacy Clause of the United States Constitution makes all treaties that have been ratified under the authority of the United States and customary international law to be a part of the "Supreme Law of the Land" (along with the Constitution itself and acts of Congress passed pursuant to it) (U.S. Const.art. VI Cl. 2) As such, the law of the land is binding on the federal government as well as on state and local governments. According to the Supreme Court of the United States, the treaty power authorizes Congress to legislate under the Necessary and Proper Clause in areas beyond those specifically conferred on Congress ("Missouri v. Holland", 252 U.S. 416 (1920)).


title: Jurisdiction

text: This concerns the relationships both between courts in different jurisdictions, and between courts within the same jurisdiction. The usual legal doctrine under which questions of jurisdiction are decided is termed .


title: Jurisdiction

text: To deal with the issue of forum shopping, nations are urged to adopt more positive rules on conflict of laws. The Hague Conference and other international bodies have made recommendations on jurisdictional matters, but litigants with the encouragement of lawyers on a contingent fee continue to shop for forums.


title: Jurisdiction

text: Under international law there are different principles that are recognized to establish a State's ability to exercise criminal jurisdiction when it comes to a person. There is no hierarchy when it comes to any of the principles. States must therefore work together to solve issues of who may exercise their jurisdiction when it comes to issues of multiple principles being allowed. The principles are Territorial Principle, Nationality Principle, Passive Personality Principle, Protective Principle, Universality Principle


title: Jurisdiction

text: Territorial principle: This principle states that the State where the crime has been committed may exercise jurisdiction. This is one of the most straightforward and least controversial of the principles. This is also the only principle that is territorial in nature; all other forms are extraterritorial.


title: Jurisdiction

text: Nationality principle (also known as the Active Personality Principle): This principle is based around a person's nationality and allows States to exercise jurisdiction when it comes to their nationality, both within and outside the State's territory. Seeing as the territoriality principle already gives the State the right to exercise jurisdiction, this principle is primarily used as a justification for prosecuting crimes committed abroad by a States nationals. There is a growing trend to allow States to also apply this principle to permanent residents abroad as well (for example: Denmark Criminal Code (2005), sec 7; Finland Criminal Code (2015), sec 6; Iceland Criminal Code (2014), art 5; Latvia Criminal Code (2013), sec 4; Netherlands Criminal Code (2019), art 7; Norway Criminal Code (2005), sec 12; Swedish Criminal Code (1999), sec 2; Lithuania Criminal Code (2015), art 5).


title: Jurisdiction

text: Passive Personality Principle: This principle is similar to the Nationality Principle, except you are exercising jurisdiction against a foreign nationals that has committed a criminal act against its own national. The idea is that a State has a duty to protect its nationals and therefore if someone harms their nationals that State has the right to prosecute the accused.


title: Jurisdiction

text: Protective principle: This principle allows States to exercise jurisdiction when it comes to foreign nationals for acts committed outside their territory that have or are intended to have a prejudicial impact upon the State. It is especially used when it comes to matters of national security.


title: Jurisdiction

text: Universality principle: This is the broadest of all the principles. The basis is that a State has the right, sometimes even the obligation, to exercise jurisdiction when it comes to the most serious violations of international criminal law; for example genocide, crimes against humanity, extrajudicial executions, war crimes, torture, and forced disappearances. This principle also goes further then the other principles as there is attached to it the obligation to either prosecute the accused or extradite them to a State that will, known as .


title: Jurisdiction

text: At a supranational level, countries have adopted a range of treaty and convention obligations to relate the right of individual litigants to invoke the jurisdiction of national courts and to enforce the judgments obtained. For example, the member nations of the EEC signed the Brussels Convention in 1968 and, subject to amendments as new nations joined, it represents the default law for all twenty-seven Member States of what is now termed the European Union on the relationships between the courts in the different countries. In addition, the Lugano Convention (1988) binds the European Union and the European Free Trade Association.


title: Jurisdiction

text: In effect from 1 March 2002, all the European Union member states except Denmark accepted Council Regulation (EC) 44/2001, which makes major changes to the Brussels Convention and is directly effective in the member nations. Council Regulation (EC) 44/2001 now also applies as between the rest of the EU Member States and Denmark due to an agreement reached between the European Community and Denmark. In some legal areas, at least, the reciprocal enforcement of foreign judgments is now more straightforward. At a national level, the traditional rules still determine jurisdiction over persons who are not domiciled or habitually resident in the European Union or the Lugano area.


title: Jurisdiction

text: Many nations are subdivided into states or provinces (i.e. a subnational "state"). In a federation—as can be found in Australia, Brazil, India, Mexico, and the United States—such subunits will exercise "jurisdiction" through the court systems as defined by the executives and legislatures.


title: Jurisdiction

text: When the jurisdictions of government entities overlap one another—for example between a state and the federation to which it belongs—their jurisdiction is a "shared" or "concurrent" jurisdiction. Otherwise, one government entity will have exclusive jurisdiction over the shared area. When jurisdiction is concurrent, one government entity may have supreme jurisdiction over the other entity if their laws conflict. If the executive or legislative powers within the jurisdiction are not restricted, or have only limited restrictions, these government branches have plenary power such as a national policing power. Otherwise, an enabling act grants only limited or enumerated powers.


title: Jurisdiction

text: Child custody cases in the U.S. are a prime example of jurisdictional dilemmas caused by different states under a federal alignment. When parents and children are in different states, there is the possibility of different state court orders over-ruling each other. The U.S. solved this problem by adopting the Uniform Child Custody Jurisdiction and Enforcement Act. The act established criteria for determining which state has primary jurisdiction, which allows courts to defer the hearing of a case if an appropriate administrative agency determines so.


title: Jurisdiction

text: The primary distinctions between areas of jurisdiction are codified at a national level. As a common law system, jurisdiction is conceptually divided between jurisdiction over the "subject matter" of a case (called ) and jurisdiction over the person (called ). A court may use jurisdiction over property located within the perimeter of its powers without regard to personal jurisdiction over the litigants; this is an example of "in rem jurisdiction".


title: Jurisdiction

text: A court whose subject matter jurisdiction is limited to certain types of controversies (for example, suits in admiralty or suits where the monetary amount sought is less than a specified sum) is sometimes referred to as a "court of special jurisdiction" or "court of limited jurisdiction".


title: Jurisdiction

text: A court whose subject matter is not limited to certain types of controversy is referred to as a "court of general jurisdiction". In the U.S. states, each state has courts of general jurisdiction; most states also have some courts of limited jurisdiction. Federal courts (those operated by the federal government) are courts of limited jurisdiction. Federal jurisdiction is divided into federal question jurisdiction and diversity jurisdiction. The United States district courts may hear only cases arising under federal law and treaties, cases involving ambassadors, admiralty cases, controversies between states or between a state and citizens of another state, lawsuits involving citizens of different states, and against foreign states and citizens.


title: Jurisdiction

text: Certain courts, particularly the United States Supreme Court and most state supreme courts, have discretionary jurisdiction, meaning that they can choose which cases to hear from among all the cases presented on appeal. Such courts generally only choose to hear cases that would settle important and controversial points of law. Though these courts have discretion to deny cases they otherwise could adjudicate, no court has the discretion to hear a case that falls outside of its subject matter jurisdiction.


title: Jurisdiction

text: It is also necessary to distinguish between original jurisdiction and appellate jurisdiction. A court of original jurisdiction has the power to hear cases as they are first initiated by a plaintiff, while a court of appellate jurisdiction may only hear an action after the court of original jurisdiction (or a lower appellate court) has heard the matter. For example, in United States federal courts, the United States district courts have original jurisdiction over a number of different matters (as mentioned above), and the United States court of appeals have appellate jurisdiction over matters appealed from the district courts. The U.S. Supreme Court, in turn, has appellate jurisdiction (of a discretionary nature) over the Courts of Appeals, as well as the state supreme courts, by means of writ of certiorari.


title: Jurisdiction

text: However, in a special class of cases, the U.S. Supreme Court has the power to exercise original jurisdiction. Under , the Supreme court has original and exclusive jurisdiction over controversies between two or more states, and original (but non-exclusive) jurisdiction over cases involving officials of foreign states, controversies between the federal government and a state, actions by a state against the citizens of another state or foreign country.


title: Jurisdiction

text: As a practical example of court jurisdiction, as of 2013 Utah has five types of courts, each for different legal matters and different physical territories. One-hundred-and-eight judges oversee Justice Courts, which handle traffic and parking citations, misdemeanor crimes, and most small claims cases. Seventy-one judges preside over District Courts, which deal with civil cases exceeding small claims limits, probate law, felony criminal cases, divorce and child custody cases, some small claims, and appeals from Justice Courts. Twenty-eight judges handle Juvenile Court, which oversees most people under 18 years old who are accused of a crime, as well as cases of alleged child abuse or neglect; serious crimes committed by 16 or 17 year old persons may be referred to the District Courts. Seven judges in the Appeals Court hear most criminal appeals from District Courts, all appeals from juvenile court and all domestic/divorce cases from District Court, as well as some cases transferred to them by the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court seats five judges who hear appeals on first-degree felonies (the most serious) including capital crimes, as well as all civil cases from District Court (excepting divorce/domestic cases). The Supreme Court also oversees cases involving interpretation of the state Constitution, election matters, judicial conduct, and alleged misconduct by lawyers. This example shows how matters arising in the same physical territory might be seen in different courts. A minor traffic infraction originating in Orem, Utah is handled by the Orem Justice Court. However, a second-degree felony arrest and a first-degree felony arrest in Orem would be under the jurisdiction of the District Court in Provo, Utah. If both the minor traffic offense and the felony arrests resulted in guilty verdicts, the traffic conviction could be appealed to the District Court in Provo, while the second-degree felony appeal would be heard by the Appeals Court in Salt Lake City and the first-degree felony appeal would be heard by the Supreme Court. Similarly for civil matters, a small claims case arising in Orem would probably be heard in the Orem Justice Court, while a divorce filed by an Orem resident would be heard by the District Court in Provo. The above examples apply only to cases of Utah state law; any case under Federal jurisdiction would be handled by a different court system. All Federal cases arising in Utah are under the jurisdiction of the United States District Court for the District of Utah, headquartered in Salt Lake City, Utah, and would be heard in one of three Federal courthouses.


title: Jurisdiction

text: The word "jurisdiction" is also used, especially in informal writing, to refer to a state or political subdivision generally, or to its government, rather than to its legal authority.


title: Jurisdiction

text: In the history of English common law, a jurisdiction could be held as a form of property (or more precisely an incorporeal hereditament) called a franchise. Traditional franchise jurisdictions of various powers were held by municipal corporations, religious houses, guilds, early universities, the Welsh Marches, and counties palatine. Types of franchise courts included courts baron, courts leet, merchant courts, and the stannary courts that dealt with disputes involving the tin miners of Cornwall. The original royal charters of the American colonies included broad grants of franchise jurisdiction along with other governmental powers to corporations or individuals, as did the charters for many other colonial companies such as the British East India Company and British South Africa Company. Analogous jurisdiction existed in medieval times on the European Continent. Over the course of the 19th and 20th centuries, franchise jurisdictions were largely eliminated. Several formerly important franchise courts were not officially abolished until Courts Act of 1971.


title: Craig Steven Wright

text: Craig Steven Wright (born October 1970) is an Australian computer scientist and businessman. He has publicly claimed to be the main part of the team that created bitcoin, and the identity behind the pseudonym Satoshi Nakamoto. These claims are regarded as false by much of the media and the cryptocurrency community. As of 2019, he lives in the United Kingdom.


title: Craig Steven Wright

text: Wright graduated from high school in 1987 from Padua College in Brisbane. Wright was an adjunct academic and researcher at Charles Sturt University, where he was working on his PhD entitled "The quantification of information systems risk". His PhD was awarded by CSU in February 2017.


title: Craig Steven Wright

text: Wright says he has a doctorate in theology, comparative religious and classical studies, awarded in 2003 from United Theological College.


title: Craig Steven Wright

text: Wright has written or co-written several books. Wright has been a trustee of the Uniting Church in New South Wales.


title: Craig Steven Wright

text: Wright worked in information technology for various companies, including OzEmail, K-Mart and the Australian Securities Exchange, as well as working as a security consultant for Mahindra & Mahindra. He claims to have designed the architecture for possibly the world's first online casino, Lasseter's Online (based in Alice Springs, Northern Territory), which went online in 1999. He was the information systems manager for the accounting firm BDO Kendalls.


title: Craig Steven Wright

text: In 2004, Wright was convicted of contempt of court by the Supreme Court of New South Wales. He was sentenced to 28 days in jail for breaching an injunction that prevented him from approaching customers of DeMorgan Information Security Systems, from which he resigned in 2003. The sentence was suspended on condition of performing 250 hours of community service. After appealing the decision, the ruling was upheld in 2005 and also in a subsequent appeal to the High Court of Australia in 2006.


title: Craig Steven Wright

text: Wright was the CEO of the technology firm Hotwire Preemptive Intelligence Group (Hotwire PE), which planned to launch Denariuz Bank, the world's first bitcoin-based bank, though it encountered regulatory difficulties with the Australian Tax Office and failed in 2014. Wright is the founder of cryptocurrency company DeMorgan Ltd., which claimed to receive $54 million AUD in tax incentives via AusIndustry.


title: Craig Steven Wright

text: In December 2015, two parallel investigations by "Wired" and "Gizmodo" suggested that Wright may have been the inventor of bitcoin. Subsequent reporting, however, raised concerns that Wright was engaged in an elaborate hoax.


title: Craig Steven Wright

text: Hours after "Wired" published their allegations, Wright's home in Gordon, New South Wales and associated business premises in Ryde, New South Wales were raided by the Australian Federal Police. According to the AFP, the raid was part of an Australian Tax Office investigation.


title: Craig Steven Wright

text: On 2 May 2016, a blog post on the website www.drcraigwright.net associated Wright with Satoshi and posted a message with a cryptographic signature attached. Security researcher Dan Kaminsky said in his blog that Wright's claim was a scam and bitcoin developer Jeff Garzik agreed that evidence publicly provided by Wright does not prove anything. Jordan Pearson and Lorenzo Franceschi-Bicchierai said that, "Wright simply reused an old signature from a bitcoin transaction performed in 2009 by Satoshi."


title: Craig Steven Wright

text: Earlier in an interview with the BBC, Wright had promised to give "extraordinary proof to an extraordinary claim." He has yet to provide any verifiable evidence of his authorship of the original Satoshi whitepaper or collaboration with known early developers. In theory his claim should be easy to prove, by simply supplying a message verifying the claim using the original Satoshi Nakamoto GPG private key; however, he is either unable or unwilling to provide this. On Thursday, 5 May 2016, shortly before closing his blog, Wright sent around an email link to a news story site saying "Craig Wright faces criminal charges and serious jail time in UK". Wright stated that "I am the source of terrorist funds as bitcoin creator or I am a fraud to the world. At least a fraud is able to see his family. There is nothing I can do." The article Wright mentioned to O'Hagan has since been retracted.


title: Craig Steven Wright

text: In June 2016, the "London Review of Books" published an article by Andrew O'Hagan about the events, later included in his book "The Secret Life: Three True Stories", in which O'Hagan spends several weeks with Wright at the request of Wright's public relations team; which, as revealed in the book, was set up as a result of a business deal between Wright and various individuals including Calvin Ayre. O'Hagan was with Wright during the time of his various media interviews. O'Hagan also interviews Wright's wife, colleagues and many of the other people involved in his claims.


title: Craig Steven Wright

text: Wright told "Finder" in 2019 that bitcoin's creation was a group effort, that he drove the project, and that Dave Kleiman and Hal Finney were involved.


title: Craig Steven Wright

text: Wright registered US copyright in the bitcoin white paper and the code for Bitcoin 0.1 in April 2019. A spokesman for Wright told the "Financial Times" that this was "the first government agency recognition of Craig Wright as Satoshi Nakamoto, the creator of Bitcoin"; the United States Copyright Office issued a press release clarifying that this was not the case, and that "the Copyright Office does not investigate whether there is a provable connection between the claimant and the pseudonymous author."


title: Craig Steven Wright

text: In February 2018 the estate of Dave Kleiman initiated a lawsuit at the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Florida against Wright over the rights to worth of bitcoin claiming that Wright defrauded Kleiman of bitcoins and intellectual property rights.


title: Craig Steven Wright

text: In August 2019, Magistrate Judge Bruce Reinhart, ruling on a motion to force Wright to list his early bitcoin holdings, ordered that, for the purposes of this case, the Kleiman estate owned half the bitcoin holdings that Wright mined in partnership with Kleiman from 2009 to 2013, as Wright's "non-compliance with the court's orders is willful and in bad faith." Wright was also ordered to transfer half of the partnership's intellectual property, and pay Kleiman's reasonable attorney fees in bringing the motion. Reinhart said that the court was not required to decide, and would not decide, whether Wright was Satoshi Nakamoto, and was not required to decide and did not decide how much bitcoin Wright controlled.


title: Craig Steven Wright

text: Reinhart said that "Dr. Wright's demeanor did not impress me as someone who was telling the truth" and that he rejected Wright's testimony in the motion: "Dr. Wright’s story not only was not supported by other evidence in the record, it defies common sense and real-life experience."


title: Craig Steven Wright

text: Following a three-week trial in late 2021, a jury found Wright liable for conversion but awarded Kleiman's estate US$100 million in damages while Kleiman's estate had sought upwards of US$25 billion at trial. Wright took the position that verdict served as a vindication of his role in inventing bitcoin and stated that he would not appeal the jury's findings.


title: Craig Steven Wright

text: In May 2019, Wright started using English libel law to sue people who accused him of lying about being the inventor of bitcoin, and who called him a fraud. Wright also served legal notices to Vitalik Buterin, the founder of the cryptocurrency Ethereum, who called Wright a fraud; Roger Ver, an early bitcoin entrepreneur and advocate; and Peter McCormack, a podcaster. Wright ended up dropping his lawsuit against Buterin by letting it expire.


title: Craig Steven Wright

text: In the case against McCormack, the High Court judge was not asked to decide whether Wright is Satoshi, as by the time of the trial McCormack was not defending his statements on the basis that they were true, but as the judge found Wright "not to be a witness of truth" who had "advanced a deliberately false case and put forward deliberately false evidence until days before trial" he awarded him only £1 in damages.


title: Craig Steven Wright

text: In June 2019, Wright filed a libel lawsuit against a pseudonymous Bitcoin user, hodlonaut. In response to Wright's actions preceding the lawsuit, Changpeng Zhao, founder of crypto exchange Binance, called Wright out as a fraud.


title: Yola (singer)

text: Yolanda Claire Quartey (born 31 July 1983), known professionally as Yola or Yola Carter, is an English singer-songwriter, musician, and actress. Her debut studio album "Walk Through Fire" (2019) received critical acclaim and earned her four Grammy Award nominations, including Best New Artist. Her follow-up, "Stand for Myself" (2021), received similar acclaim and earned her two more Grammy nominations. Yola made her acting debut in 2022, portraying "godmother of rock n roll" Sister Rosetta Tharpe in Baz Luhrman’s biopic "Elvis".


title: Yola (singer)

text: Yola was born to a Ghanaian father and a Barbadian mother in Bristol, England. Her family tried to discourage her from music at a young age, as they thought it was an unrealistic career option. When Yola was just under 2 her father left her and her mother behind. A single parent struggling to stay afloat, her mother was against Yola's dream to be a singer. It wasn't until Yola went to grammar school she had her first taste of freedom and started to pursue music. She later went to university in London and used her student loan to stay afloat while making music. She ended up becoming a university drop out and was evicted due to being unable to pay her rent. Yola was homeless for six months in her 20s and spent a week begging on the streets before getting enough money to travel back to Bristol.


title: Yola (singer)

text: Under her given name Yolanda Quartey, Yola first gained notice as a member of the Bristol band Phantom Limb, of which she was a member from 2005 to 2012. That band released two albums. Yola has also performed as a guest vocalist and occasional songwriter for British musical acts like Sub Focus, Massive Attack, Bugz in the Attic, Ginger Wildheart, and Duke Dumont.


title: Yola (singer)

text: Yola decided to launch a solo career after the death of her mother in 2013. She released her first solo EP, "Orphan Offering", in 2016. In February 2019, she released her debut album "Walk Through Fire" on Dan Auerbach's Easy Eye Sound label, to much acclaim. The album title references a fire which damaged Yola's home and she escaped. AllMusic called the album "an extraordinary record, one designed to be part of a grand musical tradition, and it contains enough emotion and imagination to earn its place within that lineage." Brittney McKenna of NPR Music's First Listen declared, "It's the work of an artist sure to stun audiences for years to come." "The Wall Street Journal" stated, "The album is an introduction to a seasoned, major vocalist that stands to be remembered as a breakthrough."


title: Yola (singer)

text: "Walk Through Fire" was written, recorded and produced at Dan Auerbach's Easy Eye Studio in Nashville. Auerbach produced the record and assembled an all-star cast for its creation. Most of the songwriting was a collaboration of Yola and Auerbach with contributions from Bobby Wood, Pat McLaughlin and Dan Penn. The team of studio musicians included bassist Dave Roe, harmonica player Charlie McCoy, Mike Rojas, who contributed piano, harpsichord, vibraphone and more, along with former members of the Memphis Boys drummer Gene Crisman and Wood on piano. Additional vocals were contributed by Vince Gill, Molly Tuttle, Ronnie McCoury and Stuart Duncan. The album was recorded and engineered by M. Allen Parker. Auerbach and Parker also mixed the project. In March 2019, Yola made her American television debut on "CBS This Morning"'s Saturday Sessions segment, where she played selections from "Walk Through Fire." She, alongside Sheryl Crow, contributed to two tracks on the debut album by The Highwomen.


title: Yola (singer)

text: Yola made a splash at the Newport Folk Festival 2019 with "Rolling Stone" proclaiming, "Yola became the single most sought-after voice at this year's festival. She played a triumphant side-stage show, served as an unofficial member of The Highwomen, and added her own vocals to performances by everyone from Dolly Parton to Dawes, who let the fast-rising singer take over for the entirety of their 2009 song "When You Call My Name." According to Glide Magazine, "People came from far and wide to hear Yola sing, either because they were enchanted by her excellent release from earlier this year "Walk Through Fire", or because word of mouth had reached them that this was not to be missed."


title: Yola (singer)

text: "Walk Through Fire" generated three Grammy Award nominations. The album was nominated for Best Americana Album and the track "Faraway Look" was nominated for Best American Roots Song and Best American Roots Performance. Additionally, Yola was nominated for Best New Artist.


title: Yola (singer)

text: In February 2020, "Variety" announced that she had been cast to portray Sister Rosetta Tharpe — "dubbed the Godmother of rock and roll" — in Australian director Baz Luhrmanns film Elvis on the life of Elvis Presley set for release in 2022. In December 2020, she was featured in Ringo Starr's single and video "Here's To The Nights", from his 2021 "Zoom In" EP.


title: Yola (singer)

text: In July 2021, Yola released her latest album titled "Stand for Myself". Yola has stated the album's sound is genre fluid, incorporating sounds including symphonic soul, classic pop, disco, R&B, and rock. Yola has stated the album is charts her path self actualization as well as exploring the concept of thriving vs. surviving, grief, the freedom of decisiveness, allyship, and sensuality” according to Ebony Magazine. Opening track, “Barely Alive,” is about “minimizing of yourself, and what that does to you, what that feels like. That’s why it had to be the opener, because that’s how I started. I started being a token Black lady in a very, very white space.” The album closes with “Stand For Myself” which celebrates a moment “of absolute freedom,” when you “can start self actualizing and start living.”


title: Yola (singer)

text: Yola wrote the album during the pandemic, and alongside song ideas she had been germinating for the last decade, including GRAMMY nominated track, “Diamond Studded Shoes”, written with Aaron Lee Tasjan, she developed and wrote the songs in collaboration with artist and songwriters Joy Oladokun, Liz Rose, Ruby Amanfu and Natalie Hemby. NPR proclaimed it the “best soul record of the past 20 years, New York Times stated, “an album made on her own terms” and Rolling Stone praising her as “one of contemporary pop’s greatest singers, who just so happens to also be one of its sharpest songwriters.”


title: Yola (singer)

text: On October 8, 2021, Yola opened at Madison Square Garden for Chris Stapleton. Yola has also performed at The Hollywood Bowl, Newport Folk Festival, NewPort Jazz Festival, Stage Coach and Coachella. To celebrate the launch of the album, Yola commenced her 2022 Stand For Myself Tour in Boston in February 2022, with opening performances by Jac Ross and Nick Connors; and in Nashville by Devon Gilfillian and Allison Russell. The tour continued with sell out dates at venues including New York's Webster Hall and D.C.'s historic Lincoln Theatre, with CBS News taping and broadcast the performance for a special CBS Saturday Sessions episode. Yola has regularly performed on late night TV shows from The Tonight Show to Jimmy Kimmel Live. Yola appeared on CBS This Morning interviewed by Anthony Mason, and performed at Musicares Person Of The Year. Yola was also the first taping of Austin City Limits for its 46th season.


title: Yola (singer)

text: Yola performed for a number of charitable and public-awareness initiatives. This included an appearance at "Twitch Aid," alongside some of the world's biggest artists including: Rufus Wainwright and John Legend, raising funds for the World Health Organization. Yola has also contributed to Annie Lennox's charity The Circle, as well as Love Rocks and CBS's Play On Benefit show for Why Hunger.


title: Yola (singer)

text: On Nov 15 2022 Yola was nominated for her 7th GRAMMY Award, when her performance of "Strange Things Happening Everyday" was nominated as part of the Elvis movie soundtrack. Yola will perform at the American Music Awards on November 20, 2022. Ahead of the performance Variety Magazine stated, Yola was "set for a breakout" moment. Yola became an American Music Award winner when the ELVIS movie soundtrack won the "Favourite Soundtrack," award.


title: Campione d'Italia

text: Campione d'Italia (Comasco: , ) is a "comune" of the Province of Como in the Lombardy region of Italy and an enclave surrounded by the Swiss canton of Ticino (it is also an exclave). At its closest, the enclave is less than from the rest of Italy, but the intervening mountainous terrain requires a journey by road through the Swiss village of Bissone of over to reach the nearest Italian town, Lanzo d'Intelvi, and over to reach the city of Como.


title: Campione d'Italia

text: In the first century BC the Romans founded the garrison town of Campilonum to protect their territories from Helvetii invasions.


title: Campione d'Italia

text: In 777, Toto of Campione, a local Lombard lord, left his inheritance to the archbishopric of Milan. Ownership was transferred to the abbey of Sant’Ambrogio. In 1512, the surrounding area of Ticino was transferred from the ownership of the bishop of Como to Switzerland by Pope Julius II, as thanks for the support in the War of the Holy League. However, the abbey maintained control over what is now Campione d'Italia and some territory on the western bank of Lake Lugano.


title: Campione d'Italia

text: When Ticino chose to become part of the Swiss Confederation in 1798, the people of Campione chose to remain part of Lombardy. In 1800, Ticino proposed exchanging Indemini for Campione. In 1814 a referendum was held, and the residents of Campione opposed it. In 1848, during the wars of Italian unification, Campione petitioned Switzerland for annexation. This was rejected due to the Swiss desire for neutrality.


title: Campione d'Italia

text: After Italian unification in 1861, all land west of Lake Lugano and half of the lake were given to Switzerland so that Swiss trade and transport would not have to pass through Italy. The "d'Italia" was added to the name of Campione in the 1930s by Italian dictator Benito Mussolini and an ornamental gate to the village was built. This was to assert the enclave's Italian character.


title: Campione d'Italia

text: During World War II, the US Office of Strategic Services (OSS – the precursor to the CIA), partly through Berne OSS chief Allen Welsh Dulles, maintained a unit in Campione for operations in Italy. At the time the Italian fascist regime did not have control over the enclave. The Swiss ignored the situation as long as the Americans kept a low profile. Postage stamps were issued during this period inscribed "Campione d'Italia" and valued in Swiss currency.


title: Campione d'Italia

text: Campione has had a considerable amount of economic and administrative integration with Switzerland, but against the wishes of its residents, it formally became part of the EU customs territory on 1 January 2020. VAT will apply, but the tax rate will remain that of Switzerland (much lower than that of Italy). A border crossing will be established.


title: Campione d'Italia

text: Prior to that time, it was "de facto" in the customs territory of Switzerland, meaning most of the public services were carried out by Swiss providers, such as refuse collection, telecommunications, and vehicle registration. The enclave enjoyed considerable tax breaks and was exempt from VAT. Campione d'Italia was one of four Italian cities issued a casino licence and took advantage of this by operating the Casinò di Campione, as gambling laws are less strict than in either Italy or Switzerland; also a legacy of the pre-World War II era.


title: Campione d'Italia

text: Although (as part of Italy) the euro is formally the only legal tender, in practice the main operating currency in the commune has been the Swiss franc, but euros are widely accepted. Salaries are paid in Swiss francs.


title: Campione d'Italia

text: Pursuant to bilateral agreements, Italians residing in Campione also benefit from many services and facilities located in Swiss territory, such as hospital care, that would otherwise be available only to Swiss residents. People working in Campione but living in Switzerland have access to Swiss unemployment and other state help, which does not apply to those living within Campione village limits, which is legally Italy.


title: Campione d'Italia

text: Firefighters and ambulances are provided by the Swiss authorities. However, security is provided by the Carabinieri (Italian military police) and the village also has a Polizia Locale group.


title: Campione d'Italia

text: Previously, mail could be sent to Campione using either a Swiss postal code (CH-6911) or an Italian one (IT-22061) via Switzerland or Italy, but the Swiss postal code has ceased to be valid, with mail instead being charged at the same international rate as that between Switzerland and Italy. Consequently, all mail is now processed and delivered by Poste Italiane, not Swiss Post. The telephone system remains Swiss, meaning that calls from Italy and all other countries outside Switzerland require the international dialling code for Switzerland, +41, with the exception of the town hall, which can be reached using the code for Italy, +39.


title: Campione d'Italia

text: Similarly, motor vehicles, which used Ticino registration plates, were no longer allowed to do so, or to be insured in Switzerland. Instead, they were required to be registered in Como. However, electricity has always been supplied from Italy.


title: Campione d'Italia

text: The Casinò di Campione was the largest employer in the municipality up until its closure in 2018. The casino then reopened in 2022. It was founded in 1917, owned by the Italian government, and operated by the municipality. The income from the casino was sufficient for the operation of Campione without the imposition of taxes, or obtaining of other revenue. It was Europe's largest casino.


title: Campione d'Italia

text: The casino was declared bankrupt on 27 July 2018. The economic impact was a threat to the entire village, with everything from pizzeria owners and taxi drivers to the municipal fire department on the list of creditors. Locals feared that without the casino, the commune would become a ghost town. Under the customs deal of 2020 Italy agreed to settle debts to Swiss creditors estimated at nearly €5 million. The casino re-opened 26 January 2022.


title: Campione d'Italia

text: Schools within the comune are the Scuola Materna G. Garibaldi, the "Scuola Elementare", and the "Scuola Media".


title: Chaleo Yoovidhya

text: Chaleo Yoovidhya (; , , ; 17 August 1923 – 17 March 2012) was a Thai businessman and investor. He was the originator of Krating Daeng () and co-creator of the Red Bull brand of energy drinks. At the time of his death in 2012 at the age of 88, he was listed as the third-richest person in Thailand, with an estimated net worth of US$5 billion.


title: Chaleo Yoovidhya

text: Various news sources suggest Chaleo was born in central Thailand at some point between 1922 and 1932. "The New York Times" notes that three birthdates have been put forward by different sources: ""The Nation", a Thai newspaper, reported that he was 90, while several other news media outlets in Thailand said he was 88. "Forbes" recently put his age at 80." BBC News states, "Mr Chaleo was born of poor Chinese immigrant parents in the northern province of Phichit, reportedly in 1932, local media say." "The Australian" and "Time" say he was 89. "The Telegraph" and "The Independent" say he was born in 1923 to a poor Thai Chinese family that raised ducks and traded fruit in Phichit. His father was an immigrant from Hainan.


title: Chaleo Yoovidhya

text: With little formal education, he worked for his parents, then moved to Bangkok. He became an antibiotics salesman, before quitting to set up his own small pharmaceutical company, TC Pharmaceuticals, in the early-1960s. Later, after a claimed stroke of "divine inspiration", he developed an energy-boosting beverage that was first introduced in 1976. The logo depicts two large, red bulls charging each other. The bulls are not cattle, but wild gaur, a bovine species native to Southeast Asia and called "krathing" (กระทิง) in Thai.


title: Chaleo Yoovidhya

text: Dietrich Mateschitz, an Austrian salesman for a German company, found the drink cured his jet lag, and entered into partnership with Chaleo in 1984. In 1987, the two launched an export version labelled "Red Bull", for which Chaleo provided the original formula (adapted for Western tastes under Mateschitz's guidance), and Mateschitz the marketing. Each put up US$500,000 for 49 per cent of the Red Bull energy drink franchise, with Chaleo's son, Chalerm, owning the remaining two per cent. Chaleo continued to own TC Pharmaceuticals, which manufactured other energy drinks in Thailand, and was also part-owner of Piyavate Hospital, a private hospital in Thailand, and co-owner of the sole authorized importer of Ferrari Italian luxury sports cars into Thailand.


title: Victoria Jackson

text: Victoria Jackson (born August 2, 1959) is an American actress, comedian, and singer who was a cast member of the NBC television sketch comedy series "Saturday Night Live" (SNL) from 1986 to 1992.


title: Victoria Jackson

text: Jackson was born in Miami, Florida, the daughter of Marlene Esther (née Blackstad) and James McCaslin Jackson, a gym coach. From the age of 5 until she was 18, Jackson's father trained her in gymnastics.


title: Victoria Jackson

text: After graduating from high school, Jackson attended Florida Bible College in Hollywood, Florida, later transferring to Furman University in Greenville, South Carolina on a gymnastics scholarship. At Furman, she was cast in her first play. She transferred to Auburn University in 1979 for her senior year, changing her major to theater. Midway through her senior year, she left Auburn to pursue an acting career.


title: Victoria Jackson

text: While doing summer stock theater in Alabama, Jackson met former child actor Johnny Crawford of the 1950s television series "The Rifleman", who cast her in his nightclub act. She moved to Los Angeles in 1981, working various day jobs and performing comedy at night. Her first big break was an appearance on "The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson", where she recited poetry while doing a handstand. She went on to appear on the show 20 times. In 1984 she appeared in the pilot for "W*A*L*T*E*R", a "M*A*S*H" spin-off that the networks did not pick up.


title: Victoria Jackson

text: Following a role in the short-lived 1985 television series "Half Nelson", Jackson received an offer to audition for the cast of "Saturday Night Live". Because she was not confident her audition had gone well, she performed several impersonations on her next "Tonight Show" appearance and sent the tape to "SNL"s Lorne Michaels. After viewing the tape, Michaels asked Jackson to join the show. A regular cast member from 1986 to 1992, Jackson often appeared on the show's weekly "Weekend Update" segment as a correspondent who would go off topic, reciting poetry and doing backbends or handstands on the desk. She was also known for recurring skit roles where she would impersonate Roseanne Barr, Sally Struthers and Zsa Zsa Gabor.


title: Victoria Jackson

text: During her tenure on "SNL", Jackson was cast in a number of films, including "Baby Boom", "Family Business", "I Love You to Death", "UHF", "The Pick-up Artist", "The Couch Trip", and "Casual Sex?". Her film career continued after her 1992 departure from "Saturday Night Live", but mostly in unknown or unnoticed films. On television, she was cast as the lead of her own sitcom, co-starring George Clooney. When there was a change in management at Fox, the show was scrapped without being broadcast. In 1994, she appeared as "Beverly" in the "In the Heat of the Night" episode "Good Cop, Bad Cop", and in 2000 she appeared as the unrequited love of a small-town man who can control the weather in "The X-Files" episode "The Rain King".


title: Victoria Jackson

text: Jackson had a regular role as Patty in the 2000-01 Comedy Central sitcom "Strip Mall" and in the 2003–04 seasons of the Nickelodeon show "Romeo!". In 2004 and 2005, she had roles in two romantic comedies, "Shut Up and Kiss Me!" and "Her Minor Thing". During this period, Jackson appeared on the game show "Hollywood Squares" and participated in the show "Celebrity Fit Club". She played multiple characters in the 2014 direct-to-video movie "Campin' Buddies".


title: Victoria Jackson

text: A self-described conservative Christian, Jackson has appeared in productions such as the 2007 Christian comedy concert "Thou Shalt Laugh 2: The Deuce" as well as a dozen times on "Politically Incorrect" with Bill Maher as the "token religious conservative". She has supported the Tea Party movement through appearances at events as well as her website, which was affiliated with the Liberty Alliance.


title: Victoria Jackson

text: In October 2008, she appeared with other celebrities on "The O'Reilly Factor" in a National Republican Senatorial Committee advertisement poking fun at Al Franken, a fellow "Saturday Night Live" alumnus then running for the United States Senate from Minnesota.


title: Victoria Jackson

text: Beginning in 2008, Jackson stated that she believed Barack Obama to be a communist. In 2015, she claimed that Obama was an "Islamic jihadist" and a member of the Muslim Brotherhood, with members of the organization in his cabinet, and that Obama's support for legal abortion and same-sex marriage showed he was not a Christian.


title: Victoria Jackson

text: In 2011, Jackson criticized the TV show "Glee" for showing a kiss between two male actors, citing the Bible to justify her criticism. When accused of homophobia, Jackson countered that the label was merely a "cute liberal buzzword" and suggested that "Glee" be replaced with a show promoting celibacy.


title: Victoria Jackson

text: In 2011, Jackson joined the staff of "Patriot Update" as a writer and video blogger and host of the talk show "Politichicks". Co-hosts included Ann-Marie Murrell, Jannique Stewart, and Jennie Jones. Jackson wrote a satirical song for "Politichicks" titled "Shariah Law", with the song's lyrics claiming, "They [Muslims] like beheadings and pedophile weddings". Among her work for Patriot Update was a piece on Occupy Wall Street that was critical of the protesters.


title: Victoria Jackson

text: In 2012, White Hall publishers, part of the Liberty Alliance, released Jackson's autobiography, "Is My Bow Too Big? How I went from Saturday Night Live to the Tea Party".


title: Victoria Jackson

text: In 2012, after Todd Akin's remarks regarding pregnancies resulting from rape, Jackson said, "If I got raped, I would have the baby. And if I didn't want to keep it because I had these horrible nightmares, I would adopt it out. But I think that God can turn a bad thing into a good thing, and that if I got raped and a beautiful baby who was innocent was born out of it, that would be a blessing."


title: Victoria Jackson

text: In 2014, Jackson filed a petition as an independent candidate for one of two District 2 seats in Williamson County, Tennessee. She received 632 votes, not enough to secure either seat against the incumbent candidates.


title: Victoria Jackson

text: Jackson married a fellow performer, fire-eating magician Nisan Mark Eventoff, in 1984, and had a daughter, Scarlet (born 1986). They divorced in 1991. Shortly thereafter, she reconnected with her high school sweetheart, Paul Wessel, then a Miami-Dade SWAT team police officer, and they married and had a daughter, Aubrey (born 1994). When her husband retired in 2013, the couple moved to Nashville, Tennessee.


title: Chris Frantz

text: Charton Christopher Frantz (born May 8, 1951) is an American musician and record producer. He is the drummer for both Talking Heads and Tom Tom Club, both of which he co-founded with wife and Talking Heads bassist Tina Weymouth. In 2002, Frantz was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Talking Heads.


title: Chris Frantz

text: Born in Fort Campbell, Kentucky, Charton Christopher Frantz graduated from Shady Side Academy in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He studied in the early 1970s at the Rhode Island School of Design, where he met both David Byrne and Tina Weymouth. Byrne and Frantz formed a band called the Artistics, which went on to become Talking Heads, in 1973. Weymouth, then Frantz's girlfriend, joined the band in 1975 after they had moved to New York City. Frantz and Weymouth were married in 1977 and have two sons.


title: Chris Frantz

text: Frantz and Weymouth formed Tom Tom Club in 1980, when Talking Heads went on hiatus due to Byrne's solo efforts. Weymouth, Frantz, and Jerry Harrison reunited as for a one-off album called "No Talking, Just Head" in 1996, featuring a rotating cast of vocalists, including Debbie Harry.


title: Chris Frantz

text: He and Weymouth produced the Happy Mondays' 1992 album, "Yes Please!" and the Scottish group Angelfish's self-titled album, in addition to producing multiple albums for Ziggy Marley and the Melody Makers. Frantz and Weymouth also contributed backing vocals and percussion for Gorillaz self-titled debut album.


title: Chris Frantz

text: He is ranked number 12 in "Stylus Magazine"s list of the 50 greatest rock drummers and hosts a monthly radio program, "Chris Frantz the Talking Head", on 89.5 WPKN in Bridgeport, Connecticut.


title: Chris Frantz

text: Frantz and Weymouth are also closely associated with the Compass Point All Stars movement. After Phish covered Talking Heads' "Remain in Light", Frantz become known as an influence on the modern jamband scene.


title: Chris Frantz

text: Frantz's memoir, "Remain in Love: Talking Heads, Tom Tom Club, Tina", was published in July 2020 (St. Martin's Press in the US and Faber and Faber in the UK).


title: Chris Frantz

text: On Memorial Day Weekend 2020, Frantz suffered a heart attack that required the insertion of three stents.


title: Byron Bay

text: Byron Bay (Minjungbal: "Cavvanbah)" is a beachside town located in the far-northeastern corner of the state of New South Wales, Australia on Bundjalung Country. It is located north of Sydney and south of Brisbane. Cape Byron, a headland adjacent to the town, is the easternmost point of mainland Australia. At the 2021 census, the town had a permanent population of 6,330. It is the largest town of Byron Shire, though not the shire's administrative centre (which is Mullumbimby).


title: Byron Bay

text: Byron Bay and surrounds is located on unceded land of the Bundjalung Nation of the Arakwal, Minjungbal and the Widjabul people who have lived by the coast for at least 22,000 years. The land and people were created by Nguthungulli that rests at what is now called Julian Rocks. The traditional name of the township area was "Cavvanbah", meaning "meeting place""." Significant totems for the area include "Wajung" and "Kabul."


title: Byron Bay

text: In 1770 Lieutenant James Cook found safe anchorage and named Cape Byron after a fellow sailor Vice Admiral 'Foul-Weather Jack' John Byron, circumnavigator of the world and grandfather of the poet Lord Byron. European settlement in the area took place in the 1830s. A massacre took place in the 1850s, south of Suffolk Park where the quarry is today.


title: Byron Bay

text: The first industry in Byron was cedar logging from the Australian red cedar ("Toona ciliata"). The timber industry is the origin of the word "shoot" in many local names – Possum Shoot, Coopers Shoot and Skinners Shoot – where the timber-cutters would "shoot" the logs down the hills to be dragged to waiting ships. Timber getting became insignificant after World War I. As a result, many former timber workers became farmers.


title: Byron Bay

text: Gold mining of the beaches was the next industry to occur. Gold was discovered in Byron Bay in 1870. Up to 20 mining leases set up on Tallow Beach to extract gold from the black sands around the 1870s.


title: Byron Bay

text: Byron Bay has a history of primary industrial production (dairy factory, abattoirs, fishing, and whaling until 1963) and was a significant, but hazardous, sea port. The poet Brunton Stephens spoke of cattle grazing on the "mossy plains" of Cape Byron in a poem he penned in 1876.


title: Byron Bay

text: The first jetty was built in 1886, and the railway was connected in 1894, and Cavvanbah became Byron Bay in 1894. Dairy farmers cleared more land and settled the area. In 1895, the Norco Co-operative was formed to provide cold storage and manage the dairy and processes meat industry. The introduction of paspalum grass improved production, and Byron Bay exported butter from its depots at Murwillumbah and Lismore to the world.


title: Byron Bay

text: The Cape Byron Lighthouse was built in 1901 at the most easterly point on the Australian mainland. Its construction destroyed a significant Arakwal men's ceremonial ground.


title: Byron Bay

text: In 1930, the first meatworks opened. The smell from the meat and dairy works was appalling and the annual slaughter of migrating whales in the 1950s and 1960s made matters worse. Sand mining for monazite (zircon, uranium and thorium) between the World Wars damaged the environment further. Mining ceased in 1968 and processing in 1972.


title: Byron Bay

text: Longboard surfers arrived in the 1960s and used natural breaks at The Pass, Watego's, and Cosy Corner. This was the beginning of Byron Bay as a travellers' destination, and by 1973, when the Aquarius Festival was held in nearby Nimbin, its reputation as a hippy, happy, alternative town was established, although tourism facilities remained minimal. From the 1980s, tourism began to develop in earnest, with the cash-poor surfers and hippies supplemented, and to a degree supplanted, by cash-rich conspicuous consumers who in turn stimulated the development of retail precincts and accommodation more tuned to their needs.


title: Byron Bay

text: In 1994, a native title claim was made by Arakwal Elders Lorna Kelly, Linda Vidler and Yvonne Graham. After seven years of negotiation, an Indigenous Land Use Agreement was formed with the State of New South Wales in 2001, a national first and precedent for subsequent agreements around Australia. Two further local agreements also followed.


title: Byron Bay

text: Today, Byron Bay is one of the most up-market residential areas on the Australian east coast with the growth in multi-million dollar mansions now pushing the median value of house sales up beyond AU$1.5 million in 2017, over a 100% increase since 2013, based on 2018 data from realestate.com.au. At the same time, the town has not lost its attraction to a diverse range of visitors including surfers, backpackers and general tourists interested in the natural attractions of the area, and also supports a healthy cross section of creative persons including artists, craftspersons and musicians, while its more recent hippy/new age past is reflected to a degree in a prevalence of alternative "new-age" shops, "spiritual" services such as meditation and yoga classes, and holistic healing/"wellness" retreats. As at 2018, the town is cited as having around 5,000 permanent residents, while being visited by 2 million tourists each year.


title: Byron Bay

text: A number of shipwrecks litter the bay and surrounding areas. A total 16 are known with the most famous of these being the 'Wollongbar' which due to bad conditions sank off the eastern tip of Belongil beach, it now rests about from the coast and is still visible above water during low tide.


title: Byron Bay

text: Byron Bay is part of the erosion caldera of an ancient shield volcano, the Tweed Volcano, which had erupted 23 million years ago. The volcano formed as a result of the Indo-Australian Plate moving over the East Australia hotspot.


title: Byron Bay

text: Although was named a Bay when discovered, it is in fact in geological terms a "Bight" as the angle of curvature from Cape Byron to Hastings point is less than 25 degrees.


title: Byron Bay

text: Byron Bay has a humid subtropical climate ("Cfa" in the Köppen climate classification) with warm summers and mild winters. Winters have daily maximums usually reaching 19.4 °C and a minimum of 12 °C. Summer can be hot, with a daily average of 27 °C. Summer evenings can be wet, cooling the day down. Due to its location on an ocean-facing cape, it is, therefore, more exposed to moist easterly flows, hence its annual rainfall above 1,500 mm, which is higher than that of Brisbane and the Gold Coast.


title: Byron Bay

text: The town is a resort popular with both domestic and international tourists, not the least backpackers. It has several beaches that are popular for surfing and the scenery attracts skydivers. An oceanway allows visitors to walk and cycle from the centre of town to Cape Byron Lighthouse.


title: Byron Bay

text: The area is noted for its wildlife, with whale watching a significant contributor to the local economy. Temperate and tropical waters merge here, making it a popular place for scuba diving and snorkelling. Most diving is done at Julian Rocks, 2.5 kilometres from the town and part of the Cape Byron Marine Park. Subtropical rainforests are nearby, and areas such as the Nightcap National Park and its Minyon Falls are within easy reach of the town.


title: Byron Bay

text: Festivals held in or near Byron Bay include the East Coast Blues & Roots Music Festival at Tyagarah at Easter, Falls Festival NYE and Splendour in the Grass, the Byron Bay International Fashion Festival on 29 April each year, the Byron Bay Writers Festival, the Byron Bay Film Festival, Byron Bay Surf Festival, Byron Spirit Festival and the Byron Underwater Festival. The Byron Bay Triathlon is held on the second Saturday in May every year; 1,300 competitors from many countries enter this Olympic Distance event. The vibrant musical community has produced internationally renowned bands such as Blue King Brown, Parkway Drive and 50 Lions.


title: Byron Bay

text: Byron Bay has a number of regular markets including a weekly farmers' market at the Cavanbah Centre every Thursday with over 70 local farmers selling fresh produce. There is also a Byron Community Market held on the same site on the first Sunday of each month and the Artisan Market held on Saturday evenings at Railway Park from October to Easter. There are three annual specialist Beachside Markets held in January, Easter and September.


title: Byron Bay

text: A bus station in Jonson Street is served by Greyhound Australia, NSW TrainLink and Premier Motor Services coach services from Sydney and Brisbane.


title: Byron Bay

text: The privately run Byron Bay Train operates a shuttle service on a rehabilitated 3 km section of the disused Murwillimbah line between Byron Bay station in the Byron township and North Beach station, adjacent to the Elements of Byron resort. The service opened in December 2017, and uses an ex-NSWGR railmotor, converted to run exclusively on solar power using panels on top of the train and at the stations.


title: Byron Bay

text: Until 2004, Byron Bay railway station was a stop on the Casino to Murwillumbah railway line. It was served by trains from Sydney and, for various periods, also by services originating at Casino that connected with expresses running between Sydney and South Brisbane.