title: Age of Mythology

text: Atlantean admiral and war hero Arkantos arrives at Atlantis after several years of warfare to see his son, Kastor. However, he is ordered by the Atlantean councillor and theocrat, Krios, to sail to Troy to assist Agamemnon in the Trojan War. Just then, the island is attacked by krakens and the Black Sails, a group of pirate bandits led by the minotaur Kamos, a fierce enemy of Arkantos. After the trident from Poseidon's statue gets stolen, Arkantos raids the pirate settlement on a nearby island, where he recovers the trident, although Kamos escapes on a leviathan and vows revenge. Arkantos sends the trident back to Atlantis and sails away, leaving Kastor behind against the latter's wishes.


title: Age of Mythology

text: Arkantos travels to Troy to assist Agamemnon. After a series of skirmishes against Troy, fighting alongside Ajax and Odysseus, they devise the plan involving the Trojan Horse, and swiftly win the war. Afterwards, Ajax recommends Arkantos to sail to Ioklos to repair his ships, which are too heavily damaged for the trip back to Atlantis. When they arrive, the port has been raided by bandits, who have imprisoned the centaur Chiron. After rescuing Chiron, he reveals that the leader of the bandits is a man named Kemsyt.


title: Age of Mythology

text: Chiron takes them north to locate the other prisoners, who are being forced to dig up an entrance to the underworld by Gargarensis, a cyclops warlord and commander of both Kemsyt and Kamos. The heroes destroy Gargarensis's base and confront him, but he escapes to the underworld of Erebus using the entrance. The heroes follow Gargarensis into the underworld, where they find him trying to burst open a large door in the stone with a huge battering ram. Cautious of his motives, they destroy the ram. An amused Gargarensis confronts them and causes a cave to collapse before escaping, forcing the heroes to find another way out. With the help of the dead, they reach three temples dedicated to the Greek gods Poseidon, Zeus, and Hades. Arkantos prays to Atlantis's patron Poseidon for help but receives none. He then prays to Zeus, who creates a staircase to the surface.


title: Age of Mythology

text: Reaching the surface, they find themselves in Egypt, where they help a Nubian mercenary leader named Amanra in fighting Kemsyt, who is there to steal a relic that Amanra's men are excavating. She reveals that the Egyptian god Osiris has been killed and had his body parts scattered across the desert by Set, who aids Gargarensis. Amanra plans to reunite Osiris's body parts scattered throughout the desert, bringing him back. During this time. Arkantos falls asleep and is met by Athena in his dreams, who reveals Gargarensis's motives:


title: Age of Mythology

text: Ages before, the Earth was ruled by the Titans under Kronos. Zeus stopped Kronos and imprisoned him in Tartarus, of which several entrances to exist behind adamantine doors across the world. However, Poseidon, who is envious of Zeus's power, is trying to free Kronos and the Titans in order to destroy Zeus so he could claim the throne. Gargarensis is aiding him because Poseidon and Kronos have promised him immortality as a reward. Athena asks Arkantos to stop Gargarensis at all costs, as Zeus himself cannot interfere.


title: Age of Mythology

text: In order to stop him, Arkantos travels with Ajax, while Amanra and Chiron go their separate ways to find the pieces of Osiris. Amanra goes north, where she finds Kemsyt's fortress on an island. With the aid of nearby villagers, she captures the piece he had stolen, but Kemsyt escapes. Chiron finds and recovers another piece hidden beneath a giant tamarisk tree, and is aided by Norsemen, who are seeking Gargarensis to try and stop him from causing Ragnarok. Meanwhile, Arkantos and Ajax find the last piece in Kamos's main fortress. Arkantos raids the fortress, secures the piece, and mortally wounds Kamos with a spear, who falls to his death.


title: Age of Mythology

text: The heroes gather all the pieces outside Osiris's pyramid, which protects another gate to Tartarus. Osiris is resurrected and defeats Gargarensis's army but the cyclops escapes, heading north to the Norselands, the location of another Tartarus gate.


title: Age of Mythology

text: Following Gargarensis, Ajax and Arkantos find Odysseus's wrecked ship on the coast of an island, and so decide to land to look for him. Upon landing, both men are turned into boars by the sorceress Circe. They proceed to rescue Odysseus and his men, who have also been cursed, reverse the curse on them and destroy Circe's fortress. Odysseus continues his journey home, while Arkantos and Ajax continue north.


title: Age of Mythology

text: When they reach the frozen Norselands, they are given directions to the underworld by dwarf brothers Brokk and Eitri in return for repelling giants from their forge. Later, an elderly man named Skult gives them a banner to unite the Norse clans. However, the Norsemen are instead enraged, and the heroes are forced to defeat their chieftains in combat. Valkyries arrive and explain that the flag is actually the banner of the evil giant Folstag and the plan a trick by Skult, who is actually the god Loki in disguise, another ally of Gargarensis.


title: Age of Mythology

text: With the help of the valkyrie Reginleif, who sent the Norsemen to Egypt, the heroes locate Gargarensis and the Tartarus gate. Inside the Norse underworld Niflheim, they are pursued by fire giants until Chiron sacrifices himself to hold them off, saving his friends. While Gargarensis is trying to knock down the gate, Brokk and Eitri have been rebuilding Thor's hammer (shattered by Loki), that upon completion seals the gate. Back on the surface, they confront Gargarensis with the help of Odysseus, who has made a detour to help them, and the cyclops is captured and beheaded by Ajax.


title: Age of Mythology

text: Arkantos sails back to Atlantis. When he brings out Gargarensis's head to tie it to the mast in victory, the bag sprouts ravens and he finds the head is actually Kemsyt's, another trick by Loki. Gargarensis is still alive and is trying to break the final gate holding Kronos, which is located at the centre of Atlantis. Gargarensis has captured and fortified Atlantis, and Poseidon himself has possessed a statue in the city center to protect him. Arkantos builds a wonder to Zeus and gains his blessing, giving him god-like power and enabling him to confront Gargarensis and the living statue at the temple of Poseidon. With his new powers, Arkantos defeats the statue, and Gargarensis is impaled by its trident as it collapses. All of Atlantis then collapses into the ocean, along with Arkantos. While the remaining heroes sail away with the surviving Atlanteans, Athena revives Arkantos and rewards him by making him a god.


title: Age of Mythology

text: An official campaign, "The Golden Gift", was released as a download on Microsoft's website. The campaign follows the adventures of Brokk and Eitri, the dwarves who appeared in the initial campaign. The plot unfolds with both dwarves planning to create a giant golden boar as an offering to the Norse god Freyr. While working separately, Brokk is approached by Skult (also from "Fall of the Trident") who warns him that Eitri is making preparations to create the boar without his brother, of which Eitri is also told the same about Brokk. As both brothers race to complete the boar in the great forge, Skult steals the finished piece and holds it in Loki's fortress. The brothers eventually assault the base, and the boar is retrieved and successfully offered to Freyr.


title: Age of Mythology

text: Ensemble Studios began work on their first fully 3D engine at the same time as their development of "". Named the BANG! Engine, this was announced in January 2001, for use in a new game, codenamed "RTSIII". "RTSIII" was eventually revealed as "Age of Mythology". In developing "Age of Mythology", Ensemble Studios decided to move away from the center of the "Age of Empires" series history, to avoid becoming stale and repetitive. This allowed them to work with new ideas and concepts.


title: Age of Mythology

text: Following the announcement of the game for September 2002, a trial version was released. It contained five scenarios of the game's campaign, and two random maps. In the trial version, the player can only select Zeus, but there are nine gods available in the full version of the game. There was debate during "Age of Mythology"s construction concerning the unbalanced nature of god powers and how to make them "fair" while still maintaining an element of fun in them. It was concluded that the best way to make it fair for everyone was to limit the use of god powers to one a game. "Age of Mythology" underwent a large amount of beta-testing during its developmental phase, as Ensemble Studios attempted to create a more balanced and competitive game than its predecessors. Greg T. Street commented that one of the reasons "Age of Mythology" became so popular was because the development team spent many hours working on the game through active testing, rather than just taking advice from a "faceless drone in another building".


title: Age of Mythology

text: The official soundtrack was released on October 22, 2002, under the record label "Sumthing Else". The score was written by Stephen Rippy and Kevin McMullan. Rippy cites musicians such as Peter Gabriel, Tuatara, Bill Laswell, Talvin Singh and Tchad Blake as inspirations for the soundtrack. The musical work done on "Age of Mythology" was unlike anything Rippy had done before; an example of this was "writing for a seventy-piece orchestra and then flying out to Washington to record it".


title: Age of Mythology

text: Music 4 Games' reviewer, Jay Semerad, heaped "Age of Mythology"s soundtrack with praise. He summarized his review by declaring: "In all, the Age of Mythology soundtrack is an experience that should not be missed. It's easily one of my favorite soundtracks from this past year." Semerad was also astonished, and appreciative, of the use of instruments such as the ney flute, tabla and toy piano, all of which he said produced "some innovative analog and synthesized electronic effects". His only critique was that at times some of the background melodies were "bound to a simple harmonization", and lacking any "real bold or innovative purpose".


title: Age of Mythology

text: "Age of Mythology: The Titans" is an expansion to "Age of Mythology", released on September 30, 2003. The expansion added a new culture, the Atlanteans, as well as several new units, including titans. Critics and fans received the expansion with enthusiasm, although its ratings were slightly lower on average than those of the original version.


title: Age of Mythology

text: "Age of Empires: Mythologies" is a spin-off of "", but with the unique mythology-based gameplay elements of "Age of Mythology". It was developed by Griptonite Games for the Nintendo DS.


title: Age of Mythology

text: "Age of Mythology: Extended Edition" is a compilation that includes the main game and "The Titans" expansion. It adds Steamworks integration, Twitch support, an enhanced observer mode, native HD widescreen and improved water and lighting. It was released on May 8, 2014. The Extended Edition was developed by SkyBox Labs.


title: Age of Mythology

text: On September 18, 2015, a new expansion was announced, "Tale of the Dragon". It was co-developed by SkyBox Labs and Forgotten Empires, the latter having worked on new expansions for "Age of Empires II". The expansion added a new culture, the Chinese, with the major gods Fuxi, Nüwa, and Shennong. The expansion also features a new campaign and multiplayer maps, as well as other features. It was released on January 28, 2016.


title: Age of Mythology

text: In the United States, "Age of Mythology" sold 870,000 copies and earned $31.9 million by August 2006, after its release in October 2002. It was the country's 10th best-selling computer game between January 2000 and August 2006. Combined sales of the game and its "Titans" expansion had reached 1.3 million units in the United States by August 2006. "Age of Mythology" received a "Gold" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 200,000 copies in the United Kingdom.


title: Age of Mythology

text: "Age of Mythology" received critical acclaim, reaching an estimated one million units sold within five months of its release. The game was nominated for the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences' Interactive Achievement Awards for "Computer Game of the Year" and "Computer Strategy Game of the Year". "GameSpot" named "Age of Mythology" the best computer game of November 2002. It was a runner-up for "GameSpot"s annual "Best Single-Player Strategy Game on PC" and "Best Multiplayer Strategy Game on PC" awards, which went respectively to "" and "Warcraft III".


title: Age of Mythology

text: "Age of Mythology"s graphics were praised by the majority of reviewers. "IGN" reviewer Steve Butts stated that "some fantastic effects and believable animations make this one a joy to watch. The differences between the armies and environments are awesome." As such, he gave the graphics a rating of 9 out of 10. Meanwhile, "GameSpot" reviewer Greg Kasavin also rated the graphics 9 out of 10, stating that ""Age of Mythology" is a great-looking game, filled with bright colors and carefully detailed animations." "Game Revolution" also appreciated "Age of Mythology"s graphics, stating in their review that the "new 3D landscape looks good", and including graphics as one of the positives in the review summary. "PC Gamer" reviewer William Harms admired the graphics, "The environments, units, and buildings are packed with detail," and excitedly commented on the effects: "What really impressed me, though, were the game's animations. When a Minotaur smacks a dude with his club, the schmoe goes flying, skids on the ground, and then bounces back into the air."


title: Age of Mythology

text: The game's soundtrack was also praised by reviewers, although several commented that it was repetitive and predictable at times. "IGN" described it as "great, if repetitive, music", whilst "Game Revolution" declared that the sound "really showcases Ensemble's continued attention to detail", before going on to praise the audio snippets in various languages.


title: Age of Mythology

text: "IGN" was pleased with "Age of Mythology"s campaign, and not bothered by its length. Instead, they stated that "the meaningful and engaging single player campaign provides a nearly flawless experience." However, "GameSpot" was slightly critical of it, claiming that "while some of the campaign missions do feature some unusual circumstances or objectives that change, the game's story isn't incredibly engaging." This was compromised by stating that "Age of Empires" fans wouldn't expect an amazing campaign; they would "make a beeline for the game's random map mode, anyway." "PC Gamer" elaborated more on the campaign however, saying: "many of the missions are extremely well-crafted", and that "sprinkled throughout these encounters are moments of genuine comedy — a truly delightful surprise." However, they still found reasons to criticize: "Regrettably, most of "AoM"s missions suffer from one recurring, frustrating problem: a severe case of 'build base-itis.'" The reviewer elaborated: "I know base-building is inherent to the genre, but even the most ardent fan will be put off by just how much there is. What's most disappointing is that "AoM"s setting really lends itself to imaginative mission design — and I don't think the designers took full advantage of the backdrop, which is a shame."


title: Age of Mythology

text: The editors of "Computer Games Magazine" named "Age of Mythology" the fourth-best computer game of 2002, and called it "an amazingly well-balanced game, both in terms of its pacing and its mix of standard historical and fantastical units". It was a nominee for "PC Gamer US"s "2002 Best Real-Time Strategy Game" award, which ultimately went to "".


title: Age of Mythology

text: "Age of Mythology"s artificial intelligence (AI) was used by four Austrian researchers—Christoph Hermann, Helmuth Melcher, Stefan Rank and Robert Trappl—in a study into the value of emotions in real-time strategy games. According to the abstract, "We were interested whether incorporating a simple emotional model to an existing bot-script improves playing strength." The results of the study determined that of the four bots they tested, the neurotic bot was most capable of defeating "Age of Mythology"s default AI, followed by the aggressive one. Neither bot was defeated by the standard AI, but the neurotic bot won, on average, twenty five percent more rapidly. Plans were made to extend the research in the future by pitting the neurotic bot against a human player.


title: Herbert (Family Guy)

text: John Herbert, nicknamed "Herbert the Pervert", is a fictional character in the animated television series "Family Guy", created and voiced by Mike Henry. Herbert is an elderly neighbor of the Griffin family who first appeared in the season 3 episode "To Love and Die in Dixie". A pedohebephile who is attracted to young boys, he harbors unrequited love for Chris Griffin.


title: Herbert (Family Guy)

text: Herbert has received mixed reviews from critics, who have expressed varying opinions on the pedophilia-related humor involving the character. Herbert has appeared in various "Family Guy" merchandise and has made several crossover appearances in "The Cleveland Show", a "Family Guy" spin-off.


title: Herbert (Family Guy)

text: Herbert lives in the fictional town of Quahog, Rhode Island, which is modeled after Cranston, Rhode Island. He is an elderly man who dresses in a baby blue bathrobe and utilizes a walking frame due to his age; his dog Jesse is equally elderly and decrepit, being unable to use his hind legs. In his first appearance, "To Love and Die in Dixie" (season 3, 2001), Herbert attempts to seduce Chris inside the house by offering him a popsicle that Herbert insists is in his basement. Despite his pleas, Chris refuses the offer.


title: Herbert (Family Guy)

text: In "The Courtship of Stewie's Father" (season 4, 2005), Chris breaks Herbert's window with a baseball and Chris assists Herbert with chores around his house in attempts to pay off the debt, much to Herbert's delight. Herbert later invites Chris to dinner wherein a souvenir photograph of the pair is taken. When Chris gets a new job in "Movin' Out (Brian's Song)" (season 6, 2007), his younger brother Stewie takes over his paper route with Herbert attempting to seduce him much in the same way as he does towards Chris, but is rebuffed by Stewie, who refers to Herbert as a "perverted old freak", insisting he should “piss off” though this only furthers his lust for the infant. In "Play It Again, Brian" (season 6, 2008), Herbert is hired by Peter and Lois to babysit their children Chris, Stewie and Meg. Herbert accepts the offer, claiming he will wear his "snazziest duds", erupting into the song "All I Need is the Girl" (though modified to reflect his unrequited affection for Chris). He claims to have no interest in Meg in large part due to her age and gender, and is disappointed when she is the only one of the three to bathe him. Herbert has a grand-niece, Sandy, whom he helps attract Chris in the style of Cyrano de Bergerac in "Valentine's Day in Quahog" (season 11, 2013).


title: Herbert (Family Guy)

text: In "Padre de Familia" (season 6, 2007), Herbert is revealed to have been a World War II veteran as he is shown singing "God Bless the USA" in a local Veterans Day parade, which is furthered in the season 9 (2011) episode "German Guy" in which Herbert reveals he was captured by Wehrmacht forces. Although the Nazi forces initially wished to place Herbert in a prisoner-of-war camp, they instead placed him in Dachau Concentration Camp after discovering several pictures of underage boys in his wallet, prompting them to accuse him of being homosexual. Herbert claims that while imprisoned, SS Lieutenant Franz Schlechtnacht tasked him with sorting the concentration camp's recyclables, which would often lead to soda spilling upon Herbert's hands thus rendering them "kinda sticky".


title: Herbert (Family Guy)

text: Herbert has appeared on various occasions in "Family Guy" spinoffs, such as in various cutaway gags in several episodes of "The Cleveland Show". In "", Herbert appears as Obi-Wan Kenobi.


title: Herbert (Family Guy)

text: Herbert was created by writer and voice actor Mike Henry. Henry met "Family Guy" creator Seth MacFarlane when his brother Patrick was a classmate of MacFarlane's at the Rhode Island School of Design. Henry was invited to write and create characters for "Family Guy" after the show was picked up. The first character he created was Cleveland Brown, and he later created Herbert.


title: Herbert (Family Guy)

text: In the creation process, Herbert was not originally a pedophile; Henry pitched the idea to the writers of the show, leading to the decision to make him one. As with most of the other characters he created, Henry voices Herbert. Henry based Herbert's voice and appearance on an elderly man he met when he worked in a grocery store when he was in high school. In an interview Henry described that man as a sweet person.


title: Herbert (Family Guy)

text: IGN, an American entertainment website, has generally commented positively on him. They pointed out that Herbert is one of the most popular recurring characters in the series, referring to him (with his dog Jesse) as one of the characters that stuck out from the rest. They also noted that one of the reasons Herbert is funny is because of his "soft, high-pitched whistling voice".


title: Herbert (Family Guy)

text: Although IGN has praised Herbert in general they have criticized some aspects of him. In their review of "Blue Harvest", a retelling and parody of the 1977 film "", recasting the show's characters into "Star Wars" roles, IGN criticized the choice of putting Herbert in the role of Obi-Wan Kenobi, stating that it never creates any actual humor. They also criticized the constant use of Herbert, commenting that it was entertaining for the first couple of times, but that it quickly became overused. In their list of "What Else Should Family Guy Make Fun Of?", IGN commented that Herbert would be perfect to play Major Toht and Hogwarts' new Defence Against the Dark Arts instructor should "Family Guy" ever decide to make parodies of "Raiders of the Lost Ark" and "Harry Potter", respectively.


title: Herbert (Family Guy)

text: A February 2015 article written by Hanh Nguyen for "TV Guide" listed pedophilia among the 12 biggest taboos shown on "Family Guy", naming Herbert as the "creepiest of all" references to the disorder. Rowan Kaiser of "The A.V. Club" criticized the character as an example of how the series occasionally fails in its deliberately offensive humor. He called the character "a black hole of shittiness whose every appearance brings out the worst tendencies of "Family Guy"", adding that his "appearance brings every episode he's in to a screeching halt". Herbert, along with his dog Jesse, ranked spot number 16 in IGN's "Top 25 Family Guy Characters". Herbert also ranked number five on IGN's "The Cleveland Show Casting Couch", which showed characters that IGN would find interesting to put in "The Cleveland Show".


title: Herbert (Family Guy)

text: In 2004, the first series of "Family Guy" toy figurines was released by Mezco Toyz. Each member of the Griffin family and other characters (including Herbert) had their own toy, with the exception of Stewie, of whom two different figures were made. Over the course of two years, four more series of toy figures have been released. Herbert is also featured on the "" CD.


title: The Great British Sewing Bee

text: The Great British Sewing Bee is a BBC reality show that began airing on BBC Two on 2 April 2013. In the show, talented amateur sewers compete to be named "Britain's best home sewer". A spin-off of the format of "The Great British Bake Off", the programme was presented by Claudia Winkleman for the first four series, with judges Patrick Grant, May Martin (series 1–3), and Esme Young (since series 4). After a three-year hiatus, the series returned in 2019, with Joe Lycett taking over as presenter. The sixth series began airing on BBC One in April 2020 and the seventh began airing in April 2021. Sara Pascoe took over as presenter from series 8, which began airing in April 2022.


title: The Great British Sewing Bee

text: The show format is similar to "The Great British Bake Off" in that each episode features three challenges within an overall theme. The series starts with 10 amateur sewers, with the weakest eliminated each episode. In the Pattern Challenge, the judges give them the same pattern, which they must follow as accurately as possible. In the Transformation Challenge, each sewer is given an identical existing garment to reinvent. In the third Made-to-measure Challenge, the sewers design and create their own garments, and must adjust their patterns to fit human models.


title: The Great British Sewing Bee

text: The first series of "The Great British Sewing Bee" started on 2 April and aired for four episodes, concluding on 23 April 2013. The series was hosted by Claudia Winkleman and the judges were WI tutor May Martin and Patrick Grant of Savile Row. The all-female final was won by Ann, with Sandra and Lauren as runners up.


title: The Great British Sewing Bee

text: A second series of "The Great British Sewing Bee" began airing on 18 February 2014 on BBC Two. The series was filmed at Metropolitan Wharf in London, with Claudia Winkleman returning as host alongside May Martin and Patrick Grant as the judges. Once again it was an all-female final, which was won by Heather, with Chinelo and Tamara as the runners up.


title: The Great British Sewing Bee

text: The third series of "The Great British Sewing Bee" began airing over six weeks from 5 February 2015 on BBC Two. It was once again filmed at Metropolitan Wharf in London, with Claudia Winkleman returning as host alongside resident judges May Martin and Patrick Grant. After six weeks of competition, the ten sewers were reduced to the three finalists - this time, there were two male and one female finalists - with Matt declared the winner, and Lorna and Neil as the runners-up.


title: The Great British Sewing Bee

text: The fourth series of "The Great British Sewing Bee" began airing on 16 May 2016. May Martin was replaced by new judge Esme Young. The finalists were Jade, Charlotte, and Joyce, with Charlotte the winner.


title: The Great British Sewing Bee

text: The fifth series began on 12 February 2019 on BBC Two. Joe Lycett took over from Claudia Winkleman as presenter, and Esme Young and Patrick Grant returned as judges. The series was shot at 47-49 Tanner Street. Exterior shots are of 1 Tanner Street, Bermondsey. The finalists were Juliet, Leah and Riccardo, with Juliet winning.


title: The Great British Sewing Bee

text: The sixth series began on 22 April 2020 on BBC One. Joe Lycett returned as presenter, and Esme Young and Patrick Grant also returned as judges. The finalists were Clare, Matt, and Nicole, with Clare winning.


title: The Great British Sewing Bee

text: The seventh series began on 14 April 2021 on BBC One. As with the previous season, Joe Lycett returned as host, along with Esme Young and Patrick Grant as judges. The finalists were Raph, Rebecca and Serena, with Serena winning.


title: The Great British Sewing Bee

text: The eighth series began airing on 27 April 2022 on BBC One. Esme Young and Patrick Grant returned as judges, whilst Sara Pascoe took over as presenter. The finalists were Annie, Brogan, Debra and Man Yee, with Annie winning.


title: The Great British Sewing Bee

text: The Great British Sewing Bee returned for three special episodes as 12 celebrities took to the sewing machines in a bid to raise money for Children in Need.


title: The Great British Sewing Bee

text: Historically the word "bee" has been used to describe a get-together where a specific action is being carried out, such as a spelling bee, husking bee, a quilting bee, or an apple bee. In the USA, the Scripps National Spelling Bee competition has been held annually since 1925. Its etymology is unclear, but the word possibly derives from the Old English word "bēn", meaning prayer.


title: Warrington bombings

text: The Warrington bombings were two separate bomb attacks that took place during early 1993 in Warrington, Cheshire, England. The first attack happened on 26 February, when a bomb exploded at a gas storage facility. This first explosion caused extensive damage, but no injuries. While fleeing the scene, the bombers shot and injured a police officer and two of the bombers were caught following a high-speed car chase. The second attack happened on 20 March, when two smaller bombs exploded in litter bins outside shops and businesses on Bridge Street. Two children were killed and a total of 56 people were injured.


title: Warrington bombings

text: The attacks were carried out by the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA). From the early 1970s, the IRA had been carrying out attacks in both Northern Ireland and England with the stated goal of putting pressure on the UK Government to withdraw from Northern Ireland. The IRA is designated a terrorist organisation in the United Kingdom.


title: Warrington bombings

text: On the night of 25 February 1993, three IRA members planted bombs at the gas holders on Winwick Road, Warrington. At 11:45 pm that night, a police officer stopped the three men in a van on Sankey Street. As he was questioning them, the IRA members shot him three times and sped off in the van. About an hour later they hijacked a car in Lymm, put the driver in the boot and drove off towards Manchester. At about 1 am police spotted the car and chased it along the M62 motorway in the direction of Warrington. Shots were fired during the high-speed chase and two police vehicles were hit. Police stopped the car on the motorway near Croft and arrested two of the IRA members: Páidric MacFhloinn (age 40) and Denis Kinsella (age 25). The third member, Michael Timmins, escaped. At 4:10 am on 26 February the bombs exploded at the gas holders, sending a fireball into the sky and causing extensive damage to the facility. The emergency services arrived and evacuated about 100 people from their homes. There was much disruption to transport that morning as police set up roadblocks and trains were diverted away from Warrington.


title: Warrington bombings

text: In 1994, MacFhloinn was sentenced to 35 years in prison and Kinsella to 25 years for their part in the bombing. John Kinsella (age 49) was sentenced to 20 years for possessing Semtex explosives that he had hidden for the IRA unit.


title: Warrington bombings

text: Shortly before midday on Saturday, 20 March 1993, The Samaritans in Liverpool received a bomb warning by telephone. According to police, the caller said only that a bomb had been planted outside a Boots shop. Merseyside Police sent officers to branches of Boots in Liverpool and warned the Cheshire Constabulary, who patrolled nearby Warrington. About 30 minutes later, at about 12:25, two bombs exploded on Bridge Street in Warrington, about apart. The blasts happened within a minute of each other. One exploded outside Boots and McDonald's, and one outside the Argos catalogue store. The area was crowded with shoppers. Witnesses said that shoppers fled from the first explosion into the path of the second. It was later found that the bombs had been placed inside cast-iron litter bins, causing large amounts of shrapnel. Buses were organised to ferry people away from the scene and 20 paramedics and crews from 17 ambulances were sent to deal with the aftermath.


title: Warrington bombings

text: Three-year-old Johnathan Ball died at the scene. He had been in town with his babysitter, shopping for a Mother's Day card. The second victim, 12-year-old Tim Parry, was gravely wounded. He died on 25 March 1993 when his life support machine was switched off, after tests had found only minimal brain activity. Another 54 people were injured, four of them seriously. One of the survivors, 32-year-old Bronwen Vickers, the mother of two young daughters, had to have a leg amputated, and died just over a year later from cancer.


title: Warrington bombings

text: The Provisional IRA issued a statement the day after the bombing, acknowledging its involvement but saying:Responsibility for the tragic and deeply regrettable death and injuries caused in Warrington yesterday lies squarely at the door of those in the British authorities who deliberately failed to act on precise and adequate warnings. A day later, an IRA spokesman said that "two precise warnings" had been given "in adequate time", one to the Samaritans and one to Merseyside Police. He added: "You don't provide warnings if it is your intention to kill". Cheshire's assistant chief constable denied there had been a second warning and said: Yes, a warning was given half-an-hour before, but no mention was made of Warrington. If the IRA think they can pass on their responsibility for this terrible act by issuing such a nonsensical statement, they have sadly underestimated the understanding of the British public.


title: Warrington bombings

text: A piece on BBC North West's "Inside Out" programme in September 2013 speculated that the bombing may have been the work of a "rogue" IRA unit, which was supported by the IRA but operated independently and who used operatives who were from England to avoid suspicion. The programme also examined a possible link between the attack and British leftist political group Red Action, though nothing was ever proven.


title: Warrington bombings

text: The deaths of two young children ensured that the 20 March bombings received major coverage in the media and caused widespread public anger. Shortly after the bombings, a group called "Peace '93" was set up in Dublin. The main organiser was Susan McHugh, a Dublin housewife and mother. On 25 March 1993, thousands held a peace rally in Dublin. They signed a condolence book outside the General Post Office and laid bouquets and wreaths, with messages of sorrow and apology, to be taken to Warrington for the boys' funerals. Some criticised Peace '93 for focusing only on IRA violence and for not responding to the deaths of children in Northern Ireland.


title: Warrington bombings

text: On 24 March 1993, the Ulster Defence Association (UDA, a loyalist paramilitary group) shot dead a Sinn Féin member in Belfast. The next day, it shot dead four Catholic men (including an IRA member) in Castlerock and hours later shot dead a 17-year-old Catholic civilian in Belfast. Roy Greenslade wrote that, compared to the Warrington bombings, these deaths were "virtually ignored" by the media in Great Britain and he accused it of having a "hierarchy" of victims.


title: Warrington bombings

text: On 1 April 1993, the Irish Government announced measures designed to make extradition easier from the Republic of Ireland to the United Kingdom.


title: Warrington bombings

text: On 19 September 1994, Irish rock band The Cranberries released the song "Zombie", which was written in protest at the bombings. The song went on to become their biggest hit.


title: Warrington bombings

text: On 14 November 1996, the Duchess of Kent officially inaugurated a memorial called The River of Life, depicting "a symbol of hope for future generations", in Bridge Street. It was developed in the aftermath of the bomb attack and commissioned by the Warrington Borough Council. The project, consisting of a symbolic water sculpture that features a commemorative plaque, was designed by local primary school and Stephen Broadbent.


title: Warrington bombings

text: The parents of Tim Parry set up the Tim Parry Trust Fund to promote greater understanding between Great Britain and Ireland. The Tim Parry Johnathan Ball Foundation for Peace worked jointly with the NSPCC to develop The Peace Centre, close to Warrington town centre, which opened on the seventh anniversary of the attack in 2000. Its purpose is to promote peace and understanding amongst all communities affected by conflict and violence. The centre hosts an annual peace lecture, as well as being home to the local NSPCC and Warrington Youth Club.


title: Warrington bombings

text: The bombings received further attention in 2019 after the Brexit Party selected former "Living Marxism" writer Claire Fox as their lead candidate in the North West for the 2019 European Parliament election; the Revolutionary Communist Party, of which Fox was a leading member in 1993, defended the IRA's bombing in their party newsletter. Despite the controversy, which saw another Brexit Party candidate resign from the party list in protest at the comments, Fox and the Brexit Party topped the poll across the North West, including in Warrington.


title: Warrington bombings

text: The events around the second bombing, with the killing of two children, and the efforts of the parents of Tim Parry and "Peace '93" and McHugh, were dramatised in the 2018 television film, "Mother's Day", starring Vicky McClure, Daniel Mays and Anna Maxwell Martin.


title: The Power Station (band)

text: The Power Station was a British-American 1980s/1990s rock and pop music supergroup originally formed in New York City and London in 1984. It was made up of singer Robert Palmer, former Chic drummer Tony Thompson, and Duran Duran members John Taylor (bass) and Andy Taylor (guitar). Bernard Edwards, also of Chic, was involved on the studio side as recording producer and for a short time also functioned as The Power Station's manager. Edwards also replaced John Taylor on bass for the recording of the band's second album. The band was formed in New York City late in 1984 during a break in Duran Duran's schedule that became a lengthy hiatus. The Power Station was named after the Power Station recording studio in New York, where their first album was conceived and recorded.


title: The Power Station (band)

text: On 23 July, Duran Duran's charity concert at Villa Park 1983 took place in aid of Mencap, a UK charity. Duran Duran had been known to be huge fans of Robert Palmer, so he was invited to participate.


title: The Power Station (band)

text: After Duran Duran's third album, "Seven and the Ragged Tiger", the members of the band took a planned short hiatus, going into two projects. One of these was the band Arcadia featuring frontman Simon LeBon, which maintained the melodic and atmospheric aspects of Duran Duran's previous recordings. The other was The Power Station, in which bassist John Taylor and guitarist Andy Taylor worked with Palmer, Thompson, and Edwards to explore more rhythmic and aggressive music rooted in funk and rock and roll. Roger Taylor was mainly the drummer for Arcadia but also contributed percussion to The Power Station.


title: The Power Station (band)

text: The group began as something of a whim—it was a one-time gathering of friends to provide backing to model and would-be singer Bebe Buell, who wanted to record a cover of the 1972 T. Rex song "Get It On". Both John Taylor and Andy Taylor were eager to branch out from the synthesizer-heavy pop of Duran Duran and play some Led Zeppelin-flavoured rock and roll. The participation of their idols from Chic lent the project a horn-inflected funk vibe that meshed surprisingly well with the crunching guitars and booming drums.


title: The Power Station (band)

text: Soon, the project evolved into the idea of a revolving supergroup; a tentative name for the band was Big Brother. The original plan for the one-album project was for the three musicians (the two Taylors and Thompson) to provide musical continuity to an album full of material, with a different singer performing on each track. Those who were approached included Mick Jagger, Billy Idol, Mars Williams, Richard Butler (of The Psychedelic Furs), and Mick Ronson.


title: The Power Station (band)

text: The group then invited Palmer to record vocals for the track "Communication". When he heard that they had recorded demos for "Get It On", he asked to try out vocals on that song as well. They decided to record the entire album with him. The group was signed with Capitol Records.


title: The Power Station (band)

text: On 16 February 1985, the band performed "Some Like It Hot" and "Get It On" on "Saturday Night Live". It was the only time that Robert Palmer performed live with the original line-up. The horn section for the Power Station's "Saturday Night Live" appearance included saxophonist Lenny Pickett, who would join the show's house band that fall and eventually become the show's musical director.


title: The Power Station (band)

text: In March 1985, the Power Station issued a self-titled album produced by Bernard Edwards with some informal assistance from Nile Rodgers. It reached number 12 in the United Kingdom and number 6 on the United States album chart.


title: The Power Station (band)

text: The record is sometimes referred to as "Power Station 33 ⅓" as the sleeve for the original vinyl record release bore that subtitle, indicating the speed of a record turntable. Compact disc issues used "CD" as a subtitle instead, while initial cassette copies highlighted Columbia's "XDR" process. The album's cover graphics and color scheme, which were also used in the videos, were based on sketches by John Taylor.


title: The Power Station (band)

text: Three singles were released from the album, two of them major hits. The first, "Some Like It Hot", reached #14 on the UK Singles Chart and #6 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100. (The music video featured model Caroline Cossey, credited by her nickname "Tula".) The second single, "Get It On", went to #22 in the United Kingdom and #9 in the United States, while competing against the Duran Duran single "A View to a Kill", which was an American number one. "Communication" was not as successful, reaching #34 in the United States, but disappeared after hitting #75 in the United Kingdom.


title: The Power Station (band)

text: The group's unexpected success led to two incompatible results: first, they decided to headline a summer tour in America with Paul Young, Nik Kershaw, the Bongos, and Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark; second, Robert Palmer decided to record a solo album to take advantage of his sudden name recognition. This led to Palmer's departure from the band. (Tony Thompson, Andy Taylor, and future Power Station bass player Bernard Edwards all contributed to Palmer's highly successful 1985 solo album "Riptide").


title: The Power Station (band)

text: When Palmer bailed on the tour, some critics referred to it as "unprofessional behaviour". In "Number One" magazine, he hit back at the claims he joined the band for money: "Firstly, I didn't need the money and, secondly the cash was a long time coming. It wasn't exactly an experience that set me up for retirement."


title: The Power Station (band)

text: Palmer was also accused of ripping off the Power Station sound for his own records. He snapped: "Listen, I gave "The Power Station" that sound. They took it from me, not the other way around."


title: The Power Station (band)

text: With Palmer bowing out, the band recruited singer/actor Michael Des Barres (formerly of Silverhead, Chequered Past, and Detective) for the tour. Des Barres also performed with them at the Live Aid charity concert in Philadelphia that summer.


title: The Power Station (band)

text: Des Barres' friendship with actor Don Johnson led to the band's guest appearance on an episode of the television drama "Miami Vice". Similarly, his friendship with producer Joel Silver led to the Power Station writing a song called "We Fight for Love" for the Arnold Schwarzenegger action film "Commando" (1985). The track was originally titled "Someday, Somehow, Someone's Gotta Pay". An EP containing the song plus some live songs from their tour was planned for release that same year, but was scrapped by their record company.


title: The Power Station (band)

text: The band folded in late 1985 as its members turned to other projects. John Taylor returned to Duran Duran, while Andy Taylor chose to leave Duran Duran in favour of a solo career. A reformed Led Zeppelin played at the Live Aid concert in 1985, with Thompson sharing drumming duties with Phil Collins. Thompson was to take the place of John Bonham in a reformed Led Zeppelin, but after a few days of rehearsals in 1986, he was seriously injured in a car accident and the reunion never got off the ground. Palmer continued his revitalized solo career, while Des Barres released his second solo album in 1986.


title: The Power Station (band)

text: The Power Station reunited in 1996 with its original members: Robert Palmer, Andy Taylor, John Taylor, and Tony Thompson. The group worked together on writing and arranging a new album; however, personal problems forced bassist John Taylor to withdraw from the project and leave the band before any recording took place. Producer Bernard Edwards (Chic bassist) stepped in to become The Power Station's bassist and new fourth member, playing all bass parts on "Living in Fear" (1996).


title: The Power Station (band)

text: Edwards was prepared to tour with the group, but then died suddenly of pneumonia during a trip to Japan. The Power Station decided to press on as a trio augmented by session musicians, and toured first with bassist Guy Pratt and then Manny Yanes and second guitarist Luke Morley, to moderate success. They disbanded shortly after.


title: The Power Station (band)

text: In 2002, EMI Music issued "The Best of The Power Station" as part of their Ten Best Series. All tracks are from the first album (some in remixed form), except for "Taxman" from "Living in Fear" and the final track, a previously unreleased live version of "Dancing in the Street", recorded at the Hartford Civic Center in 1985 and sung by Michael Des Barres.


title: The Power Station (band)

text: EMI released a new version of the album "The Power Station" on 21 February 2005, to commemorate the album's 20th anniversary. The package includes the original eight-song album, seven bonus tracks (mostly remixes), and a 40-minute eight-chapter DVD. Among the bonus tracks on the album is the track "Someday, Somehow, Someone's Gotta Pay" (from the "Commando OST"), sung by Michael Des Barres.


title: Suzuki GSX-R1000

text: The Suzuki GSX-R1000 is a supersport motorcycle made by Suzuki. It was introduced in 2001 to replace the GSX-R1100 and is powered by a liquid-cooled inline four-cylinder, four-stroke engine although originally from 2001 to 2004.


title: Suzuki GSX-R1000

text: For 2001, Suzuki introduced a new GSX-R model that replaced the largest and most powerful model of the GSX-R series sportbike, the GSX-R1100, with the all-new GSX-R1000. As the model name revealed, the engine's cylinder displacement was roughly , about 100 cc smaller than its predecessor. The GSX-R1000 was not just an enlarged version of the GSX-R750, although it shared many features with its little brother. The mainframe is the same in both models, but the material used on the big brother was thicker. Suzuki claimed the torsional rigidity of the frame had increased 10% in comparison with the GSX-R750.


title: Suzuki GSX-R1000

text: The GSX-R1000 engine was a redesigned GSX-R750 engine. The R1000 had a bigger bore and longer stroke, newly designed pistons with lower crown, and gear-driven counter balancer. The engine weighed which was slightly heavier than the 750 engine but lighter than the engine of the GSX1300R. The performance of the engine is a peak of at 9,500 rpm, as measured on the crank and , when measured on the rear wheel with small variations between different instances of the same model. The redline is set at 12,000 rpm. The maximum torque of the engine is at 8,000 rpm. Combined with a total (dry) weight of this gives the GSX-R1000 a top speed of , a 1/4 mile time of 10.1 seconds at , and a 0 to time of 3 seconds.


title: Suzuki GSX-R1000

text: Using titanium for the exhaust downpipe (K1 model link pipe is black, K2 model link pipe is polished titanium) and the inside of the silencer, enabled the 1000s exhaust system to become lighter than that of the 750. Titanium was also used in the front fork (titanium-nitride) to coat the stanchions. An exhaust tuning valve had been mounted inside the exhaust pipe. Using a servo the system dynamically adjusted the exhaust backpressure, according to engine speed, throttle position, and gear selection for increased torque, lower emissions, and decreased noise—the (stock) exhaust noise of the GSX-R1000 is notably lower than that of the GSX-R600.


title: Suzuki GSX-R1000

text: With the 2001 model of the GSX-R1000, the 1998 Yamaha YZF-R1 was finally surpassed with the GSX-R being lighter and more powerful.


title: Suzuki GSX-R1000

text: The 2001 model carried over to 2002 with minimal changes. 2002 introduced i.a. modifications to the fuel pump, clutch, front axle, torque link, mirrors, and luggage hooks. The manual fast-idle was replaced with a computer operated implementation (the "STV servo"). New colors, and new GSXR stickers.


title: Suzuki GSX-R1000

text: After the GSX-R1000 had been three years on the roads and race tracks, Suzuki put out a new version of the model in late September 2002. Suzuki engineers had been working on the three things that made a fast bike faster; weight, power, and handling. The 2003 year's GSX-R1000 was improved in all three counts. It weighed less, had more power/torque, and handled better.


title: Suzuki GSX-R1000

text: The physical dimensions of the bike were almost identical to the previous year's model. The seat height and the overall height were somewhat lower but the geometry of the bike was exactly the same as before. The already rigid aluminum alloy frame was newly designed and enforced with internal ribs, also there was an updated headlight and tail fairing. The frame, as well as the wheels, were now coated black.


title: Suzuki GSX-R1000

text: The front brakes were also new. Suzuki decided to drop the six-piston calipers. The new radially mounted four-piston calipers weigh 30 grams less and grip smaller discs that save another . Though smaller, Suzuki claimed that the new brakes provide better stopping and turn-in performance.


title: Suzuki GSX-R1000

text: The headlights of the 2003 year's GSX-R1000 were mounted vertically to enable the ram-air intakes in the front to be placed nearer the bike's centerline. The new design was very much inspired by the look of the Hayabusa. The instruments were also redesigned.


title: Suzuki GSX-R1000

text: The cylinder displacement of the engine remained the same , but more power/torque and better throttle response had been achieved by adding four ventilation holes between the cylinders to equalize crankcase pressure beneath the pistons, moving the air intake nearer to the centerline and upgrading the engine management system from a 16-bit to a 32-bit ECU. The entire exhaust system was now made of titanium to save an additional and the tail light was replaced with LEDs.


title: Suzuki GSX-R1000

text: The 2005 model year GSX-R1000 had a redesigned engine and chassis. It had lower weight than the previous model and the engine had an larger displacement due to a 0.4mm bore increase. It had a totally new frame reducing the total length of the bike by but reducing its wheelbase only . There were new brakes with radial mounted calipers and discs at the front. The new titanium silencer (catalytic in Europe) was said to be designed to reduce turbulence to minimum. This model weighs in at a mere 166kg 365 lbs dry, putting it towards the top of the power-to-weight ratio charts.


title: Suzuki GSX-R1000

text: The 2005 model has a tested wet weight of . Power output is tested at and peak torque is both at the rear wheel.


title: Suzuki GSX-R1000

text: Also in 2005 Suzuki used a single "S" logo on the tank on all models instead of The brand's full name.


title: Suzuki GSX-R1000

text: The 2005 model carried over to 2006 without any significant improvements other than a few appearance changes. The 2006 model had a measured top speed of .


title: Suzuki GSX-R1000

text: In the list of fastest production motorcycles by acceleration, a 2006 Suzuki GSX-R1000 at a drag strip a 2006 model once recorded a 0 to 60 mph time of 2.35 seconds. Relaxed current record. This is the only GSX-R1000 that has won a title to championnat du monde de Superbike.


title: Suzuki GSX-R1000

text: On September 22, 2006, Suzuki revealed a significantly updated GSX-R1000 for 2007 at the Paris motor show. The new bike gained over the 2006 model which was due to its new exhaust system and new emissions regulations. To counter this weight increase, Suzuki claimed improved aerodynamics along with a faster revving engine and larger throttle body. Although not a completely new model, the engine and chassis have been updated. It also featured three different engine mapping configurations, selectable via two buttons located on the right handlebar. One up, and one down arrow to cycle between Mode A (unrestricted), Mode B (reduced power until 50% throttle is applied), and Mode C (reduced power throughout the rpm regardless of throttle application). It also received a hydraulic clutch.


title: Suzuki GSX-R1000

text: The 2017 model, introduced to reporters at EICMA in late 2016, had a significantly redesigned engine the first since the last engine update on the 2009 model. This new engine has a higher RPM limit and no balancer shaft to quell vibration, also a mechanical variable valve timing used for ten years by Suzuki in MotoGP and drive by wire throttle. This model is the first to get the addition of traction control with a (IMU) inertial measuring unit measuring yaw, roll and pitch also all lighting is now LED. Another first for any GSX-R is the use of a fuel gauge on this model. Along with the new 2017 GSX-R1000 model, Suzuki has also released an up spec model GSX-R1000R; this R model comes with a Motion Track Brake System, Bi-directional quick shifter and launch control. Also on the R model, as reported by Sport Rider, are the same Showa Balance Free Front (BFF) fork and Balance Free Rear Cushion (BFRC Lite) shock that come standard on the 2016 Kawasaki ZX-10R. Specifications are 202 horsepower at 13,200 rpm (claimed), 157.2 (rear wheel), 86 lb-ft torque at 10,000 rpm (claimed) and (rear wheel); 76.0 mm x 55.1 mm bore x stroke, and 13.2:1 compression ratio.


title: Suzuki GSX-R1000

text: It will be illegal to register the model in the EU, EFTA, or UK from 1 January 2023 unless it is updated to comply with Euro 5. New sales are already banned in India as it does not comply with BS VI.


title: Suzuki GSX-R1000

text: Troy Corser won the 2005 Superbike World Championship season, and Alessandro Polita won the 2006 FIM Superstock 1000 Cup season. The bike was used by Yukio Kagayama and Kousuke Akiyoshi to win the Suzuka 8 Hours endurance race in 2007, with Kazuki Tokudome and Nobuatsu Aoki doing the same in 2009. Michael Dunlop will ride the GSXR at the 2022 Isle of Man TT Senior.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: The Sultanate of Bengal (Middle Bengali: শাহী বাঙ্গালা "Shahī Baṅgala", Classical Persian: "Saltanat-e-Bangālah") was an empire based in Bengal for much of the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries. It was the dominant power of the Ganges–Brahmaputra Delta, with a network of mint towns spread across the region. The Bengal Sultanate had a circle of vassal states, including Odisha in the southwest, Arakan in the southeast, and Tripura in the east. Its raids and conquests reached Nepal in the north, Assam in the east, and Jaunpur and Varanasi in the west. The Bengal Sultanate controlled large parts of the north, east and northeast Indian subcontinent during its five dynastic periods, reaching its peak under Hussain Shahi dynasty. It was reputed as a thriving trading nation and one of Asia's strongest states. Its decline began with an interregnum by the Suri Empire, followed by Mughal conquest and disintegration into petty kingdoms.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: The Bengal Sultanate was a Sunni Muslim monarchy with Bengali, Turco-Persian, Pashtun, Arab and Abyssinian elites. Its two most prominent dynasties were the Ilyas Shahi and Hussain Shahi Sultans. The empire was known for its religious pluralism where non-Muslim communities co-existed peacefully. While Persian was used as the primary official, diplomatic and commercial language, it was under the Sultans that Bengali first received court recognition as an official language. The cities of the Bengal Sultanate are termed as Mint Towns where the historical taka was minted. These cities were adorned with stately medieval buildings. In 1500, the royal capital of Gaur was the fifth-most populous city in the world. Other notable cities included the initial royal capital of Pandua, the economic hub of Sonargaon, the Mosque City of Bagerhat, and the seaport and trading hub of Chittagong. The Bengal Sultanate was connected to states in Asia, Africa, the Indian Ocean, and Europe through maritime links and overland trade routes. The Bengal Sultanate was a major trading center on the coast of the Bay of Bengal. It attracted immigrants and traders from different parts of the world. Bengali ships and merchants traded across the region, including in Malacca, China, and the Maldives.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: The Bengal Sultanate was described by contemporary European and Chinese visitors as a prosperous kingdom. Due to the abundance of goods in Bengal, the region was described as the "richest country to trade with". The Bengal Sultanate left a strong architectural legacy. Buildings from the period show foreign influences merged into a distinct Bengali style. The Bengal Sultanate was also the largest and most prestigious authority among the independent medieval Muslim-ruled states in the history of Bengal.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: Bengal was gradually absorbed into the Delhi Sultanate during the 1200s. It began with Bakhtiar Khilji's conquest of Gauda between 1202 and 1204 during the reign of Muhammad of Ghor. After the assassination of Bakhtiar Khalji by his own officer Ali Mardan in 1206, Bengal was administered by various Maliks belonging to the Khalji tribe (except a brief interregnum by Ali Mardan himself) until Delhi Sultan Iltutmish sent forces under his son, Nasir-ud-din Mahmud, to bring Bengal under the direct control of the Delhi Sultans. Iltutmish declared Bengal as a province of Delhi in 1225. The Delhi Sultans attempted to govern Bengal through appointed governors, however, Delhi could not succeed given the considerable overland distance with Bengal. Ambitious governors rebelled and ruled as independent rulers until being suppressed militarily by the Delhi Sultanate. However, there were capable rulers among the rebels, including Yuzbak Shah (1257), Tughral Khan (1271–1282), and Shamsuddin Firoz Shah (1301–1322). The latter achieved the Conquest of Sylhet and established a strong administration in eastern and south-western Bengal. In 1325, the Delhi Sultan Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq reorganized the province into three administrative regions, with Sonargaon ruling eastern Bengal; Gauda ruling northern Bengal; and Satgaon ruling southern Bengal. Even this arrangement broke down. By 1338, the three administrative regions had separatist Sultans, including Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah in Sonargaon; Alauddin Ali Shah in Gauda, and Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah in Satgaon. Fakhruddin conquered Chittagong in 1340 and was succeeded by his son Ikhtiyaruddin Ghazi Shah in 1349. Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah (or just "Ilyas Shah") defeated Alauddin Ali Shah and secured control of Gauda. He then defeated Ikhtiyaruddin of Sonargaon. By 1352, Ilyas Shah emerged victorious among the Bengali triad.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: Ilyas Shah established his capital in Pandua. He unified the delta of Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna Rivers into the Sultanate of Bengal. Ilyas Shah waged wars and raids against several city-states and kingdoms in the eastern subcontinent. He conquered eastern Bengal and northern Bihar. He led the first Muslim army into Nepal, raided the Kathmandu Valley, and returned to Bengal with treasures. He controlled an area stretching from Assam in the east to Varanasi in the west. In 1353, Ilyas Shah was defeated by Delhi Sultan Firuz Shah Tughluq in the Siege of Ekdala Fort during the Bengal Sultanate-Delhi Sultanate War. Bengal agreed to pay a tribute to the Delhi Sultan. Despite losing control of many conquered areas, Ilyas Shah remained in firm control of Bengal.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: Ilyas Shah founded the Ilyas Shahi dynasty which ruled Bengal for fifteen decades. His son and successor Sikandar Shah defeated Delhi Sultan Firuz Shah Tughluq during the second Siege of Ekdala Fort in 1359. A peace treaty was signed between Delhi and Bengal, with the former recognizing the independence of the latter. Firuz Shah Tughluq gave a golden crown estimated to be worth 80,000 taka to Sikandar Shah. The peace treaty ensured Bengal's independence for two centuries.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: Sikandar Shah's reign lasted for three decades. The Adina Mosque was built during his reign. The mosque's design was based on the Great Mosque of Damascus- a style used during the introduction of Islam in new areas. During this time, much of the agricultural land was controlled by Hindu zamindars, which caused tensions with Muslim taluqdars.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: Bengal became the eastern frontier kingdom among medieval Islamic states. In the 14th century, Islamic kingdoms stretched from Muslim Spain in the west to the Indian subcontinent in the east. The Islamic kingdoms had multiethnic elites. Persian and Arabic were used alongside local languages. Persian was used as a diplomatic and commercial language. Arabic was the liturgical language of the clergy. In Bengal, the Bengali language became a court language and was the main vernacular language under Muslim rule.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: The third Sultan Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah began expanding Bengal's influence abroad. He began to send embassies to Ming China, which continued as a tradition during the reigns of his successors. Ghiyasuddin also sponsored construction projects in Arabia. He exchanged letters and poetry with the Persian poet Hafez. The Bengal Sultans pledged nominal allegiance to the Abbasid Caliphate in Cairo. The coins of the Bengal Sultans often bore the name of the contemporary Abbasid Caliph. Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah held his court in the central Bengali city of Sonargaon, in addition to Pandua. The travel accounts of Chinese envoys state that the Sultan lived in a palace near the river port of Sonargaon. The river port had shipping links to China, Southeast Asia, and the Middle East. In 1406, Ma Huan found Sonargaon as a large metropolis. Other Chinese envoys provided descriptions of a fortified walled city. Sonargaon was a center of Sufi education and Persian literature and Sultan Ghiyasuddin even invited Hafez to settle there. The institutions founded by Abu Tawwama during the Delhi Sultanate were maintained by his successors in the Bengal Sultanate, including the Sufi preachers Ibrahim Danishmand, Saiyid Arif Billah Muhammad Kamel, Saiyid Muhammad Yusuf and others.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: During the early 15th century, the Ilyas Shahi rule was challenged by Raja Ganesha, a powerful Hindu landowner, who managed to place his son (a convert to Islam), Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah, on the throne. Jalaluddin had a relatively short-lived but significant reign, during which he helped an Arakanese king to achieve the Reconquest of Arakan. Jalaluddin established control over Fatehabad. Jalaluddin also promoted more native Bengali elements into the architecture and governance of the sultanate. Jalaluddin was initially loyal to the Abbasid Caliph but later declared himself as the Caliph in a sign of Bengali Muslim independence. The Ilyas Shahi dynasty was restored in 1432.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: Nine kings ruled Bengal from Pandua over the course of ten decades. They built palaces, forts, bridges, mosques, and mausoleums. Chinese envoy Ma Huan described the city at the time in his travel accounts, which state that "the city walls are very imposing, the bazaars well-arranged, the shops side by side, the pillars in orderly rows, they are full of every kind of goods". Pandua was an export center for cloth and wine. At least six varieties of fine muslin and four types of wine were found in Pandua. High-quality paper was produced from the bark of Pandua's mulberry trees. Sultan Mahmud Shah of Bengal shifted the capital from Pandua to Gaur in 1450. One of the probable reasons behind the move was a change in the course of nearby rivers.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: The reign of Mahmud Shah witnessed greater control over the Sundarbans. The governor of the Sundarbans, Khan Jahan Ali, built the mint town of Khalifatabad. Like many other officials, Khan Jahan had settled in Bengal after Timur's sack of Delhi. During the reign of Rukunuddin Barbak Shah, the Kingdom of Mrauk U conquered Chittagong. The late 1480s saw four usurper Sultans from the Abyssinian mercenary corps. Tensions between different Muslim communities often affected the sultanate.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: Alauddin Hussain Shah gained control of Bengal in 1494 when he was prime minister. He brought end to a period of instability. As Sultan, Hussain Shah ruled until 1519. The dynasty he founded reigned until 1538. Muslims and Hindus jointly served in the royal administration during the Hussain Shahi dynasty. This era is often regarded as the golden age of the Bengal Sultanate, in which Bengali territory included areas of Arakan, Orissa, Tripura, and Assam. Under the order of Hussain Shah, Shah Ismail Ghazi commanded the Bengali forces in the Conquest of Kamata, conquering large parts of Assam. After overthrowing the Hindu Khen dynasty, Prince Danyal was appointed the governor of the new region. Hussain Shah also restored Bengali sovereignty in Chittagong and northern Arakan after the Bengal Sultanate–Kingdom of Mrauk U War of 1512–1516. Hussain Shah minted coins with the proclamation "conqueror of Kamrupa, Kamata, Jajnagar and Orissa". According to an inscription in Sonargaon from 1513, Hussain Shah annexed large parts of the Twipra Kingdom. The Pratapgarh Kingdom came under Bengali suzerainty. Hussain Shah also waged several campaigns against the Gajapati rulers of Orissa and secured control of northern Orissa. Hussain Shah extended Bengali territory in the west beyond Bihar, up to Saran in Jaunpur. The Sultan of Jaunpur took refuge in Bengal after an invasion by the Lodi dynasty of Delhi. The Delhi Sultan attacked Bengal in pursuit of the Jaunpur Sultan. Unable to make headway, the Delhi Sultan withdrew after concluding a peace treaty with Bengal.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: Embassies from Portuguese India frequented Bengal after the landing of Vasco Da Gama in the principality of Calicut. Individual Portuguese merchants are recorded to have lived in the Bengal Sultanate's capital of Gaur. Portuguese politics played out in Gaur as a reflection of contradictions in contemporary Portugal. The Portuguese provided vivid descriptions of Gaur. They compared the affluence of Gaur with Lisbon. The city included a citadel, a royal palace and durbar, mosques, houses for the rich, and bustling bazaars. Portuguese historian Castenhada de Lopez described the houses of Gaur as being one-storeyed with ornamental floor tiles, courtyards, and gardens. Gaur was the center of regional politics. The Sultan of Bengal gave permission for establishing the Portuguese settlement in Chittagong. During the period of the Iberian Union, there was no official Portuguese sovereignty over Chittagong. The Portuguese trading post was dominated by pirates who allied with the Arakanese against Bengal.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: The absorption of Bengal into the Mughal Empire was a gradual process. It began with the defeat of Bengal forces under Sultan Nasiruddin Nasrat Shah by the first Mughal ruler Babur at the Battle of Ghaghra. The second Mughal ruler Humayun occupied the Bengal capital of Gaur during the invasion of Sher Shah Suri against both the Mughals and Bengal Sultans. Humayun later took refuge in the Safavid Empire in Persia. Sher Shah Suri succeeded in conquering Bengal and began renovating the Grand Trunk Road. The Suri government appointed successive governors to administer Bengal. The third governor Muhammad Khan Sur declared independence after the death of Islam Shah Suri. Muhammad Khan ended the interrupting period of Delhi's rule and re-established the Bengal Sultanate.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: The Pashtun Karrani dynasty was the last ruling dynasty of the sultanate. According to the "Riyaz-us-Salatin", Sultan Sulaiman Khan Karrani shifted the capital from Gaur to Tanda in 1565. Sulaiman Khan Karrani annexed large parts of Orissa. During his reign, the Bengal Sultanate's territory extended from Koch Bihar in the north to Puri in the south and from the Son River in the west to the Brahmaputra River in the east. The Mughals became determined to bring an end to the expansionism of the Bengal Sultanate; while eager to absorb the Bengal region for its riches. The Battle of Tukaroi in Orissa saw Mughal forces led by Akbar overwhelm the Bengal Sultanate's forces led by the last Sultan Daud Khan Karrani, resulting in the Treaty of Cuttack. Mughal rule formally began with the Battle of Raj Mahal when the last reigning Sultan of Bengal was defeated by the forces of Akbar. The Mughal province of Bengal Subah was created. The eastern deltaic Bhati region remained outside of Mughal control until being absorbed in the early 17th century. The delta was controlled by a confederation of twelve aristocrats of the former sultanate, who became known as the Baro Bhuyans. Their leader was Isa Khan, a zamindar and a former nobleman of the sultanate through his mother Princess Syeda Momena Khatun. The confederation was made up of petty kingdoms. The Mughal government eventually suppressed the remnants of the sultanate in the Bhati area and brought all of Bengal under full Mughal control.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: The Bengal Sultanate was an absolute monarchy. The Ilyas Shahi dynasty cultivated a Persianate society. It reflected the Pre-Islamic Persian tradition of monarchy and statecraft. The courts of the capital cities sanctified the Sultan, used Persianised royal paraphernalia, adopted an elaborate court ceremony modeled on the Sasanian imperial paradigm, and employed a hierarchical bureaucracy, but maintained Islam as the state religion. The rise of Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah saw more native elements inducted in the courts. The Hussain Shahi dynasty employed many Hindus in the government and promoted a form of religious pluralism.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: The Mint Towns were an important feature of the Bengal Sultanate. The towns included royal capitals and provincial capitals where Taka coins were minted. The coins illustrate the economy, distribution of administrative centres, and the rise and fall of urban centres within the Bengal Sultanate. With the expansion of the empire, the number of mint towns increased gradually. The following is a partial listing of Mint Towns.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: Vassal states were a number of tributary states and protectorates on the periphery of the Bengal Sultanate under the suzerainty of the Sultan of Bengal. Direct control was not established over these territories for various reasons. Vassal states had Muslim, Hindu and Buddhist rulers. The following illustrates the most notable vassal states.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: In the southeast, Arakan was a prominent vassal of the Bengal Sultanate. In 1430, the Bengal Sultanate restored the Arakanese throne in Mrauk U after driving out Burmese invaders who came from Bagan. Arakan paid tributes to the Sultan of Bengal for a sustained period, with the timeframe ranging between estimates of a century or a few decades. Arakanese rulers replicated the Sultan's governing techniques, including adopting the title of "Shah" and minting coins in Arabic and Bengali inscriptions. A close cultural and commercial relationship developed across the Bay of Bengal. Eventually, Arakan asserted its independence. The Kingdom of Mrauk U became a formidable coastal power.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: In southern Bengal, the island of Chandradwip hosted remnants of the pre-Islamic Hindu Deva dynasty. The kingdom was a vassal state of the Bengal Sultanate until the reign of the Hussain Shahi dynasty, when it was formally annexed by the sultanate.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: In the northeastern Barak Valley, the ruler Bazid of the Pratapgarh Kingdom declared himself as a Sultan on par with the Bengali Sultan. This invited the retribution of Alauddin Hussain Shah, who dispatched Surwar Khan (a convert to Islam from Hinduism) to suppress the newly formed sultanate in Pratapgarh. Bazid was defeated and agreed to pay a tribute to the Sultan of Bengal. Bazid also relinquished his claims over Sylhet.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: In the east, Tripura was vital to Bengal for the supply of gold, silver and other commodities. Tripura had coarse gold mines and mountain trade networks linked to the Far East. In 1464, the Sultan of Bengal helped Ratna Manikya I assume the Tripuri throne. Tripura was a prominent vassal of Bengal.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: In the southwest, Orissa was prominent in the military history of the Bengal Sultanate. The first Bengali Sultan Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah defeated the rulers of Orissa and extended his realm up to Chilika Lake. He raided Jajpur and Cuttack. Ilyas Shah returned to Bengal with plunders from Orissa, including 44 elephants. During the reign of Alauddin Hussain Shah, Orissa was a vassal state of Bengal. Northern Orissa was directly ruled by Bengal. During the Karrani dynasty, Orissa was the scene of the Battle of Tukaroi and the Treaty of Cuttack between the Mughals and Bengal Sultanate in 1575.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: The Sultans had a well-organised army, including cavalry, artillery, infantry and war elephants; and a navy. Due to the riverine geography and climate, it was not feasible to use cavalry throughout the year in Bengal. The cavalry was probably the weakest component of the Bengal Sultanate's army, as the horses had to be imported from foreign countries. The artillery was an important section. Portuguese historian João de Barros opined that the military supremacy of Bengal over Arakan and Tripura was due to its efficient artillery. The artillery used cannons and guns of various sizes. The "paiks" formed the vital part of the Bengal infantry during this period. There were occasions when the paiks also tackled political situations. The particular battle array of the foot-soldiers who used bows, arrows and guns attracted the attention of Babur.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: War elephants played an important part in the Bengal army. Apart from carrying war materials, elephants were also used for the movement of the armed personnel. In riverine Bengal the usefulness of elephants, though very slow, could not be minimised. The navy was of prime necessity in riverine Bengal. In fact, the cavalry could ensure the hold over this country for a period of six months whereas the boats backed by the paiks could command supremacy over the other half of the year. Since the time of Iwaz Khalji, who first organised a naval force in Islamic Bengal, the war boats played an important role in the political affairs of the country. The chief of the admiralty had various responsibilities, including shipbuilding, river transport, to fit out strong boats for transporting war elephants; to recruit seamen; to patrol the rivers and to collect tolls at ghats. The efficiency of the navy eroded during the Hussain Shahi dynasty. The Sultans also built forts, including temporary mud walled forts.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: In 1353, the Sultan of Delhi attacked the newly formed Bengal Sultanate. After the siege of Ekdala Fort, Bengal agreed to pay a tribute to the Sultan of Delhi. In 1359, Delhi again invaded Bengal after the previous peace treaty collapsed. However, negotiations ultimately resulted in a new treaty in which Delhi recognized the independence of Bengal. The Bengal Sultans also received support from South Indian allies. During the 16th century, the Lodi dynasty of Delhi again attacked Bengal in pursuit of the Sultan of Jaunpur. The Lodis eventually agreed to a peace treaty with Bengal.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: The Jaunpur Sultanate attacked Bengal during the 15th century. With diplomatic help from Ming China and the Timurid ruler of Herat, Bengal fended off the Jaunpuri invasion.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: The Brahmaputra Valley was often subjected to Bengali invasions. During the Hussain Shahi dynasty, Bengali control over Assam reached its zenith. Alauddin Hussain Shah overthrew the Hindu Khen dynasty during a war against the Kamata Kingdom. Baro-Bhuyans overthrew the local administrations within a few years and restored local rule.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: The Bengal Sultanate defeated Burmese forces in Arakan and restored the Arakanese throne in 1430. Later, Bengal and Arakan fought several wars for control of Chittagong. Arakan asserted its independence as a coastal power. During the Hussain Shahi dynasty, Bengali sovereignty was restored in Chittagong and northern Arakan. However, the Arakanese allied with Portuguese pirates to reduce Bengali control over Chittagong.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: Bengal was overwhelmed during the pan-Indian invasion of Sher Shah Suri and became part of the Suri Empire. The invasion prompted the Mughal Empire to occupy parts of Bengal. Both the Mughals and Bengal Sultanate were overrun by the Suri forces. Bengal regained its independence after Suri governors rebelled and re-established the sultanate.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: The first Mughal emperor Babur turned his sights on Bengal after the Battle of Panipat in 1526. At the Battle of Ghaghra in 1529, Bengal reached a peace treaty with Babur. During the invasion of Sher Shah Suri, the second Mughal emperor Humayun occupied Gaur. The third Mughal emperor Akbar launched a war against Bengal at the Battle of Tukaroi in 1575. Akbar finally defeated the last Sultan of Bengal at the Battle of Raj Mahal in 1576.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: The economy of the Bengal Sultanate inherited earlier aspects of the Delhi Sultanate, including mint towns, a salaried bureaucracy and the jagirdar system of land ownership. The production of silver coins inscribed with the name of the Sultan of Bengal was a mark of Bengali sovereignty. Bengal was more successful in perpetuating purely silver coinage than Delhi and other contemporary Asian and European governments. There were three sources of silver. The first source was the leftover silver reserve of previous kingdoms. The second source was the tribute payments of subordinate kingdoms which were paid in silver bullion. The third source was during military campaigns when Bengali forces sacked neighboring states.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: The apparent vibrancy of the Bengal economy in the beginning of the 15th century is attributed to the end of tribute payments to Delhi, which ceased after Bengali independence and stopped the outflow of wealth. Ma Huan's testimony of a flourishing shipbuilding industry was part of the evidence that Bengal enjoyed significant seaborne trade. The expansion of muslin production, sericulture and the emergence of several other crafts were indicated in Ma Huan's list of items exported from Bengal to China. Bengali shipping co-existed with Chinese shipping until the latter withdrew from the Indian Ocean in the mid-15th century. The testimony of European travelers such as Ludovico di Varthema, Duarte Barbosa and Tomé Pires attest to the presence of a large number of wealthy Bengali merchants and shipowners in Malacca. Historian Rila Mukherjee wrote that ports in Bengal may have been entrepots, importing goods and re-exporting them to China.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: A vigorous riverine shipbuilding tradition existed in Bengal. The shipbuilding tradition is evidenced in the sultanate's naval campaigns in the Ganges delta. The trade between Bengal and the Maldives, based on rice and cowry shells, was probably done on Arab-style baghlah ships. Chinese accounts point to Bengali ships being prominent in Southeast Asian waters. A vessel from Bengal, probably owned by the Sultan of Bengal, could accommodate three tribute missions- from Bengal, Brunei and Sumatra- and was evidently the only vessel capable of such a task. Bengali ships were the largest vessels plying in those decades in Southeast Asian waters.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: All large business transactions were done in terms of silver taka. Smaller purchases involved shell currency. One silver coin was worth 10,250 cowry shells. Bengal relied on shiploads of cowry shell imports from the Maldives. Due to the fertile land, there was an abundance of agricultural commodities, including bananas, jackfruits, pomegranate, sugarcane, and honey. Native crops included rice and sesame. Vegetables included ginger, mustard, onions, and garlic among others. There were four types of wines, including coconut, rice, "tarry" and "kajang". Bengali streets were well provided with eating establishments, drinking houses and bathhouses. At least six varieties of fine muslin cloth existed. Silk fabrics were also abundant. Pearls, rugs and ghee were other important products. The finest variety of paper was made in Bengal from the bark of mulberry trees. The high quality of paper was compared with the lightweight white muslin cloth.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: Europeans referred to Bengal as "the richest country to trade with". Bengal was the eastern pole of Islamic India. Like the Gujarat Sultanate in the western coast of India, Bengal in the east was open to the sea and accumulated profits from trade. Merchants from around the world traded in the Bay of Bengal. Cotton textile exports were a unique aspect of the Bengali economy. Marco Polo noted Bengal's prominence in the textile trade. In 1569, Venetian explorer Caesar Frederick wrote about how merchants from Pegu in Burma traded in silver and gold with Bengalis. Overland trade routes such as the Grand Trunk Road connected Bengal to northern India, Central Asia and the Middle East.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: The Bengal Sultanate had robust foreign relations. Records show that the Bengal Sultanate exchanged embassies with states in China, Europe, Africa, Central Asia, South Asia and Southeast Asia. Diplomatic allies helped Bengal to fend off invasions from neighbouring kingdoms. For example, the Timurid ruler of Herat and the Ming emperor of China helped bring an end to the Bengal Sultanate–Jaunpur Sultanate War. Bengal was also active in regional diplomacy. For example, the ship of the Bengali embassy to China also transported the envoys of Brunei and Aceh (Sumatra) to China. Bengal gave consent to envoys from Portuguese India for setting up Portuguese trading posts in coastal areas. Other European visitors included Niccolo De Conti, Ludovico di Varthema and Caeser Fredrick from the Republic of Venice and Bologna.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: In the Islamic world, the sultanate pledged allegiance to the contemporary Abbasid Caliphate, which was at the time held by the Mamluk Sultan of Cairo. The Abbasid caliph was still considered to be the symbolic leader of Sunni Islam at the time, despite dwindling territory under direct caliphate rule. For the Bengali Sultans, relations with the caliphate provided legitimacy among the Muslim clergy. For example, the converted Sultan Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah received recognition from Al-Mu'tadid II, which strengthened Jalaluddin's legitimacy in the eyes of the clergy. Many coins minted by the Bengal Sultanate bore the names of both the Bengali Sultans and the Abbasid Caliphs.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: Sultan Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah sponsored the construction of madrasas (Islamic theological schools) in the pilgrimage cities of Makkah and Madinah. The schools became known as the Ghiyasia Madrasa and Banjaliah Madrasa. Taqi al-Din al-Fasi, a contemporary Arab scholar, was a teacher at the madrasa in Makkah. The madrasa in Madinah was built at a place called Husn al-Atiq near the Prophet's Mosque. Several other Bengali Sultans also sponsored madrasas in the Hejaz.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: In Africa, Sultan Ashraf Barsbay of Egypt sent the Bengali Sultan a robe of honour and a letter of recognition. There are also records of envoys from the East African city-state of Malindi being hosted in the Bengali court. Animals constituted a significant part of tributes in medieval courts. The East African envoys brought giraffes, which were also noticed by the Chinese envoys in Bengal. In Central Asia, there are records of contacts between Sultan Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah and Sultan Shahrukh Mirza of the Timurid Empire. In Southeast Asia, European accounts refer to the presence of a large number of Bengali merchants in the Malacca Sultanate. The merchants were wealthy shipowners. It is yet to be ascertained whether these merchants had a significant role in the Sultan's court. Ship-owning merchants were often royal envoys. Contacts between Bengal and the Bruneian Empire and the Sumatran Aceh Sultanate are recorded in Chinese accounts.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: Within the subcontinent, Bengal had both tense and peaceful relations with the Delhi Sultanate and the Jaunpur Sultanate. The Delhi Sultanate initially received tributes from the Bengal Sultanate between 1353 and 1359. Tributes stopped after a war and peace treaty in 1359. Sultan Ghiyasuddin Azam sent envoys to the neighboring Jaunpur Sultanate. He sent elephants as gifts to Sultan Malik Sarwar Khwajah-i-Jahan. The two sultanates fought a war between 1415 and 1420. The end of the war brought a long period of peace between the neighbouring states. In 1494, the Jaunpuri Sultan Hussain Shah Sharqi was given refuge in Bengal after being defeated by the Lodi dynasty of Delhi.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: On the coastline of the Bay of Bengal, the Bengal Sultanate became influential in the control of Arakan. Min Saw Mon, a deposed Arakanese king, fled to Bengal after a Burmese invasion. With the support of Bengali forces led by a Pashtun general, he regained control of his country during the Reconquest of Arakan. The restored Arakanese realm became a vassal state of Bengal. A war with Arakan in 1459 led to the defeat of Bengali Sultan Rukunuddin Barbak Shah. The Arakanese developed an alliance with Portuguese Chittagong against Bengal. Despite achieving independence from the Sultans of Bengal, the Arakanese kings continued to fashion themselves after the Bengali Sultans by copying clothes, coins, titles and administrative techniques. Bengali Muslim influence on Arakan lasted for 350 years. In the Indian Ocean, the Bengal Sultanate was involved in trading with the Maldives where Bengali rice was exchanged for Maldivian shell currency.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: Historians have focused on Bengal's relations with Ming China during the early 15th century. For example, "Trade and Diplomacy in India-China Relations: A Study of Bengal During the Fifteenth Century" chronicles the relationship between the Bengal Sultanate and Ming China. This relationship was also noted by Indian independence leader Jawaharlal Nehru in his book "The Discovery of India". Political relations between China and the Indian subcontinent became nonexistent after the decline of Buddhism in India. In the 15th century, the Bengal Sultanate revived the subcontinent's relations with China through regular contacts. Sultan Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah began sending envoys to the Ming dynasty. He sent ambassadors in 1405, 1408 and 1409. Emperor Yongle of China responded by sending ambassadors to Bengal between 1405 and 1433, including members of the Treasure voyages fleet led by Admiral Zheng He. The exchange of embassies included the gift of an East African giraffe by Sultan Shihabuddin Bayazid Shah to the Chinese emperor in 1414. China also mediated an end to the Bengal-Jaunpur War after a request from Sultan Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah. Ming China considered Bengal to be "rich and civilized" and one of the strongest countries in the entire chain of contacts between China and Asian states during the 15th century. Sino-Bengali contacts was the main feature of relations between China and the Indian subcontinent during the 15th century.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: The Bengali language was the most spoken language while Persian was an administrative and commercial language. Men wore white shirts, cotton fabrics of various colors, turbans, sarongs, lungis, dhutis, leather shoes, and belts to wrap their robes on the waist. Women wore cotton saris. Upper-class women wore gold jewelry. There were various classes of artisans, as well as physicians and fortune tellers. There was a class of musicians who would gather by the houses of the rich during dawn and play music; and they would be rewarded with wine, food and money during breakfast hours. Some men would have performances with a chained tiger. The Hindu minority did not eat beef. The streets and markets included bathing areas, eating and drinking places, and dessert shops. Betel nut was offered to guests. The population included royalty, aristocrats, natives and foreigners. Many of the rich built ships and went abroad for trade. Many were agriculturalists. Punishments for breaking the law included expulsion from the kingdom, as well as bamboo flogging.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: Bengal received settlers from North India, the Middle East and Central Asia. They included Turks, Afghans, Persians and Arabs. An important migrant community were Persians. Many Persians in Bengal were teachers, lawyers, scholars and clerics. Mercenaries were widely imported for domestic, military and political service. One particular group of mercenaries were the Abyssinians.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: Muslim poets were writing in the Bengali language by the 15th century. By the turn of the 16th century, a vernacular literature based on concepts of Sufism and Islamic cosmology flourished in the region. Bengali Muslim mystic literature was one of the most original in Islamic India.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: With Persian as an official language, Bengal witnessed an influx of Persian scholars, lawyers, teachers and clerics. It was the preferred language of the aristocracy and the Sufis. Thousands of Persian books and manuscripts were published in Bengal. The earliest Persian work compiled in Bengal was a translation of Amrtakunda from Sanskrit by Qadi Ruknu'd-Din Abu Hamid Muhammad bin Muhammad al-'Amidi of Samarqand, a famous Hanafi jurist and Sufi. During the reign of Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah, the city of Sonargaon became an important centre of Persian literature, with many publications of prose and poetry. The period is described as the "golden age of Persian literature in Bengal". Its stature is illustrated by the Sultan's own correspondence with the Persian poet Hafez. When the Sultan invited Hafez to complete an incomplete ghazal by the ruler, the renowned poet responded by acknowledging the grandeur of the king's court and the literary quality of Bengali-Persian poetry.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: Manuscript paintings depict the fashion and architecture of the Bengal Sultanate. Persian manuscripts with paintings are a key artistic hallmark of the Bengal Sultanate. One of the best-known examples of this heritage is the "Sharafnama" published by Sultan Nusrat Shah in the middle of the 16th century. It includes epic poetry by Nizami Ganjavi about the conquests of Alexander the Great.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: In the 15th century, the court scholar Nur Qutb Alam pioneered Bengali Muslim poetry by establishing the Dobhashi tradition, which saw poems written half in Persian and half in colloquial Bengali. The invocation tradition saw Islamic figures replacing the invocation of Hindu gods and goddesses in Bengali texts. The literary romantic tradition saw poems by Shah Muhammad Sagir on Yusuf and Zulaikha, as well as works of Bahram Khan and Sabirid Khan. The "Dobhashi" culture featured the use of Arabic and Persian words in Bengali texts to illustrate Muslim stories. Epic poetry included "Nabibangsha" by Syed Sultan, "Janganama" by Abdul Hakim and "Rasul Bijay" by Shah Barid. Sufi literature flourished with a dominant theme of cosmology. Bengali Muslim writers produced translations of numerous Arabic and Persian works, including the Thousand and One Nights and the Shahnameh.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: A majority of the Bengal Sultanate's mint towns and surviving structures are found in Bangladesh. These structures have been studied in the book "Sultans and Mosques: The Early Muslim Architecture of Bangladesh" by Perween Hasan, who completed her PhD at Harvard University and has taught Islamic history and culture at the University of Dhaka. The Indian state of West Bengal is home to two of the sultanate's former capitals Gaur and Pandua, as well as several notable structures including a watchtower, fortified walls and mausolea. The oldest mosque in the Indian state of Assam dates from the Bengal Sultanate. A 15th-century sultanate-era mosque lies in ruins and covered with vegetation in Myanmar's Rakhine State.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: Cities in the Bengal Sultanate had stately medieval architecture, particularly in the royal capitals of Gaur and Pandua. In 1500, the royal capital of Gaur had the fifth-largest urban population in the world after Beijing, Vijayanagara, Cairo and Canton. It had a population of 200,000 (at the time, the global population is estimated to have ranged between 400 and 500 million). The Portuguese historian Castenhada de Lopez described houses in Gaur as being one-storeyed with ornamental floor tiles, courtyards and gardens. The city had a citadel, durbar, watchtowers, canals, bridges, large gateways, and a city wall. The royal palace was divided into three compartments. The first compartment was the royal court. The second was the living quarter of the Sultan. The third was the harem. A high wall enclosed the palace. A moat surrounded the palace on three sides and was connected to the Ganges. The city of Pandua developed from a small hamlet into a military garrison. It included imperial mosques and mausolea. Urban architecture in the Bengal Sultanate was based on Arab, Bengali, Persian, Indo-Turkish, and Byzantine influences. A glimpse of houses in the Bengal Sultanate can be seen in the "Iskandar Nama" (Book of Alexander) published by Sultan Nusrat Shah. There were significant indigenous developments. The Bengal roofs began appearing in concrete forms during the 15th century. These roofs were later widely replicated in the Mughal Empire and the Rajput kingdoms of the northwestern Indian subcontinent.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: According to Perween Hasan in a book edited by Oleg Grabar, the mosques of the Bengal Sultanate have several common features, including pointed arches, multiple mihrabs, engaged corner towers, and terracotta and stone decoration. In particular, the art of the mihrab is meticulous and unique to Bengal's mosque architecture. Mosques were either rectangular and multi-domed or square and single-domed. The large number of mosques built during the Bengal Sultanate indicates the rapidity with which the local population converted to Islam. The period between 1450 and 1550 was an intensive mosque building era. These mosques dotted the countryside, ranged from small to medium sizes and were used for daily devotion. Ponds were often located beside a mosque. Arabic inscriptions in the mosques often include the name of the patron or builder. The most commonly cited verse from the Quran in inscriptions was Surah 72 (Al-Jinn). The buildings were made of brick or stone. The brick mosque with terracotta decoration represented a grand structure in the Bengal Sultanate. They were often the gift of a wealthy patron and the fruit of extraordinary effort, which would not be found in every Muslim neighborhood. Mosques were built across the length and breadth of the Bengal Sultanate. The highest concentration of mosques from the Bengal Sultanate can be found in the North Bengal regions of Bangladesh and Indian West Bengal. A mosque city developed near the southwestern Bengali Sundarbans forest as a result of the patronization of Governor Khan Jahan Ali. In 1985, UNESCO designated the city as a World Heritage Site. In central areas, the Pathrail Mosque in Faridpur is one of the best-preserved sultanate-era structures. In the northeast, the Shankarpasha Shahi Masjid in Sylhet is a well-preserved structure of the Bengal Sultanate. In the northeastern Indian state of Assam, the Panbari Mosque was built during the reign of Sultan Alauddin Hussain Shah. Other mosques can be found in coastal areas of West Bengal and parts of Bihar, such as the Sayed Jamaluddin Mosque. In the southeast, the Santikan Mosque (built in the 1430s) stands in ruins in Rakhine State (formerly Arakan) of Myanmar (formerly Burma).


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: Imperial mosques had an in-built throne for the Sultan. These thrones are termed as "Badshah-e-Takht" (King's Throne). The Sultans sat on the elevated throne and addressed his subjects below. The Sultans also administered justice and managed government affairs while sitting on these thrones. Mosques served as royal courts. Mosques across the Bengal Sultanate had these thrones. The Sultans traveled from one town to another and hosted royal court activities in mosques with a Badshah-e-Takht. The Badshah-e-Takht in Kusumba Mosque is heavily decorated with a small intrinsically designed mihrab. The Adina Mosque has one of the largest royal galleries in the Indian subcontinent.


title: Bengal Sultanate

text: Mausoleums of the Bengal Sultanate are an important architectural hallmark. Initially, sarcophagi were erected based on Iranian models, such as the Tomb of Cyrus. Sarcophagi would include mihrabs and arches resembling the architecture in Adina Mosque. For example, the tomb of Sultan Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah in Sonargaon has features similar to the architecture of Adina Mosque built by his father Sultan Sikandar Shah. An indigenous Islamic mausolea style developed with the Eklakhi Mausoleum, which is the royal tomb chamber of Sultan Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah. Other mausolea, such as the Tomb of Fateh Khan in Gaur, featured a Bengal roof.