title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: Founders Eugene Kinckle Jones and Nathaniel Allison Murray chartered the second, third, and fourth chapters, at Howard University, Virginia Union University, and University of Toronto respectively, in December 1907 and January 1908. The charter at Howard made it the site of the organization of the first black Greek letter organization for men among historically black colleges. The first black Greek letter organization among historically black colleges was Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority Incorporated, as it was established early in November 1907. The charter at the University of Toronto also made Alpha Phi Alpha the first international intercollegiate black Greek letter organization. The establishment of chapters at what were not considered to be grade A universities was the source of debate among the founders. The non grade A universities included Negro universities, particularly other than Howard University.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: The purpose and objective of the fraternity within the articles of incorporation were declared "educational and for the mutual uplift of its members." The fraternity has established the Alpha Phi Alpha Archives at Howard University's Moorland-Spingarn Research Center to preserve the history of the organization.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: The fraternity chartered its first international chapter at the University of Toronto in 1908. Chapters have been chartered in London, Frankfurt, Monrovia, the Caribbean, South Africa, and South Korea.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: The first general convention assembled in December 1908 at Howard University in Washington, D.C., producing the first ritual and the election of the first General President of Alpha Phi Alpha, Moses A. Morrison. Each newly elected General President is automatically considered one of the "100 most influential Black Americans."


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: The fraternity established its first alumni chapter Alpha Lambda in 1911 in Louisville, Kentucky. It was again incorporated as a national organization on April 3, 1912, under the laws of Congress within the District of Columbia, under the name and title of The Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: For more than 100 years, Alpha Phi Alpha and its members have had a voice and influence on politics and current affairs. "The Crisis", the magazine of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), was started by fraternity member W. E. B. Du Bois in 1910. In 1914, "The Sphinx", named after the Egyptian landmark, began publication as the fraternity's journal. "The Crisis" and "The Sphinx" are respectively the first and second oldest continuously published black journals in the United States. The National Urban League's (NUL) "Opportunity: Journal of Negro Life" was first published in 1923 under the leadership of Alpha founder Eugene K. Jones and Charles Johnson as its executive editor.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 1912, Charles H. Garvin was elected as the fourth annual president of Alpha Phi Alpha at the fourth annual convention in Ann Arbor, Michigan, and was the first individual to serve two terms as president. He served two terms as president, between 1912 and 1914. While in office he helped secure a chapter house, appointed a special committee to consult with the president of Howard, and asked members to 'use every means possible to raise the moral and scholastic tone of the Fraternity". Garvin saw that it was vital that the Fraternity establish a mindful image and perception for future generations. One of the most notable contributions made by Garvin was the national incorporation of the fraternity under the laws of Congress.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: The Training Camp at Fort Des Moines during World War I was the result of the fraternity's advocacy in lobbying the government to create an Officers' training camp for black troops. Thirty-two Alpha men were granted commissions (four were made captains and many were first lieutenants). First Lieutenant Victor Daly was decorated with the for his service in France. Today, the fort is a museum and education center which honors the U.S. Army's first officer candidate class for African-American men in 1917.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: While continuing to stress academic excellence among its members, Alpha's leaders recognized the need to correct the educational, economic, political, and social injustices faced by African Americans and the world community. Alpha Phi Alpha has a long history of providing scholarships for needy students and initiating various other charitable and service projects. It evolved from a social fraternity to a primarily community service organization.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: The fraternity's national programs date back to 1919, with its "Go-To-High School, Go-to-College" campaign to promote academic achievement within the African-American community as its first initiative.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: The 1920s witnessed the birth of the Harlem Renaissance–a flowering of African-American art, literature, music, and culture which began to be absorbed into mainstream American culture. Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity brothers Charles Johnson, W. E. B. Du Bois, Noble Sissle, Countee Cullen and other members were entrepreneurs and participants in this creative upsurge led primarily by the African-American community based in Harlem, New York City. By the end of the 1920s, the fraternity had chartered 85 chapters throughout the United States and initiated over 3,000 members.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: During the Great Depression, Alpha Phi Alpha and its members continued to implement programs to support the black community. The Committee on Public Policy, the Alpha Phi Alpha Education Foundation, and "The Foundation Publishers" were established at the 1933 general convention. The Committee on Public Policy took positions on numerous issues important to the black community. It investigated the performance of Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal agencies to assess the status of the black population, both as to treatment of agencies' employees and in the quality of services rendered to American blacks. Alpha men Rayford Logan and Eugene K. Jones were members of Roosevelt's unofficial Black Cabinet, an informal group of African-American public policy advisors to the President.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: The Education Foundation was created in recognition of the educational, economic, and social needs of African Americans in the United States. The foundation, led by Rayford Logan, was structured to provide scholarships and grants to African-American students. The Foundation Publishers would provide financial support and fellowship for writers addressing African-American issues. Historian and fraternity brother John Hope Franklin was an early beneficiary of the publishing company and was the 2006 Kluge Prize recipient for lifetime achievement in the study of humanity.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 1933 fraternity brother Belford Lawson Jr. founded the New Negro Alliance (NNA) in Washington D.C. to combat white-run business in black neighborhoods that would not hire black employees. The NNA instituted a then-radical "Don't Buy Where You Can't Work" campaign, and organized or threatened boycotts against white-owned business. In response, some businesses arranged for an injunction to stop the picketing. NNA lawyers, including Lawson and Thurgood Marshall, fought back – all the way to the Supreme Court of the United States in "New Negro Alliance v. Sanitary Grocery Co." This ruling in favor of the NAACP became a landmark case in the struggle by African Americans against discriminatory hiring practices. "Don't Buy Where You Can't Work" groups multiplied throughout the nation. The fraternity sponsors an annual Belford V. Lawson Oratorical Contest in which collegiate members demonstrate their oratorical skills first at the chapter level, with the winner competing at the District, Regional and General Convention.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: The fraternity began to participate in voting rights issues, coining the well-known phrase "A Voteless People is a Hopeless People" as part of its effort to register black voters. This term was coined by the Alpha Omicron Chapter located at Johnson C. Smith University in 1936. The Institute for Philosophy and Public Policy said "Alpha Phi Alpha...developed citizenship schools in the urban South and with its slogan "A Voteless People is a Hopeless People" registered hundreds of blacks during the 1930s, decades before the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) launched their citizenship schools in the 1960s." The slogan is still used in Alpha Phi Alpha's continuing voter registration campaign. Alpha Phi Alpha member and former Washington, D.C., mayor Marion Barry was the first chairman of the SNCC.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: Seven Alpha men represented the United States at the politically charged 1936 Summer Olympics: Jesse Owens, Ralph Metcalfe, Fritz Pollard Jr., Cornelius Johnson, Archie Williams, Dave Albritton, and John Woodruff. In 1938, Alpha Phi Alpha continued to expand and became an international organization when a chapter was chartered in London, England.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: Alpha Phi Alpha supported legal battles against segregation. Some of its members who were trial lawyers argued many of the nation's major court cases involving civil rights and civil liberties. The case styled "Murray v. Pearson" (1935) was initiated by the fraternity and successfully argued by Alpha men Thurgood Marshall and Charles Houston to challenge biases at the university which had no laws requiring segregation in its colleges. The fraternity assisted in a similar case that involved fraternity brother Lloyd Gaines. In "Gaines v. Canada", the most important segregation case since "Plessy v. Ferguson", Gaines was denied admission to the Law School at the University of Missouri because he was black. Alpha men Houston and Sidney Redmon successfully argued "States that provide only one educational institution must allow blacks and whites to attend if there is no separate school for blacks."


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 1940, true to its form as the "first of first", Alpha Phi Alpha sought to end racial discrimination within its membership. The use of the word "Negro" in the membership clause of the constitution which referred to "any Negro male student" would be changed to read "any male student." The unanimous decision to change the constitution happened in 1945 and was the first official action by a BGLO to allow the admission of all colors and races. Bernard Levin became the first non-black member in 1946, and Roger Youmans became the first non-black member to address the fraternity at the 1954 general convention.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: After the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 and the nation's entry into World War II, the fraternity fought to secure rights for its membership within the ranks of officers in the armed forces. The types of warfare encountered evidenced the nexus between education and war, with illiteracy decreasing a soldier's usefulness to the Army that could only be addressed with the inclusion of a large number of college educated men among the ranks of officers. Alpha men served in almost every branch of the military and civilian defense programs during World War II. The leadership of the fraternity encouraged Alpha men to buy war bonds, and the membership responded with their purchases. The fraternity's long tradition of military service has remained strong. Alpha's military leaders Samuel Gravely and Benjamin Hacker were followed by other fraternity members who lead and serve in the armed forces.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 1946, fraternity brother Paul Robeson, in a letter to the editor published in "The New York Times", referring to apartheid and South Africa's impending request to annex South-West Africa, a League of Nations mandate, appealed:


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 1947, Alpha Phi Alpha awarded Robeson the Alpha Medallion for his "outstanding role as a champion of freedom."


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: The general convention in 1952 was the venue for a significant historical action taken regarding the Seventh Jewel Founder. The decision "of placing Brother [Eugene] Jones in his true historical setting resulting from the leading role which he had played in the origin and development of the early years of the fraternity history" was made by a special committee consisting of Jewels Callis, Kelley and Murray and fraternity historian Charles H. Wesley. James Morton was removed as a founder, yet continues to be listed as one of the first initiates. This convention created the Alpha Award of Merit and the Alpha Award of Honor, for appreciation of the tireless efforts on behalf of African Americans, and were awarded to Thurgood Marshall and Eugene K. Jones.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 1956, the fraternity made a "pilgrimage" to Cornell in celebration of its Golden Jubilee which drew about 1,000 members who traveled by chartered train from Buffalo, New York, to Ithaca. Fraternity brother Martin Luther King Jr. delivered the keynote speech at the 50th anniversary banquet, in which he spoke on the "Injustices of Segregation". There were three living Jewels present for the occasion, Kelley, Callis and Murray.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: Alpha men were pioneers and at the forefront of the Civil Rights Movement during the 1950s. In Montgomery, Martin Luther King Jr. led the people in the Montgomery bus boycott as a minister, and later as head of the SCLC. Birmingham saw Arthur Shores organize for civil rights in "Lucy v. Adams". Thurgood Marshall managed the landmark US Supreme Court case "Brown v. Board of Education", in which the Court decided against segregation in public schools. Marshall employed mentor and fraternity brother Charles Houston's plan to use the "de facto" inequality of "separate but equal" education in the United States to attack and defeat the Jim Crow laws. The actions by Alpha activists provoked death threats to them and their families, and exposed their homes as targets for firebombing.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 1961, Whitney Young became the executive director of the National Urban League. In 1963 the NUL hosted the planning meetings of civil rights leaders for the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. The Alpha Phi Alpha delegation was one of the largest to participate in the March on Washington.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 1968, after the assassination of fraternity brother Martin Luther King Jr., Alpha Phi Alpha proposed erecting a permanent memorial to King in Washington, D.C. The efforts of the fraternity gained momentum in 1986 after King's birthday was designated a national holiday. They created the Washington D. C. Martin Luther King Jr. National Memorial Project Foundation, Inc. to collect funds of $100 million for construction.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: Beginning in the 1970s, new goals were being introduced to address the current environment. The older social programs and policies were still supported, however; under the direction of General President Ernest Morial the fraternity turned its attention to new social needs. This included the campaign to eliminate the ghetto-goal on numerous fronts with housing development and entrepreneurship initiatives.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: The Federal Housing Act (of 1963) requested non-profit organizations to get involved with providing housing for low-income families, individuals and senior citizens. Alpha Phi Alpha was poised to take advantage of this program with government in improving urban housing living conditions. The Eta Tau Lambda chapter created Alpha Phi Alpha Homes Inc. with James R. Williams as the chairman to address these needs in Akron, Ohio. In 1971, Alpha Homes received an $11.5 million grant from HUD to begin groundbreaking on Channelwood Village with the Henry Arthur Callis Tower as its centerpiece. Channelwood contains additional structures named after General Presidents James R. Williams and Charles Wesley, and streets named for fraternity founders Tandy and Ogle. The Alpha Towers in Chicago and three other urban housing developments in St. Louis, Missouri — the Alpha Gardens, Alpha Towne and Alpha Village saw completion through Alpha Phi Alpha leadership.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 1976, the fraternity celebrated its 70th anniversary with dual convention locations: New York City and Monrovia. The fraternity launched the Million Dollar Fund Drive with three prime beneficiaries —


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: The executive director of the NAACP stated, "Alpha Phi Alpha provided the largest single gift ever received by the civil rights group."


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 1981, the fraternity celebrated its Diamond Jubilee in Dallas, Texas, featuring a presentation of the New Thrust Program consisting of the Million Dollar Fund Drive, the Leadership Development and Citizenship Institutes, and the quest to obtain a national holiday for fraternity brother Martin Luther King Jr.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: As the 21st century approached, Alpha Phi Alpha's long-term commitment to the social and economic improvement of humanity remained at the top of its agenda. The fraternity's 28th General President, Henry Ponder, said, "We would like the public to perceive Alpha Phi Alpha as a group of college-trained, professional men who are very much concerned and sensitive to the needs of humankind; We will go to great lengths to lend our voices, our time, our expertise and our money to solve the problems that humankind must solve as we move into the 21st century."


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 1996, the World Policy Council (WPC) was created as a think tank to expand the fraternity's involvement in politics, and social and current policy to encompass important global and world issues. The United States Congress authorized the Secretary of the Interior to permit Alpha Phi Alpha to establish a memorial to Dr. Martin Luther King on Department of Interior lands in the District of Columbia.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 2006, more than 10,000 Alpha Phi Alpha members gathered in Washington, D.C., to participate in the fraternity's centennial convention to lay the groundwork for another 100 years of service. The fraternity developed a national strategic plan which outlines the processes that Alpha Phi Alpha will utilize in its continuing efforts to develop tomorrow's leaders, and promote brotherhood and academic excellence. The Centenary Report of the World Policy Council was published in connection with the centenary of Alpha Phi Alpha.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 2007, General President Darryl Matthews addressed demonstrators at a protest rally touted as the new civil rights struggle of the 21st century. The rally for six black teenagers, the "Jena 6", was a poignant reminder of incidents which punctuated the civil rights struggles begun in the 1950s.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: On the eve of the Inauguration of Barack Obama, the fraternity under the new leadership of 33rd General President Herman "Skip" Mason hosted a Martin Luther King Holiday program at the National Press Club "to honor yesterday's 'firsts'—those in history who paved the way for the nation to be able to celebrate the first African-American president." Alpha Congressman Chaka Fattah said "The life and legacy of Dr. King [was] a predicate for the election of Barack Obama," "The two are inextricably linked." Alpha Phi Alpha responded to President Obama's clarion call to Americans to remake America by implementing a public policy program to focus on saving America's black boys. General President Mason on behalf of the fraternity appealed to President Obama to create a "White House Council on Men and Boys" and partner with Alpha Phi Alpha to specifically address the needs of this group on a national level.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: Alpha Phi Alpha responded to the 2010 Haiti earthquake by sending a humanitarian delegation of Alpha men led by President Mason to Haiti on a fact-finding mission to assess the situation and develop a long-term support plan for the Haitian people. The organization views its future plan to 'adopt' a school in Haiti as "a great opportunity for the first black intercollegiate fraternity to stand in solidarity with the first independent black Republic."


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: The fraternity protested the passage of Arizona Senate Bill 1070 which it believes may lead to racial profiling by relocating its 2010 national convention from Phoenix, Arizona, to Las Vegas, Nevada. The bill makes it a misdemeanor state crime for an alien to be in Arizona without carrying legal documents, steps up state and local law enforcement of federal immigration laws, and cracks down on those sheltering, hiring and transporting illegal immigrants. The bill has been called the broadest and strictest anti-illegal immigration measure in decades.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: With global expansion as a platform, the fraternity chartered new chapters in the eastern hemisphere at the 2010 National Convention in Las Vegas, NV. The two new chapters are in London, England and Johannesburg, South Africa, further expanding the fraternity's global footprint.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 2012, Herman "Skip" Mason was suspended from the fraternity amid allegations of financial improprieties and was summarily removed as General President. Mason filed a lawsuit that contended the board of directors violated the fraternity's constitution and by-laws when it suspended him. The lawsuit requested a temporary restraining order that would have, in effect, reinstated him as general president. This was denied.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: Alpha Phi Alpha asserts that through its community outreach initiatives, the fraternity supplies voice and vision to the struggle of African Americans, the African diaspora, and the countless special problems that affect Black men.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: The fraternity provides for charitable endeavors through its Education and Building Foundations, providing academic scholarships and shelter to underprivileged families these projects are managed by fraternity brothers; Broderick McKinney, Kenneth Burnside and Gregory Anderson. The fraternity combines its efforts in conjunction with other philanthropic organizations such as Head Start, Boy Scouts of America, Big Brothers Big Sisters of America, Project Alpha with the March of Dimes, NAACP, Habitat for Humanity, and Fortune 500 companies.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: Alpha's "Designated Charity" benefits from the approximately $10,000, one-time contribution fund-raising efforts at the fraternity's annual general convention. The fraternity also has made commitments to train leaders with national mentoring programs.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: The Washington, D.C. Martin Luther King Jr. National Memorial Project Foundation is a project of Alpha Phi Alpha to construct the Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial on the National Mall in Washington D.C.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: Established in 1922, the Go-To-High School, Go-To-College program is intended to afford Alpha men with the opportunity to provide young participants with role models. The program concentrates on the importance of completing secondary and collegiate education as a path to advancement and to provide information and strategies to facilitate success.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: "A Voteless People is a Hopeless People" was initiated as a National Program of Alpha during the 1930s by the Alpha Omicron chapter (Johnson C. Smith University), when many African Americans had the right to vote but were prevented from voting because of poll taxes, threats of reprisal, and lack of education about the voting process. Voter education and registration have since remained a dominant focus in the fraternity's planning. In the 1990s the focus has shifted to promotion of political awareness and empowerment, delivered most often through use of town meetings and candidate forums. Members are required to be registered voters, and to participate in the national voter registration program.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: The fraternity's Nu Mu Lambda chapter of Decatur, Georgia, held a voter registration drive in DeKalb County, Georgia, in 2004, from which Georgia Secretary of State Cathy Cox rejected all 63 voter registration applications on the basis that the fraternity did not follow correct procedures, including obtaining specific pre-clearance from the state to conduct their drive.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: Nu Mu Lambda filed "Charles H. Wesley Education Foundation v. Cathy Cox" on the basis that the Georgia Secretary of State's long-standing policy and practice of rejecting mail-in voter registration applications that were submitted in bundles and/or by persons other than registrars, deputy registrars, or the individual applicants, violated the requirements of the National Voter Registration Act of 1993 (NVRA) by undermining voter registration drives. A Senior U.S. District Judge upheld earlier federal court decisions in the case, which also found private entities have a right under the NVRA, to engage in organized voter registration activity in Georgia at times and locations of their choosing, without the presence or permission of state or local election officials.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: Alpha Phi Alpha, Iota Delta Lambda Chapter (Chicago) and the March of Dimes began a collaborative program called Project Alpha in 1980. The project consists of a series of workshops and informational sessions conducted by Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity brothers to provide young men with current and accurate information about teen pregnancy prevention. Alpha Phi Alpha also participates in the March of Dimes' WalkAmerica and raised over $181,000 in 2006.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: The memorial is a result of an early effort of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity to erect a monument to King. King is a member of the fraternity, initiated into the organization via Sigma Chapter on June 22, 1952, while he was attending Boston University. King remained involved with the fraternity after the completion of his studies, including delivering the keynote speech at the fraternity's 50th anniversary banquet in 1956. In 1968, after King's assassination, Alpha Phi Alpha proposed erecting a permanent memorial to King in Washington, D.C. The fraternity's efforts gained momentum in 1986, after King's birthday was designated a national holiday.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 1996, the United States Congress authorized the Secretary of the Interior to permit Alpha Phi Alpha to establish a memorial on Department of Interior lands in the District of Columbia, giving the fraternity until November 2003 to raise $100 million and break ground. In 1998, Congress authorized the fraternity to establish a foundation—the Washington, D.C. Martin Luther King Jr. National Memorial Project Foundation—to manage the memorial's fundraising and design, and approved the building of the memorial on the National Mall. In 1999, the United States Commission of Fine Arts (CFA) and the National Capital Planning Commission (NCPC) approved the site location for the memorial.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: The memorial's design, by ROMA Design Group, a San Francisco-based architecture firm, was selected out of 900 candidates from 52 countries. On December 4, 2000, a marble and bronze plaque was laid by Alpha Phi Alpha to dedicate the site where the memorial was to be built. Soon thereafter, a full-time fundraising team began the fundraising and promotional campaign for the memorial. A ceremonial groundbreaking for the memorial was held on November 13, 2006, in West Potomac Park.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In August 2008, the foundation's leaders estimated the memorial would take 20 months to complete with a total cost of US$120 million. , the foundation had raised approximately $108 million, including substantial contributions from such donors as the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, The Walt Disney Company Foundation, the National Association of Realtors, and filmmaker George Lucas. The figure also includes $10 million in matching funds provided by the United States Congress. The memorial opened to the public on August 22, 2011, after more than two decades of planning, fund-raising, and construction.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: General President Milton C. Davis established the World Policy Council in 1996 as a nonprofit and nonpartisan think tank with a mission as stated in its centenary report "to address issues of concern to our brotherhood, our communities, our Nation, and the world."


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: The council is headed by Ambassador Horace Dawson and communicates its position through white papers which are disseminated to policymakers, politicians, scholars, journalists, and chapters of the fraternity. Since its founding the council has issued five reports on topics such as the AIDS crisis, Middle East conflict, and Nigerian politics. The fifth report was published in 2006 and examines the Millennium Challenge, Hurricane Katrina and extraordinary rendition.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: The Alpha Phi Alpha Education Foundation, Inc. is the non-profit charitable arm of the fraternity, which focuses on scholarship, programs, and training and development of the membership. The Education Foundation encompasses the implementation of Go-to-High School, Go-to-College, Project Alpha, voter education / registration efforts, The Belford V. Lawson Oratorical Contest, The John Hope Franklin Collegiate Scholars Bowl, The Hobart Jarrett Debate Competition, Leadership Development Institutes, and the professional and personal development thrusts of the fraternity via Alpha University.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: The fraternity maintains dual membership in the National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC) and the North American Interfraternity Conference (NIC). The NPHC is composed of nine international historically Black Greek-letter sororities and fraternities, and Alpha Phi Alpha is the only member founded at an Ivy League school. The council promotes interaction through forums, meetings, and other mediums for the exchange of information, and engages in cooperative programming and initiatives through various activities and functions.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: The NIC serves to advocate the needs of its member fraternities through enrichment of the fraternity experience; advancement and growth of the fraternity community; and enhancement of the educational mission of the host institutions.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: Alpha Phi Alpha's membership is predominantly African-American in composition with brothers in over 680 college and graduate chapters in the United States, District of Columbia, the Caribbean, Bermuda, Europe, Asia and Africa. Since its founding in 1906, more than 290,000 men have joined the membership of Alpha Phi Alpha and a large percentage of leadership within the African-American community in the 20th century originated from the ranks of the fraternity.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: John A. Williams wrote in his book "The King that God Did Not Save", which was a commentary on the life of Alpha Phi Alpha member Martin Luther King Jr., "a man clawing out his status does not stop at education. There are attendant titles he must earn. A fraternity is one of them." The mystique of belonging to a Greek letter group still attracts college students in large numbers despite lawsuits that have threatened the very existence of some fraternities and sororities.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: The period in which a candidate for membership in the fraternity engages in before applying and being initiated as a member. This period is the time the candidate learns the organization's history, objectives, aims, and the tenacity of brotherhood.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: , the fraternity only inducts members through the Initial Membership Development Process (IMDP), and all membership development activities for the fraternity are overseen by the National Membership Services Director and conducted by regionally appointed Chief Deans. Pledging has been officially abolished as a means of obtaining membership in Alpha Phi Alpha and pledge "lines" have been officially abolished by the fraternity. Aspirants must not submit themselves, or agree to submit themselves, to any membership activities that are prohibited by the fraternity. Individuals involved in hazing face severe disciplinary action by the fraternity and are referred to the local legal authorities.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: There are periods in the history of the fraternity where hazing was involved in certain pledge lines. The fraternity has never condoned hazing, but has been aware of problems with "rushing" and "initiations" dated as far back as the 1934 General Convention when the fraternity founders communicated their concern with physical violence during initiation ceremonies. At the 1940 General Convention, a pledge manual was discussed that would contain a brief general history, the list of chapters and locations, the achievements of Alpha men, outstanding Alpha men, and pledge procedures.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 2001 and 2007, the chapters at Ohio State University and Oklahoma State University–Stillwater were suspended for two and five years respectively for hazing and incidents involving prospective members injured seriously enough to require medical care. In 2010, the fraternity suspended new membership intake indefinitely in response to hazing activities in 2009 that again caused pledges to be hospitalized. In 2012, the University of Florida chapter of Alpha Phi Alpha was also accused of hazing. The allegations claimed that members of the Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity repeatedly struck and paddled pledges hard enough to cause bruises, and one pledge was paddled so hard that he was unable to sleep on his back for several nights.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In the selection of candidates for membership, certain chapters had not escaped challenges of racial stereotyping and allegations of colorism. In a biography of Justice Thurgood Marshall, the authors recounted how certain chapters of the fraternity used a "brown paper bag test" and would not consider students whose skin color was darker than the bag. General President Belford Lawson Jr. lamented this attitude and condemned initiation practices of snobbery and exclusivity, and said "Jesus Christ could not make Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity today; they would blackball Him because He was not "hot enough"."


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: The fraternity once provided classifications for honorary and exalted honorary membership. Honorary members include Vice President Hubert Humphrey (who is Caucasian), jazz musician Duke Ellington, and activist W. E. B. Du Bois. Frederick Douglass is distinguished as the only member initiated posthumously when he became an "exalted honorary" member of the fraternity's Omega chapter in 1921. The Fraternity no longer has honorary membership, a practice that stopped in the 1960s.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: The fraternity's membership roster includes activist Dick Gregory, Princeton Professor Cornel West, Congressman Charles B. Rangel, Department of Housing and Urban Development Secretary Samuel Pierce, celebrity physician Corey Hébert, entrepreneur John Johnson, athlete Mike Powell, musician Donny Hathaway, United Nations Ambassador Andrew Young, the first Premier of Bermuda Sir Edward T. Richards, and Atlanta Mayor Maynard Jackson.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: Roland Burris became the only black member of the 2009 U.S. Senate when he assumed the seat vacated by President Barack Obama.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: Alpha men were instrumental in the founding and leadership of the NAACP (Du Bois), People's National Party (PNP) Norman Manley, Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH) (Jesse E. Moorland), UNCF (Frederick D. Patterson), and the SCLC (King, Walker and Jemison). The National Urban League has had eight leaders in its more than 100 years of existence; six of its leaders are Alpha men: George Haynes, Eugene K. Jones, Lester Granger, Whitney Young, Hugh Price and Marc Morial.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: From the ranks of the fraternity have come a number of pioneers in various fields. Honorary member Kelly Miller was the first African American to be admitted to Johns Hopkins University. Todd Duncan was the first actor to play "Porgy" in "Porgy and Bess". During the Washington run of "Porgy and Bess" in 1936, the cast — as led by Todd Duncan — protested the audience's segregation. Duncan stated that he "would never play in a theater which barred him from purchasing tickets to certain seats because of his race." Eventually management would give into the demands and allow for the first integrated performance at the National Theatre.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: Charles Hamilton Houston, a Harvard Law School graduate and a law professor at Howard University, first began a campaign in the 1930s to challenge racial discrimination in the federal courts. Houston's campaign to fight Jim Crow Laws began with "Plessy v. Ferguson" and culminated in a unanimous Supreme Court decision in "Brown v. Board of Education".


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: Norris B. Herndon, Charles Hamilton Houston's fellow 1921 initiate at Alpha Phi Alpha's Sigma Chapter, became the second President of the historic Atlanta Life Insurance Company. Herndon's father, honorary Alpha Alonzo Herndon, founded Atlanta Life in 1905, becoming Atlanta, Georgia's first African-American millionaire. Atlanta Life is notable for both its financial support of the Civil Rights Movement and owning the first insurance policy for Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: Ron Dellums's campaign to end the racist, apartheid policies of South Africa succeeded when the House of Representatives passed Dellums's anti-apartheid Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act calling for a trade embargo against South Africa and immediate divestment by American corporations.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: Martin Luther King Jr. was a Nobel Peace Prize laureate, awarded "to the person who shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity between the nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses." The Presidential Medal of Freedom, designed to recognize individuals who have made "an especially meritorious contribution to the security or national interests of the United States, world peace, cultural or other significant public or private endeavors", has been awarded to many members including Edward Brooke and William Coleman. The Congressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian award of the United States Congress, was awarded to Jesse Owens and Vice President Hubert Humphrey. The Spingarn Medal, awarded annually by the NAACP for outstanding achievement by a Black American, has been awarded to brothers John Hope Franklin, Rayford Logan and numerous fraternity members.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: Premier Norman Manley was a Rhodes Scholar (1914), awarded annually by the Oxford-based Rhodes Trust on the basis of academic achievement and character. Randal Pinkett, Andrew Zawacki, and Westley Moore are other Rhodes Scholar recipients.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: A number of buildings and monuments have been named after Alpha men such as the Eddie Robinson Stadium, Ernest N. Morial Convention Center, Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport, Baltimore-Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport, Whitney Young Memorial Bridge, and the W. E. B. Du Bois library at the University of Massachusetts Amherst. The United States Postal Service has honored fraternity members W. E. B. Du Bois, Duke Ellington, Martin Luther King Jr., Thurgood Marshall, Paul Robeson and Whitney Young with a commemorative stamp in their Black Heritage Stamp series.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: Alpha Phi Alpha divides its chapters into regions across the United States and internationally. There are five major regions currently: Eastern, Midwestern, Southern, Southwestern and Western. Every U.S. state in a region is further designated as a "district" of that region. Each region comprises both collegiate and alumni chapters with the latter designated by the Greek letter "Lambda". Since its inception, Alpha Phi Alpha has chartered 414 college chapters and 369 alumni chapters.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: Alpha Phi Alpha utilizes motifs from Ancient Egypt and uses images and songs depicting the Her-em-akhet (Great Sphinx of Giza), pharaohs, and other Egyptian artifacts to represent the organization. The Great Sphinx of Giza was made out of one unified body of stone which represents the fraternity and its members. This is in contrast to other fraternities that traditionally echo themes from the golden age of Ancient Greece. Alpha's constant reference to Ethiopia in hymns and poems are further examples of Alpha's mission to imbue itself with an African cultural heritage. Fraternity brother Charles H. Wesley wrote, "To the Alpha Phi Alpha brotherhood, African history and civilization, the Sphinx, and Ethiopian tradition bring new meanings and these are interpreted with new significance to others." The Great Pyramids of Giza, symbols of foundation, sacred geometry and more, are other African images chosen by Alpha Phi Alpha as fraternity icons.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: The fraternity's 21st General President, Thomas W. Cole once said, "Alpha Phi Alpha must go back to her ultimate roots; only then can she be nurtured to full bloom." Fraternity members make pilgrimages to its spiritual birthplaces of Egypt to walk across the sands of the Giza Plateau to the Great Sphinx of Giza and the Great Pyramids of Giza, and to Ethiopia.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: Alpha Phi Alpha declared 2006 the beginning of its "Centennial Era" as it readied for its Centenary, framed by the slogan "First of All, Servants of All, We Shall Transcend All". These preparations consisted of nationwide activities and events, including the commissioning of intellectual and scholarly works, presentation of exhibits, lectures, artwork and musical expositions, the production of film and video presentations and a Centennial Convention July 25–30, 2006, in Washington, D.C.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: The 2006 Centennial Celebration Kickoff launched with a "pilgrimage" to Cornell University on November 19, 2005. That event brought over 700 fraternity members who gathered for a day-long program. Members journeyed across campus and unveiled a new centennial memorial to Alpha Phi Alpha. The memorial—a wall in the form of a "J" in recognition of the Jewels — features a bench and a plaque and is situated in front of the university's Barnes Hall.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: "Alpha Phi Alpha Men: A Century of Leadership" is a historical documentary on Alpha Phi Alpha's century of leadership and service. The film premiered in February 2006 on PBS as part of the 2006 Black History Month theme, "Celebrating Community: A Tribute to Black Fraternal, Social and Civic Institutions." In 2009, the fraternity donated its repository of interviews with prominent Alpha members that were collected for the documentary to Cornell University Library.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: The Centennial Convention, called "Reflects on Rich Past, Looks Toward Bright Future", began on Capitol Hill with Congressman and fraternity member David Scott stating to the House of Representatives, "this week men from every discipline and geographic location convene to chart and plan for the fraternity's future, celebrate its 100th anniversary, and reinvigorate its founding principles of scholarship, fellowship, good character, and the uplifting of humanity." The House of Representatives passed "House Concurrent Resolution 384", approved 422–0, which recognized and honored Alpha Phi Alpha as the first intercollegiate Greek-letter fraternity established for African Americans, its accomplishments and its historic milestone.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: The resolution was co-sponsored by the eight members of the House of Representatives who are members of Alpha Phi Alpha which included Emanuel Cleaver, Robert Scott and Chaka Fattah. While in Washington, fraternity members such as National Urban League head Marc Morial and Congressman Gregory Meeks witnessed the renewal of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 by President George W. Bush in a signing ceremony at the White House. A tribute to Martin Luther King Jr. with an hour-long reflection at the site of the King Memorial was witnessed by Alpha's General President(s) and a host of the fraternity members assembled for the convention. Grammy Award winning singer Lionel Richie gave a performance for his fraternity at the John F. Kennedy Center.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: The "House of Alpha", the Centennial Exhibit of Alpha Phi Alpha, opened its doors at the convention. Herman "Skip" Mason served as curator of the exhibit, which has been described as a "fraternal masterpiece." The featured materials are part of the records of Alpha Phi Alpha and local chapters, and the personal collections of fraternity members. Mason was inaugurated as the fraternity's 33rd General President in January 2009.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: Members of black fraternities and sororities call themselves Greek because "Greece was a culturally diverse pluralistic society of various ethnic and racial groups—much like the United States of today. However, the citizens were mostly dark-skinned black and brown people" according to journalist and Alpha Phi Alpha brother Tony Brown.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: Alpha Phi Alpha is the first intercollegiate Greek-lettered fraternity in the United States established for people of African descent, and the paragon for the Black Greek Letter Organizations (BGLOs) that followed. Alpha Kappa Alpha was founded in 1908 at Howard University as both the first African-American sorority and the first BGLO founded at a black college. Four other BGLOs were in quick succession founded at Howard: Omega Psi Phi (1911), Delta Sigma Theta (1913), Phi Beta Sigma (1914) and Zeta Phi Beta (1920). Kappa Alpha Psi was founded at Indiana University in 1911. Sigma Gamma Rho (1922) and Iota Phi Theta (1963) were founded at Butler University and Morgan State University, respectively.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 1940, Alpha Phi Alpha, Alpha Kappa Alpha, and Kappa Alpha Psi hosted conventions in the Municipal Auditorium of Kansas City, Missouri, and held a historic joint BGLO session.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 1989, Joel Harris an Alpha Phi Alpha aspirant, age 18, a student at Morehouse College died following suspected hazing. The Cobb County medical examiners report "didn't declare the hazing to be a "direct cause" of Joel's death, but it stated that he was "under an intensive amount of anxiety and stress" that night. It was reported that Harris had been punched in the chest and slapped in the face multiple times as part of a so-called "thunder and lightning" ritual hours before his death.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 1992, Gregory R. Batipps, age 20, a student at the University of Virginia, died in a car accident after falling asleep at the wheel. Hazing was investigated as a factor in his death as he was pledging Alpha Phi Alpha.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 1995, a pledge seeking to join the fraternity's founding chapter, the Alpha Chapter at Cornell University, developed a "life-threatening infection in his buttocks" after being paddled repeatedly. He sued the fraternity for $2 million and the fraternity was banned from campus for several years for violating the school's code of conduct.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 2003, a 21-year-old pledge at Southern Methodist University (SMU) went into a coma after being coerced to drink large amounts of water in an Alpha Phi Alpha initiation ritual. The chapter was temporarily expelled from campus and eight Alpha Phi Alpha members were indicted on felony aggravated assault charges. In 2006, the first trial in the case, of Raymond Lee (SMU fraternity member), resulted in a conviction and a sentence to 180 days in jail, ten years of probation, and a $10,000 fine.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 2008, Mcandy Douarin, age 26, a student at the University of Central Florida (UCF), died from "heart-related failure less than 12 hours after a punch to his chest". Douarin shared with his family that he was frequently punched in the chest by members of Alpha Phi Alpha as part of the pledging process, and his family released photos of bruises on his chest to validate that was the reason why he died. UCF students released photos and statements substantiating that Douarin was pledging the fraternity, but the university refused to launch an investigation on any allegations against them after the fraternity stated Douarin had not officially applied for membership. The family hired an attorney to help hold the fraternity accountable for his death.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 2009, a fraternity member at Fort Valley State University was arrested and charged with felony aggravated battery for hospitalizing a pledge with acute renal failure.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 2010, the fraternity was banned from the campus of Mercer University for three years for hazing. Pledges were sleep deprived, paddled, and forced on a strict diet.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 2010, Alpha Phi Alpha suspended membership intake "after decades of hazing-related controversies plaguing Black Greek Letter Organizations despite their anti-hazing/anti-pledging policies."


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 2013, 15 Alpha Phi Alpha members pleaded guilty to reckless endangerment charges arising from off-campus hazing at Jacksonville State University in 2011, in which pledges were beaten, humiliated, hospitalized, and forced to drink toxic drinks until they vomited. The members involved were all sentenced to 365 days in jail. One of the pledges filed a civil suit against the fraternity.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 2013, four Alpha Phi Alpha members were arrested and plead guilty to severely beating pledges (misdemeanor charge) and violating Virginia State University's code of conduct.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 2014, a $3 million lawsuit was filed against the fraternity by a former pledge who was subject to humiliation and abuse. While pledging at Bowie State University, it was reported that he endured verbal assaults, punches, slaps, paddling, and body slams on a consistent basis.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 2014, six Alpha Phi Alpha men at the University of Akron were arrested and charged with assault for severely beating pledges. One known pledge was hospitalized due to excessive bleeding.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 2014, the University of Tennessee at Knoxville suspended the fraternity for paddling and pouring hot sauce on the genitals of pledges. The fraternity was placed on suspension until August 2016.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: On January 29, 2016, Bradley Doyley, a senior and basketball player at Buffalo State College was pronounced dead allegedly of a hazing related pledging ritual. Family and friends reported that Doyley was asked to drink an unidentified toxic cocktail off campus by members of Alpha Phi Alpha that caused him to suddenly vomit blood. Doyley was taken to a local hospital for emergency surgery, and he later died. The chapter connected with the death of Doyley was suspended by the college. A report published, citing a preliminary autopsy and unnamed police sources, stated that "there is no evidence of hazing in the death last week of a student at Buffalo State College in New York." The family's attorney dismiss the claim hazing was not involved in Doyley's death.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 2016, Virginia Tech University banned the fraternity until 2026 for misconduct and severely abusing pledges. One known pledge was hospitalized due to beatings he endured.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 2018, Tyler Hillard, a student at the University of California at Riverside, died while pledging the fraternity. Tyler went with other pledges and members of the fraternity to Mount Rubidoux where the ambulance was called to pick him up and take him to the hospital before his death. Authorities found convincing evidence that hazing was the reason for his death. Charges were expected to be filed against several members of the fraternity following an investigation.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: In 2021, the chapter at Southern University - Baton Rouge was placed on suspension after two students were hospitalized due to hazing.


title: Alpha Phi Alpha

text: The history, leadership, membership, activities, and continued progress of Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity, Incorporated has been documented in a number of publications.


title: Black swan

text: The black swan (Cygnus atratus) is a large waterbird, a species of swan which breeds mainly in the southeast and southwest regions of Australia. Within Australia, the black swan is nomadic, with erratic migration patterns dependent upon climatic conditions. It is a large bird with mostly black plumage and a red bill. It is a monogamous breeder, with both partners sharing incubation and cygnet-rearing duties.


title: Black swan

text: The black swan was introduced to various countries as an ornamental bird in the 1800s, but has managed to escape and form stable populations. Described scientifically by English naturalist John Latham in 1790, the black swan was formerly placed into a monotypic genus, "Chenopis". Black swans can be found singly, or in loose companies numbering into the hundreds or even thousands. It is a popular bird in zoological gardens and bird collections, and escapees are sometimes seen outside their natural range.


title: Black swan

text: This bird is a regional symbol of both Western Australia, where it is native, and the English town of Dawlish, where it is an introduced species.


title: Black swan

text: Black swans are mostly black-feathered birds, with white flight feathers. The bill is bright red, with a pale bar and tip; and legs and feet are greyish-black. Cobs (males) are slightly larger than pens (females), with a longer and straighter bill. Cygnets (immature birds) are a greyish-brown with pale-edged feathers.


title: Black swan

text: Mature black swans measure between in length and weigh . Their wing span is between . The neck is long (relatively the longest neck among the swans) and curved in an "S"-shape.


title: Black swan

text: The black swan utters a musical and far reaching bugle-like sound, called either on the water or in flight, as well as a range of softer crooning notes. It can also whistle, especially when disturbed while breeding and nesting.


title: Black swan

text: When swimming, black swans hold their necks arched or erect and often carry their feathers or wings raised in an aggressive display. In flight, a wedge of black swans will form as a line or a V, with the individual birds flying strongly with undulating long necks, making whistling sounds with their wings and baying, bugling or trumpeting calls.


title: Black swan

text: The black swan is unlike any other Australian bird, although in poor light and at long range it may be confused with a magpie goose in flight. However, the black swan can be distinguished by its much longer neck and slower wing beat.


title: Black swan

text: One captive population of black swans in Lakeland, Florida has produced a few individuals which are a light mottled grey colour instead of black. White black swans are also known to exist; these individuals, which are leucistic, are believed to occur rarely in the wild.


title: Black swan

text: The black swan is common in the wetlands of southwestern and eastern Australia and adjacent coastal islands. In the south west its range encompasses an area between North West Cape, Cape Leeuwin and Eucla; while in the east it covers a large region bounded by the Atherton Tableland, the Eyre Peninsula and Tasmania, with the Murray Darling Basin supporting very large populations of black swans. It is uncommon in central and northern Australia.


title: Black swan

text: The black swan's preferred habitat extends across fresh, brackish and salt water lakes, swamps and rivers with underwater and emergent vegetation for food and nesting materials. It also favors permanent wetlands, including ornamental lakes, but can also be found in flooded pastures and tidal mudflats, and occasionally on the open sea near islands or the shore.


title: Black swan

text: The black swan was once thought to be sedentary, but is now known to be highly nomadic. There is no set migratory pattern, but rather opportunistic responses to either rainfall or drought. In high rainfall years, emigration occurs from the south west and south east into the interior, with a reverse migration to these heartlands in drier years. When rain does fall in the arid central regions, black swans will migrate to these areas to nest and raise their young. However, should dry conditions return before the young have been raised, the adult birds will abandon the nests and their eggs or cygnets and return to wetter areas.


title: Black swan

text: The black swan, like many other water fowl, loses all its flight feathers at once when it moults after breeding and is unable to fly for about a month. During this time it will usually settle on large, open waters for safety.


title: Black swan

text: The species has a large range, with figures between 1 and 10 million km given as the extent of occurrence. The current global population is estimated to be up to 500,000 individuals. No threat of extinction or significant decline in population has been identified with this numerous and widespread bird.


title: Black swan

text: Black swans were first seen by Europeans in 1697, when Willem de Vlamingh's expedition explored the Swan River, Western Australia.


title: Black swan

text: Before the arrival of the Māori in New Zealand, a related species of swan known as the New Zealand swan had developed there, but was apparently hunted to extinction. In 1864, the Australian black swan was introduced to New Zealand as an ornamental waterfowl and populations are now common on larger coastal or inland lakes, especially Rotorua Lakes, Lake Wairarapa, Lake Ellesmere, and the Chatham Islands. Black swans have also naturally flown to New Zealand, leading scientists to consider them a native rather than exotic species, although the present population appears to be largely descended from deliberate introductions.


title: Black swan

text: The black swan is also very popular as an ornamental waterbird in western Europe, especially Britain, and escapees are commonly reported. As yet, the population in Britain is not considered to be self-sustaining and so the species is not afforded admission to the official British List, but the Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust have recorded a maximum of nine breeding pairs in the UK in 2001, with an estimate of 43 feral birds in 2003–2004.


title: Black swan

text: A small population of black swans exists on the River Thames at Marlow, on the brook running through the small town of Dawlish in Devon, near the River Itchen, Hampshire, and the River Tees near Stockton on Tees. The Dawlish population is so well associated with the town that the bird has been the town's emblem for forty years.


title: Black swan

text: Black swans have been reported in Florida, but there is no evidence that they are breeding; persistent sightings may be due to continual releases or escapes. Orange County, California reported black swans in Lake Forest, Irvine and Newport Beach on October 5, 2020, and Santa Ana in December 2021 in the “Versailles on the Lake” apartment community. The "Lake Forest Keys” community bought the original swans about eight to ten years ago and since then there have been many births and gaggles from the original couple" according to a report in the "Orange County Register". Black swans formerly resided in the vicinity of Lake Junaluska, a large lake in Waynesville, North Carolina.


title: Black swan

text: Black swans can also be found in Mainland China. In 2018 one group of swans was introduced to the Shenzhen University campus on an artificial lake in Guangdong Province.


title: Black swan

text: The black swan is almost exclusively herbivorous, and while there is some regional and seasonal variation, the diet is generally dominated by aquatic and marshland plants. In New South Wales the leaf of reedmace (genus "Typha") is the most important food of birds in wetlands, followed by submerged algae and aquatic plants such as "Vallisneria". In Queensland, aquatic plants such as "Potamogeton", stoneworts, and algae are the dominant foods. The exact composition varies with water level; in flood situations where normal foods are out of reach black swans will feed on pasture plants on shore. The black swan feeds in a similar manner to other swans. When feeding in shallow water it will dip its head and neck under the water and it is able to keep its head flat against the bottom while keeping its body horizontal. In deeper water the swan up-ends to reach lower. Black swans are also able to filter feed at the water's surface.


title: Black swan

text: Like other swans, the black swan is largely monogamous, pairing for life (about 6% divorce rate). Recent studies have shown that around a third of all broods exhibit extra-pair paternity. An estimated one-quarter of all pairings are homosexual, mostly between males. They steal nests, or form temporary threesomes with females to obtain eggs, driving away the female after she lays the eggs.


title: Black swan

text: Generally, black swans in the Southern hemisphere nest in the wetter winter months (February to September), occasionally in large colonies. A black swan nest is essentially a large heap or mound of reeds, grasses and weeds between 1 and 1.5 metres (3– feet) in diameter and up to 1 metre high, in shallow water or on islands. A nest is reused every year, restored or rebuilt as needed. Both parents share the care of the nest. A typical clutch contains four to eight greenish-white eggs that are incubated for about 35–40 days. Incubation begins after the laying of the last egg, to synchronise the hatching of the chicks. Prior to the commencement of incubation the parent will sit over the eggs without actually warming them. Both sexes incubate the eggs, with the female incubating at night. The change over between incubation periods is marked by ritualised displays by both sexes. If eggs accidentally roll out of the nest both sexes will retrieve the egg using the neck (in other swan species only the female performs this feat). Like all swans, black swans will aggressively defend their nests with their wings and beaks. After hatching, the cygnets are tended by the parents for about nine months until fledging. Cygnets may ride on their parent's back for longer trips into deeper water, but black swans undertake this behaviour less frequently than mute and black-necked swans.


title: Black swan

text: The black swan is protected in New South Wales, Australia under the "National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974" (s.5). The Black Swan is fully protected in all states and territories of Australia and must not be shot.


title: Black swan

text: The black swan was a literary or artistic image among Europeans even before their arrival in Australia. Cultural reference has been based on symbolic contrast and as a distinctive motif.


title: Black swan

text: The black swan's role in Australian heraldry and culture extends to the first founding of the colonies in the eighteenth century. It has often been equated with antipodean identity, the contrast to the white swan of the northern hemisphere indicating 'Australianness'. The black swan is featured on the flag, and is both the state bird and state emblem of Western Australia; it also appears in the Coat of Arms and other iconography of the state's institutions. The Black Swan was the sole postage stamp design of Western Australia from 1854 to 1902.


title: Black swan

text: The Noongar People of the South-West of Australia call the black swan "Kooldjak" along the West and South-West coast, "Gooldjak" in the South East and it is sometimes referred to as "maali" in language schools.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: Pentagon (; stylized as PENTAGON; abbreviated as PTG) is a South Korean multi-national boy band formed by Cube Entertainment in 2016. The group consists of nine members: Jinho, Hui, Hongseok, Shinwon, Yeo One, Yan An, Yuto, Kino and Wooseok. Originally composed of ten members, E'Dawn left the group and the record label on November 14, 2018. They were introduced through the Mnet survival show "Pentagon Maker". Pentagon released their self-titled debut EP on October 10, 2016.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: The group name Pentagon refers to becoming a perfect group by completing the five elements that an idol must have: vocal/rap, dance, teamwork, talent, and mind.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: In 2010, Hui was a trainee at JYP Entertainment after winning first place on Best Male Vocal at JYP 7th Audition Final Round. He also competed in the first season of Chinese Idol but failed to make the cut. Kino was a member of a dance team called "Urban Boyz". In December 2013, Hui, E'Dawn, Yeo One, and Kino participated in the special stage dance at the KBS Song Festival. In February 2014, E'Dawn and Kino danced at Jirayu Tangsrisuk's 1st concert "James Ji Monkey King Fan Meeting". Jinho debuted under the stage name "Jino" as a member of SM the Ballad. Hongseok participated in Mnet and YG Entertainment's reality survival show" Mix and Match". However, he failed to become a member of the winning boy group, iKon. He and Jinho joined Cube in 2015. Yan An and Yuto passed "Cube Star World Audition" overseas selection and became Cube trainees in 2014. In February 2015, Jinho and Hui participated in a vocal project group "Seorin-dong Children" (서린동 아이들) and released a remake of Lee Won-jin and Ryu Keum-deok's 1994 classic "For All the New Lovers".


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: On December 31, 2015, Cube Entertainment revealed that they would debut their third boy group, after Beast and BtoB, named Pentagon.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: On April 26, 2016, Cube Entertainment introduced Pentagon with the trailer, "Come into the World". The group's official Twitter, Facebook and Weibo opened on the same day.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: The group participated in South Korean television channel Mnet's reality program, "Pentagon Maker", which aired online through Mnet's digital content brand M2. The team was based on five categories: vocal or rap, dance, talent, mind, and teamwork. Each member was judged individually or as a unit, to determine whether they were suitable to become a member of Pentagon. They were set to debut on July 16, 2016. By the end of the show, Jinho, Hui, Hongseok, Yeo One, Yuto, Kino, and Wooseok were confirmed as the official members of the group.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: On July 9, Pentagon released the collaboration songs "Young" (produced by Dok2) and "Find Me" (produced by Tiger JK). A music video for "Young", featuring members Hui, Yeo One, Kino, Wooseok, and Yuto, was released. The group was originally scheduled to host their debut concert on July 23, 2016, at Jamsil Indoor Stadium, but Cube Entertainment delayed the concert and debut date of the group due to internal issues.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: Pentagon made their official debut on October 10, 2016, with 10 members, including the members eliminated from "Pentagon Maker", E'Dawn, Shinwon, and Yan An. On the same day, Pentagon released their first Korean EP "Pentagon" comprising seven tracks including the lead single "Gorilla", and held their debut showcase. The EP peaked number seven on the Gaon chart and remained top 10 for two consecutive weeks in the Japan's Tower Record Kpop weekly chart. On October 24, Shinwon was not able to participate in the promotions due to knee injury. On November 4, Cube revealed that Pentagon will be making their official debut in Japan on December 10, 2016. On November 7, Pentagon held their first fan signing with an attendance of 100 people. Pentagon received the nickname 'King Kongdol' due to their gorilla dance in their debut song 'Gorilla'.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: The group held their first solo concert, "Pentagon Mini Concert Tentastic Vol. 1", on December 6 at the Yes24 Live Hall in Gwangjin District, Seoul. The tickets for the concert were sold out within eight minutes of going on sale. They gave a sneak preview of their new song "Can You Feel It" ahead of their comeback.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: On December 7, the group released their second EP "Five Senses". Rappers Wooseok and Yuto contributed lyrics to the lead single of the EP titled "Can You Feel It". It was described as a medium-tempo hip-hop song that combines strong beat with a cheerful guitar riff and an intense brass sound.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: On December 10, Pentagon held their first showcase in Japan at Toyosu Pit, Tokyo, Japan with more than 3,000 people attending. On December 11, Pentagon appeared in Abema TV 'Fresh!' Kpopstarz and recorded over 340,000 live viewers. The group recorded at least four times the average live viewers of Beast, VIXX, B.A.P, Boyfriend, and U-Kiss, and has the second highest number of viewers in the history of the program. Pentagon set three 'high speed' records, including the fastest group to debut in Japan, fastest domestic solo concert, and the fastest concert to sold out. Pentagon participated in Cube Entertainment's Christmas season song, with their label mates Hyuna, Jang Hyun-seung, BtoB, Roh Ji-hoon and CLC. "Special Christmas" was released digitally on December 12, 2016, as a Christmas gift for fans.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: On January 22, 2017, Pentagon released a special music video for "Pretty Pretty", a track from their second Korean EP "Five Senses", featuring I.O.I's Kim Chung-ha.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: On March 29, Pentagon released their first Japanese EP "Gorilla", which debuted at number six on the Gaon chart and third on the Oricon Chart. The album contains six tracks, including Japanese versions of previously released tracks "Gorilla", "Can You Feel It", "Pretty Pretty", and "You Are", along with two new Japanese tracks, "Hikari" and "Get Down". Pentagon sold out a reservation for their special mini live & talk concert at Shinagawa Stellaball in Tokyo to commemorate the release of Japan's first EP on March 24. More than 5,000 people applied to attend but due to the capacity limit, only a total of 4000 seats were available. According to Japan's Tower Records, "Gorilla" was ranked first in the album charts throughout the day and peaked at third place on Oricon's Daily Album Chart with debut sales of 10,292 copies. On March 3, "Gorilla" took first place in the Japanese Tower Records Monthly Chart and earned their fourth 'high speed' to achieve first place in the Japanese chart.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: On May 18, the group released the single "Beautiful", a ballad produced by label-mate Jung Il-hoon. The group held their three-day concert titled "Tentastic Vol. 2 'Trust'" from June 10–12 at the Shinhan Card Fan Live Hall. The concert was divided into "P day", "T day", and "G day" and showcased different concepts and performances. Tickets to the concerts were sold out in ten minutes.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: On June 12, the group released their third Korean EP "Ceremony" that includes the pre-released single "Beautiful" and the lead single "Critical Beauty" (예뻐죽겠네). The EP became their first U.S. chart entry, arriving on Billboard's world chart at number 14. Member Yan An was unable to participate in the album promotions and activities due to a right-hand injury sustained on May 31, 2017. On July 24, they released a surprise music video for their fans, "To Universe". On the same day, Pentagon received their first rookie award at Asia Model Awards.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: In September, they released a short film "When I Was in Love" starring Gong Seung-yeon ahead of the comeback. On September 6, the group released their fourth Korean EP "Demo_01" which includes the lead single "Like This", produced by Hui. The EP marked their first all self-composed songs since debut. They also held their third solo concert, "Pentagon Mini Concert Tentastic Vol. 3, 'Promise'" at the Yes24 Live Hall in Gwangjin District, Seoul. The group made a special appearance on television series, "Hello, My Twenties! 2", that was aired on JTBC. Pentagon received their second rookie award at 1st Soribada Best K-Music Awards on September 20, and followed by Rising star Award at Korea Music Festival Special Awards.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: They released a pre-release song, "Stay" on November 14, which featured Pentagon's vocalists. On November 22, the group released their fifth Korean EP "Demo_02" which includes the lead single "Runaway", the second single to have been produced by Hui. The group subsequently held their fourth solo concert, "Pentagon Mini Concert Tentastic Vol. 4, 'Dream'" at Blue Square I-Market Hall in Seoul. The following day, the group released a special music video, "Violet". The song is a sentimental song composed by Kino and co-written by E'Dawn, Yuto and Wooseok.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: On January 17, 2018, Pentagon released their second Japanese EP "Violet". The EP debuted at number one on Tower Record weekly album chart and ranked fourth in the Oricon Weekly Album Chart. They held their last solo concert, "Pentagon Mini Concert Tentastic Vol. 5, Miracle" on April 1 at Blue Square I-Market Hall, Seoul.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: On April 2, Pentagon released their sixth Korean EP "Positive" which features six tracks including lead single "빛나리 (Shine)". The song eventually becoming a sleeper hit by word of mouth from listeners due to its unique melody and powerful choreography. Since its release, the lowest it placed on Melon's daily chart was in the 500s, but it slowly rose to number 186 on April 29. A month after its release, on May 1, the track rose to number 95 at Melon's real-time chart. The single peaked at number 16. "Shine" debuted at number 85 on Gaon Digital Chart and peaked at number 27. Subsequently, the company announced that the promotion period was extended by two weeks. They made their debut on Top 10 Billboard's World Digital Song Sales chart.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: On August 18, Pentagon held their first fan meeting in Japan "僕たちの第一歩 (Our First Step)". Shine Japanese version, released on 29 August, was dedicated as TV Asahi's opening song for August episodes of late-night music program series 'Break Out'.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: On September 10, Pentagon released their seventh Korean EP "Thumbs Up!", which features five tracks including lead single "청개구리 (Naughty Boy)". E'Dawn and Yan An were absent from the comeback. After Hyuna announced her relationship with E'Dawn in August, on September 13, Cube Entertainment announced that they would be terminating their contracts, citing that they could not "maintain trust" with them. On November 14, Cube Entertainment officially confirmed E'Dawn's departure from the group and company.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: Pentagon made their first appearance on an episode of on October 6, 2018. The theme for the episode was "Korean Lyric Awards Special", which they performed a rendition of Kim Wan-sun's classic hit "The Pierrot Smiles At Us", a song recorded and released in 1990. The group received 383 points but lost to Jung Dong-ha by one point. On November 25, the group held a fan meeting "PENTAGon MOVINGon" at Nakano Sun Plaza, Tokyo with an attendance of 2,000 people. This is the first activity since E'Dawn's official departure.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: In Japan, "Shine" ranked 4th and "Violet" ranked 10th on Oricon's 2018 Indie Albums. "Violet" also ranked 8th on Tower Records' list of 2018 K-Pop Domestic Albums.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: Pentagon held their first Japan Zepp tour - Dear Cosmo Tour across Osaka, Nagoya, Tokyo, and Fukuoka. Pentagon had their Japanese debut in February with the single, "Cosmo". composed and written by Teru. The song ranked no.1 on the Oricon chart, other than iTunes.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: On February 24, they held their second fan club fan meeting 'UNIONE' (Let's Play with Pentagon) at Olympic Hall. On March 27, they released their eighth Korean EP "" with the lead single "신토불이 (Sha La La)". Kino was not able to participate in performances due to an injury but participated in all other promotional activities. However, he was able to participate in Pentagon's follow-up song "Spring Snow".


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: In April, Pentagon appeared again on Immortal Songs 2 as a contestant, performing Kim Yeon-ja's "Nation of Morning" in Japan as part of the show's 400th episode special. Pentagon held their first solo-concert "Prism" on 27 and 28 April 2019 at Blue Square iMarket Hall. The tickets were sold out in a day. On May 2, Cube entertainment announced Pentagon's first world tour concert, Prism World Tour, with 15 cities worldwide and 16 shows. On June 16, Pentagon represented South Korea in the annual Star of Asia in Almaty, Kazakhstan that gathers more than 20,000 people at the Medeu High-Rink. In July, Pentagon announced an additional eight cities for their "Prism" world tour, which covered twenty-three cities worldwide. On July 22, Cube Entertainment announced that Yan An would not be able to participate in Pentagon's 2019 world tour, "Prism", due to medical reasons.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: They released their ninth extended play "" on July 17, without Yan An due to health reasons, with lead single "Humph!" being co-produced by Giriboy and Hui.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: On February 12, Pentagon released their first full album, "" with the lead single "Dr. Bebe". The group continued to promote as eight as Yan An did not participate in the promotions. Their first studio album features 11 tracks that were co-written or feature lyrics by members Jinho, Hui, Wooseok, Kino, and Yuto. The music video was brought forward to midnight KST on February 12 due to the overwhelming response. Pentagon continued their promotion activities with follow-up song "Shower of Rain" starting March 12, on MCountdown.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: On March 5, Pentagon collaborated with Japanese rock music icon Glay in "I'm Loving You" as a part of Glay's 25th anniversary album "Review II-Best of Glay". The song was described as a genre-bending song of an upbeat Latin-inspired dance-pop song with a killer electronic breakdown.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: Pentagon participated in Mnet's reality television competition "Road to Kingdom", which aired from April to June. For first performances - Song of King, the group performed Hui's arrangement of Block B's "Very Good" with reimagined Mad Max concept. They were ranked second in the first contest rankings. For the second round with the theme of 'My Song', Pentagon chose "Shine + Spring Snow" (빛나리+봄눈) as songs that best capture their team's story.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: It was the last time Pentagon would perform together before the eldest member Jinho enlisted for his mandatory military service as an active duty soldier on May 11, 2020. When the song transitioned from "Shine" to "Spring Snow", a video message made by members except Jinho played, containing their sincere feelings toward Jinho. They were placed third in the first elimination round. Pentagon and ONF took first place in the collaboration stage of the first round on the 3rd round, performing a reinterpretation of Blackpink's "Kill This Love", and second round, Pentagon performed Monsta X's "Follow" with a Pharaoh theme. On June 12, the group released a new song "Basquiat" for the program's finale, and finished in third place overall.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: In September, the song "Humph" which was released on July 17, 2019, become a hot topic on social media and internet communities. Korean Netizen opined "the song that is perfect for the COVID-19 pandemic situation. The lyrics "Do not cross the line Stop / No access to there are no access / Oh you have crossed the line right now / Oh, please keep it", the youthful melody and cute choreography of the song is good to use in a campaign to encourage social distancing." This song became popular in memes and MV views increased accordingly.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: On September 6, they held an online fan meet and concert called Pentag-on Air, where they performed various songs, including a non-released acoustic English version of the song, "Spring Snow" . 70% of attendees were international fans and 30% were domestic fans. On September 16, Pentagon released the song "Twenty-Twenty", which was the first OST for the web drama "Twenty-Twenty". The song was composed by Kino and contains lyrics written by Kino and Wooseok. On September 17, Pentagon posted a teaser titled "I've been keeping an eye on you" showcasing Yan An, officially ending his 440-day hiatus.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: On September 23, the group released their first Japanese studio album (second album overall), "". The album included Japanese songs from their debut EP, "Gorilla", and debut singles "Cosmo" and "Happiness / Sha La La". The album debuted at number 7 on Oricon Albums Chart, and number 8 on Billboard Japan Hot Albums.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: On October 12, Pentagon released their tenth extended play, "", as an eight-member group without member Jinho, who was completing his mandatory military service. The lead single, "Daisy", is an alternative rock song with a trendy yet intense sound, produced by Pentagon members Hui and Wooseok, and composer Nathan. The album consists of six songs, including "I'm Here", a self-composed solo song by Jinho. "We:th" became their highest selling album by selling 64,045 physical copies on the first week of release. On October 20, the group earned their first music show win after four years with "Daisy" on SBS MTV's "The Show". On October 28, the group released the official Chinese and Japanese version of the song. On November 10, Pentagon began hosting their first podcast with DIVE Studios, titled "Pentagon's Jack Pod". In December, Pentagon held a live online concert ] on December 13.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: On January 28, Pentagon released "Honey Drop" as the first OST for the web drama "". Hui enlisted for his mandatory military service as a social service worker on February 18. In the meantime, all of the members will distribute his role among themselves without an assigned temporary leader. The group cameoed in the web drama "Nickname Pine Leaf" for the SBS YouTube channel yogurD in March. On March 15, Pentagon released their eleventh extended play "Love or Take" with the lead single "Do or Not".


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: On June 14, Pentagon released their fourth Japanese EP, "Do or Not", which contains the Japanese version of the lead single of the same name.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: Jinho was discharged from military service on November 14, without returning to the unit after his final vacation, according to the Ministry guidelines for preventing the spread of COVID-19. On November 24, Kino tested positive for COVID-19.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: On March 4, it was confirmed that Pentagon's fan meeting, Pentagon's Private Party, will be held on April 2 and 3.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: On August 9, Kino made his solo debut with the special digital single "Pose", making him the first member of Pentagon with an official solo debut.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: On September 14, Pentagon released their fifth Japanese EP, "Feelin' Like", which contains the Japanese version of the lead single of the same name.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: In September 2018, Pentagon donated 50 million won (approximately US$44,500) to Gangnam Severance Hospital's Respiration Rehabilitation Center for patients with rare neuromuscular disease. Pentagon's leader Hui said,


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: On September 27, 2017, Pentagon has been appointed as an honorary ambassador of the Korea Copyright Protection Service at the 1st anniversary of Korea Copyright Protection Office and Future Vision 2021. On June 24, 2020, Korea's Red Cross Youth appointed Pentagon as their new ambassador.


title: Pentagon (South Korean band)

text: Before the official debut of Pentagon, the ten members were chosen as new models to endorse Econeko & Sausando's Organic Ice Cream Bubble Cleanser in 2016. On August 18, 2016, school uniform brand Elite announced their collaboration with Pentagon and I.O.I as their new models. In 2017–19, they became the endorsement model for D'Live+ OTT set-top box. On April 16, 2021, Pentagon started endorsing the Thai juice brand Tipco.


title: Stridsvagn 122

text: Stridsvagn 122 (Strv 122) (; is a Swedish main battle tank based on the German Leopard 2 improved variant, just like the German Leopard 2A5, utilizing newer technology such as command-, control-, and fire-control systems, as well as reinforced armour and long-term combat capacity. Externally, the vehicle can be distinguished from the Leopard 2A5 by the French GALIX smoke dispensers, different storage bins, and the thicker crew hatches.


title: Stridsvagn 122

text: After the Strv 2000 was dismissed, the Swedish government decided in 1991 that a new main battle tank was to be procured to replace the Strv 101/102s and Strv 103s in service at the time. During the project "Strv Ny", three tank models were sent to Sweden to participate in trials: the American M1A2 Abrams, the German Leopard 2 Improved and a prototype variant of the French Leclerc.


title: Stridsvagn 122

text: The trials concluded with the Leopard 2 Improved as the winner with the M1A2 coming in a close second place. The shortcomings of the Leclerc were partly attributed to it still being in the development phase and not yet mature for service. In 1994 the Swedish government decided to acquire 120 new production tanks and 160 older Leopard 2A4s as a stopgap before the newer tanks were finished. The Leopard 2A4 in Swedish service became designated Strv 121 while the new production became the Strv 122. Of the 120 Strv 122, 29 were manufactured by Krauss-Maffei Wegmann while the other 91 were manufactured by Bofors and Hägglunds.


title: Stridsvagn 122

text: The Stridsvagn 122 was designed to fight in Swedish conditions including heavily forested areas as well as urban terrain. The designation derives from the 12 cm gun, on the second tank in Swedish service featuring this calibre (the first being Strv 121, Leopard 2A4s fitted with Swedish lights and radios and painted in Swedish camouflage). Strv 122 also had to overcome the perceived flaws of the original German tank, and features the following abilities:


title: Stridsvagn 122

text: As of 2013, 42 of these tanks remain in active service. Most of the 160 Leopard 2 A4s (local designation Strv 121) that were originally leased are being returned to Germany. The active tanks are divided between three companies, two at P 4, Skövde and one at I 19, Boden. In 2015, the Swedish government decided that another tank company should be established at the P 18 regiment on the island of Gotland. This company was to be trained at P 4 and transferred to P 18 in 2019.


title: Stridsvagn 122

text: In 2016, Sweden ordered new upgrades for the Strv 122 from Krauss-Maffei, with delivery slated to be between 2018 and 2023. Apart from routine renovation, "Stridsledningssystem Bataljon" (tactical command system battalion from SAAB), a new observation/gun sight (TIM) for the commander, as well as new communication systems for international missions, will be added together with a modular 360° ballistic protection system. This new upgraded version is designated Strv 122C if the vehicle is an upgraded 122A variant or Strv 122D if the upgrade is applied to an Strv 122B.


title: Strategic Rocket Forces

text: The Strategic Rocket Forces of the Russian Federation or the Strategic Missile Forces of the Russian Federation (RVSN RF; , lit. 'Strategic Purpose Rocketry Troops') are a separate-troops branch of the Russian Armed Forces that control Russia's land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs).


title: Strategic Rocket Forces

text: The Strategic Rocket Forces was created on 17 December 1959 as part of the Soviet Armed Forces as the main force intended for attacking an enemy's offensive nuclear weapons, military facilities, and industrial infrastructure.


title: Strategic Rocket Forces

text: They operated all Soviet nuclear ground-based intercontinental, intermediate-range ballistic missile, and medium-range ballistic missile with ranges over 1,000 kilometers. After the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, assets of the Strategic Rocket Forces were in the territories of several new states in addition to Russia, with armed nuclear missile silos in Belarus, Kazakhstan and Ukraine. The three of them transferred their missiles to Russia for destruction and they all joined the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.


title: Strategic Rocket Forces

text: Complementary strategic forces within Russia include the Russian Aerospace Forces' Long Range Aviation and the Russian Navy's ballistic missile submarines. Together the three bodies form Russia's nuclear triad.


title: Strategic Rocket Forces

text: The first Soviet rocket study unit was established in June 1946, by redesignating the 92nd Guards Mortar Regiment at Bad Berka in East Germany as the 22nd Brigade for Special Use of the Reserve of the Supreme High Command. On October 18, 1947, the brigade conducted the first launch of the remanufactured former German A-4 ballistic missile, or R-1, from the Kapustin Yar Range. In the early 1950s the 77th and 90th Brigades were formed to operate the R-1 (SS-1a 'Scunner'). The 54th and 56th Brigades were formed to conduct test launches of the R-2 (SS-2 'Sibling') at Kapustin Yar on June 1, 1952.


title: Strategic Rocket Forces

text: From 1959 the Soviets introduced a number of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) into service, including the R-12 (SS-4 'Sandal'), the R-7 (SS-6 'Sapwood'), the R-16 (SS-7 'Saddler'), the R-9 (SS-8 'Sasin'), the R-26 (given the NATO reporting name SS-8 'Sasin' due to incorrect identification as the R-9), the R-36 (SS-9 'Scarp'), and the RT-21 (SS-16 'Sinner'), which was possibly never made fully operational.


title: Strategic Rocket Forces

text: By 1990 all these early types of missiles had been retired from service. In 1990 the Strategic Missile Forces were officially established as a service branch of the Armed Forces under the direct control of the Defense Ministry. The date of its formal foundation, December 17, is celebrated as Strategic Missile Forces Day.


title: Strategic Rocket Forces

text: Two rocket armies were formed in 1960. The 43rd Rocket Army and the 50th Rocket Army were formed from the previous 43rd and 50th Air Armies of the Long Range Aviation.


title: Strategic Rocket Forces

text: During a test of the R-16 ICBM on October 24, 1960, the test missile exploded on the pad, killing the first commander of the SRF, Chief Marshal of Artillery Mitrofan Ivanovich Nedelin. This disaster, the details of which were concealed for decades, became known as the Nedelin catastrophe. He was succeeded by Marshal of the Soviet Union Kirill Moskalenko who was in turn quickly succeeded by Marshal Sergey Biryuzov. Under Marshal Вiryuzov the SRF deployed missiles to Cuba in 1962 as part of Operation Anadyr. 36 R-12 intermediate range ballistic missiles were sent to Cuba, initiating the Cuban Missile Crisis. The 43rd Guards Missile Division of 43rd Rocket Army manned the missiles while in Cuba.


title: Strategic Rocket Forces

text: Marshal Nikolai Krylov took over in March 1963 and served until February 1972. During this time French President Charles de Gaulle visited the Strategic Missile Forces in 1966. Together with NI Krylov, he visited a missile division in Novosibirsk, and then at the invitation of Leonid Brezhnev participated in a demonstration missile launch at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in the Kazakh SSR. Chief Marshal of Artillery Vladimir Fedorovich Tolubko commanded the SRF from April 12, 1972, to July 10, 1985. Tolubko emphasised raising the physical fitness standards within the SRF. He was succeeded by General of the Army Yury Pavlovich Maksimov, who was in command from July 10, 1985, to August 19, 1992.


title: Strategic Rocket Forces

text: According to a 1980 TIME Magazine article citing analysts from RAND Corporation, Soviet non-Slavs were generally barred from joining the Strategic Missile Forces because of suspicions about the loyalty of ethnic minorities to the Kremlin.


title: Strategic Rocket Forces

text: In 1989 the Strategic Missile Forces had over 1,400 ICBMs, 300 launch control centers, and twenty-eight missile bases. The SMT operated RSD-10 (SS-20 'Saber') intermediate-range ballistic missiles (IRBMs) and R-12 (SS-4 'Sandal') medium-range ballistic missiles (MRBMs). Two-thirds of the road-mobile Soviet RSD-10 force was based in the western Soviet Union and was aimed at Western Europe.


title: Strategic Rocket Forces

text: One-third of the force was located east of the Ural Mountains and was targeted primarily against China. Older R-12 missiles were deployed at fixed sites in the western Soviet Union. The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, signed in December 1987, called for the elimination of all 553 Soviet RSD-10 and R-12 missiles within three years. As of mid-1989, over 50% of RSD-10 and R-12 missiles had been eliminated.


title: Strategic Rocket Forces

text: By 1990 the Soviet Union had seven types of operational ICBMs. About 50% were heavy R-36M (SS-18 'Satan') and UR-100N (SS-19 'Stiletto') ICBMs, which carried 80% of the country's land-based ICBM warheads. By this time it was producing new mobile, and hence survivable ICBMs, the RT-23 (SS-24 'Scalpel') and RT-2PM (SS-25 'Sickle').


title: Strategic Rocket Forces

text: In 1990, with the R-12 apparently fully retired, the IISS reported that there were 350 UR-100s (SS-11 'Sego,' Mod 2/3), 60 RT-2s (SS-13 'Savage') still in service in one missile field, 75 UR-100MRs (SS-17 'Spanker,' Mod 3, with 4 MIRV), 308 R-36Ms (mostly Mod 4 with 10 MIRV), 320 UR-100Ns (mostly Mod 3 with 6 MIRV), some 60 RT-23s (silo and rail-mobile), and some 225 RT-2PMs (mobile).


title: Strategic Rocket Forces

text: Like most of the Russian Armed Forces, the Strategic Missile Forces had limited access to resources for new equipment in the Yeltsin era. However, the Russian government made a priority of ensuring that the Missile Forces received new missiles to phase out older, less-reliable systems, and to incorporate newer capabilities in the face of international threats to the viability of the nuclear deterrent effect provided by their missiles. In particular the development of missile defense systems in the United States.


title: Strategic Rocket Forces

text: In 1995, the "Strategic Missile Forces Day" and "Military Space Forces Day" were created. On July 16, 1997, President Boris Yeltsin signed a decree incorporating the Russian Space Forces and the Space Missile Defence Forces (Russian: Ракетно-космической обороны) into the SMT. In doing so, 'nearly 60' military units and establishments were dissolved. However, four years later, on June 1, 2001, the Russian Space Forces were reformed as a separate branch of service from the SMT.


title: Strategic Rocket Forces

text: Minister of Defence Marshal of the Russian Federation Igor Sergeev, a former commander of the SMT from August 19, 1992 – May 22, 1997, played a major role in assuring funding for his former service. He was succeeded by General of the Army Vladimir Yakovlev, who commanded the SMT from June 1997 until April 27, 2001. Yakovlev was succeeded by Colonel General Nikolay Solovtsov. In early 2009 Solovtsov said that 96% of all Russian ICBMs were ready to be launched within a minute's notice.


title: Strategic Rocket Forces

text: Solovtsov was dismissed in July–August 2009. Speculation over why Solovtsov was dismissed included opposition to further cuts in deployed nuclear ballistic missile warheads below the April 2009 figure of 1,500, the fact that he had reached the retirement age of 60, despite that he had recently been extended another year's service, or the failure of the Navy's Bulava missile).


title: Strategic Rocket Forces

text: After only a year, Lieutenant General Andrey Shvaichenko, appointed on August 3, 2009, by President Dmitry Medvedev, was replaced. The current commander of the Strategic Missile Forces, Colonel General Sergei Karakayev, was appointed to the post by a presidential decree of June 22, 2010.


title: Strategic Rocket Forces

text: The RVSN headquarters has a special sledgehammer that can be used to gain access to the launch codes if the commander feels the need to use it or if ordered directly, but doesn't have normal access to the safe. In 2020, the Strategic Missile Forces completed switching to digital information transmission technology.


title: Strategic Rocket Forces

text: The main RVSN command post is at Kuntsevo in the suburbs of Moscow. The alternate command post is at Kosvinsky Mountain in the Urals.


title: Strategic Rocket Forces

text: Female cadets have started to join the Peter the Great Strategic Missile Forces Academy. RVSN institutes also exist at Serpukhov and Rostov-on-Don. An ICBM test impact range is located in the Far East, the Kura Test Range. This has been under Aerospace Defence Forces' command since 2010.


title: Strategic Rocket Forces

text: The Strategic Missile Forces operate four distinct missile systems. The oldest system is the silo-based R-36M2 / SS-18 "Satan". It carries ten warheads. The last missile will be in service until 2020.