title: Electricity meter

text: The most common unit of measurement on the electricity meter is the kilowatt hour ["kWh"], which is equal to the amount of energy used by a load of one kilowatt over a period of one hour, or 3,600,000 joules. Some electricity companies use the SI megajoule instead.


title: Electricity meter

text: Demand is normally measured in watts, but averaged over a period, most often a quarter- or half-hour.


title: Electricity meter

text: Reactive power is measured in "thousands of volt-ampere reactive-hours", (kvarh). By convention, a "lagging" or inductive load, such as a motor, will have positive reactive power. A "leading", or capacitive load, will have negative reactive power.


title: Electricity meter

text: Volt-amperes measures all power passed through a distribution network, including reactive and actual. This is equal to the product of root-mean-square volts and amperes.


title: Electricity meter

text: Distortion of the electric current by loads is measured in several ways. Power factor is the ratio of resistive (or real) power to volt-amperes. A capacitive load has a leading power factor, and an inductive load has a lagging power factor. A purely resistive load (such as a filament lamp, heater or kettle) exhibits a power factor of 1. Current harmonics are a measure of distortion of the wave form. For example, electronic loads such as computer power supplies draw their current at the voltage peak to fill their internal storage elements. This can lead to a significant voltage drop near the supply voltage peak which shows as a flattening of the voltage waveform. This flattening causes odd harmonics which are not permissible if they exceed specific limits, as they are not only wasteful, but may interfere with the operation of other equipment. Harmonic emissions are mandated by law in EU and other countries to fall within specified limits.


title: Electricity meter

text: In addition to metering based on the amount of energy used, other types of metering are available. Meters which measured the amount of charge (coulombs) used, known as ampere hour meters, were used in the early days of electrification. These were dependent upon the supply voltage remaining constant for accurate measurement of energy usage, which was not a likely circumstance with most supplies. The most common application was in relation to special-purpose meters to monitor charge / discharge status of large batteries. Some meters measured only the length of time for which charge flowed, with no measurement of the magnitude of voltage or current being made. These are only suited for constant-load applications and are rarely used today.


title: Electricity meter

text: Electricity meters operate by continuously measuring the instantaneous voltage (volts) and current (amperes) to give energy used (in joules, kilowatt-hours etc.). Meters for smaller services (such as small residential customers) can be connected directly in-line between source and customer. For larger loads, more than about 200 ampere of load, current transformers are used, so that the meter can be located somewhere other than in line with the service conductors. The meters fall into two basic categories, electromechanical and electronic.


title: Electricity meter

text: On a single-phase AC supply, the electromechanical induction meter operates through electromagnetic induction by counting the revolutions of a non-magnetic, but electrically conductive, metal disc which is made to rotate at a speed proportional to the power passing through the meter. The number of revolutions is thus proportional to the energy usage. The voltage coil consumes a small and relatively constant amount of power, typically around 2 watts which is not registered on the meter. The current coil similarly consumes a small amount of power in proportion to the square of the current flowing through it, typically up to a couple of watts at full load, which is registered on the meter.


title: Electricity meter

text: The disc is acted upon by two sets of induction coils, which form, in effect, a two phase linear induction motor. One coil is connected in such a way that it produces a magnetic flux in proportion to the voltage and the other produces a magnetic flux in proportion to the current. The field of the voltage coil is delayed by 90 degrees, due to the coil's inductive nature, and calibrated using a lag coil. This produces eddy currents in the disc and the effect is such that a force is exerted on the disc in proportion to the product of the instantaneous current and instantaneous voltage. A permanent magnet acts as an eddy current brake, exerting an opposing force proportional to the speed of rotation of the disc. The equilibrium between these two opposing forces results in the disc rotating at a speed proportional to the power or rate of energy usage. The disc drives a register mechanism which counts revolutions, much like the odometer in a car, in order to render a measurement of the total energy used.


title: Electricity meter

text: The disc is supported by a spindle which has a worm gear which drives the register. The register is a series of dials which record the amount of energy used. The dials may be of the "cyclometer" type, an odometer-like display that is easy to read where for each dial a single digit is shown through a window in the face of the meter, or of the pointer type where a pointer indicates each digit. With the dial pointer type, adjacent pointers generally rotate in opposite directions due to the gearing mechanism.


title: Electricity meter

text: The amount of energy represented by one revolution of the disc is denoted by the symbol Kh which is given in units of watt-hours per revolution. The value 7.2 is commonly seen. Using the value of Kh one can determine their power consumption at any given time by timing the disc with a stopwatch.


title: Transport layer

text: In computer networking, the transport layer is a conceptual division of methods in the layered architecture of protocols in the network stack in the Internet protocol suite and the OSI model. The protocols of this layer provide end-to-end communication services for applications. It provides services such as connection-oriented communication, reliability, flow control, and multiplexing.


title: Transport layer

text: The details of implementation and semantics of the transport layer of the Internet protocol suite, which is the foundation of the Internet, and the OSI model of general networking are different. The protocols in use today in this layer for the Internet all originated in the development of TCP/IP. In the OSI model the transport layer is often referred to as Layer 4, or L4, while numbered layers are not used in TCP/IP.


title: Transport layer

text: The best-known transport protocol of the Internet protocol suite is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). It is used for connection-oriented transmissions, whereas the connectionless User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is used for simpler messaging transmissions. TCP is the more complex protocol, due to its stateful design incorporating reliable transmission and data stream services. Together, TCP and UDP comprise essentially all traffic on the Internet and are the only protocols implemented in every major operating system. Additional transport layer protocols that have been defined and implemented include the Datagram Congestion Control Protocol (DCCP) and the Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP).


title: Transport layer

text: Transport layer services are conveyed to an application via a programming interface to the transport layer protocols. The services may include the following features:


title: Transport layer

text: The transport layer is responsible for delivering data to the appropriate application process on the host computers. This involves statistical multiplexing of data from different application processes, i.e. forming data segments, and adding source and destination port numbers in the header of each transport layer data segment. Together with the source and destination IP address, the port numbers constitute a network socket, i.e. an identification address of the process-to-process communication. In the OSI model, this function is supported by the session layer.


title: Transport layer

text: Some transport layer protocols, for example TCP, but not UDP, support virtual circuits, i.e. provide connection-oriented communication over an underlying packet-oriented datagram network. A byte-stream is delivered while hiding the packet mode communication for the application processes. This involves connection establishment, dividing of the data stream into packets called segments, segment numbering and reordering of out-of-order data.


title: Transport layer

text: Finally, some transport layer protocols, for example TCP, but not UDP, provide end-to-end reliable communication, i.e. error recovery by means of error detecting code and automatic repeat request (ARQ) protocol. The ARQ protocol also provides flow control, which may be combined with congestion avoidance.


title: Transport layer

text: UDP is a very simple protocol and does not provide virtual circuits, nor reliable communication, delegating these functions to the application program. UDP packets are called datagrams, rather than segments.


title: Transport layer

text: TCP is used for many protocols, including HTTP web browsing and email transfer. UDP may be used for multicasting and broadcasting, since retransmissions are not possible to a large amount of hosts. UDP typically gives higher throughput and shorter latency and is therefore often used for real-time multimedia communication where packet loss occasionally can be accepted, for example IP-TV and IP-telephony, and for online computer games.


title: Transport layer

text: Many non-IP-based networks, such as X.25, Frame Relay and ATM, implement the connection-oriented communication at the network or data link layer rather than the transport layer. In X.25, in telephone network modems and in wireless communication systems, reliable node-to-node communication is implemented at lower protocol layers.


title: Transport layer

text: The OSI connection-mode transport layer protocol specification defines five classes of transport protocols: "TP0", providing the least error recovery, to "TP4", which is designed for less reliable networks.


title: Transport layer

text: This list shows some protocols that are commonly placed in the transport layers of the Internet protocol suite, the OSI protocol suite, NetWare's IPX/SPX, AppleTalk, and Fibre Channel.


title: Transport layer

text: ISO/IEC 8073/ITU-T Recommendation X.224, "Information Technology - Open Systems Interconnection - Protocol for providing the connection-mode transport service", defines five classes of connection-mode transport protocols designated class 0 (TP0) to class 4 (TP4). Class 0 contains no error recovery and was designed for use on network layers that provide error-free connections. Class 4 is closest to TCP, although TCP contains functions, such as the graceful close, which OSI assigns to the session layer. All OSI connection-mode protocol classes provide expedited data and preservation of record boundaries. Detailed characteristics of the classes are shown in the following table:


title: Transport layer

text: There is also a connectionless transport protocol, specified by ISO/IEC 8602/ITU-T Recommendation X.234.


title: Aberystwyth

text: Aberystwyth () is a university and seaside town as well as a community in Ceredigion, Wales. Located in the historic county of Cardiganshire, means "the mouth of the Ystwyth". Aberystwyth University has been a major educational location in Wales since the establishment of University College Wales in 1872.


title: Aberystwyth

text: The town is situated on Cardigan Bay on the west coast of Wales, near the confluence of the River Ystwyth and Afon Rheidol. Following the reconstruction of the harbour, the Ystwyth skirts the town. The Rheidol passes through the town.


title: Aberystwyth

text: The seafront, with a pier, stretches from Constitution Hill at the north end of the Promenade to the harbour at the south. The beach is divided by the castle. The town is divided into five areas: Aberystwyth Town; Llanbadarn Fawr; Waunfawr; Llanbadarn; Trefechan; and the most populous, Penparcau.


title: Aberystwyth

text: In 2011 the population of the town was 13,040. This rises to nearly 19,000 for the larger conurbation of Aberystwyth and Llanbadarn Fawr.


title: Aberystwyth

text: Aberystwyth is a university town and tourist destination, and forms a cultural link between North Wales and South Wales. Constitution Hill, scaled by the Aberystwyth Cliff Railway, gives access to panoramic views and to other attractions at the summit, including a camera obscura. Scenic Mid Wales landscape within easy reach of the town includes the wilderness of the Cambrian Mountains, whose valleys contain forests and meadows which have changed little in centuries. A convenient way to access the interior is by the preserved narrow-gauge Vale of Rheidol Railway.


title: Aberystwyth

text: Although the town is relatively modern, there are a number of historic buildings, including the remains of the castle and the Old College of Aberystwyth University nearby. The Old College was originally built and opened in 1865 as a hotel, but after the owner's bankruptcy the shell of the building was sold to the university in 1867.


title: Aberystwyth

text: The new university campus overlooks Aberystwyth from Penglais Hill to the east of the town centre. The station, a terminus of the main railway, was built in 1924 in the typical style of the period, mainly in a mix of Gothic, Classical Revival, and Victorian architecture.


title: Aberystwyth

text: The town is the unofficial capital of Mid Wales, and several institutions have regional or national offices there. Public bodies located in the town include the National Library of Wales, which incorporates the National Screen and Sound Archive of Wales, one of six British regional film archives. The Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales maintains and curates the National Monuments Record of Wales (NMRW), providing the public with information about the built heritage of Wales. Aberystwyth is also the home to the national offices of UCAC and Cymdeithas yr Iaith Gymraeg (Welsh Language Society), and the site of the Institute of Grassland and Environmental Research, the Welsh Books Council and the offices of the standard historical dictionary of Welsh, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru. A purpose built Welsh Government office and an adjoining office of Ceredigion County Council are also located in the town.


title: Aberystwyth

text: At the 2001 census, the population of the town was 15,935. This reduced to 13,040 at the 2011 census. Including neighbouring Llanbadarn Fawr, the population was 16,420, and the greater Aberystwyth conurbation having a population of 18,749 in 2011.


title: Aberystwyth

text: Aberystwyth experiences an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification "Cfb") similar to almost all of the United Kingdom. This is particularly pronounced due to its west coast location facing the Irish Sea. Air undergoes little land moderation and so temperatures closely reflect the sea temperature when winds are coming from the predominant onshore (westerly) direction. The nearest Met Office weather station is Gogerddan, 3 miles to the northeast, and at a similar elevation.


title: Aberystwyth

text: The absolute maximum temperature is , set during July 2006. This is also the July record maximum for all of Wales, suggesting that the area's low lying situation, aided by a possible föhn effect when winds are offshore can act to achieve high temperatures on occasion. Typically the warmest day will average and 5.6 days will achieve a maximum of or above.


title: Aberystwyth

text: The absolute minimum temperature is , set in January 2010. Typically 39.8 days will register an air frost.


title: Aberystwyth

text: Rainfall averages a year, with over 1mm recorded on 161 days. All averages refer to the 1981–2010 period.


title: Aberystwyth

text: There is evidence that during the Mesolithic Age the area of Tan-y-Bwlch at the foot of Pen Dinas (Penparcau) was used as a flint knapping floor for hunter-gatherers making weapons from flint that was deposited as the ice retreated.


title: Aberystwyth

text: The remains of a Celtic fortress on Pen Dinas (or more correctly 'Dinas Maelor'), a hill in Penparcau overlooking Aberystwyth, indicates that the site was inhabited before 700 BC. On a hill south of the present town, across the River Ystwyth, are the remains of a medieval ringfort believed to be the castle from which Princess Nest was abducted. This rare survival is now on private land and can only be accessed by arrangement.


title: Aberystwyth

text: The recorded history of Aberystwyth may be said to date from the building of a fortress in 1109 by Gilbert Fitz Richard (grandfather of Richard de Clare, known as Strongbow, the Cambro-Norman lord notable for his leading role in the Norman invasion of Ireland). Gilbert Fitz Richard was granted lands and the lordship of Cardigan by Henry I, including Cardigan Castle. The fortress built in Aberystwyth was located about a mile and a half south of today's town, on a hill over the south bank of the Ystwyth River, thus giving the settlement of Aberystwyth its name. The location is now known as Tan-Y-Castell.


title: Aberystwyth

text: Aberystwyth was usually under the control of the princes of Deheubarth, but its position close to the border with Gwynedd and Powys left it vulnerable to attacks from the leaders of those polities. The town was attacked by Gwenwynwyn ab Owain in 1197, an assault in which Maelgwn ap Rhys was captured. Llywelyn the Great attacked and seized the town in late 1208, building a castle there before withdrawing.


title: Aberystwyth

text: Edward I replaced Strongbow's castle in 1277, after its destruction by the Welsh. His castle was, however, built in a different location, at the current Castle Hill, the high point of the town. Between the years 1404 and 1408 Aberystwyth Castle was in the hands of Owain Glyndŵr but finally surrendered to Prince Harry (the future King Henry V of England). Shortly after this, the town was incorporated under the title of Ville de Lampadarn (the ancient name of the place being Llanbadarn Gaerog or the fortified Llanbadarn, to distinguish it from Llanbadarn Fawr, the village one mile (1.6 km) inland. It is thus styled in a Royal charter granted by Henry VIII but, by Elizabeth I's time, the town was invariably named Aberystwyth in all documents.


title: Aberystwyth

text: From 1639 to 1642, silver coins were minted at Aberystwyth Castle on behalf of the Royal Mint, using silver from local mines. £10,500 in currency was produced, equivalent to 2.5 million silver pennies.


title: Aberystwyth

text: In 1649, Parliamentarian troops razed the castle, although portions of three towers still exist. In 1988, an excavation within the castle area revealed a complete male skeleton, deliberately buried. Though skeletons rarely survive in Wales' acidic soil, this skeleton was probably preserved by the addition of lime from the collapsed building. Affectionately known as "Charlie" and now housed in the Ceredigion Museum in the town, he probably dates from the English Civil War period, and is likely to have died during the Parliamentarian siege. His image is featured in one of nine mosaics created to adorn the castle's walls.


title: Aberystwyth

text: The development of Aberystwyth's Port contributed to the town’s economic development during the late 18 and early 19 centuries. Port improvements were carried out in both 1780 and 1836, with a new Customs House constructed in 1828. Rural industries and craftsmen were also an important part of life in this country town. The local trade directory for 1830 shows that there were in Aberystwyth:


title: Aberystwyth

text: Twenty boot makers, eight bakers, two corn millers, eleven carpenters and joiners, one cooper, seven tailors, two dressmakers, two straw hat makers, two hat makers, three curriers, four saddlers, two tinsmiths, six maltsters, two skinners, four tanners, eight stonemasons, one brewer, four lime burners, three shipwrights, three wheelwrights, five cabinet makers, one nail maker, one rope maker and one sail maker.


title: Aberystwyth

text: The Cambrian Railways line from Machynlleth reached Aberystwyth in 1864, closely followed by rail links to Carmarthen, which resulted in the construction of the town's impressive station. The Cambrian line opened on Good Friday 1869, the same day that the new Royal Pier (designed by Eugenius Birch) opened, attracting 7,000 visitors.


title: Aberystwyth

text: The railway's arrival gave rise to something of a Victorian tourist boom, with Aberystwyth becoming a significant holiday destination for working and middle class families from South Wales in particular. The town was once even billed as the "Biarritz of Wales". During this time, a number of hotels and fine townhouses were built including the Queens Hotel, later renamed Swyddfa'r Sir (County Office) when used as offices by the town council, and most recently used as the external scenes of the police station in the television show "Hinterland". One of the largest of these hotels, "The Castle Hotel", was never completed as a hotel but, following bankruptcy, was sold cheaply to the Welsh National University Committee, a group of people dedicated to the creation of a Welsh University. The University College of Wales (later to become Aberystwyth University) was founded in 1872 in this building.


title: Aberystwyth

text: Aberystwyth was a contributory parliamentary borough until the Third Reform Act, which merged its representation into that of the county in 1885.


title: Aberystwyth

text: In 1895, various businessmen who had been behind the Aberystwyth New Harbour Company formed the Aberystwyth Improvement Company (AIC) to take over the works of the defunct Bourne Engineering & Electrical. In 1896, the AIC completed three projects: the new landside pavilion for the Royal Pier; built the Cambria Hotel (later the United Theological College) and formed Constitution Hill Ltd, to develop a Victorian theme park. Chief engineer George Croydon Marks designed all the AIC developments, including the United Kingdom's second longest funicular railway, which takes passengers up a 50% gradient to a park and camera obscura.


title: Aberystwyth

text: On the night of Friday, 14 January 1938, a storm with estimated wind speeds of up to struck the town. Most of the promenade was destroyed, along with of the pier. Many properties on the seafront were damaged, with every property from the King's Hall north affected; those on Victoria Terrace suffered the greatest damage. Work commenced on a protective coffer dam which continued into 1940, with total costs of construction coming to £70,000 (equivalent to £2.5 million today).


title: Aberystwyth

text: Cymdeithas yr Iaith Gymraeg (Welsh Language Society) held their historic first protest on Trefechan Bridge in Aberystwyth, on 2 February 1963.


title: Aberystwyth

text: The first independent Welsh Evangelical Church was established in Aberystwyth (see Evangelical Movement of Wales).


title: Aberystwyth

text: In March 2009 mayor Sue Jones-Davies, who had played the role of Judith Iscariot in the film "Monty Python's Life of Brian" (1979), organised a charity screening of the film. Principal actors Terry Jones and Michael Palin also attended. There is a popular, but incorrect, urban myth that the town had banned the film (as some authorities did) when it was first released.


title: Aberystwyth

text: During the aftermath storms from Cyclone Dirk on Friday 3 January 2014, the town was one of the worst hit in Wales. Properties on the adjoining promenade were then evacuated for the next five days, including 250 students from the University. Ceredigion Council appealed to the Welsh Assembly Government for funds, whilst Natural Resources Wales undertook surveys and emergency preventative measures.


title: Aberystwyth

text: North Parade, Aberystwyth was reported to be the most expensive street in Wales in 2018, based on property prices.


title: Aberystwyth

text: Aberystwyth's local government administration has a two-tier structure consisting of two separate councils. As local government is a devolved matter in Wales, the legislation for both Councils is a responsibility of the Senedd.


title: Aberystwyth

text: Aberystwyth Town Council is the first tier of local government, which is the closest to the general public; there are 19 elected town councillors from five wards. The last elections were held on the 4 May 2017. The council is responsible for cycle paths, public footpaths, CCTV, public Wi-Fi, bus shelters, parks, gardens (including the castle grounds and the skateboard park) and allotments. The council is a statutory body which is consulted regarding planning decisions in the town area and makes recommendations to the planning authority, Ceredigion County Council. The Town Council is also involved in leisure, tourism, business (through providing more than half of Menter Aberystwyth's funding in grants), licence applications, wellbeing and environmental health, recycling and refuse collection.


title: Aberystwyth

text: A borough council existed in Aberystwyth from 1832 and the Aberystwyth School Board was established in 1870.


title: Aberystwyth

text: Ceredigion County Council is another statutory body incorporated by Act of Parliament. It is the second tier of local government in the area and is a unitary authority with a wide range of powers and responsibility. The Council deals with roads (except trunk roads), street lighting, some highways, social services, children and family care, schools and public libraries. Aberystwyth elects six of the 42 councillors in five separate wards (Bronglais, Central, North and Rheidol wards elect one councillor each while Penparcau ward elects two).


title: Aberystwyth

text: Aberystwyth has five Senedd members, one of whom (Elin Jones) was elected as a constituency MS for Ceredigion, and four who are elected on the regional list for Mid and West Wales.


title: Aberystwyth

text: The town is in the Ceredigion constituency for elections to the House of Commons. Since June 2017, Aberystwyth's MP has been Plaid Cymru's Ben Lake.


title: Aberystwyth

text: The first ever public library in Aberystwyth was opened in Compton House, Pier Street on 13 October 1874. In 1882 the library was moved to the Assembly Rooms which were leased to the council for 21 years. The lease expired in 1903 and the library returned to Pier Street, this time to the Old Banking Library at the corner with Eastgate Street, although this was short lived. A Carnegie library was built in Aberystwyth in 1905, with a grant of £3,000. Located in Corporation Street, it was designed by the architect Walter Payton of Birmingham, who was one of 48 who entered the competition to design the building. It was formally opened on 20 April 1906 by Mrs Vaughan Davies, wife of the local MP. The town library moved to Aberystwyth Town Hall, now known as Canolfan Alun R. Edwards, following the building's refurbishment in 2012.


title: Aberystwyth

text: The National Library of Wales, Aberystwyth, is the national legal deposit library of Wales. Established in 1907, it is a Welsh Government sponsored body. According to Cyril Evans, the library's centenary events co-ordinator, "The library is considered to be one of the world's greatest libraries, and its international reputation is certainly something that all Welsh men and women are intensely ... proud of". Welsh is the main medium of communication within the organisation; it aims to deliver all public services in Welsh and English.


title: Aberystwyth

text: Aberystwyth Arts Centre is one of the largest and busiest arts centres in Wales. It encompasses a 312-seat theatre, 900-seat concert hall, 125-seat cinema, and has accompanied studio, galleries, plus public spaces which include cafes and a bar. Arad Goch is an Arts Council funded community theatre and art gallery based in the town. The premises holds a theatre, gallery, several art studios and meeting rooms, and a darkroom.


title: Aberystwyth

text: The town has three works by the Italian sculptor Mario Rutelli; the War Memorial on the promenade, the Tabernacle Chapel Memorial on Powell Street, and the statue of Edward VIII as Prince of Wales in the Old College. All are Grade II listed structures. Rutelli’s connection with the town came through Thomas Jenkins of Aberystwyth, who ran a shipping business. Jenkins was a frequent visitor to Italy where he admired Rutelli’s work. Jo Darke, in her work, "The Monument Guide to England and Wales: A National Portrait in Bronze and Stone", describes Rutelli’s war memorial as “striking and rare” and suggests that the life-size statue of Edward VIII is the only recorded example.


title: Aberystwyth

text: Aberystwyth has a live music scene which has produced bands and artists such as: The Crocketts; The Hot Puppies; Murry the Hump; and The Lowland Hundred. The University Music Centre promotes a varied programme for instrumentalists, singers and listeners from the university and the wider community. The University chamber choir, The Elizabethan Madrigal Singers, have been singing in the town since 1950 and continue to hold a number of concerts throughout the year. Aberystwyth gives its name to a well known hymn tune composed by Joseph Parry.


title: Aberystwyth

text: Aberystwyth RFC is the local rugby union club and acts as a feeder club to professional side Scarlets. It was formed in 1947 and for the 2017/18 season played in the WRU Division One West. Aberystwyth Town F.C. is a semi-professional football club that was formed in 1884. The team currently compete in the Cymru Premier, Wales' top division. The town also has a cricket club which plays in local leagues, an athletics club (founded 1955), and boxing club in Penparcau. The town's golf course opened in 1911.


title: Aberystwyth

text: Ceredigion, the county in which Aberystwyth is located, is one of the four most Welsh-speaking counties in Wales and remained majority Welsh speaking until the 2011 census. Since the town's growth as a seaside resort in the Victorian era, it has been more anglicised than its hinterland and the rest of the county in general. The university has also attracted many English-speaking students from England, non-Welsh speaking parts of Wales and elsewhere. The 1891 census recorded that, of the 6635 inhabitants who completed the language section, 3482 (52.5%) were bilingual, 1751 (26.4%) were Welsh monoglots, and 1402 people (21.1%) were returned as English monoglots. Ceredigion (then named Cardiganshire) as a whole was 95.2% Welsh-speaking and 74.5% monoglot Welsh. Although the town remained majority Welsh-speaking for many more decades, English had already replaced Welsh in certain domains, such as entertainment and tourism. By 1961, only 50.0% of the town's population could speak Welsh, compared to 79.5% for Cardiganshire as a whole; by 1971, these numbers had fallen to 44.9% and 67.6% respectively. The 2001 census reported that, in the seven wards of Aberystwyth, 39% of the residents self-identified as able to speak or read or write Welsh. This is lower than Ceredigion as a whole (54%) but higher than Wales overall (19%).


title: Aberystwyth

text: Aberystwyth parish church is St Michael's and All Angels, located in Laura Place. The parish was a Rectoral Benefice until 2019, incorporating the anglican churches of Holy Trinity, Santes Fair (services in Welsh) and Saint Anne's, Penparcau. The Rectoral Benefice has now been converted to a local ministry area (LMA). The church was built between 1886 and 1890, replacing an earlier church. It was designed in a Gothic Revival style and is a Grade II listed building.


title: Aberystwyth

text: In addition to the anglican churches, there are many existing and former Welsh Calvanistic Methodist chapels that have these days merged into Saint David's (United Reformed) and Capel y Morfa (Welsh language services). A former Calvinistic Methodist sunday school house, Ysgoldy Tanycae, is now the meeting place of the Elim Pentecostal church. Meanwhile there is a Wesleyan Methodist church, Saint Paul's Methodist Centre, located in Bath Street. An independent baptist church is located in Alfred Place. Aberystwyth's Catholic church, Saint Winefride's has recently controversially been closed in favour of a new build church located in Penparcau.


title: Aberystwyth

text: There are a number of other smaller congregations, and many former churches that have now been converted to alternative use, such as the Academy bar.


title: Aberystwyth

text: Aberystwyth has two comprehensive schools serving the town and a wide rural area: Ysgol Gyfun Gymunedol Penweddig and Ysgol Penglais School. Ysgol Gyfun Gymunedol Penweddig uses Welsh as the primary language of tuition; Ysgol Penglais School teaches in English and in Welsh as a subject.


title: Aberystwyth

text: There are currently three primary schools within the town limits, which are: Plascrug, Saint Padarns (Roman Catholic) and Ysgol Gymraeg. Ysgol Gymraeg was the first designated Welsh medium school in Wales, originally established as a private school in 1939 by Sir Ifan ab Owen Edwards as Ysgol Gymraeg yr Urdd.


title: Aberystwyth

text: Aberystwyth is home to Aberystwyth University () whose predecessor, University College Wales, was founded in 1872 and renamed the 'University of Wales, Aberystwyth' in the mid-1990s. Prior to the college's establishment, Wales had very limited academic-degree capability through St David's College, Lampeter (founded in 1822, now the University of Wales, Trinity Saint David).


title: Aberystwyth

text: The all organic dairy unit of Rachel's Organic is based in Glan yr Afon, and is the largest private sector employer in Aberystwyth.


title: Aberystwyth

text: The "Cambrian News" newspaper came to Aberystwyth from Bala in 1870, after it was purchased by Sir John Gibson. Printed in Oswestry, in May 1880 the paper integrated operations in a former Malthouse in Mill Street. Owned by the Read family from 1926, in 1993 printing was contracted out, enabling the move of editorial staff to the current open-plan offices on Llanbadarn Fawr Science Park. On the death of Henry Read, the paper was purchased in 1999 by Sir Ray Tindle, whose company owns more than 200 weekly newspapers in Britain. Now printed in tabloid format, "Cambrian News" is the second-largest weekly-print circulation newspaper in Wales, with 24,000 copies in six regional editorial versions, read by 60,000 weekly readers. The circulation area of mid, west and north Wales covers .


title: Aberystwyth

text: Since the TV series "Hinterland" has been filmed in and around Aberystwyth, the area is being promoted as an opportunity for tourists to visit filming locations; many are well publicised.


title: Aberystwyth

text: Aberystwyth railway station is situated in the town centre and is the terminus of the scenic Cambrian Line. Transport for Wales Rail operate a mostly hourly service (with some two-hour intervals) to via and Mid Wales, with nearly all trains continuing to . Connecting services from provide a link to Gwynedd's west coast as far as , along the Cambrian Coast Line. There is no longer a southbound connection: the Carmarthen–Aberystwyth line was closed in 1965 as part of the Beeching cuts.


title: Aberystwyth

text: Aberystwyth station is also the terminus of the Vale of Rheidol Railway, a steam-operated narrow gauge heritage railway. Constructed between 1901 and 1902, it was intended to ship mineral cargo, primarily lead, from Devil's Bridge down to Aberystwyth for trans-shipment. By the time it was finished, lead mining was in a deep downturn andthanks to the Aberystwyth Improvement Companythe railway came to rely largely on the tourist industry, opening for passengers in December 1902. It still remains open for the summer season, with a journey of .


title: Aberystwyth

text: In 1896, the Aberystwyth Improvement Company formed Constitution Hill Ltd which, under the direction of chief engineer George Croydon Marks, developed the United Kingdom's second longest funicular railway, the Aberystwyth Cliff Railway, which takes passengers up a 50% gradient.


title: Aberystwyth

text: There is a daily National Express coach, service 409 to London via Birmingham, along with local bus services within the town and into the surrounding area.


title: Aberystwyth

text: The A44 and A487 meet with much traffic between North Wales and South West Wales passing through the town. The A4120 links the A44 and A487 between Llanbadarn Fawr and Penparcau, allowing through traffic to bypass the town centre.


title: Aberystwyth

text: The B4574 mountain road linking the town to Rhayader is described by the AA as one of the ten most scenic drives in the world.


title: Aberystwyth

text: The port of Aberystwyth, although it is small and relatively inconsequential today, used to be an important Atlantic Ocean entryway. It was used to ship locally, to Ireland and as a transatlantic departure point. Commercially, the once important Cardiganshire lead mines exported from this location.


title: Aberystwyth

text: The importance of maritime trade in the 19th century is reflected in the fact that a lifeboat has been based at Aberystwyth since 1843, when a boat powered by six oars was funded by public subscription and placed under the control of the harbourmaster. The RNLI took over the service in 1861 and established Aberystwyth Lifeboat Station which celebrated 150 years in 2011. The station uses the inshore lifeboat "Spirit of Friendship".


title: TRIPS Agreement

text: The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) is an international legal agreement between all the member nations of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It establishes minimum standards for the regulation by national governments of different forms of intellectual property (IP) as applied to nationals of other WTO member nations. TRIPS was negotiated at the end of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) between 1989 and 1990 and is administered by the WTO.


title: TRIPS Agreement

text: The TRIPS agreement introduced intellectual property law into the multilateral trading system for the first time and remains the most comprehensive multilateral agreement on intellectual property to date. In 2001, developing countries, concerned that developed countries were insisting on an overly narrow reading of TRIPS, initiated a round of talks that resulted in the Doha Declaration. The Doha declaration is a WTO statement that clarifies the scope of TRIPS, stating for example that TRIPS can and should be interpreted in light of the goal "to promote access to medicines for all."


title: TRIPS Agreement

text: Specifically, TRIPS requires WTO members to provide copyright rights, covering authors and other copyright holders, as well as holders of related rights, namely performers, sound recording producers and broadcasting organisations; geographical indications; industrial designs; integrated circuit layout-designs; patents; new plant varieties; trademarks; trade names and undisclosed or confidential information. TRIPS also specifies enforcement procedures, remedies, and dispute resolution procedures. Protection and enforcement of all intellectual property rights shall meet the objectives to contribute to the promotion of technological innovation and to the transfer and dissemination of technology, to the mutual advantage of producers and users of technological knowledge and in a manner conducive to social and economic welfare, and to a balance of rights and obligations.


title: TRIPS Agreement

text: TRIPS was negotiated during the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1986–1994. Its inclusion was the culmination of a program of intense lobbying by the United States by the International Intellectual Property Alliance, supported by the European Union, Japan and other developed nations. Campaigns of unilateral economic encouragement under the Generalized System of Preferences and coercion under Section 301 of the Trade Act played an important role in defeating competing policy positions that were favored by developing countries like Brazil, but also including Thailand, India and Caribbean Basin states. In turn, the US strategy of linking trade policy to intellectual property standards can be traced back to the entrepreneurship of senior management at Pfizer in the early 1980s, who mobilized corporations in the United States and made maximizing intellectual property privileges the number one priority of trade policy in the United States (Braithwaite and Drahos, 2000, Chapter 7).


title: TRIPS Agreement

text: Unlike other agreements on intellectual property, TRIPS has a powerful enforcement mechanism. States can be disciplined through the WTO's dispute settlement mechanism.


title: TRIPS Agreement

text: TRIPS requires member states to provide strong protection for intellectual property rights. For example, under TRIPS:


title: TRIPS Agreement

text: The TRIPS Agreement incorporates by reference the provisions on copyright from the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (Art 9), with the exception of moral rights. It also incorporated by reference the substantive provisions of the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property (Art 2.1). The TRIPS Agreement specifically mentions that software and databases are protected by copyright, subject to originality requirement (Art 10).


title: TRIPS Agreement

text: The obligations under TRIPS apply equally to all member states; however, developing countries were allowed extra time to implement the applicable changes to their national laws, in two tiers of transition according to their level of development. The transition period for developing countries expired in 2005. The transition period for least developed countries to implement TRIPS was extended to 2013, and until 1 January 2016 for pharmaceutical patents, with the possibility of further extension.


title: TRIPS Agreement

text: It has therefore been argued that the TRIPS standard of requiring all countries to create strict intellectual property systems will be detrimental to poorer countries' development. It has been argued that it is, "prima facie", in the strategic interest of most if not all underdeveloped nations to use the flexibility available in TRIPS to legislate the weakest IP laws possible.


title: TRIPS Agreement

text: This has not happened in most cases. A 2005 report by the WHO found that many developing countries have not incorporated TRIPS flexibilities (compulsory licensing, parallel importation, limits on data protection, use of broad research and other exceptions to patentability, etc.) into their legislation to the extent authorized under Doha. This is likely caused by the lack of legal and technical expertise needed to draft legislation that implements flexibilities, which has often led to developing countries directly copying developed country IP legislation, or relying on technical assistance from the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), which, according to critics such as Cory Doctorow, encourages them to implement stronger intellectual property monopolies.


title: TRIPS Agreement

text: Banerjee and Nayak shows that TRIPS has a positive effect on R&D expenditure of Indian pharmaceutical firms.


title: TRIPS Agreement

text: In addition to the baseline intellectual property standards created by the TRIPS agreement, many nations have engaged in bilateral agreements to adopt a higher standard of protection. These collection of standards, known as TRIPS+ or TRIPS-Plus, can take many forms. General objectives of these agreements include:


title: TRIPS Agreement

text: According to "WTO 10th Anniversary, Highlights of the first decade, Annual Report 2005" page 142, in the first ten years, 25 complaints have been lodged leading to the panel reports and appellate body reports on TRIPS listed below.


title: TRIPS Agreement

text: Since TRIPS came into force, it has been subject to criticism from developing countries, academics, and non-governmental organizations. Though some of this criticism is against the WTO generally, many advocates of trade liberalisation also regard TRIPS as poor policy. TRIPS's wealth concentration effects (moving money from people in developing countries to copyright and patent owners in developed countries), and its imposition of artificial scarcity on the citizens of countries that would otherwise have had weaker intellectual property laws, are common bases for such criticisms. Other criticism has focused on the failure of TRIPS to accelerate investment and technology flows to low-income countries, a benefit advanced by WTO members in the lead-up to the agreement's formation. Statements by the World Bank indicate that TRIPS has not led to a demonstrable acceleration of investment to low-income countries, though it may have done so for middle-income countries.


title: TRIPS Agreement

text: Daniele Archibugi and Andrea Filippetti have argued that the main motive for TRIPS was a decline in the competitiveness of the technology industry in the United States, Japan, and the European Union against emerging markets, which it largely failed to abate. They instead argue that the main supporters and beneficiaries of TRIPS were IP-intensive multinational corporations in these countries, and that TRIPS enabled them to outsource key operations to emerging markets.


title: TRIPS Agreement

text: Archibugi and Filippetti also argue that the importance of TRIPS, and intellectual property in general, in the process of generation and diffusion of knowledge and innovation has been overestimated by its supporters. This point has been supported by United Nations findings indicating many countries with weak protection routinely benefit from strong levels of foreign direct investment (FDI). Analysis of OECD countries in the 1980s and 1990s (during which the patent life of drugs was extended by 6 years) showed that while total number of products registered increased slightly, the mean innovation index remained unchanged. In contrast to that, Jörg Baten, Nicola Bianchi and Petra Moser (2017) find historical evidence that under certain circumstances compulsory licensing – a key mechanism to weaken intellectual property rights that is covered by Article 31 of the TRIPS – may indeed be effective in promoting invention by increasing the threat of competition in fields with low pre-existing levels of competition. They argue, however, that the benefits from weakening intellectual property rights strongly depend on whether the governments can credibly commit to using it only in exceptional cases of emergencies since firms may invest less in R&D if they expect repeated episodes of compulsory licensing.


title: TRIPS Agreement

text: TRIPS-plus conditions mandating standards beyond TRIPS have also been the subject of scrutiny. These FTA agreements contain conditions that limit the ability of governments to introduce competition for generic producers. In particular, the United States has been criticised for advancing protection well beyond the standards mandated by TRIPS. The United States Free Trade Agreements with Australia, Morocco and Bahrain have extended patentability by requiring patents be available for new uses of known products. The TRIPS agreement allows the grant of compulsory licenses at a nation's discretion. TRIPS-plus conditions in the United States' FTAs with Australia, Jordan, Singapore and Vietnam have restricted the application of compulsory licenses to emergency situations, antitrust remedies, and cases of public non-commercial use.


title: TRIPS Agreement

text: The most visible conflict has been over AIDS drugs in Africa. Despite the role that patents have played in maintaining higher drug costs for public health programs across Africa, this controversy has not led to a revision of TRIPS. Instead, an interpretive statement, the Doha Declaration, was issued in November 2001, which indicated that TRIPS should not prevent states from dealing with public health crises and allowed for compulsory licenses. After Doha, PhRMA, the United States and to a lesser extent other developed nations began working to minimize the effect of the declaration.


title: TRIPS Agreement

text: A 2003 agreement loosened the domestic market requirement, and allows developing countries to export to other countries where there is a national health problem as long as drugs exported are not part of a commercial or industrial policy. Drugs exported under such a regime may be packaged or colored differently in order to prevent them from prejudicing markets in the developed world.


title: TRIPS Agreement

text: In 2003, the US Bush administration changed its position, concluding that generic treatments might in fact be a component of an effective strategy to combat HIV. Bush created the PEPFAR program, which received $15 billion from 2003 to 2007, and was reauthorized in 2008 for $48 billion over the next five years. Despite wavering on the issue of compulsory licensing, PEPFAR began to distribute generic drugs in 2004–05.


title: TRIPS Agreement

text: In 2020, conflicts re-emerged over patents, copyrights and trade secrets related to COVID-19 vaccines, diagnostics and treatments. South Africa and India proposed that WTO grant a temporary waiver to enable more widespread production of the vaccines, since suppressing the virus as quickly as possible benefits the entire world. The waivers would be in addition to the existing, but cumbersome, flexibilities in TRIPS allowing countries to impose compulsory licenses. Over 100 developing nations supported the waiver but it was blocked by the G7 members. This blocking was condemned by 400 organizations including Doctors Without Borders and 115 members of the European Parliament.


title: TRIPS Agreement

text: Another controversy has been over the TRIPS Article 27 requirements for patentability "in all fields of technology", and whether or not this necessitates the granting of software and business method patents.


title: Joint Entrance Examination

text: The Joint Entrance Examination (JEE) is an engineering entrance assessment conducted for admission to various engineering colleges in India. It is constituted by two different examinations: the JEE-Main and the JEE-Advanced.


title: Joint Entrance Examination

text: The Joint Seat Allocation Authority (JoSAA) conducts the joint admission process for a total of 23 Indian Institutes of Technology, 31 National Institutes of Technology, 25 Indian Institutes of Information Technology campuses and other Government Funded Technical Institutes (GFTIs) based on the rank obtained by a student in JEE-Main or JEE-Advanced, depending on the engineering college.


title: Joint Entrance Examination

text: There are some institutes, such as the Indian Institutes of Science Education and Research (IISERs), the Indian Institute of Petroleum and Energy (IIPE), the Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Petroleum Technology (RGIPT), the Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST), and the Indian Institute of Science (IISc), which use the score obtained in the JEE-Advanced examination as the basis for admission, but are not a part of the Joint Seat Allocation Authority (JoSAA) counselling process. Any student who takes admission to an Indian Institute of Technology cannot appear for the JEE-Advanced examination again, but the same is not the case with NIT, IISc, IISERs, RGIPT, IIPE, and IIST.


title: Joint Entrance Examination

text: JEE-Main is conducted by National Testing Agency (NTA). JEE-Main has two papers, Paper-I and Paper-II. Candidates may opt for either or both of them. Both papers contain multiple choice questions. Paper-I is for admission to B.E./B.Tech courses and is conducted in a Computer Based Test mode. Paper-II is for admission in B.Arch and B.Planning courses and will also be conducted in Computer Based Test mode except for one paper, namely the 'Drawing Test' which shall be conducted in Pen and Paper mode or offline mode. From January 2020 onwards, an additional Paper-III is being introduced for B.Planning courses separately.


title: Joint Entrance Examination

text: Due to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, JEE-Main 2021 has a change in paper format and number of attempts. Now there will be 20 single choice questions and 10 numerical questions out of which only five numerical questions are to be attempted. The marking scheme is same as earlier i.e. for SCQs, +4 marks for correct answer and -1 marks for incorrect answer and 0 marks for not answered, and for numerical type questions, +4 marks for correct and 0 for incorrect.


title: Joint Entrance Examination

text: JEE-Main, unlike JEE-Advanced, has a fixed exam structure and is not subject to change every year. Up until 2018, the JEE-Main Paper-I is of three hours duration and consists of thirty single choice questions in each of the three subjects (physics, chemistry and maths). 4 marks are awarded for correct answers and 1 mark is deducted for incorrect answers. Students taking this exam are usually in the age group 18-20.


title: Joint Entrance Examination

text: A new pattern consisting of 20+5 questions per subject was introduced in January 2020 with 20 single choice questions + 5 numerical type questions by NTA. In single-choice questions 4 marks are awarded for correct answers and no marks are deducted from numerical type questions.


title: Joint Entrance Examination

text: From 2013 to 2016, the marks obtained in the class XII school board examination used to be accorded a 40% weightage in deciding the JEE-Main all India ranks.


title: Joint Entrance Examination

text: JEE-Advanced is conducted for entry into 23 IIT's and some other equally prestigious universities like IISC Bangalore, IIST Thiruvananthapuram, Indian Institute of Petroleum and Energy (IIPE), Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISERs), Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Petroleum Technology (RGIPT). This exam is conducted by any one of the IIT's every year. In 2020, the exam was conducted by IIT Delhi. In 2021, 2022, and 2023, it shall be conducted by IIT Kharagpur, IIT Bombay and IIT Guwahati respectively. More than 2 lakh students become eligible to write JEE-Advanced every year. The top 250,000 students of JEE Main qualify to appear for the JEE-Advanced examination. In 2018, 224,000 students were appeared to take the JEE-Advanced, a number that had gone up from 220,000 in 2017 and 200,000 in 2016.


title: Joint Entrance Examination

text: The JEE pattern has undergone many changes. Since 2012 candidates are given paper copies of their answers, and cutoffs are announced. This transparency was achieved after a tenacious legal tussle waged by IIT Kharagpur professor Rajeev Kumar, who was nominated for the National RTI Award 2010 for his crusade. Since 2013–14, JEE has changed a lot and recently adopted new online admissions and application selection procedures which were not available in recent years.


title: Joint Entrance Examination

text: In 2012, the government-run Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) that earlier conducted the AIEEE, announced the JEE that replaced the AIEEE and IIT-JEE. The JEE-Main, which replaces AIEEE, is for admission to the National Institutes of Technology (NITs), Indian Institutes of Information Technology (IIITs), and some other colleges designated as "centrally funded technical institutes" (CFTIs). The JEE-Advanced, which replaces IIT-JEE, is only for admission to the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs). Only the students selected in JEE-Main are eligible for appearing in JEE-Advanced. About 224,000 students will be selected from 2018.


title: Joint Entrance Examination

text: In September 2013, the IIT Council approved the decision of the Joint Admission Board to continue with the two-phase JEE pattern ("Main" followed by "Advanced") for IITs in 2014. Followed by the exams, JoSAA conducts the joint admission process for a total of 23 IITs, 31 NITs, 25 IIITs and other Government Funded Technical Institutes (GFTIs).


title: Stream

text: A stream is a continuous body of surface water flowing within the bed and banks of a channel. Depending on its location or certain characteristics, a stream may be referred to by a variety of local or regional names. Long large streams are usually called rivers, while smaller, less voluminous and more intermittent streams are known as streamlets, brooks or creeks.


title: Stream

text: The flow of a stream is controlled by three inputs – surface runoff (from precipitation or meltwater), daylighted subterranean water, and surfaced groundwater (spring water). The surface and subterranean water are highly variable between periods of rainfall. Groundwater, on the other hand, has a relatively constant input and is controlled more by long-term patterns of precipitation. The stream encompasses surface, subsurface and groundwater fluxes that respond to geological, geomorphological, hydrological and biotic controls.


title: Stream

text: Streams are important as conduits in the water cycle, instruments in groundwater recharge, and corridors for fish and wildlife migration. The biological habitat in the immediate vicinity of a stream is called a riparian zone. Given the status of the ongoing Holocene extinction, streams play an important corridor role in connecting fragmented habitats and thus in conserving biodiversity. The study of streams and waterways in general is known as "surface hydrology" and is a core element of environmental geography.


title: Stream

text: A stream smaller than a creek, especially one that is fed by a spring or seep. It is usually small and easily forded. A brook is characterised by its shallowness.


title: Stream

text: A river is a large natural stream that is much wider and deeper than a creek and not easily fordable, and may be a navigable waterway.


title: Stream

text: The linear channel between the parallel ridges or bars on a shoreline beach or river floodplain, or between a bar and the shore. Also called a swale.


title: Stream

text: A tributary is a contributory stream to a larger stream, or a stream which does not reach a static body of water such as a lake, bay or ocean but joins another river (a parent river). Sometimes also called a branch or fork.


title: Stream

text: A distributary, or a distributary channel, is a stream that branches off and flows away from a main stream channel, and the phenomenon is known as river bifurcation. Distributaries are common features of river deltas, and are often found where a valleyed stream enters wide flatlands or approaches the coastal plains around a lake or an ocean. They can also occur inland, on alluvial fans, or where a tributary stream bifurcates as it nears its confluence with a larger stream. Common terms for individual river distributaries in English-speaking countries are "arm" and "channel".


title: Stream

text: A stream's source depends on the surrounding landscape and its function within larger river networks. While perennial and intermittent streams are typically supplied by smaller upstream waters and groundwater, headwater and ephemeral streams often derive most of their water from precipitation in the form of rain and snow. Most of this precipitated water re-enters the atmosphere by evaporation from soil and water bodies, or by the evapotranspiration of plants. Some of the water proceeds to sink into the earth by infiltration and becomes groundwater, much of which eventually enters streams. Some precipitated water is temporarily locked up in snow fields and glaciers, to be released later by evaporation or melting. The rest of the water flows off the land as runoff, the proportion of which varies according to many factors, such as wind, humidity, vegetation, rock types, and relief. This runoff starts as a thin film called sheet wash, combined with a network of tiny rills, together constituting sheet runoff; when this water is concentrated in a channel, a stream has its birth. Some creeks may start from ponds or lakes.


title: Stream

text: To qualify as a stream, a body of water must be either recurring or perennial. Recurring (intermittent) streams have water in the channel for at least part of the year. A stream of the first order is a stream which does not have any other recurring or perennial stream feeding into it. When two first-order streams come together, they form a second-order stream. When two second-order streams come together, they form a third-order stream. Streams of lower order joining a higher order stream do not change the order of the higher stream.


title: Stream

text: The "gradient" of a stream is a critical factor in determining its character and is entirely determined by its base level of erosion. The base level of erosion is the point at which the stream either enters the ocean, a lake or pond, or enters a stretch in which it has a much lower gradient, and may be specifically applied to any particular stretch of a stream.


title: Stream

text: In geological terms, the stream will erode down through its bed to achieve the base level of erosion throughout its course. If this base level is low, then the stream will rapidly cut through underlying strata and have a steep gradient, and if the base level is relatively high, then the stream will form a flood plain and meander.


title: Stream

text: Meanders are looping changes of direction of a stream caused by the erosion and deposition of bank materials. These are typically serpentine in form. Typically, over time the meanders gradually migrate downstream. If some resistant material slows or stops the downstream movement of a meander, a stream may erode through the neck between two legs of a meander to become temporarily straighter, leaving behind an arc-shaped body of water termed an "oxbow lake" or "bayou". A flood may also cause a meander to be cut through in this way.


title: Stream

text: Typically, streams are said to have a particular "profile", beginning with steep gradients, no flood plain, and little shifting of channels, eventually evolving into streams with low gradients, wide flood plains, and extensive meanders. The initial stage is sometimes termed a "young" or "immature" stream, and the later state a "mature" or "old" stream.


title: Stream

text: The stream load is defined as the solid matter carried by a stream. Streams can carry sediment, or alluvium. The amount of load it can carry (capacity) as well as the largest object it can carry (competence) are both dependent on the velocity of the stream.


title: Stream

text: A "perennial stream" is one which flows continuously all year. Some perennial streams may only have continuous flow in segments of its stream bed year round during years of normal rainfall. Blue-line streams are perennial streams and are marked on topographic maps with a solid blue line.


title: Stream

text: Generally, streams that flow only during and immediately after precipitation are termed "ephemeral". There is no clear demarcation between surface runoff and an ephemeral stream, and some ephemeral streams can be classed as intermittent—flow all but disappearing in the normal course of seasons but ample flow (backups) restoring stream presence such circumstances are documented when stream beds have opened up a path into mines or other underground chambers.


title: Stream

text: According to official U.S. definitions, the channels of intermittent streams are well-defined, as opposed to ephemeral streams, which may or may not have a defined channel, and rely mainly on storm runoff, as their aquatic bed is above the water table. An ephemeral stream does not have the biological, hydrological, and physical characteristics of a continuous or intermittent stream. The same non-perennial channel might change characteristics from intermittent to ephemeral over its course.


title: Stream

text: Washes can fill up quickly during rains, and there may be a sudden torrent of water after a thunderstorm begins upstream, such as during monsoonal conditions. In the United States, an "intermittent" or "seasonal stream" is one that only flows for part of the year and is marked on topographic maps with a line of blue dashes and dots. A "wash," "desert wash, or arroyo" is normally a dry streambed in the deserts of the American Southwest, which flows after sufficient rainfall.


title: Stream

text: In Italy, an intermittent stream is termed a torrent (). In full flood the stream may or may not be "torrential" in the dramatic sense of the word, but there will be one or more seasons in which the flow is reduced to a trickle or less. Typically torrents have Apennine rather than Alpine sources, and in the summer they are fed by little precipitation and no melting snow. In this case the maximum discharge will be during the spring and autumn.


title: Stream

text: An intermittent stream can also be called a winterbourne in Britain or a wadi in the Arabic-speaking world. In Australia, an intermittent stream is usually called a creek and marked on topographic maps with a solid blue line.


title: Stream

text: The extent of land basin drained by a stream is termed its drainage basin (also known in North America as the watershed and, in British English, as a catchment). A basin may also be composed of smaller basins. For instance, the Continental Divide in North America divides the mainly easterly-draining Atlantic Ocean and Arctic Ocean basins from the largely westerly-flowing Pacific Ocean basin. The Atlantic Ocean basin, however, may be further subdivided into the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico drainages. (This delineation is termed the Eastern Continental Divide.) Similarly, the Gulf of Mexico basin may be divided into the Mississippi River basin and several smaller basins, such as the Tombigbee River basin. Continuing in this vein, a component of the Mississippi River basin is the Ohio River basin, which in turn includes the Kentucky River basin, and so forth.


title: Stream

text: Stream crossings are where streams are crossed by roads, pipelines, railways, or any other thing which might restrict the flow of the stream in ordinary or flood conditions. Any structure over or in a stream which results in limitations on the movement of fish or other ecological elements may be an issue.


title: The Way of the Dragon

text: The Way of the Dragon (, originally released in the United States as Return of the Dragon) is a 1972 Hong Kong martial arts action-comedy film written, co-produced and directed by Bruce Lee, who also stars in the lead role. This is Lee's only complete directorial film and the last one released during his lifetime. The film co-stars Nora Miao, Robert Wall, and Wei Ping-ou, with Chuck Norris playing his debut screen role. "The Way of the Dragon" was released in Hong Kong on 30 December 1972, and in the United States in August 1974.


title: The Way of the Dragon

text: The film went on to gross an estimated worldwide (equivalent to over adjusted for inflation), against a tight budget of $130,000, earning a thousand times its budget. It was the highest-grossing Hong Kong film up until Lee's next film, "Enter the Dragon" (1973).


title: The Way of the Dragon

text: In Rome, Chen Ching-hua and her uncle Wang experience trouble with their restaurant from a crime boss who wants their property. When Chen refuses to give it up, the boss sends gangsters there to scare away the customers. Appealing to an uncle in Hong Kong, Chen receives help in the form of a young martial artist, Tang Lung (Bruce Lee). On his first arrival he is disoriented by his new surroundings and appears to be nothing but a country bumpkin. Disappointed, Chen asks what help he can be, but Tang confidently assures her that he is capable enough. At the restaurant, Tang learns that the staff have begun to learn karate, much to the annoyance of Quen, an employee who favors Chinese Kung Fu. Tang advises Quen to be open-minded and make use of anything that works.


title: The Way of the Dragon

text: Before long, the gangsters appear at the restaurant and threaten the customers away while Tang is using the bathroom. Upset by Tang's poor timing, the staff question his skill and the usefulness of his style. When the gangsters later return, the staff engage the thugs in a fight, only to be beaten. However, Tang single-handedly defeats them, causing the staff to decide to train under him. Uncle Wang warns them that the gangsters will seek revenge, but Tang vows to protect the restaurant. Chen and Tang grow closer, and she takes him on a tour of Rome, though Tang is unimpressed by the city.


title: The Way of the Dragon

text: Ho, the crime boss's subordinate, returns with armed men and takes the restaurant staff hostage. Ho gives Tang a ticket to Hong Kong and tells him to go back. However, when his men escort Tang outside, Tang fights back and defeats the thugs with his two nunchakus, followed by the help of the restaurant staff. Tang warns Ho not to return, and the thugs leave the restaurant. The staff celebrate their victory, but the gang boss threatens to have Tang killed unless he leaves by Chinese New Year, and Uncle Wang urges Chen to convince Tang to leave.


title: The Way of the Dragon

text: When Tang refuses to abandon the restaurant, an assassin tries to kill him from a nearby rooftop with a sniper rifle. Already fidgety from nearby fireworks, Tang survives the attempt. He then tracks down and defeats the assassin after tricking him into wasting his ammunition. When he returns to the apartment, he finds that Chen is gone. Assuming that Ho has kidnapped her, Tang goes to the boss' headquarters with the restaurant staff, defeating his men. Tang issues a final warning to the boss to leave the restaurant alone. The staff again celebrate, but a telegram for Tang cuts this short when they learn that he has been summoned back to Hong Kong. Tang assures them that he will not leave until the situation is resolved.


title: The Way of the Dragon

text: Ho hires two martial artists to challenge Tang - Japanese and European karate masters who initially refuse to work together. When the mafia boss indicates that money is no issue, Ho also recruits a world-class martial artist named Colt. Ho leads some of the restaurant staff to an isolated spot under the pretence of a truce, where the two martial artists ambush them. These initially defeat the staff, until Tang intervenes and leaves the staff to finish the last one off. Meanwhile, Ho lures Tang away to fight Colt at the Colosseum.


title: The Way of the Dragon

text: Left behind, Uncle Wang knifes the two remaining members of the staff, as he wants to sell the restaurant to the crime boss and return to Hong Kong a rich man. In a decisive ten-minute battle, Tang disables Colt. When Colt refuses an opportunity for mercy, Tang kills him with reluctance. Tang then places Colt's gi and black belt atop his dead body as a gesture of respect, before discovering Ho and chasing after him out of the Colosseum. As Tang and Ho return to the ambush site, the mob boss arrives and shoots both Ho and Uncle Wang. Then the police drive up, led by Chen, and arrest the boss as he tries to kill Tang.


title: The Way of the Dragon

text: With the matter finally resolved, Tang sets out to return to Hong Kong. As he leaves, Quen tells Chen that Tang is a loner who will never settle down.


title: The Way of the Dragon

text: Bruce Lee formed his own production company, Concord Production Inc., with Golden Harvest founder Raymond Chow, and "The Way of the Dragon" was the company's first film. As well as acting as its producer, Lee also wrote the script, directed the film and played percussion on the soundtrack.


title: The Way of the Dragon

text: The film was originally intended as only for the Asian market, but was ultimately "responsible for maintaining the momentum of martial arts films in America". What makes it particularly memorable is the treatment of the fight in the Colosseum, with Chuck Norris making his film debut there. Lee filmed it "in long takes, framing it so that you could see their entire bodies. He used dramatic lighting, making both of them look larger-than-life."


title: The Way of the Dragon

text: Prior to release, the film's initial tight budget of US$130,000 was already covered by pre-sales in Taiwan alone. Upon release, the film earned 5,307,350.50 at the Hong Kong box office, beating previous records set by Lee's own films, "The Big Boss" and "Fist of Fury", and making it the highest-grossing film of 1972 in Hong Kong. "The Way of the Dragon" went on to gross , making it the highest-grossing film ever in Hong Kong up until then.


title: The Way of the Dragon

text: In the United States and Canada, the film received a wide release in August 1974, topping the North American box office charts. In New York City alone, the film opened with earnings of more than in its first five days. At Chicago's Oriental Theater, the film drew long queues before opening, setting an all-time theater record with 4,000 tickets sold within several hours of its opening. The film grossed within two weeks of release at the Oriental Theater. At two other Chicago theaters in black neighbourhoods, the film earned in its opening week. At a number of theaters, the film drew loud cheers from audiences like a prizefight, particularly during the climactic fight where audiences cheered on Lee as he fought Chuck Norris. Within a month of its release, the film earned nearly in the United States. The film earned in US distributor rentals during its initial run. With later re-releases, the film went on to gross a total box office revenue of in the United States.


title: The Way of the Dragon

text: In France, it became the eighth highest-grossing film of 1974 (below "Enter the Dragon" at #5 and above "Fist of Fury" at #12), with 4,002,004 ticket sales. In Spain, the film sold 2,345,259 tickets. In Germany, it was the 13th highest-grossing film of 1975, with ticket sales. In Japan, the film earned in distribution rentals, becoming the ninth highest-grossing film of 1975. In South Korea, the film sold 182,530 tickets in the capital city of Seoul. The film was also a commercial success in India when it released there in 1979. In one Bombay theater alone, New Excelsior, the film earned an estimated in its first eight weeks.


title: The Way of the Dragon

text: Against the film's final budget of $150,000, the film initially grossed worldwide, before increasing its gross to and then by 1974. It eventually grossed an estimated total of (equivalent to approximately adjusted for inflation), earning times its budget. It was the highest-grossing Hong Kong film up until Lee's next film, "Enter the Dragon" (1973).


title: The Way of the Dragon

text: "Rotten Tomatoes" reported an 92% favourable critics' response, commenting on Lee's work that it shows “a surprising change of pace from his usual hard-hitting action fare because it favors humor as much as it does kung-fu”. Upon release, Roger Ebert initially gave a mixed review in the "Chicago Sun-Times", saying he found the plot simplistic and its conventions unbelievable but commented that "this sort of stuff is magnificently silly, and Lee, to give him credit, never tried to rise above it." Retrospective reviews have since been positive, with the film's comedy elements compared favourably to Charlie Chaplin and Jackie Chan, while the final fight between Bruce Lee and Chuck Norris is considered one of the greatest fight scenes of all time.


title: The Way of the Dragon

text: At the 11th Golden Horse Awards, it was judged a runner-up Best Feature Film and was recognised for Best Film Editing. Later on, it ranked #95 in "Empire" magazine's list "The 100 Best Films of World Cinema" in 2010. According to Gene Freese, the final fight between Lee and Norris is considered "by many to be the greatest movie fight ever" filmed. It has been listed as one of the greatest fight scenes of all time in a number of publications.


title: The Way of the Dragon

text: In 1978, following Lee's death, an exploitation sequel was released titled "Way of the Dragon 2", starring Bruce Le and Bolo Yeung.


title: The Way of the Dragon

text: During the fight scene between Bruce Lee and Chuck Norris, Lee demonstrated and popularized a technique that would later be called the oblique kick. This technique is frequently used by several modern mixed martial arts (MMA) fighters, most notably the UFC pound-for-pound champion Jon Jones, who cited Lee as an inspiration.


title: Mitzi Gaynor

text: Mitzi Gaynor (born Francesca Marlene de Czanyi von Gerber; September 4, 1931) is an American actress, singer, and dancer. Her notable films include "We're Not Married!" (1952), "There's No Business Like Show Business" (1954), "The Birds and the Bees" (1956), and "South Pacific", the 1958 motion picture adaptation of the stage musical by Rodgers and Hammerstein.


title: Mitzi Gaynor

text: Mitzi Gaynor was born as Francesca Marlene de Czanyi von Gerber in Chicago to Henry de Czanyi von Gerber, a violinist, cellist, and music director of Hungarian descent, and his wife, Pauline, a dancer.


title: Mitzi Gaynor

text: By her father's second marriage, she became stepsister to anti-war activist Donald W. Duncan. The family first moved to Elgin, Illinois, and then to Detroit, and later when she was eleven, on to Hollywood. She trained as a ballerina as a child and began her career in the corps de ballet. At 13, she was singing and dancing with the Los Angeles Civic Light Opera company. She lied about her address so she could attend Le Conte Junior High in Hollywood.


title: Mitzi Gaynor

text: She signed a seven-year contract with Twentieth Century-Fox at age 17. She sang, acted, and danced in a number of film musicals, often paired with some of the biggest male musical stars of the day. A Fox Studio executive thought that Mitzi Gerber sounded like the name of a delicatessen, and they came up with a name that used the same initials.


title: Mitzi Gaynor

text: Gaynor made her film debut in a musical, "My Blue Heaven" (1950); Betty Grable and Dan Dailey starred and she had a supporting role. A college drama "Take Care of My Little Girl" (1951) followed with Gaynor playing the roommate of Jeanne Crain.


title: Mitzi Gaynor

text: Fox then gave Gaynor a star part, in the musical biopic "Golden Girl" (1951), playing Lotta Crabtree. It was a mild success at the box office. Gaynor was one of several stars in the anthology comedy "We're Not Married!" (1952), then she was top billed in the musical, "Bloodhounds of Broadway" (1952), which made $2 million (equivalent to $ million in ).


title: Mitzi Gaynor

text: Fox put her in another biopic, "The I Don't Care Girl" (1952) and she played Eva Tanguay. The film made $1.25 million. Gaynor starred in "Down Among the Sheltering Palms" (1953), playing a South Sea island girl. She was the female lead in a Western, "Three Young Texans" (1954). Gaynor's most popular film in her time at Fox was "Irving Berlin's" "There's No Business Like Show Business" (1954). She was billed after Ethel Merman, Dan Dailey, Marilyn Monroe, Donald O'Connor and Johnnie Ray.


title: Mitzi Gaynor

text: Gaynor married Jack Bean, a talent agent and public relations executive for MCA, in San Francisco on November 18, 1954. Their home was on North Arden Drive in Beverly Hills, California. She had just been released from Twentieth Century-Fox (before the start of "There's No Business Like Show Business") with four years left on her contract and decided with the time off to get married. The union was childless. After their marriage, Bean quit MCA and started his publicity firm called Bean & Rose and managed Gaynor's career.


title: Mitzi Gaynor

text: In 1956, Gaynor appeared in the Paramount remake of "Anything Goes", co-starring Bing Crosby, Donald O'Connor, and Zizi Jeanmaire, loosely based on the musical by Cole Porter, P.G. Wodehouse and Guy Bolton. Paramount cast her in another remake, "The Birds and the Bees" (1956), playing the role originated by Barbara Stanwyck in "The Lady Eve" (1941). Her third film for Paramount was "The Joker Is Wild" (1957), a biopic of Joe E. Lewis starring Frank Sinatra, in which Gaynor played the female lead. In 1957, Gaynor appeared in MGM's "Les Girls," directed by George Cukor, with Gene Kelly and Kay Kendall.


title: Mitzi Gaynor

text: Her biggest international fame came from her starring role as Ensign Nellie Forbush in the film version of Rodgers and Hammerstein's "South Pacific". For her performance, she was nominated for a Best Actress Golden Globe Award.


title: Mitzi Gaynor

text: Gaynor followed this with a comedy at MGM, "Happy Anniversary" (1959) opposite David Niven, and the United Kingdom production "Surprise Package" (1960), a musical comedy thriller directed by Stanley Donen. Her co-stars were Yul Brynner and Noël Coward. The film's theme song was composed by Jimmy Van Heusen and Sammy Cahn, music and lyrics, respectively. Dancing and singing in a duet with Noël Coward, Gaynor performed this song in the film. Her latest film role was "For Love or Money" (1963), starring Kirk Douglas.


title: Mitzi Gaynor

text: Following her film work, Gaynor performed in other media. She appeared between two sets by The Beatles when they made their second appearance on "The Ed Sullivan Show" on February 16, 1964. She performed for a nine-minute segment from the stage of the Deauville Hotel, in Miami Beach, separated by one commercial break. She sang "Too Darn Hot" and a blues medley. At the 1967 Academy Awards ceremony, she sang the theme from the film "Georgy Girl". Gaynor later added the number to her concert repertoire. Through the 1960s and 1970s, she starred in nine television specials that garnered 16 Emmy nominations.


title: Mitzi Gaynor

text: During her nightclub years, Gaynor developed and rehearsed her routines at The Cave, a club in Vancouver. She became fond of the city and frequently made guest appearances on local television for interviews. "Mitzi's back in town" became an annual slogan when Gaynor would come to the city for a number of weeks each year to develop her Las Vegas routines.


title: Mitzi Gaynor

text: Gaynor recorded two albums for the Verve Records label, one called "Mitzi" and the second called "Mitzi Gaynor Sings the Lyrics of Ira Gershwin". She is thought to have earned more from the record royalties on the "South Pacific" soundtrack album than her salary for the movie. She also recorded the title song from her film "Happy Anniversary" for the Top Rank label. For several decades, Gaynor appeared regularly in Las Vegas and at nightclub and concert venues throughout the United States and Canada.


title: Mitzi Gaynor

text: On December 4, 2006, Jack Bean, Gaynor's husband of 52 years, died of pneumonia in the couple's Beverly Hills home, aged 84. A producer and personal manager, Bean guided Gaynor's career.


title: Mitzi Gaynor

text: On July 30, 2008, Gaynoralong with Kenny Ortega, Elizabeth Berkley, Shirley MacLaine, and the cast members from "High School Musical", "So You Think You Can Dance", "Dancing with the Stars", and other performersappeared on the Academy of Television Arts and Sciences "TV Moves Live", a celebration of 60 years of dance on television. Gaynor appeared performing the final few bars of "Poor Papa", a song-and-dance number from her 1969 TV special, "Mitzi's 2nd Special". Four months later, on November 18, 2008, City Lights Pictures released "Mitzi Gaynor Razzle Dazzle: The Special Years", a documentary celebrating Gaynor's annual television specials of the 1960s and 1970s. The film, which was broadcast on public television and released on DVD, includes moments from the original specials (digitally remastered in 5.1 stereo) along with newly taped interviews with Gaynor colleagues, friends, and admirers, including Bob Mackie, Carl Reiner, Kristin Chenoweth, Rex Reed, Tony Charmoli, Alton Ruff, Randy Doney, and Kelli O'Hara. Gaynor's one-woman show, "Razzle Dazzle: My Life Behind the Sequins", toured the United States and Vancouver from 2009 thru 2014, including a two-week engagement in New York City.


title: Mitzi Gaynor

text: On October 14, 2006, the "NY Alumni" "adopted" Gaynor as an official "New Yorker" at Beverly Hills High School. New York City mayor Michael Bloomberg issued a proclamation paying tribute to her distinguished career as a singer, dancer, actress and writer.


title: Mitzi Gaynor

text: On April 10, 2007, she was honored by the Museum of Television & Radio in Los Angeles with a special evening celebrating her television specials of the 1960s–1970s. The sold-out event, "Mitzi Gaynor Razzle-Dazzle!: The Special Years", featured a screening followed by a panel discussion with Gaynor, designer Bob Mackie and director-choreographer Tony Charmoli. In conjunction with the event, the museum also featured a month-long gallery exhibit, "Mitzi by Mackie", featuring Bob Mackie's Emmy-winning costumes from her specials along with a selection of costumes from Gaynor's legendary stage shows and concert appearances.


title: Mitzi Gaynor

text: On March 8, 2009, Gaynor was honored with the 2009 Boston Youth Moves lifetime achievement award, presented by Chita Rivera at Swellegance, the Boston Youth Moves annual fundraiser in Boston.


title: Mitzi Gaynor

text: On November 7, 2009, Gaynor was honored with Chapman University's lifetime achievement in the arts award during the 28th annual American celebration gala night at Chapman University in Orange, California. On July 10, 2009, she was honored with the Tremaine 2009 entertainer of the year award from the Joe Tremaine dance competition nationals final gala in Orlando, Florida.


title: Mitzi Gaynor

text: On April 13, 2010, she was honored with the Bob Harrington Lifetime Achievement Award at the 25th annual Bistro Awards in New York City.


title: Mitzi Gaynor

text: On April 18, 2010, Gaynor won the 2010 National Academy of Television Arts & Sciences - New York Chapter Emmy Award for Outstanding Entertainment Program/Special for her public television musical documentary "Mitzi Gaynor: Razzle Dazzle! The Special Years".


title: Mitzi Gaynor

text: On September 10, 2016, Gaynor was honored with the inaugural "Legend Award" from Nigel Lythgoe's Dizzy Feet Foundation.


title: Mitzi Gaynor

text: On September 30, 2017, Gaynor was inducted into the Great American Songbook Hall of Fame, which celebrates lyricists, composers, and performers who helped to create “the soundtrack of our lives” with their contribution to American Popular song, by its founder Michael Feinstein.


title: Mitzi Gaynor

text: On October 14, 1968, Gaynor starred in her first television special, "Mitzi". In specials including "Mitzi – The First Time" and "Mitzi ... Zings into Spring" she showcased the talents she had first used as a theatrical performer, then in films like "There's No Business Like Show Business", "Les Girls", and "South Pacific", and finally as a concert performer.


title: Sophia Amoruso

text: Sophia Christina Amoruso (born April 20, 1984) is an American businesswoman. Amoruso was born in San Diego, California, and moved to Sacramento, California, after High school, soon after relocating to San Francisco. Amoruso founded Nasty Gal, a women's fashion retailer, which went on to be named one of "the fastest growing companies" by "Inc. Magazine" in 2012. In 2016, she was named one of the richest self-made women in the world by "Forbes". However, Nasty Gal filed for bankruptcy. In 2017, Amoruso founded Girlboss Media, a company that creates content for women in the millennial generation to progress as people in their personal and professional life.


title: Sophia Amoruso

text: Her 2014 autobiography "#GIRLBOSS" was adapted into a television series of the same name for Netflix.


title: Sophia Amoruso

text: Amoruso was born in San Diego, California, in 1984. She is of Greek, Italian, and Portuguese descent. She was raised in the Greek Orthodox church. After being diagnosed with depression and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in her adolescence, she dropped out of school and began homeschooling to help cope with these issues. Her first job as a teenager was at a Subway restaurant, followed by various odd jobs, including working in a bookstore and a record shop. After high school, her parents divorced and she moved to Sacramento, California to live a more free lifestyle.


title: Sophia Amoruso

text: As a young adult, Amoruso lived a nomadic lifestyle, hitchhiking on the West Coast, dumpster diving, and stealing. In 2003, while living in Portland, Oregon, she stopped stealing after being caught shoplifting. She left Portland and relocated to San Francisco, shortly after she discovered she had a hernia in her groin. To get the health insurance for surgery, she worked in the Academy of Art University lobby checking student IDs.


title: Sophia Amoruso

text: At age 22 while working as a security guard at San Francisco's Academy of Art University, Amoruso opened an online eBay store, which she called Nasty Gal Vintage, named after the 1975 album by funk singer and style icon Betty Davis. The store consisted of used vintage clothing and other items. The first item she sold was a book she had stolen as a teenager. She styled, photographed, captioned, and shipped the products herself using what she was taught in a photography class.


title: Sophia Amoruso

text: Amoruso began her business working out of her bedroom. In 2006, her eBay store Nasty Gal Vintage grew considerably, turning into a 1 million dollar yearly revenue business after 6 years and continuing to grow. Amoruso claims to have been banned from eBay in 2008 for posting hyperlinks in feedback to customers. Following this, she launched Nasty Gal as its own retail website, continuing to grow the business as a stand-alone online store. She has previously stated that she left voluntarily because of the rules preventing sellers from leaving negative feedback for customers. Amoruso was also accused of artificially inflating bids, which she has denied.


title: Sophia Amoruso

text: Nasty Gal developed an online following of young women on social media. It quickly grew with revenues increasing from $223,000 in 2008 to almost $23 million in 2011. At the peak of Nasty Gal, it was pulling in 100 million in annual sales, with over 200 employees. The "New York Times" has called her "a Cinderella of tech". In 2013, "Inc. Magazine" named her to its 30 under 30 list. Also, in 2013, "Business Insider" named Sophia Amoruso one of the sexiest CEOs alive.


title: Sophia Amoruso

text: In 2014, Amoruso's autobiography "#GIRLBOSS" was published by Portfolio, a Penguin imprint that specializes in books about business. In 2016, it was announced that Netflix would be adapting her autobiography into a television series called "Girlboss". Amoruso confirms most of the show was accurate to her life. It was cancelled after one season, as it got a sour response from viewers, saying it was a call to millennial narcissists.


title: Sophia Amoruso

text: In an interview with Dan Schawbel of "Forbes", Amoruso admitted that she was unprepared for the demands of being a CEO, having had no previous leadership experience, and advised that people seeking to launch a business first gain managerial experience at established companies.


title: Sophia Amoruso

text: On January 12, 2015, Amoruso announced she was stepping down as CEO of Nasty Gal, knowing the company couldn't continue under the current leadership. In November 2016, the company was reported to be filing for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection, with Amoruso resigning as executive chairwoman. The reason for this bankruptcy can be pointed to leadership changes, a "toxic work culture", and poor communication, among other faults. February 2017, Boohoo Group purchased Nasty Gal for $20 million, with Nasty Gal remaining in Los Angeles and continuing to produce apparel, shoes, and accessories under its own brand.


title: Sophia Amoruso

text: In December 2017, Amoruso founded Girlboss Media(#girlboss), a company that creates editorial content, videos, and podcasts aimed at a female audience. Since 2017, Amoruso has held Girlboss Rallies, which are weekend-long instructional events for young entrepreneurs for around $500-$1400.


title: Billy Hayes (writer)

text: William "Billy" Hayes (born April 3, 1947) is an American writer, actor, and film director. He is best known for his autobiographical book "Midnight Express" about his experiences in and escape from a Turkish prison, after being convicted of smuggling hashish. He was one of hundreds of US citizens in foreign jails serving drug charge sentences, following a drug-smuggling crackdown by foreign governments.


title: Billy Hayes (writer)

text: Hayes, an American student, was caught trying to smuggle four pounds (1.81 kg) of hashish out of Turkey on October 7, 1970. He was originally sentenced to four years and two months in a Turkish prison. With his release date weeks away, he learned that the authorities had chosen to penalize him with a life sentence for smuggling, instead of possession.


title: Billy Hayes (writer)

text: Hayes was imprisoned at Sağmalcılar prison in Istanbul after having spent one night in Sultanahmet Jail. Following an incident in prison, he was transferred in 1972 to Bakırköy Psychiatric Hospital, described as a 'lunatic asylum'. On several occasions, the United States Department of State pressured Turkey to transfer sentencing to the United States; however, Turkish foreign minister Melih Esenbel stated that the US was not in a position to dispute a sentence issued by a Turkish court. He stated privately to officials that a release might be possible on humanitarian grounds, if Hayes' physical or mental health was deteriorating, but in a private consultation, Hayes stated to US diplomats that his experience at Bakırköy was highly traumatic, and he did not have confidence that the hospital would certify him for early release; Hayes also stated that he felt attempts to win early release would jeopardize his prospects of being transferred to a more desirable half-open prison. On May 12, 1975, the Turkish Constitutional Court declared amnesty for all drug offenses, which shortened Hayes' sentence from life to 30 years; he was transferred to İmralı prison on July 11, 1975.


title: Billy Hayes (writer)

text: Declassified telegrams from the State Department indicated that in discussions between the US embassy and Vahap Aşıroğlu, Turkish Director of Consular Affairs, the latter believed Hayes would probably be released from prison on parole in October 1978, which in practice meant that a local prosecutor would declare him persona non grata and expel him from the country. Hayes escaped from İmralı on October 2, 1975, taking a rowboat at night to Bandirma, blending in with locals, and then heading westbound across the border to Greece. After over two weeks of detention and interrogation to determine whether he possessed any useful intelligence about Turkey's military, he was deported from Thessaloniki to Frankfurt on October 20; after interrogation by US authorities in Frankfurt, Hayes spent several days in Amsterdam, and then returned to the United States.


title: Billy Hayes (writer)

text: Hayes wrote a book on his experiences, "Midnight Express", which was later adapted into the 1978 film of the same name starring Brad Davis as Hayes. The film was directed by Alan Parker, with a screenplay by Oliver Stone. The movie differs from Hayes' account in his book. Among the differences is a scene invented by Stone in which Hayes kills the prison guard Hamidou 'the Bear' (portrayed by Paul L. Smith), the main antagonist of the story. In fact, the prison guard was killed in 1973 by another person entirely, a recently released prisoner, whose family Hamidou had insulted while beating the prisoner; this took place years before Hayes' actual escape.


title: Billy Hayes (writer)

text: In 2010, in an episode of National Geographic Channel's "Locked Up Abroad", titled "The Real Midnight Express", Hayes finally told his fully accurate version of being sent to the infamous Turkish prison in Sağmalcilar, eventually escaping from İmralı prison on an island in the Marmara Sea. Hayes has since written the sequels "Midnight Return (Escaping Midnight Express)" and "The Midnight Express Letters - from a Turkish Prison, 1970-1975", the latter a collection of the original letters written home to family and friends during his imprisonment.


title: Billy Hayes (writer)

text: Hayes is still active in the entertainment industry, specifically acting and writing. He appeared in the Charles Bronson 1987 film "Assassination", as a hired killer.


title: Billy Hayes (writer)

text: One of Hayes' successes was writing and directing 2003's "Southside" (later released in the US as "A Cock and Bull Story") which won numerous awards, including the 2002 L.A. Drama Critics' Circle award.


title: Billy Hayes (writer)

text: On June 30, 2010, the National Geographic television channel aired "Locked Up Abroad: The Real Midnight Express".


title: Billy Hayes (writer)

text: Hayes has been traveling the world with his one-man show, "Riding the Midnight Express with Billy Hayes", since it premiered at the Edinburgh Fringe Festival in August 2013.


title: Billy Hayes (writer)

text: During the 1999 Cannes Film Festival, Alinur Velidedeoğlu, a Turkish advertiser, met Hayes by chance and interviewed him on the film "Midnight Express". Hayes expressed his disappointment with parts of the film adaptation, especially its portrayal of all Turks as bad, and his regret that Turkey's image was negatively affected by the film. Hayes also displayed affection for Turkey and the city of Istanbul. Although the Interpol warrant for him had by then been lifted, Hayes explained that while he wanted to return, he hesitated to do so, out of concern that many Turks might blame him for the negative publicity the movie had generated. The video was made available on YouTube.


title: Billy Hayes (writer)

text: The Turkish order banning him from the country was finally suspended and Hayes was allowed to return to Turkey on June 14, 2007, to attend the 2nd Istanbul Conference on Democracy and Global Security, organized by the Turkish National Police (TNP) and the Turkish Institute for Police Studies (TIPS). Hayes said it was important to him to return, in order to "apologize and 'make amends' – not for the book he wrote, but for the movie, scripted by Oliver Stone, on which it was based. 'The film wasn't what Turkish people deserved,' Hayes told reporters at a jammed June 15 press conference, explaining that it painted an unfairly bleak portrait of the country."