title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: Much of this research transcended into other equipment with the aim of making the controls and displays easier for the operators to use. The entry of the terms "human factors" and "ergonomics" into the modern lexicon date from this period. It was observed that fully functional aircraft flown by the best-trained pilots, still crashed. In 1943 Alphonse Chapanis, a lieutenant in the U.S. Army, showed that this so-called "pilot error" could be greatly reduced when more logical and differentiable controls replaced confusing designs in airplane cockpits. After the war, the Army Air Force published 19 volumes summarizing what had been established from research during the war.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: In the decades since World War II, human factors has continued to flourish and diversify. Work by Elias Porter and others within the RAND Corporation after WWII extended the conception of human factors. "As the thinking progressed, a new concept developed—that it was possible to view an organization such as an air-defense, man-machine system as a single organism and that it was possible to study the behavior of such an organism. It was the climate for a breakthrough." In the initial 20 years after the World War II, most activities were done by the "founding fathers": Alphonse Chapanis, Paul Fitts, and Small.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: The beginning of the Cold War led to a major expansion of Defense supported research laboratories. Also, many labs established during WWII started expanding. Most of the research following the war was military-sponsored. Large sums of money were granted to universities to conduct research. The scope of the research also broadened from small equipments to entire workstations and systems. Concurrently, a lot of opportunities started opening up in the civilian industry. The focus shifted from research to participation through advice to engineers in the design of equipment. After 1965, the period saw a maturation of the discipline. The field has expanded with the development of the computer and computer applications.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: The Space Age created new human factors issues such as weightlessness and extreme g-forces. Tolerance of the harsh environment of space and its effects on the mind and body were widely studied.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: The dawn of the Information Age has resulted in the related field of human–computer interaction (HCI). Likewise, the growing demand for and competition among consumer goods and electronics has resulted in more companies and industries including human factors in their product design. Using advanced technologies in human kinetics, body-mapping, movement patterns and heat zones, companies are able to manufacture purpose-specific garments, including full body suits, jerseys, shorts, shoes, and even underwear.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: Formed in 1946 in the UK, the oldest professional body for human factors specialists and ergonomists is The Chartered Institute of Ergonomics and Human Factors, formally known as the "Institute of Ergonomics and Human Factors" and before that, "The Ergonomics Society".


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society (HFES) was founded in 1957. The Society's mission is to promote the discovery and exchange of knowledge concerning the characteristics of human beings that are applicable to the design of systems and devices of all kinds.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: The Association of Canadian Ergonomists - l'Association canadienne d'ergonomie (ACE) was founded in 1968. It was originally named the Human Factors Association of Canada (HFAC), with ACE (in French) added in 1984, and the consistent, bilingual title adopted in 1999. According to it 2017 mission statement, ACE unites and advances the knowledge and skills of ergonomics and human factors practitioners to optimise human and organisational well-being.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: The International Ergonomics Association (IEA) is a federation of ergonomics and human factors societies from around the world. The mission of the IEA is to elaborate and advance ergonomics science and practice, and to improve the quality of life by expanding its scope of application and contribution to society. As of September 2008, the International Ergonomics Association has 46 federated societies and 2 affiliated societies.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: The Human Factors Transforming Healthcare (HFTH) is an international network of HF practitioners who are embedded within hospitals and health systems. The goal of the network is to provide resources for human factors practitioners and healthcare organizations looking to successfully apply HF principles to improve patient care and provider performance. The network also serves as collaborative platform for human factors practitioners, students, faculty, industry partners, and those curious about human factors in healthcare.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: The Institute of Occupational Medicine (IOM) was founded by the coal industry in 1969. From the outset the IOM employed an ergonomics staff to apply ergonomics principles to the design of mining machinery and environments. To this day, the IOM continues ergonomics activities, especially in the fields of musculoskeletal disorders; heat stress and the ergonomics of personal protective equipment (PPE). Like many in occupational ergonomics, the demands and requirements of an ageing UK workforce are a growing concern and interest to IOM ergonomists.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: The International Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) is a professional organization for mobility engineering professionals in the aerospace, automotive, and commercial vehicle industries. The Society is a standards development organization for the engineering of powered vehicles of all kinds, including cars, trucks, boats, aircraft, and others. The Society of Automotive Engineers has established a number of standards used in the automotive industry and elsewhere. It encourages the design of vehicles in accordance with established human factors principles. It is one of the most influential organizations with respect to ergonomics work in automotive design. This society regularly holds conferences which address topics spanning all aspects of human factors and ergonomics.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: Human factors practitioners come from a variety of backgrounds, though predominantly they are psychologists (from the various subfields of industrial and organizational psychology, engineering psychology, cognitive psychology, perceptual psychology, applied psychology, and experimental psychology) and physiologists. Designers (industrial, interaction, and graphic), anthropologists, technical communication scholars and computer scientists also contribute. Typically, an ergonomist will have an undergraduate degree in psychology, engineering, design or health sciences, and usually a master's degree or doctoral degree in a related discipline. Though some practitioners enter the field of human factors from other disciplines, both M.S. and PhD degrees in Human Factors Engineering are available from several universities worldwide.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: Contemporary offices did not exist until the 1830s, with Wojciech Jastrzębowsk's seminal book on MSDergonomics following in 1857 and the first published study of posture appearing in 1955.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: As the American workforce began to shift towards sedentary employment, the prevalence of [WMSD/cognitive issues/ etc..] began to rise. In 1900, 41% of the US workforce was employed in agriculture but by 2000 that had dropped to 1.9% This coincides with an increase in growth in desk-based employment (25% of all employment in 2000) and the surveillance of non-fatal workplace injuries by OSHA and Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1971. 0–1.5 and occurs in a sitting or reclining position. Adults older than 50 years report spending more time sedentary and for adults older than 65 years this is often 80% of their awake time. Multiple studies show a dose-response relationship between sedentary time and all-cause mortality with an increase of 3% mortality per additional sedentary hour each day. High quantities of sedentary time without breaks is correlated to higher risk of chronic disease, obesity, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes and cancer.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: Currently, there is a large proportion of the overall workforce who is employed in low physical activity occupations. Sedentary behavior, such as spending long periods of time in seated positions poses a serious threat for injuries and additional health risks. Unfortunately, even though some workplaces make an effort to provide a well designed environment for sedentary employees, any employee who is performing large amounts of sitting will likely experience discomfort.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: There are existing conditions that would predispose both individuals and populations to an increase in prevalence of living sedentary lifestyles, including: socioeconomic determinants, education levels, occupation, living environment, age (as mentioned above) and more. A study published by the Iranian Journal of Public Health examined socioeconomic factors and sedentary lifestyle effects for individuals in a working community. The study concluded that individuals who reported living in low income environments were more inclined to living sedentary behavior compared to those who reported being of high socioeconomic status. Individuals who achieve less education are also considered to be a high risk group to partake in sedentary lifestyles, however, each community is different and has different resources available that may vary this risk. Oftentimes, larger worksites are associated with increased occupational sitting. Those who work in environments that are classified as business and office jobs are typically more exposed to sitting and sedentary behavior while in the workplace. Additionally, occupations that are full-time, have schedule flexibility, are also included in that demographic, and are more likely to sit often throughout their workday.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: Obstacles surrounding better ergonomic features to sedentary employees include cost, time, effort and for both companies and employees. The evidence above helps establish the importance of ergonomics in a sedentary workplace, yet missing information from this problem is enforcement and policy implementation. As a modernized workplace becomes more and more technology based more jobs are becoming primarily seated, therefore leading to a need to prevent chronic injuries and pain. This is becoming easier with the amount of research around ergonomic tools saving money companies by limiting the number of days missed from work and workers comp cases. The way to ensure that corporations prioritize these health outcomes for their employees is through policy and implementation.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: Nationwide there are no policies that are currently in place, however a handful of big companies and states have taken on cultural policies to insure the safety of all workers. For example, the state of Nevada risk management department has established a set of ground rules for both agencies responsibilities and employees responsibilities. The agency responsibilities include evaluating workstations, using risk management resources when necessary and keeping OSHA records. To see specific workstation ergonomic policies and responsibilities click here.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: Until recently, methods used to evaluate human factors and ergonomics ranged from simple questionnaires to more complex and expensive usability labs. Some of the more common human factors methods are listed below:


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: Problems related to measures of usability include the fact that measures of learning and retention of how to use an interface are rarely employed and some studies treat measures of how users interact with interfaces as synonymous with quality-in-use, despite an unclear relation.


title: Human factors and ergonomics

text: Although field methods can be extremely useful because they are conducted in the users' natural environment, they have some major limitations to consider. The limitations include:


title: Stephen Frears

text: Stephen Arthur Frears (born 20 June 1941) is an English director and producer of film and television often depicting real life stories as well as projects that explore social class through sharply drawn characters. He's received numerous accolades including three BAFTA Awards, and a Primetime Emmy Award as well as nominations for two Academy Awards. In 2008, "The Daily Telegraph" named Frears among the 100 most influential people in British culture. In 2009 he received the Commandeur de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres.


title: Stephen Frears

text: Born in Leicester and educated at Gresham's School and Trinity College, Cambridge, Frears started his career working as an assistant director in theatre and film while directing numerous television plays. In 1971, he directed his first feature film, "Gumshoe". He received acclaim for his early films such as "My Beautiful Laundrette" (1985), "Prick Up Your Ears" (1987), and "Dangerous Liaisons" (1988). He received Academy Award for Best Director nominations for both "The Grifters" (1990), and "The Queen" (2006). Fears' other acclaimed films include "High Fidelity" (2000), "Dirty Pretty Things" (2003), "Philomena" (2013), "Florence Foster Jenkins" (2016), and "Victoria and Abdul" (2017).


title: Stephen Frears

text: Frears is also known for his work on various television programs, including the television films "Fail Safe" (2000), "The Deal" (2003), and "Muhammad Ali's Greatest Fight" (2013). He later directed the biographical BBC One/Amazon Prime miniseries "A Very English Scandal" (2018) for which he earned a Primetime Emmy Award nomination. Other projects include "State of the Union" (2019), and "Quiz" (2020).


title: Stephen Frears

text: Frears was born on 20 June 1941 in Leicester, England. His mother, Ruth M. ("née" Danziger), was a social worker, and his father, Russell E. Frears, was a general practitioner and accountant. Frears was brought up Anglican, and did not find out that his mother was Jewish until he was in his late 20s.


title: Stephen Frears

text: From 1954 to 1959, Frears was educated at Gresham's School, a boarding independent school for boys (now co-educational) in the market town of Holt in Norfolk. This was followed by Trinity College, Cambridge, where he earnt a BA Law.


title: Stephen Frears

text: At the University of Cambridge, Frears was assistant stage manager for the 1963 footlights Revue, which starred Tim Brooke-Taylor, John Cleese, Bill Oddie and David Hatch. After graduating from the university, Frears worked as an assistant director on the films "Morgan – A Suitable Case for Treatment" (1966) and "if..." (1968). He spent most of his early directing career in television, mainly for the BBC but also for the commercial sector.


title: Stephen Frears

text: Frears contributed to several anthology series, such as the BBC's "Play for Today". He produced a series of Alan Bennett's plays for LWT, taking responsibility for working in the gallery on "The Old Crowd" while Lindsay Anderson worked with the actors.


title: Stephen Frears

text: In the late 1980s, Frears came to international attention as a director of feature films. His directorial film debut was the noir detective spoof "Gumshoe" (1971). In 1985, Frears found widespread acclaim with "My Beautiful Laundrette". The film focuses on an interracial gay romance, based on a Hanif Kureishi screenplay and shot on 16 mm film, was released theatrically to great critical acclaim. It received an Academy Award nomination and two nominations for BAFTA Award. The success of the film helped launch the careers of both Frears and actor Daniel Day Lewis.


title: Stephen Frears

text: Frears worked with Adrian Edmondson on "Mr Jolly Lives Next Door", a 45-minute programme starring Peter Cook in "The Comic Strip Presents" television comedy series that aired on Channel Four in 1988. In 1985, Frears had also directed a Comic Strip parody of Daphne Du Maurier's novel "Rebecca". Frears next directed the Joe Orton biopic "Prick Up Your Ears" (1987), a collaboration with playwright Alan Bennett. His second film adapted from a Kureishi screenplay was "Sammy and Rosie Get Laid" (1987).


title: Stephen Frears

text: In 1988, Frears directed "Dangerous Liaisons" to widespread critical acclaim. The film was shot in France, with a cast that included Americans Glenn Close, John Malkovich, and Michelle Pfeiffer, and Uma Thurman. Based on the late 18th-century French novel of romantic game playing and adapted by Christopher Hampton. The film received seven Academy Award nominations including Best Picture and Best Actress for Glenn Close and Best Supporting Actress for Michelle Pfeiffer. The film also received 10 British Academy Film Award nominations including for Frears for Best Direction.


title: Stephen Frears

text: In 1990, Frears directed the neo-noir crime thriller "The Grifters" starring John Cusack, Anjelica Huston, and Anette Bening. Martin Scorsese served as a producer on the film. The film won the Independent Spirit Award for Best Film and was declared one of the Top 10 films of 1990 by The National Board of Review of Motion Pictures. Frears was also nominated for the British Academy Film Award for Best Direction and earned him his first Academy Award nomination for best direction.


title: Stephen Frears

text: In 1992, Frears directed the comedy drama "Hero" released in the United Kingdom as "Accidental Hero". The film starred Dustin Hoffman, Geena Davis, Andy Garcia, and Joan Cusack. Many critics compared the film to those of Preston Sturges and Frank Capra including Roger Ebert who wrote, "It [the film] has all the ingredients for a terrific entertainment, but it lingers over the kinds of details that belong in a different kind of movie. It comes out of the tradition of those rat-a-tat Preston Sturges comedies of the 1940s." While the film was met with generally positive critical reviews, it was not a box office success. Columbia Pictures lost $25.6 million.


title: Stephen Frears

text: Frears has also directed two films adapted from novels by Roddy Doyle, "The Snapper" (1993) and "The Van" (1996). Frears' other films include the horror film "Mary Reilly" and the Western "The Hi-Lo Country" (1998).


title: Stephen Frears

text: In 2000, Frears directed "High Fidelity" starring John Cusack, Jack Black, Lisa Bonet, and Joan Cusack. The film is based on the 1995 British novel of the same name by Nick Hornby, with the setting moved from London to Chicago and the name of the lead character changed. After seeing the film, Hornby expressed his happiness with Cusack's performance, saying that "at times, it appears to be a film in which John Cusack reads my book." The film received positive reviews from critics and has a "Certified Fresh" score of 91% on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 165 reviews, with an average rating of 7.7/10. The critical consensus states: "The deft hand of director Stephen Frears and strong performances by the ensemble cast combine to tell an entertaining story with a rock-solid soundtrack."


title: Stephen Frears

text: In 2002, Frears directed social thriller, "Dirty Pretty Things", a film about two immigrants living in London. The film starred Audrey Tautou, and Chiwetel Ejiofor. The film received widespread critical acclaim, and was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay and won a British Independent Film Award for Best Independent British Film in 2003. For his performance as Okwe, Chiwetel Ejiofor won the 2003 British Independent Film Award for Best Actor.


title: Stephen Frears

text: In 2003, Frears was attached to direct the James Bond spin-off "Jinx", featuring Halle Berry as her character from "Die Another Day" (2002) co-starring with Michael Madsen and Javier Bardem. Neal Purvis and Robert Wade were scheduled to return to write the screenplay, and Wade described it as "a very atmospheric, Euro thriller, a Bourne-type movie." Producer Barbara Broccoli described it as the beginning of a "Winter Olympics"-style alternative to the conventional Bond films. However, the project was cancelled due to "creative differences" between Eon Productions and MGM and in order to focus on the reboot of the series with "Casino Royale" (2006).


title: Stephen Frears

text: In 2003, Frears returned to directing for television with "The Deal" (2003), which depicts an alleged deal between Tony Blair and Gordon Brown over which of them should become leader of the Labour Party in 1994. Michael Sheen portrayed Tony Blair to great acclaim. In 2005, Frears directed the British theatre comedy "Mrs Henderson Presents" starring Judi Dench, Bob Hoskins. The film was praised for its performances by Dench and Hoskins with Dench receiving an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress.


title: Stephen Frears

text: Frears next film project was "The Queen" (2006), a film that depicts the death of Princess Diana on 31 August 1997 and its reaction from the Monarchy, and the public. The film premiered at the Venice Film Festival where Mirren won Best Actress and Peter Morgan won Best Screenplay. Frears was nominated for the Golden Lion. When released nationally within the United States, the film achieved immense critical acclaim, box-office success, and awards. At the Academy Awards, Frears himself received his second Academy Award nomination for best direction, and actor Helen Mirren won numerous awards for playing the title role including the Academy Award for Best Actress.


title: Stephen Frears

text: Frears holds the "David Lean Chair in Fiction Direction" at the National Film and Television School in Beaconsfield, where he teaches.


title: Stephen Frears

text: In 2013, Frears directed the drama, "Philomena" (2013) which was based on the 2009 book "The Lost Child of Philomena Lee" by journalist Martin Sixsmith based on the true story of Philomena Lee's 50-year search for her forcibly adopted son and Sixsmith's efforts to help her find him. The film starred Judi Dench and Steve Coogan. The film premiered at the 70th Venice International Film Festival to great acclaim and writers Jeff Pope and Steve Coogan won the best screenplay award for the film. The film won the People's Choice Award Runner-Up prize at the 2013 Toronto International Film Festival. The film was nominated for four Oscars at the 86th Academy Awards: Best Picture, Best Adapted Screenplay, Best Actress (for Dench), and Best Original Score. It was also nominated for four British Academy Film Awards and three Golden Globe Awards. The same year, HBO released his television drama "Muhammad Ali's Greatest Fight," starring Christopher Plummer and Frank Langella, which depicts the United States Supreme Court deliberation over banning Muhammad Ali from boxing for refusing to serve in the US Army during the Vietnam War.


title: Stephen Frears

text: His biopic of disgraced cycling champion Lance Armstrong, "The Program", starring Ben Foster, was premiered in the 2015 Toronto International Film Festival. Many of Frears' films are based on stories of living persons, but he has never sought to meet any of his subjects. National Life Stories conducted an oral history interview (C1316/07) with Stephen Frears in 2008 for its The Legacy of the English Stage Company collection held by the British Library.


title: Stephen Frears

text: In 2016, Frears directed the film, "Florence Foster Jenkins", starring Meryl Streep, as the title character, a New York heiress known and aspiring opera singer despite her poor singing abilities. Hugh Grant plays her manager and long-time companion, St. Clair Bayfield. Other cast members include Simon Helberg, Rebecca Ferguson, and Nina Arianda. The film was a critical and commercial success with many praising Streep and Grant for their performances. At the 89th Academy Awards, it was nominated for Best Costume Design and earned Streep her 20th nomination for Best Actress. It received four Golden Globe nominations, including Best Picture in a Comedy or Musical. In 2017, Frears reunited with Judi Dench, this time in "Victoria & Abdul", about the real-life relationship between Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom and her Indian Muslim servant Abdul Karim. The film also stars Ali Fazal, Michael Gambon, Eddie Izzard, Tim Pigott-Smith (in his final film role), and Adeel Akhtar. The film had its world premiere at the 74th Venice Film Festival, and was theatrically released on 15 September 2017 in the United Kingdom. It has grossed over $65 million worldwide.


title: Stephen Frears

text: In 2018, Frears returned to the limited series with "A Very English Scandal" which premiered on BBC One and later on Amazon Prime. The project is a three-part 2018 British television comedy-drama miniseries based on John Preston's 2016 book of the same name. It is a dramatisation of the 1976–1979 Jeremy Thorpe scandal and more than 15 years of events leading up to it. The series stars Hugh Grant as Jeremy Thorpe, and Ben Whishaw as Norman Scott. The limited series gained great acclaim in both the United Kingdom and the United States. On Rotten Tomatoes, the series holds an approval rating of 97% based on 64 reviews, with an average rating of 9.05/10. Rotten Tomatoes's critical consensus reads, "Hugh Grant and Ben Whishaw impress in "A Very English Scandal", an equally absorbing and appalling look at British politics and society". Grant received Primetime Emmy Award, Screen Actors Guild Award, Golden Globe Award, British Academy Television Award, and Critics Choice Award nominations for his performance while Whishaw earned a Emmy, and BAFTA win.


title: Stephen Frears

text: In 1968, Frears married Mary-Kay Wilmers, with whom he had two sons, Sam and Will Frears (a stage and film director). Frears left Wilmers while she was pregnant with their second son Will. They lived on Gloucester Crescent in Camden Town. The couple divorced in the early 1970s. The live-in nanny that Wilmers hired in the early 1980s, Nina Stibbe, wrote letters home describing the North London literati life; these were compiled and published, and turned into a 2016 TV series, "Love, Nina".


title: Stephen Frears

text: Early in his career, Frears made a programme featuring the band the Scaffold and is name-checked ("Mr Frears had sticky-out ears...") in their hit song "Lily the Pink".


title: Stephen Frears

text: A convinced republican, in April 2015, Frears was one of several celebrities who endorsed the parliamentary candidacy of the Green Party's Caroline Lucas at the 2015 general election.


title: Stephen Frears

text: In December 2019, along with 42 other leading cultural figures, Frears signed a letter endorsing the Labour Party under Jeremy Corbyn's leadership in the 2019 general election. The letter stated that "Labour's election manifesto under Jeremy Corbyn's leadership offers a transformative plan that prioritises the needs of people and the planet over private profit and the vested interests of a few."


title: Stephen Frears

text: Over his distinguished career, Frears has amassed numerous awards and nominations, including two Academy Award nominations, four Primetime Emmy Award nominations (one win), a Golden Globe Award nomination, and 17 British Academy of Film and Television Arts Award nominations (three wins).


title: Stephen Frears

text: In 1990, Frears earned his first Academy Award nomination for directing the film "The Grifters". In 2006, he earned his second nomination for "The Queen". At the Primetime Emmy Awards, he was nominated for "Fail Safe" (2000), "Muhammad Ali's Greatest Fight" (2013), and "A Very English Scandal" (2019), before winning for "State of the Union" (2019). He has also been acknowledged by the Cannes, Berlin, Venice, and Toronto film festivals.


title: George Friedman

text: George Friedman (, born February 1, 1949) is a Hungarian-born U.S. geopolitical forecaster, author, and strategist on international affairs. He is the founder and chairman of "Geopolitical Futures", an online publication that analyzes and forecasts the course of global events. Prior to founding Geopolitical Futures, he was chairman of its predecessor Stratfor, the private intelligence publishing and consulting firm he founded in 1996.


title: George Friedman

text: Friedman was born in Budapest, Hungary in 1949 to Jewish parents who survived the Holocaust. His family fled Hungary when he was a child to escape the Communist regime as refugees, settling first in a camp for displaced persons in Austria and then emigrating to the United States. Friedman describes his family's story as "a very classic story of refugees making a new life in America." He grew up in New York City. Friedman received a B.A. at the City College of New York, where he majored in political science, and a Ph.D. in government at Cornell University.


title: George Friedman

text: After the collapse of the Soviet Union, he studied potential for a Japan-U.S. conflict and co-authored with his wife "The Coming War with Japan" in 1991.


title: George Friedman

text: In 1996, Friedman founded Stratfor, a private intelligence and forecasting company, and served as the company's CEO and Chief Intelligence Officer. Stratfor's head office is in Austin, Texas. He resigned from Stratfor in May 2015. That year, he founded Geopolitical Futures.


title: George Friedman

text: Friedman's reputation as a forecaster of geopolitical events led "The New York Times" magazine to comment, in a profile, "There is a temptation, when you are around George Friedman, to treat him like a Magic 8-Ball."


title: George Friedman

text: In "The Next Decade", Friedman argues how the U.S. administrations of the 2010s will need to create regional power balances, some of which have been disturbed. Friedman conceptualizes successful U.S. management of world affairs not by directly enforcing countries, but by creating competing relationships, which offset one another, in the world's different regions. For example, in the past, Iraq balanced Iran, and currently Japan balances China. Friedman asserts this is the decade where the U.S. as a power must mature to manage its power and balance as an unintended empire and republic.


title: George Friedman

text: Friedman's latest book was released in 2020 by Doubleday. While originally scheduled to be released in January 2018, it was delayed six times before being released in 2020. The working title was "The New American Century: Crisis, Endurance, and the Future of the United States", but has subsequently been changed to "The Storm Before the Calm: America's Discord, the Coming Crisis of the 2020s, and the Triumph Beyond".


title: George Friedman

text: Friedman is married to Meredith Friedman (née LeBard), has four children, and lives in Austin, Texas. He and his wife have co-authored several publications, including "The Coming War with Japan".


title: Murad V

text: Murad V (; ; 21 September 1840 – 29 August 1904) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire who reigned from 30 May to 31 August 1876. The son of Abdulmejid I, he supported the conversion of the government to a constitutional monarchy. His uncle Abdulaziz had succeeded Abdulmejid to the throne and had attempted to name his own son as heir to the throne, which spurred Murad to participate in the overthrow of his uncle. However, his own frail physical and mental health caused his reign to be unstable and Murad V was deposed in favor of his half-brother Abdul Hamid II after only 93 days.


title: Murad V

text: Murad V was born as Şehzade Mehmed Murad on 21 September 1840 in the Çırağan Palace in Istanbul. His father was Sultan Abdulmejid I, son of Sultan Mahmud II and Bezmiâlem Sultan. His mother was Şevkefza Kadın, an ethnic Georgian.


title: Murad V

text: In September 1847, aged seven, he was ceremoniously circumcised together with his younger half-brother, Şehzade Abdul Hamid.


title: Murad V

text: Murad was educated in the palace. His tutors included Toprik Süleyman Efendi, who taught him the Quran, Ferrik Efendi, who taught him Ottoman Turkish language, Sheikh Hafız Efendi, who taught him Hadith (the traditions of Muhammad), Monsieur Gardet, who taught him French, and Callisto Guatelli and Italian Lombardi, who taught him to play piano.


title: Murad V

text: After Abdulaziz ascended the throne after the death of Sultan Abdulmejid in 1861, Murad became the heir to the throne. He spent most of his time at his farmhouse in Kurbağalıdere which Abdulaziz had allocated to him. His family used to spend their winters in the crown prince's apartments located in the Dolmabahçe Palace and the Nisbetiye Mansion.


title: Murad V

text: He participated in the visits of Abdulaziz to Egypt in 1863 and to Europe in 1867. While he was appreciated by the European rulers for his kindness, his uncle, who was uncomfortable with this, had planned to send him back to Istanbul. Napoleon III and Queen Victoria showed greater interest in Murad than in Abdulaziz. Moreover, special invitations and excursions were organized for the crown prince.


title: Murad V

text: He frequently communicated with the New Ottomans, who wanted a constitutional regime. Şinasi, whom he met frequently, exchanged ideas with Namık Kemal and Ziya Pasha on constitutionalism, democracy and freedom. Through Ziya Pasha and his private physician Kapoleon Efendi, he also communicated with Midhat Pasha, the leading statesman of the Ottoman Tanzimat era and leader of the opposition group, which was dissatisfied with Sultan Abdulaziz's rule.


title: Murad V

text: Murad was the first member of the Ottoman dynasty to become a member of the Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons of Turkey. On 20 October 1872, Murad was secretly inducted into the lodge, sponsored by his chamberlain Seyyid Bey. Murad rose through the ranks in the lodge. At one point he proposed establishing an independent Ottoman lodge to be named Envar-ı Şarkiye, "Eastern Lights", with its ritual conducted in Turkish, but the plan was never realized.


title: Murad V

text: Sultan Abdulaziz tried to change the succession system in favor of his own son Şehzade Yusuf Izzeddin. For this purpose Abdulaziz set out to mollify different pressure groups and have his son gain popularity among them. During the 1867 visit to Europe, rumors spread that contrary to the rules of protocol Abdulaziz arranged Izzeddin's reception in Paris and London before the official heir, Prince Murad. When the conservative Mahmud Nedim Pasha became the Grand vizier in September 1871 he lent his support to Abdulaziz's plans. To further legitimize his plans, Abdulaziz tactically supported a change to primogeniture in the Muhammad Ali dynasty of Egypt. By granting primogeniture to Isma'il Pasha in 1866, Abdulaziz was clearly seeking to create a positive climate of opinion about a change in favour of his own son.


title: Murad V

text: As a result, Murad cooperated with the constitutionalist circles and took part in the deposition of Abdulaziz. On the night of 29–30 May 1876, the committee led by the Midhat Pasha and the Minister of War, Hüseyin Avni Pasha, deposed Abdulaziz and raised Murad to the throne.


title: Murad V

text: Though he successfully acceded to the throne, he was not capable of maintaining his place. He struggled to appear normal in his new role, so at odds with his previously quiet life of dabbling in music. His weak nerves, combined with alcoholism, led to a mental breakdown. The death of his deposed uncle only days after his accession stunned him, and that, combined with the distress over the abrupt manner in which he was brought to the throne and the demands besieging him as ruler, led to anxiety that the world interpreted as resulting from having ordered his uncle's murder.


title: Murad V

text: Murad began to manifest bizarre behavior that preceded his complete collapse. The government leaders called in the Viennese specialist in psychiatric disorders, Dr. Max Leidesdorf, who concluded that the new Sultan could make a complete recovery with three months' treatment in a clinic, which the other Ottoman leaders were unwilling to attempt. A mentally competent prince on the throne formed an essential component of their plans to implement reforms with due legitimacy. Murad's younger brother and heir to the throne, Abdul Hamid, however, appeared eminently healthy physically and mentally, and supportive of the leaders' plans to introduce parliamentary government.


title: Murad V

text: Securing the Şeyhülislam's ruling sanctioning Murad's dethronement, and Abdul Hamid's promise to proclaim a constitution, Midhat Pasha, and the Ottoman governing deposed him on 31 August 1876, after reigning for only ninety-three days on the grounds that he was mentally ill. After which his younger half-brother, Sultan Abdul Hamid II, ascended the throne. Murad was then confined to the Çırağan Palace, which Abdul Hamid did not allow him to leave.


title: Murad V

text: In confinement, Murad's consort Gevherriz Hanım worked with Nakşifend Kalfa, the hazinedar Dilberengiz, the eunuch Hüseyin Ağa, and Hüsnü Bey (who had been Second Secretary of Murad) to allow for a British physician to meet with Murad to ascertain Murad's mental fitness. When the physician arrived, Gevherriz served as translator. It is not clear how true this story is, and it is possible the physician was sent by freemasons rather than by the British.


title: Murad V

text: In 1877, some nine months into confinement, Murad regained his mental faculties. The first two years of his confinement in Çırağan witnessed three attempts by supporters to free him and restore him to the throne, but all three resulted only in Abdul Hamid's tightening the cordon that isolated Çırağan Palace from the city around it.


title: Murad V

text: On 20 May 1878, an attempt was made to liberate Murad from the Çırağan Palace and restore him to the throne. Murad's brothers, Şehzade Ahmed Kemaleddin and Şehzade Selim Süleyman, and sisters, Fatma Sultan and Seniha Sultan, and her husband Mahmud Celaleddin Pasha were involved in the plot. They all wanted to see the former Sultan on the throne. During the incident Ali Suavi, the radical political opponent of Abdul Hamid's authoritarian regime stormed the palace with a band of armed refugees from the recent Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878). Ottoman battleship "Mesudiye" was anchored offshore the palace to take Murad, and to announce his accession. However, he did not reach the battleship, Ali Suavi's men were unable to overcome the fierce resistance of the Beşiktaş police prefect, Hacı Hasan Pasha. The plot failed, and Ali Suavi and most of his men were killed. In the aftermath, security at the Çırağan Palace was tightened.


title: Murad V

text: His mental faculties restored, Murad lived out a far more benign existence than that attributed to him by the Western press. Reports through the years claimed that the former Sultan languished in prison, or escaped and was hiding, or lectured his brother on the Armenian troubles.


title: Murad V

text: After his mother's death in 1889, Murad focused all his love and attention on his children. Selaheddin became his companion in grief, and the two of them passed long hours together reminiscing about bygone days as well as speculating on the future. For some time father and son took an interest in the "Mesnevi", spending hours reciting verses from that work and taking great pleasure in doing so.


title: Murad V

text: At length, suffering from diabetes, Murad died at the Çırağan Palace on 29 August 1904. While his senior consort Mevhibe Kadın and his son Selahaddin reported that Murad was willing to be buried in the mausoleum of Yahya Efendi, Abdul Hamid did not approve of it. The next day, Murad's funeral was carried out without announcement and ceremony. His body was washed and shrouded in the Topkapı Palace, and was then taken to the Hidayet Mosque in Bahçekapı. After the funeral procession was held, he was buried next to his mother Şevkefza in the New Mosque, Istanbul.


title: Murad V

text: An important primary source about his life comes from the memoirs of one of his consorts, Filizten Hanım, written in the 1930s.


title: Murad V

text: Murad had learned both French and Arabic. He ordered and read books and magazines from France and was influenced by French culture. He played the piano and composed Western-style music. He was a liberal.


title: Murad V

text: Murad V's family is known to have spent nearly 20 years confined to Çırağan Palace, from Murad's deposition in late June 1876 to his death in late August 1904.


title: Visual kei

text: Some Western sources consider visual kei a music genre, with its sound usually related to glam rock, punk rock and heavy metal. However, visual kei acts play various genres, including those considered by some as unrelated to rock such as electronic, pop, etc. Other sources, including members of the movement themselves, state that it is not a music genre and that the freedom of expression, fashion, and participation in the related subculture is what exemplifies the use of the term.


title: Visual kei

text: The term "visual kei" was derived from one of X Japan's slogans, "Psychedelic Violence Crime of Visual Shock", seen on the cover of their second studio album "Blue Blood" (1989). This derivation is credited as being coined by Seiichi Hoshiko, the founding editor of "Shoxx" magazine, which was founded in 1990 as the first publication devoted to the subject. However, he explained in a 2018 interview with "JRock News" that visual kei was technically coined, or at least inspired by, X Japan's lead guitarist hide. Hoshiko also said that at the time they were called , "but it simply felt... too cheap... Even though X Japan was a big band and people used the term 'Okeshou kei' to describe them, the term was still lacking substance, I didn't like the term at all! Because of this, I tried to remind all the writers to not use this term as 'They are not okeshou kei, they are visual-shock kei'. From there, it went from 'Visual-shock kei' to 'Visual-kei' to 'V-kei'. After we spread the word, fans naturally abbreviated it to 'V-kei'. The Japanese love to abbreviate everything as a matter of fact." Hoshiko considers visual kei a distinctive Japanese music genre and defined it "as the music itself along with all the visual aspects of it."


title: Visual kei

text: Visual kei emerged in the 1980s underground scene, pioneered by bands such as X Japan, Dead End, Buck-Tick, D'erlanger, and Color. Japanese pop culture website "Real Sound" wrote that similarities between the appearances and behaviour of the founders of visual kei and members of the "yankī" delinquent subculture are often noted. The movement designated a new form of Japanese rock music influenced by Western hard rock and glam rock/metal acts like David Bowie, Kiss, Twisted Sister, Hanoi Rocks, Mötley Crüe, as well as punk-gothic rock and was established in the late 1980s and early 1990s. In "The George Mason Review", Megan Pfeifle described the movement as being roughly divided into two generations, with the first in three transitional eras, of which the first era lasted just over a decade.


title: Visual kei

text: In the late 1980s and until the mid-1990s, visual kei received increasing popularity throughout Japan, when album sales from such bands started to reach record numbers. The first band with recordings that achieved notable success was Dead End, whose independent album "Dead Line" (1986) sold over 20,000 copies, and whose major label debut album "Ghost of Romance" (1987) released by Victor Entertainment reached No. 14 on the Oricon Albums Chart. That same year, Buck-Tick released their major debut "Sexual XXXXX!" through the same record label. Dead End even had two albums released by American label Metal Blade Records. In 1990, D'erlanger's second album "Basilisk" reached No. 5 on the Oricon chart, but they and Dead End both disbanded that same year.


title: Visual kei

text: In 1988 and 1989, Buck-Tick and X Japan started to gain mainstream success that continues to present-day. Buck Tick's single "Just One More Kiss" entered No. 6 on the Oricon Singles Chart, while their studio albums "Seventh Heaven" (1988) and "Taboo" (1989) charted at No. 3 and 1 respectively and were the first Japanese rock band to hold a concert at the Tokyo Dome. They continue to have success, with nearly all of their subsequent albums reaching the top ten on the charts. X Japan's first album, the independently released "Vanishing Vision", reached No. 19 in 1988, making them the first indie band to appear on the main Oricon Albums Chart. Their second and major debut album "Blue Blood" (1989) reached number 6 and has since sold 712,000 copies. Their third and best-selling album "Jealousy" was released in 1991, topped the charts and sold over 1 million copies. They went on to release two more number one studio albums, "Art of Life" (1993) and "Dahlia" (1996). In 1992, X Japan tried to launch an attempt to enter the American market, even signing with Atlantic Records for a US album, but this ultimately did not happen.


title: Visual kei

text: Two record labels formed in 1986, Extasy Records (Tokyo) and Free-Will (Osaka), were instrumental in promoting the visual kei scene. Extasy was created by X Japan drummer and leader Yoshiki and signed bands, not limited to visual kei acts, that would go on to make marks on the Japanese music scene, including , Tokyo Yankees and Ladies Room. Luna Sea and Glay, who both went on to sell millions of records, with Glay being one of Japan's best-selling musical acts, had their first albums released by Extasy in 1991 and 1994 respectively. Free-Will was founded by Color vocalist and leader Dynamite Tommy, and while at the time not as popular as Extasy, it had many moderately successful acts, such as By-Sexual and Kamaitachi.


title: Visual kei

text: Pfeifle described the second transition era as beginning in 1993 with bands such as L'Arc-en-Ciel, Glay (although formed in 1988, their first album was released in 1994) and Malice Mizer. They gained mainstream awareness, although they were not as commercially successful, except for L'Arc-en-Ciel and Glay whose later huge success was accompanied by a drastic change in their appearance and are often not associated with visual kei. Around 1995, visual kei bands experienced a booming success in the general population, which lasted for four years. According to Pfeifle, the third transition era began by bands such as La'cryma Christi, Penicillin and Rouage achieving moderate success. At the time, "the big four of visual kei" were Malice Mizer, La'cryma Christi, Shazna and Fanatic Crisis. In 1998, Pierrot released their major debut single, and Dir en grey's three major label singles were released with the help of Yoshiki the following year. They were called "the big two" in the scene at that time.


title: Visual kei

text: Around the early 1990s, a visual kei scene that placed more emphasize on music rather than fashion arouse in the city of Nagoya, and as such was later dubbed Nagoya kei. Silver-Rose (formed in 1989) and Kuroyume (formed in 1991) were described as the "Nagoya big two" in the underground scene, and with Laputa (formed in 1993), are credited with "creating the early Nagoya kei style." During the 1990s, several other conceptual subgenres like Eroguro kei (notably represented by Cali Gari), Angura kei (underground style, wearing traditional kimono or Japanese uniforms) and Ouji kei or Kodona kei (prince style or boy style, notably Plastic Tree) emerged.


title: Visual kei

text: By the late 1990s, the mainstream popularity of visual kei was declining; Luna Sea went on a year-long hiatus in 1997 before disbanding in 2000, X Japan disbanded at the end of 1997 and one year later their lead guitarist hide died. In 1999, Malice Mizer's drummer Kami died after the departure of singer Gackt, who with a toned down appearance became one of the most popular and successful visual kei solo singers, and L'Arc-en-Ciel publicly distanced themselves from the movement (although, in 2012 they were partly promoted internationally as a visual kei band). In 1998, "Billboard"s Steve McClure commented that "To a certain extent, hide's death means the end of an era, X were the first generation of visual kei bands, but the novelty has worn off. For the next generation of bands, it's like: "That's it. The torch has been passed to us"". As other bands could not meet financial expectations, most major companies backed out of the movement, and it became an underground style often associated with the rebellious generation, non-conforming to proper society.


title: Visual kei

text: A second generation emerged in small visual kei-specific live houses managed by record companies like PS Company (Free-Will) and Maverick DC Group. The difference between the first and second generation is that the second; has no straightforward music style, ranging from metal to pop, but still seemingly focused on heavy rock genres; the fashion and gender ambiguities are of central importance. Although economically not very significant in the Japanese music market, it became the first Japanese music to succeed on an international scale.


title: Visual kei

text: Notable newer visual kei bands include Dir en grey, The Gazette, Alice Nine, D'espairsRay and Girugamesh, as well as solo performer Miyavi, who have all performed overseas. Veterans of the scene also established new acts, such as Malice Mizer's Mana with his band Moi dix Mois and three members of Pierrot forming Angelo. In 2007, visual kei was revitalized as Luna Sea performed a one-off performance and X Japan officially reunited with a new single and a world tour. With these developments, visual kei bands enjoyed a boost in public awareness, with acts formed around 2004 having been described by some media as . From this generation the subgenre emerged, where the musicians produce upbeat pop rock and wear bright colorful attire. Pioneers of this style include Baroque, Kra, Charlotte and An Cafe.


title: Visual kei

text: Although the first international concert by a visual kei act was held in Taiwan by Luna Sea in 1999, it was not until 2002 that many visual kei bands started to perform worldwide (United States, in Europe from 2004), with the initial interest coming from Japanese-themed conventions like A-Kon. In the first five years Dir en grey was especially well received. In 2007, the Jrock Revolution event was held in Los Angeles and featured visual kei bands. Although some bands like The Gazette have played at Tokyo Dome (not at full capacity), the majority of acts play in much smaller venues like Shibuya O-East. In 2009 the V-Rock Festival at Makuhari Messe was reported as the "world's largest Visual Kei music festival" gathering over 50 "visual artists," although this included some Western acts like Marilyn Manson. A second V-Rock Festival was held in 2011 at Saitama Super Arena.


title: Visual kei

text: Dead End officially reunited in 2009 and La'cryma Christi (which disbanded in 2007) reunited for an anniversary tour in 2010. Kiyoharu announced the reformations of both Kuroyume and Sads, and Luna Sea reunited and began a world tour.


title: Visual kei

text: As an epilogue to their 25th anniversary, Luna Sea hosted a rock festival titled Lunatic Fest on 27 and 28 June 2015, with an estimated 60,000 fans attending. Held at Makuhari Messe, there were three stages and 12 artists, most visual kei acts including X Japan, Dead End, Dir en grey, Siam Shade and Tokyo Yankees the first night, and Aion, Buck-Tick, D'erlanger, Glay and Mucc the second night.


title: Visual kei

text: A large three-day visual kei rock festival titled Visual Japan Summit was held at Makuhari Messe between October 14–16, 2016. Luna Sea hosted another two-day Lunatic Fest at Makuhari Messe on June 23 and 24, 2018.


title: Visual kei

text: According to sales figures from online music store CDJapan, some of the internationally popular visual kei acts on the late 2010s include The Gazette, Kamijo, Nocturnal Bloodlust, Versailles, Jupiter, Mejibray, lynch., Dimlim, Matenrou Opera, Miyavi, D, Diaura, Dadaroma, Initial'L, A9, Buck-Tick, Yoshiki, Hyde, Luna Sea, Mucc, Hizaki and Gackt.


title: Visual kei

text: In 2021, visual kei journalist Chiaki Fujitani noted how newer acts were combining visual kei with other elements to create originality. She cited Nocturnal Bloodlust's muscular vocalist Hiro for defying the usual delicate appearance of visual kei musicians, 0.1g no Gosan for utilizing tropes of underground idols, such as playing tug of war with fans during concerts, Choke for their avant-garde form of rap metal, and former D'espairsRay drummer Tsukasa Mogamigawa for being the first visual kei "enka" singer.


title: Visual kei

text: There has been criticism directed at newer visual kei bands for having lost the spirit of their forefathers by copying each other in design and sound, and becoming all the same. As far back as 1998, Neil Strauss reported that to visual kei bands "after X" makeup and outrageous looks became "more important than music." Several musicians have expressed their discontent; in 2008, Kirito (Pierrot, Angelo) said "now it's more like people are dressing up a certain way because they want to be visual kei or look visual kei. They are doing it to look like others instead of doing it to look different. This is obviously very different from when we started out more than ten years ago," while Sugizo (Luna Sea) stated in 2010 that "they cannot make good sounds and music is more like a hobby for them. I cannot feel their soul in the music."


title: Visual kei

text: Although almost from the newer generation himself, Dir en grey bassist Toshiya said in 2010 "to be honest, when we first started and we were wearing a lot of makeup on stage and stuff, there were a lot of bands doing that at the time in Japan and people thought it was cool. But not anymore, ha ha." and added "the music was so unique, too – bands like X Japan. At that time, there weren't any two bands that sounded alike; these days everyone sounds exactly the same." Kenzi (Kamaitachi, The Dead Pop Stars, Anti Feminism) commented in 2009 that "back in the day, there were bands, but people would try to do things differently. Nowadays, there's one band and everyone copies off of them," with Free-Will founder and Color frontman Tommy concluding with "I don't think our breed of visual kei exists anymore." Kiyoharu (Kuroyume, Sads) in 2013 said that although him, Ryuichi (Luna Sea) and Hyde (L'Arc-en-Ciel) were influenced by Morrie (Dead End), they "sublimated each other" inventing something new, but younger generation artists are more imitative, making in Morrie's perspective "Manet of his Manet's Manet". Morrie in the same interview added that the problem with new visual kei bands is that "they're established as a genre... well, there's probably a part of it that's business-wise, but it wouldn't be fun if it got stiff. I would like to see people who are trying to break through that area. It doesn't matter how good you are, whether you're doing it on the visual kei route or not, it's something fundamental."


title: Visual kei

text: "Time Out Tokyo"'s Bunny Bissoux concluded in 2015 that the movement "today is basically a parallel of the J-pop idol system" and "that originally prided itself on being different, it now attracts those who want to 'look' visual kei. Genuine originality (in the music, at least) seems to be dying out." In 2018, Seiichi Hoshiko said that he was worried about this trend's effect on the movement's future.


title: Visual kei

text: Visual kei has enjoyed popularity among independent underground projects, as well as artists achieving mainstream success, with influences from Western phenomena, such as glam, goth and cyberpunk. The music performed encompasses a large variety of genres, i.e. punk, metal, pop and electronica.


title: Visual kei

text: Magazines published regularly in Japan with visual kei coverage are "Arena 37 °C", "Cure", "Fool's Mate Express", "Shoxx", "Shock Wave", "Rock and Read" among others. The popularity and awareness of visual kei groups outside Japan has seen an increase in recent years, mostly through internet and Japanese anime, shown for example by German magazines "Peach" (discontinued in 2011) and "Koneko", as well European record label Gan-Shin. The biggest fan communities are found in United States, Germany, Poland, Russia, France and Brazil and to some extent Finland, Chile and Sweden.


title: Visual kei

text: From these international youth subcultures and influence emerged bands like Cinema Bizarre, but they hesitate to consider themselves as visual kei because are not ethnically Japanese and instead as glam rock. Despite the existence of visually similar music acts in the West such as Marilyn Manson, Tokio Hotel and Lady Gaga, Pfeifle said that the androgynous look of visual kei bands often has a repulsive effect on Westerners.


title: Visual kei

text: According to the musicologists, the Lacanist psychoanalysis of the subculture indicates that the fascination with the singer's voice (the lack of understanding amplifies the effect), as well ineffable and unfulfillable desire, are what attracts most of the (predominantly female) fans to the groups on an international scale. The female fans () show a behavioral pattern while attending the concerts, and there are several "furi" (movements) like "tesensu" (arm fan), "gyakudai" (reversed dive), "hedoban" (headbang), "saku" (spread hands in the air). The explicit fan fiction and homoerotic acts on the stage by some musicians called "fan sabisu" (fan service; a sexual term borrowed from manga culture), are related to the Lacanian man's type of desire (to be recognized by the other, desire of the other), i.e. the female fans do not desire the musician himself, but his desire; a kind of cultural social training ground for the inescapable process of learning how to desire.


title: Mohs surgery

text: Mohs surgery, developed in 1938 by a general surgeon, Frederic E. Mohs, is microscopically controlled surgery used to treat both common and rare types of skin cancer. During the surgery, after each removal of tissue and while the patient waits, the tissue is examined for cancer cells. That examination dictates the decision for additional tissue removal. Mohs surgery is the gold standard method for obtaining complete margin control during removal of a skin cancer (complete circumferential peripheral and deep margin assessment - CCPDMA) using frozen section histology. CCPDMA or Mohs surgery allows for the removal of a skin cancer with very narrow surgical margin and a high cure rate.


title: Mohs surgery

text: The cure rate with Mohs surgery cited by most studies is between 97% and 99.8% for primary basal-cell carcinoma, the most common type of skin cancer. Mohs procedure is also used for squamous cell carcinoma, but with a lower cure rate. Recurrent basal-cell cancer has a lower cure rate with Mohs surgery, more in the range of 94%. It has been used in the removal of melanoma-in-situ (cure rate 77% to 98% depending on surgeon), and certain types of melanoma (cure rate 52%).


title: Mohs surgery

text: Other indications for Mohs surgery include dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans, keratoacanthoma, spindle cell tumors, sebaceous carcinomas, microcystic adnexal carcinoma, merkel cell carcinoma, Paget's disease of the breast, atypical fibroxanthoma, and leiomyosarcoma. Because the Mohs procedure is micrographically controlled, it provides precise removal of the cancerous tissue, while healthy tissue is spared. Mohs surgery can also be more cost effective than other surgical methods, when considering the cost of surgical removal and separate histopathological analysis. However, Mohs surgery should be reserved for the treatment of skin cancers in anatomic areas where tissue preservation is of utmost importance (face, neck, hands, lower legs,


title: Mohs surgery

text: Mohs surgery is most commonly used on the head and neck, where its use conserves normal tissue and decreases the risk of recurrence. For these reasons, it is also considered for skin cancers on hands, feet, ankles, shins, nipples, or genitals. Mohs surgery should not be used on the trunk or extremities for uncomplicated, non-melanoma skin cancer of less than one centimeter in size. On these parts of the body, the risks exceed the benefits of the procedure.


title: Mohs surgery

text: In 2012, the American Academy of Dermatology published appropriate use criteria (AUC) on Mohs micrographic surgery in collaboration with the following organizations: American College of Mohs Surgery; American Society for Mohs Surgery; and the American Society for Dermatologic Surgery Association. More than 75 physicians contributed to the development of the Mohs surgery AUC, which were published in the Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology and Dermatologic Surgery.


title: Mohs surgery

text: The Australasian College of Dermatologists, in concert with the Australian Mohs Surgery Committee, has also developed evidence based guidelines for Mohs Surgery.


title: Mohs surgery

text: The Mohs procedure is a pathology sectioning method that allows for the complete examination of the surgical margin. It is different from the standard bread loafing technique of sectioning, where random samples of the surgical margin are examined.


title: Mohs surgery

text: The procedure is usually performed in a physician's office under local anesthetic. A small scalpel is utilized to cut around the visible tumor. A very small surgical margin is utilized, usually with 1 to 1.5 mm of "free margin" or uninvolved skin. The amount of free margin removed is much less than the usual 4 to 6 mm required for the standard excision of skin cancers. After each surgical removal of tissue, the specimen is processed, cut on the cryostat and placed on slides, stained with H&E and then read by the Mohs surgeon/pathologist who examines the sections for cancerous cells. If cancer is found, its location is marked on the map (drawing of the tissue) and the surgeon removes the indicated cancerous tissue from the patient. This procedure is repeated until no further cancer is found. The vast majority of cases are then reconstructed by the Mohs surgeon. Some surgeons utilize 100 micrometres between each section, and some utilize 200 micrometres between the first two sections, and 100 micrometres between subsequent sections (10 crank of tissue set at 6 to 10 micrometre is roughly equal to 100 micrometres if one allows for physical compression due to the blade).


title: Mohs surgery

text: The trend in skin surgery over the last 10 years has been to continue anticoagulants while performing skin surgery. Most cutaneous bleeding can be controlled with electrocautery, especially bipolar forceps. The benefit gained by ease of hemostasis is weighed against the risk of stopping anticoagulants; and it is generally preferred to continue anticoagulants.


title: Mohs surgery

text: Few specialists dispute the cure rate for Mohs, especially pathologists familiar with the procedure. Extensive studies performed by Mohs involving thousands of patients with both fixed tissue and fresh tissue cases have been reported in the literature. Other surgeons repeated the studies with also thousands of cases, with nearly the same results.


title: Mohs surgery

text: These are only a small number of cases reported by Mohs, and numerous other articles by other authors have shown tremendous cure rates for primary basal-cell carcinoma. Studies by Smeet, et al. showing a Mohs cure rate of about 95%, and another study in Sweden showing Mohs cure rate of about 94%.


title: Mohs surgery

text: Some of Mohs' data revealed a cure rate as low as 96%, but these were often very large tumors, previously treated by other modalities. Some authors claim that their 5-year cure rate for primary basal-cell cancer exceeded 99% while other noted more conservative cure rate of 97%. The quoted cure rate for Mohs surgery on previously treated basal-cell cancer is about 94%. Reasons for variations in the cure rate include the following.


title: Mohs surgery

text: Mohs micrographic surgery is the most reliable form of margin control; utilising a unique frozen section histology processing technique - allowing for the complete examination of 100% of the surgical margin. The method is unique in that it is a simple way to handle soft, hard-to-cut tissue. It is superior to serial bread loafing at a 0.1 mm interval for improved false negative error rate, requiring less time, tissue handling, and fewer glass slides mounted.


title: Mohs surgery

text: The clinical quotes for cure rate of Mohs surgery are from 97% to 99.8% after 5 years for newly diagnosed basal-cell cancer (BCC), decreasing to 94% or less for recurrent basal-cell cancer. Radiation oncologists quote cure rates from 90 to 95% for BCCs less than 1 or 2 cm, and 85 to 90% for BCCs larger than 1 or 2 cm. The Surgical excision cure rate varies from 90 to 95% for wide margins (4 to 6 mm) and small tumors, to as low as 70% for narrow margins and large tumors.


title: Mohs surgery

text: Some commentators argue that skin cancer surgery, including Mohs surgery, is overutilised as rates of skin cancer surgery are increasing worldwide. It is unclear if this relates to higher rates of skin cancer, increased vigilance in diagnosis, and increased availability of the procedure, or patient and doctor preferences. The incidence of Mohs surgery increased significantly over the decade between 2004 and 2014. In a sample of 100 Mohs surgeries, the total cost ranged from US$474 to US$7,594, with the higher costs for hospital-based complex procedures. In Australia, the direct out of pocket cost to patients may vary from $0 to $4000. When the non-Mohs surgery is performed by multiple doctors including pathologists the costs may be increased further. This is especially true when the cancer is incompletely excised and requires repeat surgery.


title: Mohs surgery

text: Originally, Mohs used a chemical paste (an escharotic agent) to cauterize and kill the tissue. It was made of zinc chloride and bloodroot (the root of the plant "Sanguinaria canadensis", which contains the alkaloid sanguinarine). The original ingredients were 40.0 g Stibnite, 10.0 g Sanguinaria canadensis, and 34.5 ml of saturated zinc chloride solution.


title: Mohs surgery

text: This paste is similar to black salve or "Hoxsey's paste" (see Hoxsey Therapy), a fraudulent patent medicine, but its usage is different. Hoxsey used the paste for long periods, a harmful practice that was rapidly discredited. Mohs left the paste on the wound only overnight, and the following day, the cancer and surrounding skin would be anesthetized and the cancer removed. The specimen was then excised, and the tissue examined under the microscope. If cancer remained, more paste was applied, and the patient would return the following day. Later, local anesthetic and frozen section histopathology applied to fresh tissue allowed the procedure to be performed the same day, with less tissue destruction, and similar cure rate.


title: Kevin Plank

text: Kevin Audette Plank (born August 13, 1972) is an American billionaire businessman and philanthropist. Plank is the founder and executive chairman of Under Armour, a manufacturer of sportswear, footwear and accessories, based in Baltimore, Maryland. As of October 2021, his net worth was estimated at US$1.8 billion.


title: Kevin Plank

text: Plank, a Roman Catholic, grew up in Kensington, Maryland, a suburb of Washington D.C., the youngest of five brothers born to William and Jayne (née Harper) Plank. His father was a prominent Maryland land developer. His mother is a former mayor of Kensington, who went on to direct the Office of Legislative and Intergovernmental Affairs at the United States Department of State under President Ronald Reagan.


title: Kevin Plank

text: Plank grew up playing youth football with the Maplewood Sports Association; a Maplewood team has appeared in Under Armour commercials. He left the prestigious Georgetown Preparatory School, a Catholic school, due to poor academic performance and behavioral issues, then went on to graduate from another Catholic school, St. John's College High School, in 1990. Afterward, he played football at Fork Union Military Academy for a year, trying to get the attention of NCAA Division I schools. He was not recruited by the top-tier collegiate football programs.


title: Kevin Plank

text: However, he went to University of Maryland, College Park and walked onto the team there. He graduated in 1996 with a bachelor's degree in business administration.


title: Kevin Plank

text: His roommate at Maryland was football player and professional wrestler Darren Drozdov. Following a 1999 in-ring accident which left Drozdov quadriplegic, Plank personally financed his customized wheelchair.


title: Kevin Plank

text: While at University of Maryland, Plank launched Cupid's Valentine, a seasonal business selling roses on Valentine's Day. Cupid's Valentine earned $3,000, which Plank used as seed money for Under Armour. He continued to use the "Cupid" name when he later launched his Cupid's Cup competition.


title: Kevin Plank

text: The idea that led to Under Armour was sparked while playing for the Maryland Terrapins; Plank said he was the "sweatiest guy on the football field". Frustrated by his cotton T-shirts' inability to keep him dry and comfortable, he searched for a material that would wick the sweat from his body. After graduating from Maryland, Plank searched for synthetic materials that would keep athletes dry. Using a mix of his own cash, credit cards, and a Small Business Administration loan, he launched the business. Plank tried several prototypes before deciding on the one he wanted to use.


title: Kevin Plank

text: Plank originally sought to call his new sportswear company Heart, but he could not trademark it. He also attempted to name his company Body Armor, but efforts to trademark that name were also unsuccessful. One day, his brother asked him, "How's that company you're working on … Under Armor?" The name stuck. Plank said he chose the British spelling "armour" because he "thought the phone number 888-4ARMOUR was much more compelling than 888-44ARMOR".


title: Kevin Plank

text: Plank initially ran the business from his grandmother's townhouse in Georgetown. Under Armour's first shirt was the #0037, which Plank sold from his car. He also asked his former teammates to try on the shirts, claiming that his alternative to a cotton T-shirt would enhance their performance on the field. As his friends moved on to play professionally, he would send them T-shirts, requesting that they pass them out to other players in their locker rooms. His first big team sale was to Georgia Tech. In 1996, Plank finished his first year selling shirts with $17,000 in sales.


title: Kevin Plank

text: A turning point for him came late in 1999, when Plank used nearly all of Under Armour's money, and employees agreed to go without pay for a few weeks, so the company could take out a $25,000 advertisement in "ESPN The Magazine". The ad resulted in $1 million in direct sales for the following year, and athletes and teams began buying the product. Plank's company reached $1 billion annual revenue for the first time in 2010, and Plank became a billionaire in 2011, when his net worth was estimated at $1.05 billion.


title: Kevin Plank

text: Between 2014 and 2016, Under Armour spent close to $1 billion to acquire makers of activity- and diet-tracking mobile apps. Many long-term employees questioned Plank's strategy and whether the company would produce a return on their investment. Plank spent hours in one-on-one conversations to try to persuade those employees. "It was important", Plank said, "that this not just be my decision.” The strategy was a success, earning the company the world's largest digital health-and-fitness community, with 150 million users. A few years later, some of these acquisitions would be divested by the next CEO.


title: Kevin Plank

text: As CEO, Plank oversaw a company that generated in annual revenue and employed about 15,800 people as of December 31, 2017.


title: Kevin Plank

text: Plank announced his departure as CEO in October 2019, and was succeeded on January 1, 2020, by Under Armour COO Patrik Frisk.


title: Kevin Plank

text: Plank bought the 630-acre historic Sagamore Farm in Baltimore County, Maryland, in 2007. The property was once owned by Alfred Gwynne Vanderbilt. The farm was the home to stallion Native Dancer, who went 21 for 22 during his racing career from 1952 to 1954. Plank has said he seeks to restore the farm and rejuvenate Maryland's horse racing tradition by raising a Triple Crown winning horse. On November 5, 2010, Sagamore Farms' Shared Account won the $2 million Breeders' Cup Filly & Mare Turf (GI). There are about 100 horses on Sagamore farm, with about 40 actively training as of July 2017.


title: Kevin Plank

text: Beginning in 2013, Plank's real estate firm, Sagamore Development, was leading a $5.5-billion mixed-use development project in Baltimore's Port Covington area. The company had acquired approximately 235 acres in the area and planned to build a mix of offices, residential areas, retail space, parks, boat launches and more.


title: Kevin Plank

text: Plank also founded the whiskey distillery Sagamore Spirit in 2013. He was initially approached about creating a vineyard, but being a whiskey enthusiast he asked his business partner to research whiskey. The limestone aquifer on Plank's farm produced water fit to distill whiskey, so Plank and business partner Bill McDermond founded Sagamore Spirit to restore Maryland's whiskey distilling tradition. Its first bottles were sold at stores in 2016.


title: Kevin Plank

text: Plank renovated the former Recreation Pier building in Fells Point, Baltimore. The building was originally built in 1914 to store port cargo and later served as a community center and studio for the television series ""; it closed in 1999. Following Plank's renovation, the building reopened as the Sagamore Pendry Hotel.


title: Kevin Plank

text: Plank donated $1 million through The Cupid Foundation to the Baltimore-based CollegeBound in 2016. The next year, his charitable arm funded 40 summer jobs for Cherry Hill, Baltimore, public school students in the maritime transport industry.


title: Kevin Plank

text: Plank is also active within the Baltimore and Washington, D.C., communities, as a member of the Greater Baltimore Committee and Greater Washington Partnership. He is also a member of the Board of Trustees for Living Classrooms, a Baltimore-Washington based non-profit organization dedicated to the hands-on education of young people using urban, natural and maritime environments as “living classrooms". Through his Cupid Foundation, Plank donated $5 million to help create the UA House at Fayette, an East Baltimore community center run by Living Classrooms.


title: Kevin Plank

text: Plank has been a long-time supporter of the University of Maryland's Robert H. Smith School of Business and Dingman Center for Entrepreneurship. In addition to sitting on the University's Board of Trustees, he played an integral role in the development of an endowment fund that the Dingman Center uses to invest in viable startup businesses. He is also responsible for the development of the Cupid's Cup business competition. The competition got its name from his “Cupid's Valentine” rose business he began while attending the University.


title: Kevin Plank

text: In November 2014, Plank pledged $25 million to the University of Maryland to be used for the proposed athletics and academic complex. The project has converted Cole Field House, the school's former basketball arena, into the football facility, a sports medicine center and student entrepreneurship lab. In 2015, Plank pledged $16 million to St. John's College High School in Washington, DC, to fund athletics, academics and entrepreneurship initiatives. Plank donated $1 million to the Archdiocese of Baltimore in 2016 to help 100 more children go to Catholic school.


title: Kevin Plank

text: Plank married Desiree Guerzon, in 2003. They have two children, and live in Lutherville, Maryland. As of February 2018, "Forbes" estimated his net worth at .


title: Kevin Plank

text: Before living in Lutherville, he lived in the Georgetown section of Washington, DC. His former home, when he put it up for sale, was the most expensive home on the market in Washington, DC.


title: Kevin Plank

text: According to the Federal Election Commission, Plank has donated to both major U.S. political parties and to individuals of both parties. On CNBC's "Halftime Report" in February 2017, Plank commented on Donald Trump's pro-business philosophy, saying the president was a "real asset" to the business community. Plank's comments drew criticism on social media. As some customers vowed to boycott the brand, three major endorsers—Stephen Curry, ballerina Misty Copeland, and actor Dwayne "The Rock" Johnson—went on Twitter to express their opposition. Johnson called Plank's words "divisive". In the days following the remarks, Plank bought a full-page advertisement in "The Baltimore Sun" to clarify his comments. In the ad, Plank said Under Armour stood for job creation, but publicly opposed the president's proposed travel ban.


title: Kevin Plank

text: Plank sat on the President Trump's American Manufacturing Council. He stepped down from the council following President Trump's comments on violence in Charlottesville, Virginia, saying Under Armour "engages in innovation and sports, not politics". Additionally, he publicly opposed President Trump's decision to withdraw from the Paris Accord and was among the Fortune 500 CEOs to sign a pledge to promote workplace diversity and inclusion.


title: BMW X7

text: The BMW X7 is a full-sized luxury sport utility vehicle manufactured by BMW. It is BMW's largest and most expensive SUV in its line-up.


title: BMW X7

text: The X7 was first announced by BMW in March 2014. It was officially unveiled on October 17, 2018, with pre-orders being taken online. The X7 has been available at dealers since March 2019.


title: BMW X7

text: BMW provided a preview of the upcoming X7 with the showing of the Concept X7 iPerformance at the 2017 International Motor Show in Frankfurt. Production of the X7 started in 2018 at the BMW US Manufacturing Company plant in Greer, South Carolina.


title: BMW X7

text: The X7 is built on the same BMW CLAR platform as the G05 X5, however the X7 is taller and wider plus it has been stretched for increased cargo space and third row seating which is standard and more spacious for adults (the X5's third row seating, which is optional, is mainly for children). In contrast to the X5, it is not available with rear-wheel drive, instead using an all-wheel drive ("xDrive") drivetrain for all models. In Europe, diesel and petrol engines are available, while the choice is limited to inline-6 and V8 petrol engines in the United States.


title: BMW X7

text: The G07 features a self-levelling air suspension system, with a double-wishbone front suspension and multi-link rear suspension. It can be raised or lowered by and will automatically lower the car by at speeds of over . The boot capacity is rated at , and with the seats folded down.


title: BMW X7

text: All petrol and diesel models feature engine particulate filters and meet the Euro 6d-TEMP emissions standard. The xDrive50i model is available outside the European markets, while the European markets will get the M50i models.


title: BMW X7

text: In April 2022, BMW launched a new revised X7. The design is very similar to the original first generation design, with minimal changes to the side profile and rear. The major changes are a heavily revised front end design premiering new "horizontally split headlight units" and a revised curved widescreen focused dashboard within an otherwise largely unchanged interior. It is widely thought that the aesthetic function of the horizontally split headlights is to increase the proportion of the front design dedicated to the headlights relative to very large kidney grill. The new headlights were also featured on the new 7 Series and i7.


title: BMW X7

text: Standard equipment includes Vernasca leather, four-zone climate control, iDrive 7.0, Adaptive LED headlights, wireless charging, and electrically adjustable and heated three row seating. The middle row features three seats with a two-seat configuration also available. The X7 also receives driver assistance systems including autonomous cruise control and collision detection with braking intervention. Other options include cooled and heated cup holders, a panoramic sunroof with LED light patterns, and laser headlights. An off-road package adds selectable off-road driving modes and adjusts the ride height, acceleration and transmission response, and traction control system.


title: BMW X7

text: The instrument cluster features a camera to ensure the driver is paying attention to the road while autonomous functions are active, and allows the driver to take their hands off the steering wheel for up to one minute. Additionally it has an optional head up display that in many other vehicles it normally fits just the speed, however because of the size of the BMW headup display; it also shows a clear map with navigation instructions, rendering the information center somewhat pointless to the driver.


title: BMW X7

text: 30-40 models with the M Sport trim and M50 models can be fitted with M Performance Parts. These include carbon fibre mirrors, a sport steering wheel, floor mats and steel pedals.


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: Bresenham's line algorithm is a line drawing algorithm that determines the points of an "n"-dimensional raster that should be selected in order to form a close approximation to a straight line between two points. It is commonly used to draw line primitives in a bitmap image (e.g. on a computer screen), as it uses only integer addition, subtraction and bit shifting, all of which are very cheap operations in commonly used computer instruction sets such as x86_64. It is an incremental error algorithm, and one of the earliest algorithms developed in the field of computer graphics. An extension to the original algorithm may be used for drawing circles.


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: While algorithms such as Wu's algorithm are also frequently used in modern computer graphics because they can support antialiasing, Bresenham's line algorithm is still important because of its speed and simplicity. The algorithm is used in hardware such as plotters and in the graphics chips of modern graphics cards. It can also be found in many software graphics libraries. Because the algorithm is very simple, it is often implemented in either the firmware or the graphics hardware of modern graphics cards.


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: The label "Bresenham" is used today for a family of algorithms extending or modifying Bresenham's original algorithm.


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: Bresenham's line algorithm is named after Jack Elton Bresenham who developed it in 1962 at IBM. In 2001 Bresenham wrote:


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: I was working in the computation lab at IBM's San Jose development lab. A Calcomp plotter had been attached to an IBM 1401 via the 1407 typewriter console. [The algorithm] was in production use by summer 1962, possibly a month or so earlier. Programs in those days were freely exchanged among corporations so Calcomp (Jim Newland and Calvin Hefte) had copies. When I returned to Stanford in Fall 1962, I put a copy in the Stanford comp center library.


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: A description of the line drawing routine was accepted for presentation at the 1963 ACM national convention in Denver, Colorado. It was a year in which no proceedings were published, only the agenda of speakers and topics in an issue of Communications of the ACM. A person from the IBM Systems Journal asked me after I made my presentation if they could publish the paper. I happily agreed, and they printed it in 1965.


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: Bresenham's algorithm has been extended to produce circles, ellipses, cubic and quadratic bezier curves, as well as native anti-aliased versions of those.


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: The endpoints of the line are the pixels at formula_1 and formula_2, where the first coordinate of the pair is the column and the second is the row.


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: The algorithm will be initially presented only for the octant in which the segment goes down and to the right (formula_3 and formula_4), and its horizontal projection formula_5 is longer than the vertical projection formula_6 (the line has a positive slope less than 1).


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: In this octant, for each column "x" between formula_7 and formula_8, there is exactly one row "y" (computed by the algorithm) containing a pixel of the line, while each row between formula_9 and formula_10 may contain multiple rasterized pixels.


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: Bresenham's algorithm chooses the integer "y" corresponding to the pixel center that is closest to the ideal (fractional) "y" for the same "x"; on successive columns "y" can remain the same or increase by 1.


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: Since we know the column, "x", the pixel's row, "y", is given by rounding this quantity to the nearest integer:


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: The slope formula_13 depends on the endpoint coordinates only and can be precomputed, and the ideal "y" for successive integer values of "x" can be computed starting from formula_9 and repeatedly adding the slope.


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: In practice, the algorithm does not keep track of the y coordinate, which increases by "m" = "∆y/∆x" each time the "x" increases by one; it keeps an error bound at each


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: stage, which represents the negative of the distance from (a) the point where the line exits the pixel to (b) the top edge of the pixel.


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: This value is first set to formula_15 (due to using the pixel's center coordinates), and is incremented by "m" each time the "x" coordinate is incremented by one. If the error becomes greater than "0.5", we know that the line has moved upwards


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: one pixel, and that we must increment our "y" coordinate and readjust the error to represent the distance from the top of the new pixel – which is done by subtracting one from error.


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: To derive Bresenham's algorithm, two steps must be taken. The first step is transforming the equation of a line from the typical slope-intercept form into something different; and then using this new equation to draw a line based on the idea of accumulation of error.


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: where m is the slope and b is the y-intercept. Because this is a function of only formula_17, it can't represent a vertical line. Therefore, it would be useful to make this equation written as a function of both formula_17 and formula_19, to be able to draw lines at any angle. The angle (or slope) of a line can be stated as "rise over run," or formula_20. Then, using algebraic manipulation,


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: The line is then defined for some constants A, B, and C anywhere formula_28. That is, for any formula_29 not on the line, formula_30. This form involves only integers if formula_17 and formula_19 are integers, since the constants A, B, and C are defined as integers.


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: As an example, the line formula_33 then this could be written as formula_34. The point (2,2) is on the line


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: Notice that the points (2,1) and (2,3) are on opposite sides of the line and f(x,y) evaluates to positive or negative. A line splits a plane into halves and the half-plane that has a negative f(x,y) can be called the negative half-plane, and the other half can be called the positive half-plane. This observation is very important in the remainder of the derivation.


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: only because the line is defined to start and end on integer coordinates (though it is entirely reasonable to want to draw a line with non-integer end points).


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: Keeping in mind that the slope is at most formula_39, the problem now presents itself as to whether the next point should be at formula_40 or formula_41. Perhaps intuitively, the point should be chosen based upon which is closer to the line at formula_42. If it is closer to the former then include the former point on the line, if the latter then the latter. To answer this, evaluate the line function at the midpoint between these two points:


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: If the value of this is positive then the ideal line is below the midpoint and closer to the candidate point formula_44; in effect the y coordinate has advanced. Otherwise, the ideal line passes through or above the midpoint, and the y coordinate has not advanced; in this case choose the point formula_45. The value of the line function at this midpoint is the sole determinant of which point should be chosen.


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: The adjacent image shows the blue point (2,2) chosen to be on the line with two candidate points in green (3,2) and (3,3). The black point (3, 2.5) is the midpoint between the two candidate points.


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: Alternatively, the difference between points can be used instead of evaluating f(x,y) at midpoints. This alternative method allows for integer-only arithmetic, which is generally faster than using floating-point arithmetic. To derive the alternative method, define the difference to be as follows:


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: For the first decision, this formulation is equivalent to the midpoint method since formula_47 at the starting point. Simplifying this expression yields:


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: Just as with the midpoint method, if formula_49 is positive, then choose formula_44, otherwise choose formula_45.


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: If the new D is positive then formula_56 is chosen, otherwise formula_57. This decision can be generalized by accumulating the error on each subsequent point.


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: All of the derivation for the algorithm is done. One performance issue is the 1/2 factor in the initial value of D. Since all of this is about the sign of the accumulated difference, then everything can be multiplied by 2 with no consequence.


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: Running this algorithm for formula_58 from (0,1) to (6,4) yields the following differences with dx=6 and dy=3:


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: The result of this plot is shown to the right. The plotting can be viewed by plotting at the intersection of lines (blue circles) or filling in pixel boxes (yellow squares). Regardless, the plotting is the same.


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: However, as mentioned above this is only for octant zero, that is lines starting at the origin with a slope between 0 and 1 where x increases by exactly 1 per iteration and y increases by 0 or 1.


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: The algorithm can be extended to cover slopes between 0 and -1 by checking whether y needs to increase or decrease (i.e. dy < 0)


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: By switching the x and y axis an implementation for positive or negative steep slopes can be written as


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: A complete solution would need to detect whether x1 > x0 or y1 > y0 and reverse the input coordinates before drawing, thus


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: In low level implementations which access the video memory directly, it would be typical for the special cases of vertical and horizontal lines to be handled separately as they can be highly optimized.


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: Some versions use Bresenham's principles of integer incremental error to perform all octant line draws, balancing the positive and negative error between the x and y coordinates. Take note that the order is not necessarily guaranteed; in other words, the line may be drawn from (x0, y0) to (x1, y1) or from (x1, y1) to (x0, y0).


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: The Bresenham algorithm can be interpreted as slightly modified digital differential analyzer (using 0.5 as error threshold instead of 0, which is required for non-overlapping polygon rasterizing).


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: The principle of using an incremental error in place of division operations has other applications in graphics. It is possible to use this technique to calculate the U,V co-ordinates during raster scan of texture mapped polygons. The voxel heightmap software-rendering engines seen in some PC games also used this principle.


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: Bresenham also published a Run-Slice (as opposed to the Run-Length) computational algorithm. This method has been represented in a number of US patents:


title: Bresenham's line algorithm

text: rather than "[which]" for circle extension use: Technical Report 1964 Jan-27 -11- Circle Algorithm TR-02-286 IBM San Jose Lab or A Linear Algorithm for Incremental Digital Display of Circular Arcs February 1977 Communications of the ACM 20(2):100-106 DOI:10.1145/359423.359432


title: David Amess

text: Sir David Anthony Andrew Amess ( ; 26 March 1952 – 15 October 2021) was a British politician who served as Member of Parliament (MP) for Southend West from 1997 until his murder in 2021. He previously served as MP for Basildon from 1983 to 1997. A member of the Conservative Party, he was a Catholic with socially conservative political views and was in favour of leaving the European Union.


title: David Amess

text: Born and raised in Essex, Amess studied economics and government at Bournemouth University and then had short careers as a primary school teacher, underwriter and recruitment consultant. He was elected as a Conservative councillor for Redbridge in 1982 and MP for Basildon in 1983. His position was seen as a bellwether seat, exemplifying the enthusiasm of the "Essex man" for the government of Margaret Thatcher. He held the seat in the election of 1992, but when boundary changes made it untenable, he became MP for Southend West in 1997 and served the constituency until his death.


title: David Amess

text: In government, his highest position was as Parliamentary Private Secretary to Michael Portillo for twelve years. He was more prominent as a backbencher, serving on many select committees and sponsoring several pieces of legislation, including the Protection Against Cruel Tethering Act (1988) and Warm Homes and Energy Conservation Act (2000). The causes for which he campaigned included animal welfare, awarding city status to Southend-on-Sea, the honouring of Raoul Wallenberg and support for those suffering from endometriosis.


title: David Amess

text: On 15 October 2021, Amess was stabbed multiple times at a constituency surgery in Leigh-on-Sea and later died at the scene from his injuries. Ali Harbi Ali, a 25-year-old man, was arrested at the scene and, on 21 October, he was charged with murder and preparing terrorist acts. On 11 April 2022, Ali was found guilty on both counts, and was sentenced to life imprisonment with a whole life order.


title: David Amess

text: David Anthony Andrew Amess was born on 26 March 1952 in Plaistow, Essex (now part of Newham, London). From a working-class background, he was the son of James Amess, an electrician, and his wife Maud Martin, a dressmaker. Amess was raised Catholic, like his mother. Maud died on 12 October 2016 at the age of 104.


title: David Amess

text: Amess attended St Anthony's Junior and Infant School, then St Bonaventure's Grammar School (now St Bonaventure's Catholic School), an independent school on Boleyn Road in Forest Gate. He said later in life that his political interests stemmed from his time at St Bonaventure's, where he stood for the Revolutionist Party, whose key demands were for minimum pocket money and the abolition of homework; by the time he became an adult, he was a Conservative. As a child he had a stammer, and speech therapy to correct this resulted in the loss of his natural Cockney accent. Amess went on to Bournemouth College of Technology (now Faculty of Science and Technology of Bournemouth University), where he earned a bachelor's degree (BSc Econ Hons 2.2) in economics and government. Amess taught disabled children at St John the Baptist Primary School in Bethnal Green for a year (1970–71), and then spent a short time as an underwriter (1974–76) before becoming a recruitment consultant.


title: David Amess

text: He contested the safe Labour Party seat of Newham North West at the 1979 general election, and the seat was retained by Labour's MP Arthur Lewis. In 1982, Amess was elected as a Conservative councillor to the London Borough of Redbridge's Mayfield ward, with his party forming the majority administration. He served as vice chairman of the Housing Committee from 1982 until 1985, and stood down for the 1986 local elections.


title: David Amess

text: The incumbent Conservative MP for Basildon, Harvey Proctor, moved to Billericay in the 1983 general election; Amess was selected to replace him and was elected Member of Parliament for Basildon on 9 June 1983. He exemplified the new demographic of "Essex man" who supported Margaret Thatcher enthusiastically. "Campaign" described him as "representative of new Essex man, working class, father electrician, right wing, keen hanger, noisily rambunctious, no subtlety".