title: Antonin Artaud

text: Artaud was briefly associated with the surrealists, before being expelled by André Breton in 1927. This was in part due to the Surrealists increasing affiliation with the Communist Party in France. As Ros Murray notes, "Artaud was not into politics at all, writing things like: "I shit on Marxism". Additionally, "Breton was becoming very anti-theatre because he saw theatre as being bourgeois and anti-revolutionary." In "The Manifesto for an Abortive Theatre" (1926/27), written for the Theatre Alfred Jarry, Artaud makes a direct attack on the surrealists, whom he calls "bog-paper revolutionaries" that would "make us believe that to produce theatre today is a counter-revolutionary endeavour". He declares they are "bowing down to Communism", which is "a lazy man's revolution", and calls for a more "essential metamorphosis" of society.


title: Antonin Artaud

text: In 1926, Artaud, Robert Aron and the expelled surrealist Roger Vitrac founded the Théâtre Alfred Jarry (TAJ). They staged four productions between June 1927 and January 1929. The Theatre was extremely short-lived, but was attended by an enormous range of European artists, including Arthur Adamov, André Gide, and Paul Valéry.


title: Antonin Artaud

text: In 1931, Artaud saw Balinese dance performed at the Paris Colonial Exposition. Although Artaud misunderstood much of what he saw, it influenced many of his ideas for theatre. Adrian Curtin has noted the significance of the Balinese use of music and sound, stating that Artaud was struck by "the 'hypnotic' rhythms of the gamelan ensemble, its range of percussive effects, the variety of timbres that the musicians produced, and – most importantly, perhaps – the way in which the dancers' movements interacted dynamically with the musical elements instead of simply functioning as a type of background accompaniment."


title: Antonin Artaud

text: In 1935, Artaud staged an original adaptation of Percy Bysshe Shelley's "The Cenci" at the Théâtre des Folies-Wagram in Paris. The drama was Artaud's only chance to stage a Theatre of Cruelty production, and he emphasised its cruelty and violence, in particular "its themes of incest, revenge and familial murder". In the play's stage directions, Artaud describes the opening scene as "suggestive of extreme atmospheric turbulence, with wind-blown drapes, waves of suddenly amplified sound, and crowds of figures engaged in "furious orgy", accompanied by "a chorus of church bells", as well as the presence of numerous large mannequins. Scholar Adrian Curtin has argued for the importance of the "sonic aspects of the production, which did not merely support the action but motivated it obliquely". While Shelley's version of "The Cenci" conveyed the motivations and anguish of the Cenci's daughter Beatrice with her father through monologues, Artaud was much more concerned with conveying the menacing nature of the Cenci's presence and the reverberations of their incest relationship though physical discordance, as if an invisible "force-field" surrounded them.


title: Antonin Artaud

text: Jane Goodall writes of "The Cenci," The predominance of action over reflection accelerates the development of events...the monologues...are cut in favor of sudden, jarring transitions...so that a spasmodic effect is created. Extreme fluctuations in pace, pitch, and tone heighten sensory awareness intensify ... the here and now of performance."The Cenci" was a commercial failure, although it employed innovative sound effects—including the first theatrical use of the electronic instrument the Ondes Martenot—and had a set designed by Balthus.


title: Antonin Artaud

text: In 1935 Artaud decided to go to Mexico, where he was convinced there was "a sort of deep movement in favour of a return to civilisation before Cortez". The Mexican Legation in Paris gave him a travel grant, and he left for Mexico in January 1936, "where he would arrive one month later". In 1936 he met his first Mexican-Parisian friend, the painter Federico Cantú, when Cantú gave lectures on the decadence of Western civilization. Artaud also studied and lived with the Tarahumaran people and participated in peyote rites, his writings about which were later released in a volume called "Voyage to the Land of the Tarahumara", published in English under the title "The Peyote Dance" (1976). The content of this work closely resembles the poems of his later days, concerned primarily with the supernatural. Artaud also recorded his horrific withdrawal from heroin upon entering the land of the Tarahumaras. Having deserted his last supply of the drug at a mountainside, he literally had to be hoisted onto his horse and soon resembled, in his words, "a giant, inflamed gum". Artaud would return to opiates later in life.


title: Antonin Artaud

text: In 1937, Artaud returned to France, where his friend René Thomas gave him a walking-stick of knotted wood that Artaud believed contained magical powers and was the 'most sacred relic of the Irish church, the "Bachall Ísu", or "Staff of Jesus". Artaud traveled to Ireland, landing at Cobh and travelling to Galway, possibly in an effort to return the staff. Speaking very little English and no Gaelic whatsoever, he was unable to make himself understood. He would not have been admitted at Cobh, according to Irish government documents, except that he carried a letter of introduction from the Paris embassy. Most of his trip was spent in a hotel room he was unable to pay for. He was forcibly removed from the grounds of Milltown House, a Jesuit community, when he refused to leave. Before deportation he was briefly confined in the notorious Mountjoy Prison. According to Irish Government papers he was deported as "a destitute and undesirable alien". On his return trip by ship, Artaud believed he was being attacked by two crew members, and he retaliated; he was put in a straitjacket and he was involuntarily retained by the police upon his return to France.


title: Antonin Artaud

text: His return from Ireland brought about the beginning of the final phase of Artaud's life, which was spent in different asylums. It was at this time that his best known work "The Theatre and Its Double" (1938) was published. This book contained the two manifestos of the Theatre of Cruelty. There, "he proposed a theatre that was in effect a return to magic and ritual and he sought to create a new theatrical language of totem and gesture – a language of space devoid of dialogue that would appeal to all the senses." "Words say little to the mind," Artaud wrote, "compared to space thundering with images and crammed with sounds." He proposed "a theatre in which violent physical images crush and hypnotize the sensibility of the spectator seized by the theatre as by a whirlwind of higher forces." He considered formal theatres with their proscenium arches and playwrights with their scripts "a hindrance to the magic of genuine ritual".


title: Antonin Artaud

text: In 1943, when France was occupied by the Germans and Italians, Robert Desnos arranged to have Artaud transferred to the psychiatric hospital in Rodez, well inside Vichy territory, where he was put under the charge of Dr. Gaston Ferdière. At Rodez Artaud underwent therapy including electroshock treatments and art therapy. The doctor believed that Artaud's habits of crafting magic spells, creating astrology charts, and drawing disturbing images were symptoms of mental illness. Artaud, at his peak began lashing out at others. Artaud denounced the electroshock treatments and consistently pleaded to have them suspended, while also ascribing to them "the benefit of having returned him to his name and to his self mastery". Scholar Alexandra Lukes points out that "the 'recovery' of his name" might have been "a gesture to appease his doctors" conception of what constitutes health". It was during this time that Artaud began writing and drawing again, after a long dormant period. In 1946, Ferdière released Artaud to his friends, who placed him in the psychiatric clinic at Ivry-sur-Seine.


title: Antonin Artaud

text: At Ivry-sur-Seine Artaud's friends encouraged him to write and interest in his work was rekindled. He visited a Vincent van Gogh exhibition at the Orangerie in Paris and wrote the study "Van Gogh le suicidé de la société" ["Van Gogh, The Man Suicided by Society"]; in 1947, the French magazine K published it. In 1949, the essay would be first of Artaud's to be translated in a United States based publication, the influential literary magazine "Tiger's Eye".


title: Antonin Artaud

text: He recorded " (To Have Done With the Judgment of God)" on 22–29 November 1947. The work remained true to his vision for the theatre of cruelty, using "screams, rants and vocal shudders" to forward his vision. Wladimir Porché, the Director of French Radio, shelved the work the day before its scheduled airing on 2 February 1948. This was partly for its scatological, anti-American, and anti-religious references and pronouncements, but also because of its general randomness, with a cacophony of xylophonic sounds mixed with various percussion elements. While remaining true to his Theatre of Cruelty and reducing powerful emotions and expressions into audible sounds, Artaud had utilized various, somewhat alarming cries, screams, grunts, onomatopoeia, and glossolalia.


title: Antonin Artaud

text: As a result, Fernand Pouey, the director of dramatic and literary broadcasts for French radio, assembled a panel to consider the broadcast of ' Among approximately 50 artists, writers, musicians, and journalists present for a private listening on 5 February 1948 were Jean Cocteau, Paul Éluard, Raymond Queneau, Jean-Louis Barrault, René Clair, Jean Paulhan, Maurice Nadeau, Georges Auric, Claude Mauriac, and René Char. Porché refused to broadcast it even though the panel were almost unanimously in favor of Artaud's work. Pouey left his job and the show was not heard again until 23 February 1948, at a private performance at Théâtre Washington. The work's first public broadcast would not take place until 8 July 1964, when the Los Angeles-based public radio station KPFK played an illegal copy provided by the artist Jean-Jacques Lebel. The first French radio broadcast of ' occurred 20 years after its original production.


title: Antonin Artaud

text: In January 1948, Artaud was diagnosed with colorectal cancer. He died shortly afterwards, on 4 March 1948 in a psychiatric clinic in Ivry-sur-Seine, a commune in the southeastern suburbs of Paris. He was found by the gardener of the estate seated alone at the foot of his bed holding a shoe, and it was suspected that he died from a lethal dose of the drug chloral hydrate, although it is unknown whether he was aware of its lethality.


title: Antonin Artaud

text: Artaud has had a profound influence on theatre, avant-garde art, literature, psychiatry and other disciplines.


title: Antonin Artaud

text: Artaud's has exerted a strong influence on the development of experimental theatre and performance art. His ideas helped inspire a movement away from the dominant role of language and rationalism in performance practice. Many of his works were not produced for the public until after his death. For instance, Spurt of Blood (1925) was not produced until 1964, when Peter Brook and Charles Marowitz staged it as part of their "Theatre of Cruelty" season at the Royal Shakespeare Company. Artists such Karen Finley, Spalding Gray, Liz LeCompte, Richard Foreman, Charles Marowitz, Sam Shepard, Joseph Chaikin, and more all named Artaud as one of their influences.


title: Antonin Artaud

text: Artaud also had a significant influence on philosophers. Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, borrowed Artaud's phrase "the body without organs" to describe their conception of the virtual dimension of the body and, ultimately, the basic substratum of reality in their "Capitalism and Schizophrenia". Philosopher Jacques Derrida provided one of the key philosophical treatments of Artaud's work through his concept of ""parole soufflée"". Feminist scholar Julia Kristeva also drew on Artaud for her theorisation of "subject in process".


title: Antonin Artaud

text: Poet Allen Ginsberg claimed Artaud's work, specifically "To Have Done with the Judgement of God", had a tremendous influence on his most famous poem "Howl". The Latin American dramatic novel "Yo-Yo Boing!" by Giannina Braschi includes a debate between artists and poets concerning the merits of Artaud's "multiple talents" in comparison to the singular talents of other French writers.


title: Antonin Artaud

text: The band Bauhaus included a song about the playwright, called "Antonin Artaud", on their album "Burning from the Inside". Influential Argentine hard rock band Pescado Rabioso recorded an album titled "Artaud". Their leader Luis Alberto Spinetta wrote the lyrics partly basing them on Artaud's writings. Composer John Zorn has written many works inspired by and dedicated to Artaud, including seven CDs: "Astronome", "", "Six Litanies for Heliogabalus", "The Crucible", "Ipsissimus", "" and "The Last Judgment", a monodrama for voice and orchestra inspired by Artaud's late drawings "La Machine de l'être" (2000), "Le Momo" (1999) for violin and piano, and "Suppots et Suppliciations" (2012) for full orchestra.


title: Antonin Artaud

text: Filmmaker E. Elias Merhige, during an interview by writer Scott Nicolay, cited Artaud as a key influence for the experimental film "Begotten".


title: Symmetric matrix

text: The entries of a symmetric matrix are symmetric with respect to the main diagonal. So if formula_1 denotes the entry in the formula_2th row and formula_3th column then


title: Symmetric matrix

text: Every square diagonal matrix is symmetric, since all off-diagonal elements are zero. Similarly in characteristic different from 2, each diagonal element of a skew-symmetric matrix must be zero, since each is its own negative.


title: Symmetric matrix

text: In linear algebra, a real symmetric matrix represents a self-adjoint operator represented in an orthonormal basis over a real inner product space. The corresponding object for a complex inner product space is a Hermitian matrix with complex-valued entries, which is equal to its conjugate transpose. Therefore, in linear algebra over the complex numbers, it is often assumed that a symmetric matrix refers to one which has real-valued entries. Symmetric matrices appear naturally in a variety of applications, and typical numerical linear algebra software makes special accommodations for them.


title: Symmetric matrix

text: Any square matrix can uniquely be written as sum of a symmetric and a skew-symmetric matrix. This decomposition is known as the Toeplitz decomposition. Let formula_21 denote the space of formula_22 matrices. If formula_23 denotes the space of formula_22 symmetric matrices and formula_25 the space of formula_22 skew-symmetric matrices then formula_27 and formula_28, i.e.


title: Symmetric matrix

text: Notice that formula_33 and formula_34. This is true for every square matrix formula_35 with entries from any field whose characteristic is different from 2.


title: Symmetric matrix

text: A symmetric formula_22 matrix is determined by formula_37 scalars (the number of entries on or above the main diagonal). Similarly, a skew-symmetric matrix is determined by formula_38 scalars (the number of entries above the main diagonal).


title: Symmetric matrix

text: Any matrix congruent to a symmetric matrix is again symmetric: if formula_35 is a symmetric matrix, then so is formula_40 for any matrix formula_8.


title: Symmetric matrix

text: Denote by formula_42 the standard inner product on formula_43. The real formula_22 matrix formula_8 is symmetric if and only if


title: Symmetric matrix

text: Since this definition is independent of the choice of basis, symmetry is a property that depends only on the linear operator A and a choice of inner product. This characterization of symmetry is useful, for example, in differential geometry, for each tangent space to a manifold may be endowed with an inner product, giving rise to what is called a Riemannian manifold. Another area where this formulation is used is in Hilbert spaces.


title: Symmetric matrix

text: The finite-dimensional spectral theorem says that any symmetric matrix whose entries are real can be diagonalized by an orthogonal matrix. More explicitly: For every real symmetric matrix formula_8 there exists a real orthogonal matrix formula_48 such that formula_49 is a diagonal matrix. Every real symmetric matrix is thus, up to choice of an orthonormal basis, a diagonal matrix.


title: Symmetric matrix

text: If formula_8 and formula_9 are formula_22 real symmetric matrices that commute, then they can be simultaneously diagonalized: there exists a basis of formula_43 such that every element of the basis is an eigenvector for both formula_8 and formula_9.


title: Symmetric matrix

text: Every real symmetric matrix is Hermitian, and therefore all its eigenvalues are real. (In fact, the eigenvalues are the entries in the diagonal matrix formula_56 (above), and therefore formula_56 is uniquely determined by formula_8 up to the order of its entries.) Essentially, the property of being symmetric for real matrices corresponds to the property of being Hermitian for complex matrices.


title: Symmetric matrix

text: A complex symmetric matrix can be 'diagonalized' using a unitary matrix: thus if formula_8 is a complex symmetric matrix, there is a unitary matrix formula_60 such that formula_61 is a real diagonal matrix with non-negative entries. This result is referred to as the Autonne–Takagi factorization. It was originally proved by Léon Autonne (1915) and Teiji Takagi (1925) and rediscovered with different proofs by several other mathematicians. In fact, the matrix formula_62 is Hermitian and positive semi-definite, so there is a unitary matrix formula_63 such that formula_64 is diagonal with non-negative real entries. Thus formula_65 is complex symmetric with formula_66 real. Writing formula_67 with formula_35 and formula_69 real symmetric matrices, formula_70. Thus formula_71. Since formula_35 and formula_69 commute, there is a real orthogonal matrix formula_74 such that both formula_75 and formula_76 are diagonal. Setting formula_77 (a unitary matrix), the matrix formula_78 is complex diagonal. Pre-multiplying formula_60 by a suitable diagonal unitary matrix (which preserves unitarity of formula_60), the diagonal entries of formula_78 can be made to be real and non-negative as desired. To construct this matrix, we express the diagonal matrix as formula_82. The matrix we seek is simply given by formula_83. Clearly formula_84 as desired, so we make the modification formula_85. Since their squares are the eigenvalues of formula_86, they coincide with the singular values of formula_8. (Note, about the eigen-decomposition of a complex symmetric matrix formula_8, the Jordan normal form of formula_8 may not be diagonal, therefore formula_8 may not be diagonalized by any similarity transformation.)


title: Symmetric matrix

text: Using the Jordan normal form, one can prove that every square real matrix can be written as a product of two real symmetric matrices, and every square complex matrix can be written as a product of two complex symmetric matrices.


title: Symmetric matrix

text: Every real non-singular matrix can be uniquely factored as the product of an orthogonal matrix and a symmetric positive definite matrix, which is called a polar decomposition. Singular matrices can also be factored, but not uniquely.


title: Symmetric matrix

text: Cholesky decomposition states that every real positive-definite symmetric matrix formula_8 is a product of a lower-triangular matrix formula_92 and its transpose,


title: Symmetric matrix

text: If the matrix is symmetric indefinite, it may be still decomposed as formula_94 where formula_95 is a permutation matrix (arising from the need to pivot), formula_92 a lower unit triangular matrix, and formula_56 is a direct sum of symmetric formula_98 and formula_99 blocks, which is called Bunch–Kaufman decomposition


title: Symmetric matrix

text: A general (complex) symmetric matrix may be defective and thus not be diagonalizable. If formula_8 is diagonalizable it may be decomposed as


title: Symmetric matrix

text: where formula_48 is an orthogonal matrix formula_103, and formula_104 is a diagonal matrix of the eigenvalues of formula_8. In the special case that formula_8 is real symmetric, then formula_48 and formula_104 are also real. To see orthogonality, suppose formula_109 and formula_110 are eigenvectors corresponding to distinct eigenvalues formula_111, formula_112. Then


title: Symmetric matrix

text: Symmetric formula_22 matrices of real functions appear as the Hessians of twice differentiable functions of formula_14 real variables (the continuity of the second derivative is not needed, despite common belief to the opposite).


title: Symmetric matrix

text: Every quadratic form formula_119 on formula_43 can be uniquely written in the form formula_121 with a symmetric formula_22 matrix formula_8. Because of the above spectral theorem, one can then say that every quadratic form, up to the choice of an orthonormal basis of formula_124, "looks like"


title: Symmetric matrix

text: with real numbers formula_126. This considerably simplifies the study of quadratic forms, as well as the study of the level sets formula_127 which are generalizations of conic sections.


title: Symmetric matrix

text: This is important partly because the second-order behavior of every smooth multi-variable function is described by the quadratic form belonging to the function's Hessian; this is a consequence of Taylor's theorem.


title: Symmetric matrix

text: An formula_22 matrix formula_8 is said to be symmetrizable if there exists an invertible diagonal matrix formula_56 and symmetric matrix formula_131 such that formula_132


title: Symmetric matrix

text: The transpose of a symmetrizable matrix is symmetrizable, since formula_133 and formula_134 is symmetric. A matrix formula_135 is symmetrizable if and only if the following conditions are met:


title: Top Secret (company)

text: “Smokey <nowiki>"</nowiki> Nagata is well known in the JDM car community and became universally known because of reposted clips on different social media platforms. Some clips found on YouTube are sourced from “Midnight 200mph Blast”(DVD).


title: Top Secret (company)

text: The company is mainly known for its body kits and performance engineering. Top Secret is also known for its illegal Wangan high speed runs, professional drifting, circuit, and drag racing. A recognizable feature of many Top Secret tuned cars are their gold paint schemes. Only cars that Nagata deem to be his best work receive this paint scheme.


title: Top Secret (company)

text: Ryuji Miki won Round 5, and ultimately won the 2004 Japanese D1GP championship in a Nissan Silvia S15 racing for Top Secret. In 2005 Miki won an exhibition round at Silverstone Circuit in the UK in a Nissan Fairlady Z.


title: Top Secret (company)

text: In 2007, Yoichi Imamura took 3rd place at Round 3 and 6 at Suzuka and Autopolis respectively. Imamura also won an exhibition round at Las Vegas Motor Speedway the same year.


title: Top Secret (company)

text: Top Secret won the 2007 Tokyo Auto Salon Championship with its "Final Evolution" V12 twin turbo Toyota Supra.


title: Top Secret (company)

text: At the 2017 Tokyo Auto Salon, Top Secret debuted an R32 Nissan Skyline GT-R that had been transplanted with the engine, driveline, and interior of the newer R35 Nissan GT-R. The tuning company dubbed this car the "Skyline VR32 GT-R".


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: Grand Coulee Dam is a concrete gravity dam on the Columbia River in the U.S. state of Washington, built to produce hydroelectric power and provide irrigation water. Constructed between 1933 and 1942, Grand Coulee originally had two powerhouses. The third powerhouse ("Nat"), completed in 1974 to increase energy production, makes Grand Coulee the largest power station in the United States by nameplate-capacity at 6,809 MW.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: The proposal to build the dam was the focus of a bitter debate during the 1920s between two groups. One group wanted to irrigate the ancient Grand Coulee with a gravity canal while the other pursued a high dam and pumping scheme. The dam supporters won in 1933, but, although they fully intended otherwise, the initial proposal by the Bureau of Reclamation was for a "low dam" tall which would generate electricity without supporting irrigation. That year, the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation and a consortium of three companies called MWAK (Mason-Walsh-Atkinson Kier Company) began construction on a high dam, although they had received approval for a low dam. After visiting the construction site in August 1934, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt endorsed the "high dam" design, which at high would provide enough electricity to pump water into the Columbia basin for irrigation. Congress approved the high dam in 1935, and it was completed in 1942. The first waters overtopped Grand Coulee's spillway on of that year.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: Power from the dam fueled the growing industries of the Northwest United States during World War II. Between 1967 and 1974, the third powerplant was constructed. The decision to construct the additional facility was influenced by growing energy demand, regulated river flows stipulated in the Columbia River Treaty with Canada, and competition with the Soviet Union. Through a series of upgrades and the installation of pump-generators, the dam now supplies four power stations with an installed capacity of 6,809 MW. As the centerpiece of the Columbia Basin Project, the dam's reservoir supplies water for the irrigation of .


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: The reservoir is called Franklin Delano Roosevelt Lake, named after the United States President who presided over the dam's authorization and completion. Creation of the reservoir forced the relocation of over 3,000 people, including Native Americans whose ancestral lands were partially flooded. While the dam does not contain fish passage, neither does the next downstream dam, Chief Joseph Dam. This means no salmon reach the Grand Coulee Dam. The third large dam downstream, Wells Dam, has an intricate system of fish ladders to accommodate yearly salmon spawning and migration.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: The Grand Coulee is an ancient river bed on the Columbia Plateau created during the Pliocene Epoch (Calabrian) by retreating glaciers and floods. Originally, geologists believed a glacier that diverted the Columbia River formed the Grand Coulee, but it was revealed in the mid-late 20th century that massive floods from Lake Missoula carved most of the gorge. The earliest known proposal to irrigate the Grand Coulee with the Columbia River dates to 1892, when the "Coulee City News" and "The Spokesman Review" reported on a scheme by a man named Laughlin McLean to construct a dam across the Columbia River, high enough that water would back up into the Grand Coulee. A dam that size would have its reservoir encroach into Canada, which would violate treaties. Soon after the Bureau of Reclamation was founded, it investigated a scheme for pumping water from the Columbia River to irrigate parts of central Washington. An attempt to raise funds for irrigation failed in 1914, as Washington voters rejected a bond measure.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: In 1917, William M. Clapp, a lawyer from Ephrata, Washington, proposed the Columbia be dammed immediately below the Grand Coulee. He suggested a concrete dam could flood the plateau, just as nature blocked it with ice centuries ago. Clapp was joined by James O'Sullivan, another lawyer, and by Rufus Woods, publisher of "The Wenatchee World" newspaper in the nearby agricultural centre of Wenatchee. Together, they became known as the "Dam College". Woods began promoting the Grand Coulee Dam in his newspaper, often with articles written by O'Sullivan.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: The dam idea gained popularity with the public in 1918. Backers of reclamation in Central Washington split into two camps. The "pumpers" favored a dam with pumps to elevate water from the river into the Grand Coulee from which canals and pipes could irrigate farmland. The "ditchers" favored diverting water from northeast Washington's Pend Oreille River via a gravity canal to irrigate farmland in Central and Eastern Washington. Many locals such as Woods, O'Sullivan and Clapp were pumpers, while many influential businessmen in Spokane associated with the Washington Water and Power Company (WWPC) were staunch ditchers. The pumpers argued that hydroelectricity from the dam could cover costs and claimed the ditchers sought to maintain a monopoly on electric power.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: The ditchers took several steps to ensure support for their proposals. In 1921, WWPC secured a preliminary permit to build a dam at Kettle Falls, about upstream from the Grand Coulee. If built, the Kettle Falls Dam would have lain in the path of the Grand Coulee Dam's reservoir, essentially blocking its construction. WWPC planted rumors in the newspapers, stating exploratory drilling at the Grand Coulee site found no granite on which a dam's foundations could rest, only clay and fragmented rock. This was later disproved with Reclamation-ordered drilling. Ditchers hired General George W. Goethals, engineer of the Panama Canal, to prepare a report. Goethals visited the state and produced a report backing the ditchers. The Bureau of Reclamation was unimpressed by Goethals' report, believing it filled with errors. In , President Warren G. Harding visited Washington state and expressed support for irrigation work there, but died a month later. His successor, Calvin Coolidge, had little interest in irrigation projects. The Bureau of Reclamation, desirous of a major project that would bolster its reputation, was focusing on the Boulder Canyon Project that resulted in the Hoover Dam. Reclamation was authorized to conduct a study in 1923, but the project's cost made federal officials reluctant. The Washington state proposals received little support from those further east, who feared the irrigation would result in more crops, depressing prices. With President Coolidge opposed to the project, bills to appropriate money for surveys of the Grand Coulee site failed.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: In 1925, Congress authorized a U.S. Army Corps of Engineers study of the Columbia River. This study was included in the Rivers and Harbors Act of , which provided for studies on the navigation, power, flood control and irrigation potential of rivers. In , the Army Corps responded with the first of the "308 Reports" named after the 1925 House Document No. 308 (69th Congress, 1st Session). With the help of Washington's Senators, Wesley Jones and Clarence Dill, Congress ordered $600,000 in further studies to be carried out by the Army Corps and Federal Power Commission on the Columbia River Basin and Snake Rivers. U.S. Army Major John Butler was responsible for the upper Columbia River and Snake River and in 1932, his 1,000-page report was submitted to Congress. It recommended the Grand Coulee Dam and nine others on the river, including some in Canada. The report stated electricity sales from the Grand Coulee Dam could pay for construction costs. Reclamation—whose interest in the dam was revitalized by the report—endorsed it.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: Although there was support for the Grand Coulee Dam, others argued there was little need for more electricity in the Northwest and crops were in surplus. The Army Corps did not believe construction should be a federal project and saw low demand for electricity. Reclamation argued energy demand would rise by the time the dam was complete. The head of Reclamation, Elwood Mead, stated he wanted the dam built no matter the cost. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who took office in March 1933, supported the dam because of its irrigation potential and the power it would provide, but he was uneasy with its price tag. For this reason, he supported a "low dam" instead of the "high dam". He provided in federal funding, while Washington State provided $377,000. In 1933, Washington governor Clarence Martin set up the Columbia Basin Commission to oversee the dam project, and Reclamation was selected to oversee construction.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: On July 16, 1933, a crowd of 3,000 watched the driving of the first stake at the low dam site, and excavation soon began. Core drilling commenced that September while the Bureau of Reclamation accelerated its studies and designs for the dam. It would still help control floods and provide for irrigation and hydroelectricity, though at a reduced capacity. Most importantly, it would not raise its reservoir high enough to irrigate the plateau around the Grand Coulee. However, the dam's design provided for future raising and upgrading.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: Before and during construction, workers and engineers experienced problems. Contracts for companies to construct the various parts of the dam were difficult to award as few companies were sizable enough to fill them. This forced companies to consolidate. In addition, Native American graves had to be relocated and temporary fish ladders had to be constructed. During construction additional problems included landslides and the need to protect newly poured concrete from freezing. Construction on the downstream Grand Coulee Bridge began in and more considerable earth-moving began in August. Excavation for the dam's foundation required the removal of 22 million cubic yards (17 million m³) of dirt and stone. To reduce the amount of trucking required in the excavation, a conveyor belt nearly long was built. To further secure the foundation, workers drilled holes into the granite and filled any fissures with grout, creating a grout curtain. At times, excavated areas collapsed from overburden. In order to secure these areas from further movement and continue excavation, diameter pipes were inserted into the mass and chilled with cold liquid from a refrigeration plant. This froze the earth and secured it so construction could continue.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: Final contract bidding for the dam began , 1934, in Spokane, and four bids were submitted. One bid was from a lawyer with no financial backing; another was from actress Mae West which consisted of nothing more than a poem and promise to divert the river. Of the two serious bids, the lowest bid was from a consortium of three companies: Silas Mason Co. from Louisville, Kentucky; Walsh Construction Co. of Davenport, Iowa and New York; and Atkinson-Kier Company of San Francisco and San Diego. The consortium was known as MWAK, and their bid was $29,339,301, almost 15% lower than the option submitted by the next bidder, Six Companies, Inc., which was building Hoover Dam at the time.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: Two large cofferdams were constructed for the dam, but they were parallel to the river rather than straddling its width, so drilling into the canyon walls was not required. By the end of 1935 about 1,200 workers completed the west and east cofferdams. The west cofferdam was long, thick and was constructed above the bedrock. The cofferdams allowed workers to dry portions of the riverbed and begin constructing the dam, while water continued to flow down the center of the riverbed. In , once the west foundation was complete, portions of the west cofferdam were dismantled, allowing water to flow through part of the dam's new foundation. In , MWAK had begun constructing cofferdams above and below the channel between the east and west cofferdams. By December, the entire Columbia River was diverted over the foundations constructed within the east and west cofferdams. On , 1936, the "Wenatchee Daily World" announced the river was diverted and by early the next year, people were arriving in large numbers to see the riverbed.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: On August 4, 1934, President Franklin D. Roosevelt visited the construction site and was impressed by the project and its purpose. He spoke to workers and spectators, closing with this statement: "I leave here today with the feeling that this work is well undertaken; that we are going ahead with a useful project, and we are going to see it through for the benefit of our country." Soon afterward, Reclamation was allowed to proceed with the high dam plan but faced the problems of transitioning the design and negotiating an altered contract with MWAK. In , for an additional , MWAK and Six Companies, Inc. agreed to join together as Consolidated Builders Inc. and construct the high dam. Six Companies had just finished the Hoover Dam and was nearing completion of Parker Dam. The new design, chosen and approved by the Reclamation office in Denver, included several improvements, one of which was the irrigation pumping plant.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: Roosevelt envisioned the dam would fit into his New Deal under the Public Works Administration; it would create jobs and farming opportunities and would pay for itself. In addition, as part of a larger public effort, Roosevelt wanted to keep electricity prices low by limiting private ownership of utility companies, which could charge high prices for energy. Many opposed a federal takeover of the project, including its most prominent supporters, but Washington State lacked the resources to fully realize the project. In , with the help of Roosevelt and a Supreme Court decision allowing the acquisition of public land and Indian Reservations, Congress authorized funding for the upgraded high dam under the 1935 River and Harbors Act. The most significant legislative hurdle for the dam was over.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: On December 6, 1935, Governor Clarence Martin presided over the ceremonial first concrete pour. During construction, bulk concrete was delivered on site by rail-cars where it was further processed by eight large mixers before being placed in form. Concrete was poured into columns by crane-lifted buckets, each supporting eight tons of concrete. To cool the concrete and facilitate curing, about of piping was placed throughout the hardening mass. Cold water from the river was pumped into the pipes, reducing the temperature within the forms from to . This caused the dam to contract about in length; the resulting gaps were filled with grout.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: Until the project began, the stretch of the Columbia River where the dam was to rise was as yet unbridged, making it difficult to move men and materials. In , the Grand Coulee Bridge (a permanent highway bridge) was opened after major delays caused by high water; three additional and temporary bridges downstream had moved vehicles and workers along with sand and gravel for cement mixing. In , MWAK completed the lower dam and Consolidated Builders Inc. began constructing the high dam. The west power house was completed in and about 5,500 workers were on site that year. Between 1940 and 1941, the dam's eleven floodgates were installed on the spillway and the dam's first generator went into operation in . The reservoir was full and the first water flowed over the dam's spillway on , 1942, while work was officially complete on , 1943. The last of the original 18 generators did not operate until 1949.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: In 1933, Reclamation began efforts to purchase land behind the dam as far as upstream for the future reservoir zone. The reservoir, known later as Lake Roosevelt, flooded and Reclamation acquired an additional around the future shoreline. Within the zone were eleven towns, two railroads, three state highways, about one hundred and fifty miles of country roads, four sawmills, fourteen bridges, four telegraph and telephone systems, and many power lines and cemeteries. All facilities had to be purchased or relocated, and 3,000 residents were relocated. The Anti-Speculation Act was passed in 1937, limiting the amount of land farmers could own to prevent inflated prices. The government appraised the land and offered to purchase it from the affected residents. Many refused to accept the offers, and Reclamation filed condemnation suits. Members of the Colville Confederated and Spokane tribes who had settlements within the reservoir zone were also resettled. The Acquisition of Indian Lands for Grand Coulee Dam Act of , 1940, allowed the Secretary of the Interior to acquire land on the Colville and Spokane Reservations, eventually accounting for . By 1942, all land had been purchased at market value: a cost of that included the relocation of farms, bridges, highways and railroads. Relocation reimbursement was not offered to property owners, which was common until U.S. laws changed in 1958.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: In late 1938, the Works Progress Administration began clearing what would be of trees and other plants. The cut timber was floated downstream and sold to the highest bidder, Lincoln Lumber Company, which paid $2.25 per thousand board feet (). The pace of clearing was accelerated in when it was declared a national defense project, and the last tree was felled on , 1941. The felling was done by Reclamation Supervising Engineer Frank A. Banks and State WPA Administrator Carl W. Smith during a ceremony. 2,626 people living in five main camps along the Columbia worked on the project. When it was finished, had been spent in labor.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: Workers building the dam received an average of 80¢ an hour; the payroll for the dam was among the largest in the nation. The workers were mainly pulled from Grant, Lincoln, Douglas, and Okanogan counties and women were allowed to work only in the dorms and the cookhouse. Around 8,000 people worked on the project, and Frank A. Banks served as the chief construction engineer. Bert A. Hall was the chief inspector who would accept the dam from the contractors. Orin G. Patch served as the chief of concrete. Construction conditions were dangerous and 77 workers died.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: To prepare for construction, housing for workers was needed along with four bridges downstream of the dam site, one of which, the Grand Coulee Bridge, exists today. The Bureau of Reclamation provided housing and located their administrative building at Engineer's Town, which was directly downstream of the construction site on the west side of the river. Opposite Engineer's Town, MWAK constructed Mason City in 1934. Mason city contained a hospital, post office, electricity and other amenities along with a population of 3,000. Three-bedroom houses in the city were rented for $32 a month. Of the two living areas, Engineer's City was considered to have the better housing. Several other living areas formed around the construction site in an area known as Shack Town, which did not have reliable access to electricity and the same amenities as the other towns. Incorporated in 1935, the city of Grand Coulee supported workers as well and is just west of the dam on the plateau. MWAK eventually sold Mason City to Reclamation in 1937 before its contract was completed. In 1956, Reclamation combined both Mason City and Engineer's Town to form the city of Coulee Dam. It was incorporated as a city in .


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: With the onset of World War II, power generation was given priority over irrigation. In 1943, Congress authorized the Columbia Basin Project and the Bureau of Reclamation began construction of irrigation facilities in 1948. Directly to the west and above the Grand Coulee Dam, the North Dam was constructed. This dam, along with the Dry Falls Dam to the south, enclosed and created Banks Lake, which covered the northern of the Grand Coulee. Additional dams, such as the Pinto and O'Sullivan Dams, were constructed alongside siphons and canals, creating a vast irrigation supply network called the Columbia Basin Project. Irrigation began between 1951 and 1953 as six of the 12 pumps were installed and Banks Lake was filled.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: After World War II, the growing demand for electricity sparked interest in constructing another power plant supported by the Grand Coulee Dam. One obstacle to an additional power plant was the great seasonality of the Columbia River's streamflow. Today the flow is closely managed—there is almost no seasonality. Historically, about 75% of the river's annual flow occurred between April and September. During low flow periods, the river's discharge was between and while maximum spring runoff flows were around . Only nine out of the dam's eighteen generators could run year-round. The remaining nine operated for less than six months a year. In 1952, Congress authorized $125,000 for Reclamation to conduct a feasibility study on the Third Powerplant which was completed in 1953 and recommended two locations. Nine identical 108 MW generators were recommended, but as matters stood, they would be able to operate only in periods of high water.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: Further regulation of the Columbia's flows was necessary to make the new power plant feasible. It would require water storage and regulation projects in Canada and a treaty to resolve the many economic and political issues involved. The Bureau of Reclamation and Army Corps of Engineers explored alternatives that would not depend on a treaty with Canada, such as raising the level of Flathead Lake or Pend Oreille Lake, but both proposals faced strong local opposition. The Columbia River Treaty, which had been discussed between the U.S. and Canada since 1944, was seen as the answer. Efforts to build the Third Powerplant were also influenced by competition with the Soviet Union, which had constructed power plants on the Volga River larger than Grand Coulee. On , 1964, the Columbia River Treaty was ratified and included an agreement by Canada to construct the Duncan, Keenleyside, Mica Dams upstream and the U.S. would build the Libby Dam in Montana. Shortly afterward, Washington Senator Henry M. Jackson, who was influential in constructing the new power plant, announced Reclamation would present the project to Congress for appropriation and funding. To keep up with Soviet competition and increase the generating capacity it was determined the generators could be upgraded to much larger designs. With the possibility of international companies bidding on the project, the Soviets who had just installed a 500 MW hydroelectric generator on the Yenisei River indicated their interest. To avoid the potential embarrassment of an international rival building a domestic power plant, the Department of the Interior declined international bidding. The Third Powerplant was approved and President Lyndon Johnson signed its appropriation bill on , 1966.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: Between 1967 and 1974, the dam was expanded to add the Third Powerplant, with architectural design by Marcel Breuer. Beginning in , this involved demolishing the northeast side of the dam and building a new fore-bay section. The excavation of of dirt and rock had been completed before the new long section of dam was built. The addition made the original dam almost a mile long. Original designs for the powerhouse had twelve smaller units but were altered to incorporate six of the largest generators available. To supply them with water, six diameter penstocks were installed. Of the new turbines and generators, three 600 MW units were built by Westinghouse and three 700 MW units by General Electric. The first new generator was commissioned in 1975 and the final one in 1980. The three 700 MW units were later upgraded to 805 MW by Siemens.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: After power shortages in the Northwest during the 1960s, it was determined the six remaining planned pumps be pump-generators. When energy demand is high, the pump-generators can generate electricity with water from the Banks Lake feeder canal adjacent to the dam at a higher elevation. By 1973, the Pump-Generating Plant was completed and the first two generators (P/G-7 and P/G-8) were operational. In 1983, two more generators went online, and by the final two were operational. The six pump-generators added 314 MW to the dam's capacity. In , the Pump-Generating Plant was officially renamed the John W. Keys III Pump-Generating Power Plant after John W. Keys III, the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation's commissioner from 2001 to 2006.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: A major overhaul of the Third Powerplant, which contains generators numbered G19 through G24, began in and will be continuing for many years. Among the projects to be completed before the generators themselves can begin to be overhauled include replacing underground 500 kV oil-filled cables for G19, G20 and G21 generators with overhead transmission lines (started in ), new 236 MW transformers for G19 and G20 (started in ), and several other projects. Planning, design, procurement and site preparation for the 805 MW G22, G23 and G24 generator overhauls are scheduled to begin in 2011, with the overhauls themselves to start in 2013 with the G22 generator, then G23 starting in 2014, and finally G24 starting in 2016, with planned completions in 2014, 2016 and 2017, respectively. The generator overhauls for G19, G20 and G21 have not been scheduled as of 2010.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: The dam's primary goal, irrigation, was postponed as the wartime need for electricity increased. The dam's powerhouse began production around the time World War II began, and its electricity was vital to the war effort. The dam powered aluminum smelters in Longview and Vancouver, Washington, Boeing factories in Seattle and Vancouver, and Portland's shipyards. In 1943, its electricity was also used for plutonium production in Richland, Washington, at the Hanford Site, which was part of the top-secret Manhattan Project. The demand for power at that project was so great that in 1943, two generators originally intended for the Shasta Dam in California were installed at Grand Coulee to hurry the generator installation schedule.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: Water is pumped via the Pump-Generating Plant's diameter pipes from Lake Roosevelt to a feeder canal. From the feeder canal, the water is transferred to Banks Lake which has an active storage of . The plant's twelve pumps can transfer up to to the lake. Currently, the Columbia Basin Project irrigates with a potential for . Over 60 different crops are grown within the project and distributed throughout the United States.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: Grand Coulee Dam supports four different power houses containing 33 hydroelectric generators. The original Left and Right Powerhouses contain 18 main generators and the Left has an additional three service generators for total installed capacity of 2,280 MW. The first generator was commissioned in 1941 and all 18 were operating by 1950. The Third Power plant contains a total of six main generators with a 4,215 MW installed capacity. Generators G-19, G-20 and G-21 in the Third Power Plant have a 600 MW installed capacity but can operate at a maximum capacity of 690 MW which brings the overall maximum capacity of the dam's power facilities to 7,079 MW. The Pump-Generating Plant contains six pump-generators with an installed capacity of 314 MW. When pumping water into Banks Lake they consume 600 MW of electricity. Each generator is supplied with water by an individual penstock. The largest of these feed the Third Power Plant and are in diameter and can supply up to . The dam's power facilities originally had an installed capacity of 1,974 MW but expansions and upgrades have increased generation to 6,809 MW installed, 7,079 MW maximum. Grand Coulee Dam generates 21 TWh of electricity annually. This means the dam generates about 2,397 MW of power on average, which results in a total plant factor efficiency of 35%. In 2014, 20.24 TWh of electricity was generated.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: Grand Coulee Dam's spillway is long and is an overflow, drum-gate controlled type with a maximum capacity. A record flood in May and flooded lowland below the dam and highlighted its limited flood control capability at the time, as its spillway and turbines hit a record flow of . The flood damaged downstream riverbanks and deteriorated the face of the dam and its flip bucket at the base (toe) of the spillway. The flood spurred the Columbia River Treaty and its provisions for dams constructed upstream in Canada, which would regulate the Columbia's flow.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: The Bureau of Reclamation in 1932 estimated the cost of constructing Grand Coulee Dam (not including the Third Powerplant) to be $168 million; its actual cost was $163 million in 1943 ($ in dollars). Expenses to finish the power stations and repair design flaws with the dam throughout the 1940s and '50s added another $107 million, bringing the total cost to $270 million ($ in dollars), about 33% over estimates. The Third Powerplant was estimated to cost in 1967, but higher construction costs and labor disputes drove the project's final cost in 1973 to ($ in dollars), about 55% over estimates. Despite estimates being exceeded, the dam became an economic success, particularly with the Third Powerplant exhibiting a benefit-cost ratio of 2:1. Although Reclamation has only irrigated about half of the land predicted, the gross value of crop output (in constant dollars) had doubled from 1962 to 1992, largely due to different farming practices and crop choices. The Bureau expects the money earned from supplying power and irrigation water will pay off the cost of construction by 2044.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: The dam had severe negative consequences for the local Native American tribes whose traditional way of life revolved around salmon and the original shrub steppe habitat of the area. Because it lacks a fish ladder, Grand Coulee Dam permanently blocks fish migration, removing over of natural spawning habitat. By largely eliminating anadromous fish above the Okanogan River, the Grand Coulee Dam also set the stage for the subsequent decision not to provide for fish passage at Chief Joseph Dam (built in 1953). Chinook, Steelhead, Sockeye and Coho salmon (as well as other important species including Lamprey) are now unable to spawn in the reaches of the Upper Columbia Basin. The extinction of the spawning grounds upstream from the dam has prevented the Spokane and other tribes from holding the first salmon ceremony.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: Grand Coulee Dam flooded over 21,000 acres (85 km) of prime bottom land where Native Americans had been living and hunting for thousands of years, forcing the relocation of settlements and graveyards. The Office of Indian Affairs negotiated with the United States Bureau of Reclamation on behalf of tribes who were concerned about the flooding of their grave sites. The Acquisition of Indian Lands for Grand Coulee Dam, 54 Stat.703 Act of June 20, 1940 allowed the Secretary of the Interior to remove human remains to new Native American grave sites. The burial relocation project started in September 1939. Human remains were put into small containers and many artifacts were discovered, but the methods of collection destroyed archaeological evidence. Various estimates for the number of relocated graves in 1939 include 915 graves reported by the Bureau of Reclamation Reclamation, or 1,388 reported by Howard T. Ball, who supervised the field work. Tribal leaders reported another 2,000 graves in 1940, but the Bureau of Reclamation would not continue grave relocation, and the sites were soon covered by water.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: The town of Inchelium, Washington, home to around 250 Colville Indians, was submerged and later relocated. Kettle Falls, once a primary Native American fishing grounds, was also inundated. The average catch of over 600,000 salmon per year was eliminated. In one study, the Army Corps of Engineers estimated the annual loss was over fish. In , the Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation hosted a three-day event called the "Ceremony of Tears", marking the end of fishing at Kettle Falls. Within a year after the Ceremony, the falls were inundated. The town of Kettle Falls, Washington, was relocated.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: The Columbia Basin Project has affected habitat ranges for species such as mule deer, pygmy rabbits and burrowing owls, resulting in decreased populations. However, it has created new habitats such as wetlands, and riparian corridors. The environmental impact of the dam effectively ended the traditional way of life of the native inhabitants. The government eventually compensated the Colville Indians in the 1990s with a lump settlement of approximately , plus annual payments of approximately . In 2019, a bill was passed to provide additional compensation to the Spokane Tribe. It provides roughly annually for the first decade, followed by roughly a year after that.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: To compensate for the lack of ladder, three fisheries have been created above the dam, releasing into the upper Columbia River. One half of the fish are reserved for the displaced tribes, and one quarter of the reservoir is reserved for tribal hunting and boating.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: Built in the late 1970s, the Visitor Center contains many historical photos, geological samples, turbine and dam models, and a theater. The building was designed by Marcel Breuer, and resembles a generator rotor. Since , on summer evenings, the laser light show at Grand Coulee Dam is projected onto the dam's wall. The show includes full-size images of battleships and the Statue of Liberty, as well as some environmental comments. Tours of the Third Power Plant are available to the public and last about an hour. Visitors take a shuttle to view the generators and also travel across the main dam span (otherwise closed to the public) as the formerly used glass elevator is indefinitely out of service.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: The headquarters of the Lake Roosevelt National Recreation Area is near the dam, and the lake provides opportunities for fishing, swimming, canoeing, and boating.


title: Grand Coulee Dam

text: Folk singer Woody Guthrie wrote some of his most famous songs while working in the area in the 1940s. In 1941, after a brief stay in Los Angeles, Guthrie and his family moved north to Oregon on the promise of a job. Gunther von Fritsch was directing a documentary about the Bonneville Power Administration's construction of the Grand Coulee Dam on the Columbia River, and needed a narrator. Alan Lomax had recommended Guthrie to narrate the film and sing songs onscreen. The original project was expected to take 12 months, but as filmmakers became worried about casting a political figure like Guthrie, they minimized his role. The Department of the Interior hired him for one month to write songs about the Columbia River and the construction of the federal dams for the documentary's soundtrack. Guthrie toured the Columbia River and the Pacific Northwest. Guthrie said he "couldn't believe it, it's a paradise", which appeared to inspire him creatively. In one month Guthrie wrote 26 songs, including three of his most famous: "Roll On, Columbia, Roll On", "Pastures of Plenty", and "Grand Coulee Dam". The surviving songs were released as "Columbia River Songs". The film "Columbia River" was completed in 1949 and featured Guthrie's music. Guthrie had been commissioned in 1941 to provide songs for the project, but it had been postponed by WWII.


title: Etobicoke

text: Etobicoke (, ) is an administrative district of, and one of six municipalities amalgamated into, the city of Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Comprising the city's west-end, Etobicoke was first settled by Europeans in the 1790s, and the municipality grew into city status in the 20th century. Several independent villages and towns developed and became part of Metropolitan Toronto in 1954. In 1998, its city status and government dissolved after it was amalgamated into present-day Toronto. Etobicoke is bordered on the south by Lake Ontario, on the east by the Humber River, on the west by Etobicoke Creek, the cities of Brampton, and Mississauga, the Toronto Pearson International Airport (a small portion of the airport extends into Etobicoke), and on the north by the city of Vaughan at Steeles Avenue West.


title: Etobicoke

text: Etobicoke has a highly diversified population, which totalled 365,143 in 2016. It is primarily suburban in development and heavily industrialized, resulting in a lower population density than the other districts of Toronto. Much of its cityscape is characterized by larger main streets, shopping malls, and cul-de-sac housing developments. Etobicoke has several expressways, including Highways 427, 401, 409, the Queen Elizabeth Way (QEW) and Gardiner Expressway. Etobicoke is the western terminus of Line 2 Bloor-Danforth of the Toronto subway and served by four suburban rail stations of GO Transit. Humber College is in Etobicoke, encompassing two campuses, one of which is also home to the University of Guelph-Humber.


title: Etobicoke

text: At different times throughout history, different groups of First Nations peoples used the land that is now present day Etobicoke. As the Algonquins gradually moved west from the Atlantic to Lake Erie, it is almost certain they would have occupied this land. By the time they were mostly settled on the shores of Georgian Bay, the Huron-Wendat were the primary residents of Lake Ontario's north shore. During the 17th century, the powerful Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) confederacy, made up of nations based to the south of the lake, pushed them out.


title: Etobicoke

text: After continued harassment from the Iroquois to the south, a coalition of the Ojibway, Odawa, and Potawatomi Algonquin nations, known as the Three Fires, gradually pushed the Haudenosaunee off this land. The Algonquian-speaking Mississaugas settled here by 1695, fishing and growing crops more locally in the summer and hunting farther afield in the winter.


title: Etobicoke

text: The name "Etobicoke" derives from the Mississauga word "wah-do-be-kang" ("wadoopikaang"), meaning "place where the alders grow". This was how they described the area between Etobicoke Creek and the Humber River. The first provincial land surveyor, Augustus Jones, also spelled it as "ato-be-coake." Etobicoke was finally adopted as the official name in 1795 at the direction of Lieutenant Governor John Graves Simcoe.


title: Etobicoke

text: However, the Mississauga and government disagreed as to whether the western boundary of the purchase was the Humber River or the Etobicoke River (now, Etobicoke Creek). The Mississauga Indians allowed British surveyor Alexander Aitkin to survey the disputed land, and the British paid an additional 10 shillings for the purchase, although the purchase was never formally agreed to. The dispute was settled between the government and the Mississauga First Nation in 2010.


title: Etobicoke

text: Immigrants from the British Isles were among the new settlers, as well as Loyalists who had left the rebellious Thirteen Colonies, by then the United States. Early settlers included many of the Queen's Rangers, who Simcoe gave land to help protect the new capital of Upper Canada and develop this frontier area. In 1793-95, the Honourable Samuel Smith, a colonel in the Queen's Rangers, received land grants of , extending from today's Kipling Avenue to Etobicoke Creek, and north to Bloor Street.


title: Etobicoke

text: On March 18, 1797, Sergeant Patrick Mealey received the first land patent for a plot on the west side of Royal York Road on Lake Ontario. This was part of the First Military Tract, or "Militia Lands", which extended from today's Royal York Road to Kipling Avenue, south from Bloor Street. The Crown was providing land to Loyalists in compensation for property they left behind in the U.S. and to veterans of the American Revolution in payment for service. In other parts of Ontario, the Crown granted land to the Iroquoian First Nations who had served as allies during the war and were forced to cede most of their land in New York to the state. The Crown granted more land to members of the Queen's Rangers in the First Military tract, but most did not occupy their land. Many sold their acreage after a short time.


title: Etobicoke

text: The census of 1805 counted 84 people in the township of Etobicoke. In 1806, William Cooper built a grist mill and saw mill on the Humber river's west bank, just south of Dundas Street. The 1809 census counted 137 residents. The Dundas Street bridge opened in 1816, making the township more accessible.


title: Etobicoke

text: On May 18, 1846, the Albion Road Company was incorporated. Its purpose was to build and maintain a road to the north-west corner of Etobicoke, where a new community was planned. At the same time, John Grubb, who had already founded Thistletown, hired land surveyor John Stoughton Dennis to plan a community at the intersection of Islington Avenue and Albion Road, to be named Saint Andrew's. Plan 6 for this community was registered on October 15, 1847. The French master of Upper Canada College, Jean du Petit Pont de la Haye, contracted land surveyor James McCallum Jr to create a plan for the community planned by the Albion Road Company, and Plan 28 was registered for Claireville on October 12, 1849.


title: Etobicoke

text: The township of Etobicoke was incorporated on January 1, 1850. The first meeting of the town council was held on January 21. Present at the meeting were reeve William Gamble, vice-reeve W. B. Wadsworth and aldermen Moses Appleby, Thomas Fisher, and John Geddes. The council convened monthly meetings at a variety of places. In 1850, the township's population was 2904. By 1881, the population of Etobicoke township was 2976.


title: Etobicoke

text: In 1911, the community of Mimico was incorporated on land taken from Etobicoke township. New Toronto was incorporated on January 1, 1913. Early on, there was talk of merging Mimico and New Toronto. A 1916 referendum on amalgamating the two communities was approved by the residents of Mimico, but rejected by residents of New Toronto. In 1917, Mimico became a town and in 1920, New Toronto became the Town of New Toronto. Long Branch was incorporated in 1930 as a village.


title: Etobicoke

text: In 1954, Etobicoke Township became a part of the newly formed regional government, the Municipality of Metropolitan Toronto ("Metro"). In 1967, the township of Etobicoke was merged with three small lakeside municipalities — the Village of Long Branch, the Town of New Toronto, and the Town of Mimico — to form the Borough of Etobicoke. The borough was reincorporated as a city in 1984. In 1998, six local municipalities (including Etobicoke) and the Metropolitan Toronto government merged to form the amalgamated city of Toronto.


title: Etobicoke

text: Etobicoke has the lowest population density of the former cities and boroughs comprising the city of Toronto. This is mainly due to its expanses of industrial lands along the various expressways. The residential areas are primarily single-family dwellings, although several large multi-storey high-rise condominium developments have been built in south Etobicoke near the Humber River over the past few years.


title: Etobicoke

text: Etobicoke's central areas are generally middle class. The central and northern areas of Etobicoke have many high-density apartment complexes set in the middle of sizable, open fields and parks. The central/southern areas, such as Markland Wood, The Kingsway, New Toronto, Mimico and Long Branch, have large green spaces, many parks, and main street shopping areas. The Kingsway neighbourhood has attracted many affluent individuals and families (as of 2001, over 50% of households have an income in excess of C$100,000/year).


title: Etobicoke

text: Etobicoke has many public parks. Located on the banks of the Humber River, James Gardens, a popular site for wedding photography, features seasonal flowers, walkways, a rock garden, streams, and waterfalls. Etobicoke also has Centennial Park, a large recreational park, and Colonel Samuel Smith Park and Humber Bay Park on the lakeshore. Etobicoke's many golf courses include St. George's Golf and Country Club, which in 2007 was ranked as one of the three best golf courses in Canada.


title: Etobicoke

text: Etobicoke is generally divided into three large areas roughly corresponding to its political ridings. Each has neighbourhoods, mostly developments of 19th-century 'postal villages' (rural neighbourhoods), that were built at key points along the early roads and railways; especially the three former 'Lakeshore Municipalities' that separated from Etobicoke in the early 20th century and Etobicoke's central Islington community:


title: Etobicoke

text: The Lakeshore (Etobicoke—Lakeshore), along the north shore of Lake Ontario and the "Lake Shore Road" (now Lake Shore Boulevard West), comprises three former municipalities that were the first to urbanize and became separate municipalities during the first half of the 20th century: Mimico, New Toronto and Long Branch, and related communities that were never separate from the Township of Etobicoke; namely, Alderwood (originally a suburb of New Toronto), and Humber Bay (a historic gateway community connecting to Toronto) which was originally sprawl from the east side of the Humber River that was subsequently split by the construction of Ontario's first motor vehicle 'freeway' in 1938, which cuts across the top of southern Etobicoke; (the Queen Elizabeth Way).


title: Etobicoke

text: Today, the original remnant residential (northern) section of Humber Bay is north of The Queensway, east of Mimico Creek to the Humber River. The commercial, southern section of Humber Bay retains only Christie's Biscuits bakery, as high-rise condominium towers and clustered row housing have forced out virtually all other commercial/industrial employment uses. In the late 1990s, the former McGuiness Whisky factory was converted into a high-rise loft condominium which became the centrepiece of the Mystic Pointe development. Etobicoke's first railway opened through the area in 1855, just north of the Lake Ontario shoreline, leading to the first period of growth as it replaced Dundas Street in Central Etobicoke as the main means of transportation and the industrial centre along its right-of-way.


title: Etobicoke

text: Central Etobicoke (Etobicoke Centre); the oldest communities in Etobicoke developed along the first street, Dundas Street, in the south of this area, which crosses the width of Etobicoke on the escarpment formed by the ancient shoreline of Lake Iroquois. This area centres around the Islington community, the former administrative centre of Etobicoke and later Etobicoke's 'downtown' which is near the central 'Six Points' intersection at its western boundary. The rural Richview community developed directly to the north of Islington in the 19th century on Eglinton Ave. (formerly Richview Rd.), as did the gateway Humber Heights communities (connecting to Toronto): Westmount and Humbervale, to the east on Eglinton. Development of the until-then largely undeveloped eastern part of central Etobicoke (originally a forest reserved for the use of government mills as "The King's Mill Reserve"; "Kingsmill"), the "Humber Valley", was largely the work of Robert Home Smith starting about 1900 and including the communities of The Kingsway and Humber Valley Village.


title: Etobicoke

text: As Etobicoke developed in the post-war years, low-density residential areas filled in most of the rural areas between the old communities including Thorncrest Village, Princess-Rosethorn and Eringate – Centennial – West Deane as well as the older Eatonville community to the west of Islington. Central Etobicoke includes Etobicoke's most exclusive neighbourhoods, with fine housing stock and many large treed properties. Along the East and West Mall parallel to Highway 427 exists a mix of hi-rise rentals, townhouses and post-war bungalows. Markland Wood is the farthest western community within Etobicoke/Toronto; situated along Bloor Street West, it is predominately single family housing with some mixed hi-rise rentals.


title: Etobicoke

text: North Etobicoke; The 19th-century Etobicoke communities are Clairville, Highfield, Rexdale, Smithfield, Thistletown which grew along two formerly private roads (now Albion Rd. and Rexdale Blvd.) constructed diagonally across farms in Northern Etobicoke as a shortcut for travellers to Peel County (especially modern Brampton). First developed as an urban area by Rex Heslop in the post-World War II years around the new Rexdale (the Elms) community, northern Etobicoke has many apartment buildings as well as a large 'skyway' industrial park to the west, developed after Malton Airport (in nearby Mississauga) became Toronto's main "Pearson International" Airport.


title: Etobicoke

text: Most of Etobicoke's visible minorities and immigrants reside in North Etobicoke, with 62% of its population being foreign-born. Many people from India, Jamaica, Iraq, Guyana, Somalia, Ghana, Philippines, Nigeria, and Pakistan have settled in North Etobicoke. Etobicoke's central and south end has a large European population from countries such as Italy, Poland, and Ukraine, and some of the wealthiest neighbourhoods in Toronto such as The Kingsway.


title: Etobicoke

text: As of 2016, English was the most spoken language in Etobicoke, followed by (in order) Italian, Punjabi, Spanish, Polish, Ukrainian, Gujarati, and Portuguese.


title: Etobicoke

text: Islington–City Centre West is one of several central business districts outside of downtown Toronto. Pizza Pizza and Sunwing Airlines have their headquarters in Etobicoke. Skyservice and Canada 3000 had their headquarters in Etobicoke before the closure of these airlines.


title: Etobicoke

text: The construction industry in Etobicoke has been booming, with many new condominium towers developed along the waterfront near Humber Bay and along Bloor street. This has helped increase Etobicoke's population after a brief decline. The area's film and television industry is also promising.


title: Etobicoke

text: Etobicoke is home to a rib fest held every year on Canada Day long weekend at Centennial Park. The weekend is filled with entertainment, food, midway, and music.


title: Etobicoke

text: Four public school boards offer primary education and secondary education for residents living in Etobicoke, Conseil scolaire catholique MonAvenir (CSCM), Conseil scolaire Viamonde (CSV), the Toronto Catholic District School Board (TCDSB), and the Toronto District School Board (TDSB). CSV and TDSB operate as secular public school boards, the former operating French first language institution, whereas the latter operated English first language institutions. The other two school boards, CSCM and TCDSB, operate as public separate school boards, the former operating French first language separate schools, the latter operating English first language separate schools. Before 1998, the boards were responsible for the education in Etobicoke were the Etobicoke Board of Education for anglophone public secular schools and the Metropolitan Separate School Board for anglophone and francophone Roman Catholic separate schools.


title: Etobicoke

text: In addition to primary and secondary schools, two post-secondary institutions are within Etobicoke. Humber College is a public college that operates two campuses in Etobicoke, the Humber North campus, and the Lakeshore campus, on the corner of Efstathia Avenue and Kourabiedes Lane. The University of Guelph-Humber is another post-secondary institution in Etobicoke that is jointly operated by Humber College, and the University of Guelph, based in Guelph, Ontario. Guelph-Humber is not an independent degree-granting institution, with its degrees and diplomas issued from Humber College, or the University of Guelph.


title: Etobicoke

text: In 1924, Mimico High School was opened in the village of Mimico. This was followed by Etobicoke Collegiate Institute in 1928 in central Etobicoke. Today, the Mimico school building is used by John English Junior Middle School.


title: Etobicoke

text: In the village of New Toronto, New Toronto Secondary School was constructed in 1949 and opened in 1950 as a vocational trade school. Beginning in 1963, Kingsmill Vocational School, a junior vocational school, opened at a King's Mill site and two other schools erected: Humbergrove Vocational School to the north in 1965 and Westway Vocational School in 1969.


title: Etobicoke

text: At its peak, Etobicoke operated 14 collegiates and 4 vocational schools in 1980. Downsizing occurred in the 1980s when nine high schools were closed due to declining enrollment; Alderwood and New Toronto merged to form Lakeshore Collegiate Institute in 1983 while Humbergrove, Kingsmill and Westway were consolidated to form Central Etobicoke High School in 1988.


title: Etobicoke

text: Etobicoke's first Roman Catholic high school, Michael Power/St. Joseph High School was first opened in 1949 as St. Joseph's High School in the village of Islington with 150 girls by the Sisters of St. Joseph. Next door, the Basilian Fathers established an all-boys school Michael Power High School in 1957. In September 1982, the two schools were merged. Today, Michael Power/St. Joseph serves many students in the southern and central Etobicoke areas predominantly populated by Polish and Ukrainian Byzantine Catholics, who attend southern Etobicoke's two other high schools: Father John Redmond Catholic Secondary School (1986) and Bishop Allen Academy (1989).


title: Etobicoke

text: The first art school in Etobicoke is the Etobicoke School of the Arts established in 1981. Father John Redmond was designated as the Regional Arts Centre in 2006.


title: Etobicoke

text: Etobicoke has a wide range of indoor and outdoor sporting leagues including baseball, soccer, football, ice hockey, and ringette. Some of the prominent clubs include the Etobicoke Kangaroos Australian rules football club, the Serbian White Eagles FC club, Toronto Croatia, and FC Ukraine United, which operate in the Canadian Soccer League, and the Toronto Furies of the Canadian Women's Hockey League.


title: Etobicoke

text: Southern Etobicoke is home to the Ford Performance Centre, the home arena for the Toronto Furies, and the practice rink of the Toronto Maple Leafs. The Toronto Patriots of the Ontario Junior Hockey League are based in Etobicoke. Etobicoke is the hometown of Major League Baseball star Joey Votto as well as National Hockey League stars P. K. Subban, Connor Brown, brothers Brendan and Reilly Smith, and National Hockey League Hall of Famer Brendan Shanahan. Etobicoke's Centennial Park is a large green space in west Toronto which is a venue for soccer, basketball, skiing, ice hockey, rugby, hiking, track and field. Rexdale (North Etobicoke) is home to the top ranked high school basketball program in Canada, Henry Carr Crusaders. Producing notable US Division 1 and NBA players such as Tyler Ennis and Sim Bhullar. Henry Carr Crusaders were the 2016 AAA Provincial high school basketball champions.


title: Etobicoke

text: Several major expressways, such as Ontario Highways 427, 401, 409, and 27, the Queen Elizabeth Way, as well as the city-maintained Gardiner Expressway, are routed through the area. There are numerous four- and six-lane thoroughfares in Etobicoke, laid out in a grid system. Many exceptions to Toronto's gridded street matrix are found in Etobicoke. A number of overpasses and awkward intersections have been created in an effort to reconcile the grid with these planning anomalies.


title: Etobicoke

text: Public transportation is primarily provided by the Toronto Transit Commission's (TTC) bus, streetcar, and subway system. Line 2 Bloor-Danforth of the TTC subway system has its western terminus at Kipling, along with three other stations. Both Kipling and Islington stations are major transit hubs, with the latter serving as a terminal for MiWay bus services to Mississauga. Former transit expansion plans in Etobicoke, including the Eglinton West subway and the extension of Line 2 from Kipling to Square One Bus Terminal in Mississauga, were cancelled by previous provincial governments. Future transit expansion plans include two light rail transit projects, namely the Eglinton line extension from the future Mount Dennis station to Toronto Pearson International Airport and a new Finch West line between University of Guelph-Humber (Humber College North Campus) and Finch West station.


title: Etobicoke

text: Etobicoke is also home to four GO stations: Etobicoke North station on the Kitchener line, Kipling station on the Milton line, as well as Long Branch and Mimico stations on the Lakeshore West line.


title: Princess Alexandra of Hanover (born 1999)

text: Princess Alexandra Charlotte Ulrike Maryam Virginia of Hanover (born 20 July 1999) is the fourth child of Princess Caroline of Monaco and the third of Ernst August, Prince of Hanover.


text: Alexandra was born on 20 July 1999 in Vöcklabruck, Upper Austria. She was christened on 19 September 1999 by Horst Hirschler, Landesbischof of the Evangelical-Lutheran Church of Hanover, in a ceremony at her father's hunting lodge Auerbach, near Grünau im Almtal, Upper Austria. Her godparents are her paternal aunt Alexandra, Princess of Leiningen, maternal half-sister Charlotte Casiraghi, Ulrike Ulmschneider, Maryam Sachs, Virginia Gallico, George Condo, and Eric Maier. She was named after each of her godmothers.


text: She has half-siblings from her parents' previous marriages. From her father's previous marriage, she has two half-brothers, Hereditary Prince Ernst August and Prince Christian of Hanover. From her mother's previous marriage, she has two half-brothers, Andrea and Pierre Casiraghi, and one half-sister, Charlotte Casiraghi. Her maternal uncle, Albert II, is the sovereign of Monaco. She is a granddaughter of American actress Grace Kelly. On her father's side, she is a descendant of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom, Wilhelm II, German Emperor, and King Christian IX of Denmark.


text: Alexandra is the only one of Princess Caroline's four children who bears any royal style or title. While she is formally styled as "Her Royal Highness Princess Alexandra of Hanover" in Monaco, she is afforded the style and title out of courtesy elsewhere. As the Kingdom of Hanover no longer exists, her legally recognized name in Germany is "Alexandra Princess of Hanover", with "Princess of Hanover" forming her surname. She is 13th in the line of succession to the Monegasque throne. Through her father, she was in the line of succession to the British throne until 2018, when she was confirmed into the Catholic Church.


text: Alexandra began skating when she was ten years old after receiving ice skates as a Christmas present. When she was 11 years old, she competed at a competition in Toulon, France. At the age of 12, she competed in the "Skate 7" class at the 10th Figure Skating Championship in Monaco, finishing in second place. She was awarded the cup of the Monegasque Federation of Skating.


text: Alexandra represented Monaco in figure skating at the 2015 European Youth Olympic Festival in Austria and in two competitive events during the 2015–16 season at the ISU Junior Grand Prix of Figure Skating.


text: When Alexandra was 11 years old, German entertainment magazine "Freizeit Revue" published an article about and photographs of her competing at a figure skating competition in France. The article also covered her mother's dating life and other personal matters. Alexandra sought injunctive relief and sued the magazine, taking the case to the German Federal Court of Justice.


text: In March 2015, Alexandra attended Monaco's Rose Ball for the first time. However, it was not until the next year's ball that she entered the event with her family, thus gaining the notice of the society press.


text: In October 2018, Princess Alexandra converted to Catholicism, thereby renouncing her distant place in the line of succession to the British throne.


title: Jesus and the woman taken in adultery

text: Jesus and the woman taken in adultery (or the ) is a passage (pericope) found in –8:11 of the New Testament. It has been the subject of much scholarly discussion.


title: Jesus and the woman taken in adultery

text: In the passage, Jesus was teaching in the Second Temple after coming from the Mount of Olives. A group of scribes and Pharisees confronts Jesus, interrupting his teaching. They bring in a woman, accusing her of committing adultery, claiming she was caught in the very act. They tell Jesus that the punishment for someone like her should be stoning, as prescribed by Mosaic Law. Jesus begins to write something on the ground using his finger; when the woman's accusers continue their challenge, he states that the one who is without sin is the one who should cast the first stone at her. The accusers and congregants depart, realizing not one of them is without sin either, leaving Jesus alone with the woman. Jesus asks the woman if anyone has condemned her and she answers no. Jesus says that he, too, does not condemn her, and tells her to go and sin no more.


title: Jesus and the woman taken in adultery

text: There is now a broad academic consensus that the passage is a later interpolation added after the earliest known manuscripts of the Gospel of John. Although it is included in most modern translations (one notable exception being the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures) it is typically noted as a later interpolation, as it is by Novum Testamentum Graece NA28. This has been the view of "most NT scholars, including most "evangelical" NT scholars, for well over a century" (written in 2009). The passage appears to have been included in some texts by the 4th century, and became generally accepted by the 5th century.


title: Jesus and the woman taken in adultery

text: The majority of Greek manuscripts include the pericope or part of it, and some of these included marginal markings suggesting the passage is in doubt. The Codex Vaticanus, which is paleographically dated to the early 300s, does contain a mark at the end of John chapter 7 with an umlaut in the margin alongside a distinctive blank space following the end of the Gospel of John, which would convey that the manuscript copyist was aware of additional text following the end of John 21 – which is where the pericope adulterae is found in the "f"-1 group of manuscripts.


title: Jesus and the woman taken in adultery

text: The Latin Vulgate Gospel of John, produced by Jerome in 383, was based on the Greek manuscripts which Jerome considered ancient exemplars at that time and which contained the passage. Jerome reports that the pericope adulterae was found in its usual place in "many Greek and Latin manuscripts" in Rome and the Latin West. This is also confirmed by other Latin Fathers of the 300s and 400s, including both Ambrose of Milan, and Augustine.


title: Jesus and the woman taken in adultery

text: Pope Leo I (Pope from 440 to 461) cited the passage in his 62nd sermon, mentioning that Jesus said "to the adulteress who was brought to him, 'Neither will I condemn you; go and sin no more.'" In the early 400s, Augustine of Hippo used the passage extensively, and from his writings, it is also clear that his contemporary Faustus of Mileve also used it. Augustine claimed that the passage was specifically targeted and improperly excluded from some manuscripts:


title: Jesus and the woman taken in adultery

text: "Certain persons of little faith, or rather enemies of the true faith, fearing, I suppose, lest their wives should be given impunity in sinning, removed from their manuscripts the Lord's act of forgiveness toward the adulteress, as if he who had said, Sin no more, had granted permission to sin."


title: Jesus and the woman taken in adultery

text: The pericope does not occur in the Greek Gospel manuscripts from Egypt. The Pericope Adulterae is not in 𝔓 or in 𝔓, both of which have been assigned to the late 100s or early 200s, nor in two important manuscripts produced in the early or mid 300s, Sinaiticus and Vaticanus. The first surviving Greek manuscript to contain the pericope is the Latin-Greek diglot Codex Bezae, produced in the 400s or 500s (but displaying a form of text which has affinities with "Western" readings used in the 100s and 200s). Codex Bezae is also the earliest surviving Latin manuscript to contain it. Out of 23 Old Latin manuscripts of John 7–8, seventeen contain at least part of the pericope, and represent at least three transmission-streams in which it was included.


title: Jesus and the woman taken in adultery

text: Many modern textual critics have speculated that it was "certainly not part of the original text of St. John's Gospel." The Jerusalem Bible claims "the author of this passage is not John". Some have also claimed that no Greek Church Father had taken note of the passage before the 1100s.


title: Jesus and the woman taken in adultery

text: However, in 1941 a large collection of the Greek writings of Didymus the Blind (313–398 AD) was discovered in Egypt, in which Didymus states that "We find in certain gospels" an episode in which a woman was accused of a sin, and was about to be stoned, but Jesus intervened "and said to those who were about to cast stones, 'He who has not sinned, let him take a stone and throw it. If anyone is conscious in himself not to have sinned, let him take a stone and smite her.' And no one dared," and so forth. As Didymus was referring to the Gospels typically used in the churches in his time, this reference appears to establish that the passage was accepted as authentic and commonly present in many Greek manuscripts known in Alexandria and elsewhere from the 300s onwards.


title: Jesus and the woman taken in adultery

text: The subject of Jesus' writing on the ground was fairly common in art, especially from the Renaissance onwards, with examples by artists including those a painting by Pieter Bruegel and a drawing by Rembrandt. There was a medieval tradition, originating in a comment attributed to Ambrose, that the words written were ("earth accuses earth"; a reference to the end of verse Genesis 3:19: "for dust you are and to dust you will return"), which is shown in some depictions in art, for example, the "Codex Egberti". This is very probably a matter of guesswork based on Jeremiah 17:13. There have been other theories about what Jesus would have written.


title: Jesus and the woman taken in adultery

text: This episode, and its message of mercy and forgiveness balanced with a call to holy living, have endured in Christian thought. Both "let him who is without sin, cast the first stone" and "go, and sin no more" have found their way into common usage. The English idiomatic phrase to "" is derived from this passage.


title: Jesus and the woman taken in adultery

text: The passage has been taken as confirmation of Jesus' ability to write, otherwise only suggested by implication in the Gospels, but the word in John 8:8 could mean "draw" as well as "write".


title: Jesus and the woman taken in adultery

text: In this passage and also in Leviticus 20:10, "death is fixed as the penalty of adultery", applicable to both the man and the woman concerned. However, ""stoning" as the form of death is only specified when a betrothed virgin is violated".


title: Jesus and the woman taken in adultery

text: According to Eusebius of Caesarea (in his "Ecclesiastical History", composed in the early 300s), Papias () refers to a story of Jesus and a woman "accused of many sins" as being found in the Gospel of the Hebrews, which might refer to this passage or to one like it. In the Syriac , composed in the mid-200s, the author, in the course of instructing bishops to exercise a measure of clemency, states that a bishop who does not receive a repentant person would be doing wrong – "for you do not obey our Savior and our God, to do as He also did with her that had sinned, whom the elders set before Him, and leaving the judgment in His hands, departed. But He, the searcher of hearts, asked her and said to her, 'Have the elders condemned thee, my daughter?' She said to Him, 'No, Lord.' And He said unto her, 'Go your way; neither do I condemn thee.' In Him therefore, our Savior and King and God, be your pattern, O bishops."


title: Jesus and the woman taken in adultery

text: The "Constitutions of the Holy Apostles" Book II.24, composed , echoes the , alongside a utilization of Luke 7:47. Further, Didymus the Blind (c. 313–398) states that "We find in certain gospels" an episode in which a woman was accused of a sin, and was about to be stoned, but Jesus intervened "and said to those who were about to cast stones, 'He who has not sinned, let him take a stone and throw it. If anyone is conscious in himself not to have sinned, let him take a stone and smite her.' And no one dared," and so forth. Codex Fuldensis, which was produced in AD 546, and which, in the Gospels, features an unusual arrangement of the text that was found in an earlier document, contains the adulterae pericope, in the form in which it was written in the Vulgate. More significantly, Codex Fuldensis also preserves the chapter-headings of its earlier source-document (thought by some researchers to echo the Diatessaron produced by Tatian in the 170's), and the title of chapter 120 refers specifically to the woman taken in adultery.


title: Jesus and the woman taken in adultery

text: The important codices L and Delta do not contain the , but between John 7:52 and 8:12, each contains a distinct blank space, as a sort of memorial left by the scribe to signify remembrance of the absent passage.


title: Jesus and the woman taken in adultery

text: Pacian of Barcelona (bishop from 365 to 391), in the course of making a rhetorical challenge, opposes cruelty as he sarcastically endorses it: "O Novatians, why do you delay to ask an eye for an eye? [...] Kill the thief. Stone the petulant. Choose not to read in the Gospel that the Lord spared even the adulteress who confessed, when none had condemned her." Pacian was a contemporary of the scribes who made Codex Sinaiticus.


title: Jesus and the woman taken in adultery

text: The writer known as Ambrosiaster, , mentioned the occasion when Jesus "spared her who had been apprehended in adultery." The unknown author of the composition "Apologia David" (thought by some analysts to be Ambrose, but more probably not) mentioned that people could be initially taken aback by the passage in which "we see an adulteress presented to Christ and sent away without condemnation." Later in the same composition he referred to this episode as a "lection" in the Gospels, indicating that it was part of the annual cycle of readings used in the church-services.


title: Jesus and the woman taken in adultery

text: Peter Chrysologus, writing in Ravenna , clearly cited the in his Sermon 115. Sedulius and Gelasius also clearly used the passage. Prosper of Aquitaine, and Quodvultdeus of Carthage, in the mid-400s, utilized the passage.


title: Jesus and the woman taken in adultery

text: A text called the Second Epistle of Pope Callistus, section 6, contains a quote that may be from John 8:11 – "Let him see to it that he sin no more, that the sentence of the Gospel may abide in him: "Go, and sin no more."" However this text also appears to quote from eighth-century writings and therefore is most likely spurious.


title: Jesus and the woman taken in adultery

text: In the Codex Vaticanus, which was produced in the early 300s, perhaps in Egypt (or in Caesarea, by copyists using exemplars from Egypt), the text is marked at the end of John chapter 7 with an umlaut in the margin, indicating that an alternative reading was known at this point. This codex also has an umlaut alongside blank space following the end of the Gospel of John, which may convey that whoever added the umlaut was aware of additional text following the end of John 21 – which is where the is found in the f-1 group of manuscripts.


title: Jesus and the woman taken in adultery

text: Jerome, writing around 417, reports that the was found in its usual place in "many Greek and Latin manuscripts" in Rome and the Latin West. This is confirmed by some Latin Fathers of the 300s and 400s, including Ambrose of Milan, and Augustine. The latter claimed that the passage may have been improperly excluded from some manuscripts in order to avoid the impression that Christ had sanctioned adultery:


title: Jesus and the woman taken in adultery

text: Early textual critics familiar with the use and meaning of these marks in classical Greek works like Homer, interpreted the signs to mean that the section (John 7:53–8:11) was an interpolation and not an original part of the Gospel.


title: Jesus and the woman taken in adultery

text: During the 16th century, Western European scholars – both Catholic and Protestant – sought to recover the most correct Greek text of the New Testament, rather than relying on the Vulgate Latin translation. At this time, it was noticed that a number of early manuscripts containing the Gospel of John lacked John 7:53–8:11 inclusive; and also that some manuscripts containing the verses marked them with critical signs, usually a lemniscus or asterisk. It was also noted that, in the lectionary of the Greek church, the Gospel-reading for Pentecost runs from John 7:37 to 8:12, but skips over the twelve verses of this pericope.


title: Jesus and the woman taken in adultery

text: Beginning with Karl Lachmann (in Germany, 1840), reservations about the became more strongly argued in the modern period, and these opinions were carried into the English world by Samuel Davidson (1848–51), Samuel Prideaux Tregelles (1862), and others; the argument against the verses being given body and final expression in F. J. A. Hort (1886). Those opposing the authenticity of the verses as part of John are represented in the 20th century by men like Henry Cadbury (1917), Ernest Cadman Colwell (1935), and Bruce M. Metzger (1971).


title: Jesus and the woman taken in adultery

text: According to 19th-century text critics Henry Alford and F. H. A. Scrivener the passage was added by John in a second edition of the Gospel along with 5:3.4 and the 21st chapter.