title: Red Dead Online

text: "Red Dead Online" adds several new systems atop the single-player mode's gameplay. In addition to in-game cash, which can be used for supplies, "Online" adds gold, a second in-game currency used to purchase luxury and special items, and tokens, which are earned by unlocking role ranks and can be used to purchase role-specific items. Players acquire gold nuggets by completing challenges and can convert 100 nuggets into gold bars. Rather than having to travel to a town's store, online player characters can order supplies anywhere from a handheld catalog. The orders become available for pickup in any town's post office or the player's camp. "Online" introduces "ability cards", in which players can activate one active and three passive powers for their characters. Players receive these cards by rising in rank or direct purchase, and can then upgrade the cards with in-game currency and experience points. "Red Dead Online" uses the Honor system from the single-player story, measuring how the player's actions are perceived in terms of morality. Morally positive choices and deeds like helping strangers and abiding the law will add up to the player's Honor, while negative deeds such as theft and harming innocents will subtract from the player's Honor. Some story missions can only be initiated if the player's Honor is at a particular level.


title: Red Dead Online

text: The narrative takes place in 1898, one year before the events of "Red Dead Redemption 2". The player takes on the role of a silent protagonist who is arrested for murder and imprisoned in Sisika Penitentiary. Six months into their sentence and awaiting execution, their prison transport is held up by a band of hired guns. Their leader, Horley, escorts the player to his employer, the widow Jessica LeClerk, who reveals the player was unfairly accused of murdering her husband Philip, who she suspects was actually killed by his business partners: banker Jeremiah Shaw, landowners Amos and Grace Lancing, and Grace's brother, outlaw Teddy Brown, with the aim of taking over the entire business. Jessica enlists the player's help in avenging Philip's death in exchange for proving their innocence and allows them to leave.


title: Red Dead Online

text: After the player is provided with a camp and some work, they meet with Horley in Blackwater; he advises them to work with the local sheriffs and earn some money while he investigates Philip's murder. Eventually, Horley tells the player to seek work with either U.S. Marshal Tom Davies or mercenary Samson Finch, depending on the player's honor level. If the player has high honor, Davies enlists the player's posse to join the hunt for Mexican bandit Alfredo Montez; with low honor, Finch has the player's posse prove themselves for an upcoming job by helping him rob a factory during a labor strike and exact revenge on his former partner, who is protected by a corrupt garrison.


title: Red Dead Online

text: After either series of events, the player's posse meets with Horley and Jessica to help them kill Teddy Brown, who is hiding out with his gang near the abandoned Fort Mercer. With the assistance of the local authorities, the player's posse besieges the fort and eliminates Brown's men, before capturing Brown himself, who is swiftly killed by Jessica afterwards. The player then continues working for either Davies or Finch, helping the former deal with retribution from Montez's gang, or assisting the latter with a bank robbery in Saint Denis.


title: Red Dead Online

text: Meanwhile, Amos and Shaw try to finalize their takeover of Philip's business by coercing Jessica into signing a forged contract. Accompanied by Horley and the player's posse, Jessica meets the two men and their bodyguards in Blackwater. When Amos denies any involvement in Philip's death, an enraged Jessica shoots him dead with a pistol hidden in her purse. The player's posse retrieves the contract from Shaw, and escorts Jessica and Horley out of Blackwater. With only Grace left to be dealt with in order to avenge Philip, Jessica vows to do so one day, and laments her vendetta has led to both her and Horley becoming fugitives. She then thanks the player's posse for their help and informs them the evidence clearing their name will be delivered, before leaving with Horley to go into hiding.


title: Red Dead Online

text: "A Life of 'Shine" is a story chapter added in December 2019. The player character is introduced to "Lightning" Maggie Fike, who once controlled the moonshining business in Lemoyne but disappeared after falling afoul of revenue agents led by the ruthless Reid Hixon. Maggie convinces the player to finance her new operation and help her take revenge on Hixon. The player rescues Maggie's nephew Lem from the revenuers, attracting the attention of the bankrupt Braithwaite family, who have turned to moonshining and recruited Maggie's former cook Danny-Lee Caton to oversee production. The Braithwaites threaten retaliation after the player sabotages their moonshining operation, while Hixon learns about Maggie's revived business and ambushes the player and Lem on a job. To deal with both of their enemies simultaneously, Maggie arranges a supposed peace meeting with the Braithwaites and anonymously tips off Hixon. At the meeting, Hixon arrests the player, Lem, and Danny-Lee, but they manage to escape after Lem detonates an improvised bomb using the moonshine in his wagon. With Lem's help, the player kills Hixon and captures Danny-Lee, bringing the latter back to Maggie who allows him to leave on the condition he vanish forever. The player then returns to producing moonshine with Maggie and Lem.


title: Red Dead Online

text: "Red Dead Online" was developed in tandem with the single-player story. Though "Red Dead Online" and "Red Dead Redemption 2" share assets and gameplay, Rockstar views them as separate products with independent trajectories, reflected in its decision to launch the multiplayer title separately. The development team took lessons learned from the multiplayer of "Red Dead Redemption" (2010) and applied those with the best elements of "Grand Theft Auto Online" (2013), particularly in regards to introducing narrative elements to a multiplayer title. The team sought to translate elements of the single-player story to "Red Dead Online", overhauling them for an online space. Producer Rob Nelson felt, while the team's experience on "Grand Theft Auto Online" helped with the foundations of "Red Dead Online", the differences in the game's direction, pace, and scale demanded a different overall approach, slowly leading the player into the world with smaller steps instead of the fast pace of "Grand Theft Auto Online".


title: Red Dead Online

text: "Red Dead Online" public beta opened on November 27, 2018, to players who owned a special edition of the base game, and then progressively opened to all owners. The progressive release was a choice by Rockstar to mitigate any major performance issues by the influx of players. Rockstar added and adapted several modes during the beta stage, and made changes to the balance and economy. Player progression in the public beta carried over when the beta ended on May 14, 2019. "Red Dead Online" implements microtransactions by letting players purchase gold bars for in-game items such as weapons and cosmetics. Rockstar had adopted a similar approach for "Grand Theft Auto Online". Rockstar donated five percent of in-game revenue generated in "Red Dead Online" and "Grand Theft Auto Online" in April and May 2020 to relief efforts of the COVID-19 pandemic. Each of its nine worldwide studios donated to local charities. Rockstar closed the game for two hours on June 4, 2020, to honor the memorial of George Floyd. A standalone client for "Red Dead Online", which does not require the base "Red Dead Redemption 2" game, was released on December 1, 2020, for PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One.


title: Red Dead Online

text: Post-release content is continually added to "Red Dead Online" through free title updates. Rockstar planned to evolve the world over time, including expanding the player's in-game businesses from a small camp to a larger company. Rockstar intended to add more role-playing elements to "Red Dead Online" over time, including additional roles and missions. One of the team's greater challenges was the addition of experiences that allow player freedom without too much structure. The first update to the game world was in December 2018, wherein saloons played Christmas music. To coincide with the full release in May 2019, Rockstar released an update that added new story missions, dynamic events, free roam activities, and poker.


title: Red Dead Online

text: The "Frontier Pursuits" update, released on September 10, 2019, implemented three new roles: bounty hunter, where players earn rewards by tracking down targets; trader, where players collect and sell items to expand their camp into a business; and collector, focused on discovering collectibles using items such as a metal detector and binoculars. The development team implemented roles as a result of frequent player requests for a stronger connection to their character; Nelson noted the team enjoyed the immersion of Rockstar's open worlds and wanted to extrapolate that feeling for personalized characters. The trajectory of the roles is intentionally slower than "Grand Theft Auto Online"s missions, with each role originally set to have logical successors gradually advancing players' financial success. The update added an Outlaw Pass, which grants players access to additional rewards for an in-game price, and a limited promotion named the Wheeler, Rawson & Co Club, where players could unlock specific rewards as they gained experience. With each of the roles, players are assigned special tasks for a limited time, such as Legendary Bounties for bounty hunters and specific items for collectors. Fear of the Dark, a limited event for Showdown Mode, was added for Halloween in October and November, dividing players into Hunters and Night Stalkers. The "Moonshiners" update, added on December 13, 2019, introduced moonshiner as an extension to the trader role, focusing on producing, managing, and distributing moonshine. The update included additional content, such as the first purchasable property and a new Outlaw Pass. To celebrate Christmas in December 2019, Rockstar granted free supplies to players and added a temporary period of snowfall.


title: Red Dead Online

text: "The Naturalist", released on July 28, 2020, added a fifth role, revolving around players tracking down animals to study or hunt them. The update added new clothing, animals, and an Outlaw Pass. The team enjoyed the single-player's animal hunting mechanics and felt it could be effectively imitated in "Red Dead Online". The naturalist's Vitalism Studies feature, allowing players to temporarily assume control of an animal, was viewed as an experience that "bend[s] reality" in contrast to the otherwise grounded tone. For Halloween in October 2020, Rockstar added a new mode, Dead of Night, wherein players fight against zombies. The Halloween Pass, which was available from October 20 to November 16, added several Halloween-themed reward, including horse masks, emotes, and weapon variations. The team felt the events reflected some of the mysteries present in single-player. The "Bounty Hunters" update was released simultaneously with the standalone client in December 2020, adding new ranks to the bounty hunter role and three additional targets to track down, as well as a new Outlaw Pass and bonus items. Snowfall returned for Christmas 2020, alongside an additional weapon and gun variant. Three solo missions were added on February 16, 2021; Rockstar intended to add more in the future. Eight horse races were added on May 25, 2021.


title: Red Dead Online

text: "Blood Money" was released on July 13, 2021; it was previously detailed in May and June, followed by an official announcement and trailer on July 6 and 7. It added missions focused on the criminal underworld, with players helping Guido Martelli create his own criminal network in Saint Denis. The update was the result of the developers wanting further criminal experiences. Martelli, a character originally referenced in single-player, was added to gain consistency between the two modes. The update added the ability to rob homesteads and camps. In both missions and free roam, players can find Capitale, a valuable commodity sought by Martelli which he exchanges for further criminal opportunities; the developers saw these as a way to add complex missions wherein players can find new strategies for completion. Released alongside "Blood Money" was the Quick Draw Club, a series of four passes providing players with rewards and bonuses to assist gameplay; the first reward is the outfit of Dutch van der Linde, a character from single-player. Purchasing all four passes granted players access to the Halloween Pass 2. One of the characters added in "Blood Money", guitar player "Bluewater" John, is portrayed by musician Christone "Kingfish" Ingram; an original song co-written by Ingram, "Letter from Bluewater Man", was released as a digital single on August 20. A new mode, All Hallows' Call to Arms, was added for Halloween in October 2021, allowing players to defend four locations from wild animals supernatural elements like a ghost train, alongside the return of Dead of Night and the addition of the Halloween Pass 2, which included 15 ranks granting several Halloween-themed rewards. Snowfall, music, and decorations returned for Christmas in December 2021 alongside new holiday-themed maps and bonuses for currency and levels.


title: Red Dead Online

text: In July 2022, Rockstar announced "Red Dead Online" would not be receiving any more major updates, instead focusing on smaller missions and the expansion of existing modes as development resources were withdrawn to focus on the next entry in the "Grand Theft Auto" series. Three new Hardcore Telegram missions were added in an update on September 6, 2022. Previous Halloween content—All Hallows' Call to Arms, Dead of Night, Fear of the Dark, and the Halloween Pass 2—returned in October 2022, alongside a new Hardcore Telegram mission on October 18.


title: Red Dead Online

text: "Red Dead Online" received criticism at launch for its in-game currency rewards for activities, with players complaining they were too low for the cost of goods and upgrades. Some players calculated a single gold bar could take an estimated eight hours to earn in the game. Rockstar agreed to re-balance the game's economy following complaints. Similar complaints emerged about the griefing taking place in the game; Rockstar fixed these issues by making player visibility dependent on their proximity and behavior. "The Verge" reported several users who played as black characters had been targeted by griefers posing as Ku Klux Klan-inspired clans or slave catchers who often called them racial slurs.


title: Red Dead Online

text: "IGN"s Luke Reilly praised the game's co-operative story missions, noting the player versus player modes typically have a skill imbalance. Reilly lauded the technical improvements made throughout the updates, though noted some remained. Matt Martin of "VG247" found the game to be more enjoyable than "Grand Theft Auto Online", from both a technical and gameplay perspective. Martin criticized some balancing issues, but attributed them to the beta status. "The Verge"s Andrew Webster found "Red Dead Online"s battle royale mode more tense than games like "Fortnite" due to the smaller player count and slower playstyle. "Kotaku"s Heather Alexandra wrote "Red Dead Online" was "gamier" than its single-player counterpart, specifically in seeing the realistic towns transformed into deathmatch levels. John Saavedra of "Den of Geek" criticized the simplicity of the story missions and wrote the free roam missions are a better way to "break up the monotony" of traversing the world. Christian Just of "GameStar" felt "Red Dead Online" carried most of the strengths of the single-player, effectively fulfilling his childhood fantasy of cowboy life.


title: Red Dead Online

text: "Red Dead Online" was nominated for Best Multiplayer Game at the 2019 Golden Joystick Awards. Rockstar's parent company Take-Two Interactive reported the game hit peak players in December 2019 following the release of the "Moonshiners" update; this was surpassed in December 2020, which saw more new and returning players since the game's beta launch.


title: Red Dead Online

text: Jordan Oloman of "Eurogamer" appreciated the improvements made by May 2019, praising the quality of the story missions, but felt players needed more purpose within the world. After the release of the "Frontier Pursuits" update in September 2019, Oloman found the game enjoyable enough to play instead of returning to single-player. "Polygon"s Cass Marshall wrote the update added elements that made the game fun to play with friends. "Eurogamer"s Oloman considered the December 2019 "Moonshiners" update the best to date, and found the new characters compelling. "Kotaku"s Zack Zwiezen echoed this sentiment, praising the amount of content available. In May 2020, the game was used by a group of employees to conduct online business meetings instead of Skype or Zoom; the immersion of the world was cited as an appealing feature, though the technical issues and lengthy tutorial were criticized for new employees. Several players reported to playing as a refuge during COVID-19 lockdowns; the Rift Trails, a group of equestrians who hosted daily rides through the world, grew to over 2,500 members by 2022. In July 2020, several players dressed their characters as clowns to demonstrate their displeasure at the game's lack of updates. "Kotaku"s Zwiezen considered "The Naturalist" update "a step back" from "Moonshiners", but found it made him appreciate the nature and details. "Polygon"s Marshall called the update "perfectly fine" but noted it failed to make the game "feel meaningfully different" like the varied "Grand Theft Auto Online" updates. Writing for "NME", Oloman felt the update contradicted the "ruthless" nature of the game and the tasks had become repetitive. "PC Gamer"s Christopher Livingston described it as "surprisingly disappointing", citing its similarity to the trader role.


title: Red Dead Online

text: Following a patch released in August 2020, several players reported significant, game-breaking glitches; in response, Rockstar reverted the game to a previous version. "Kotaku"s Zwiezen considered the October 2020 Halloween update "disappointing" due to the lack of memorable or significant content. He criticized the December 2020 update, perceiving Rockstar's favoritism to "Grand Theft Auto Online". The update received similar criticism from several players, who felt it was lacking in content and rewards. Conversely, Zwiezen considered the February 2021 solo missions to be an improvement as it alleviated concerns of dealing with other players. In March 2021, Alex Avard of "GamesRadar+" wrote "Red Dead Online" could "reach its true potential" if it continued to build upon the momentum of the previous year, though noted the monetization system remained unbalanced. In July 2021, "Polygon"s Marshall felt "Blood Money" was suitable for regular players, but noted the lack of regular updates was "frustrating" due to the game's potential. Rion Duncan of "Screen Rant" felt the "Blood Money" missions were too similar to stranger missions, criticizing the lack of preparatory gameplay for the heists as seen in "Grand Theft Auto Online". Otto Kratky of "Digital Trends" praised "Blood Money" and wrote, unlike with previous updates, Rockstar was "finally appealing to those Old West clichés" and setting the game in the right direction. In December 2021, "PC Gamer"s Lauren Morton expressed disappointment at the lack of activity compared to Rockstar's other projects throughout the year, though noted it "remains as expansive and gorgeous as ever".


title: Red Dead Online

text: The January 2022 update—bonus rewards for existing missions—led to some backlash from players as they considered it "low effort" and described the game as "dead" due to the lack of new content; players and reporters compared it to "Grand Theft Auto Online", which received major updates in July and December 2021, while "Red Dead Online"s most recent "Blood Money" update was considered lackluster in comparison. An online fan campaign ensued; the hashtag #SaveRedDeadOnline trended on Twitter, with over 18,000 tweets. When a new mode in "Grand Theft Auto Online" was released on January 13 without an announcement from Rockstar, "Kotaku"s Zack Zwiezen partly attributed its silence to the #SaveRedDeadOnline campaign. Several of Rockstar's social media posts were met with responses in support of the campaign, and some Rockstar employees were reportedly spammed with abuse. In May 2022, Take-Two Interactive's chief executive officer, Strauss Zelnick, said the companies had "heard the frustration" and "more will be said by Rockstar in due time". On July 13, 2022, players hosted an in-game funeral for "Red Dead Online" to mark one year since the release of "Blood Money", the last major update, and to mourn Rockstar's decision to withdraw development resources. Several players met at graveyards and cemeteries in the world to capture photographs and drink alcohol. "TheGamer"s Stacey Henley was disappointed by Rockstar's decision, but felt it was inevitable due to the game being "forced to live in the shadow" of "Grand Theft Auto Online"; she felt it was "never going to be" good, and concluded "Rockstar offering us some real closure on the issue is all we can ask for". Players and community members criticized the treatment for its false promises and missed opportunities, despite its success relative to non-Rockstar games. Many players and communities remained committed to continuing their activities despite the lack of major updates.


title: Emetophobia

text: Emetophobia is a phobia that causes overwhelming, intense anxiety pertaining to vomit. This specific phobia can also include subcategories of what causes the anxiety, including a fear of vomiting or seeing others vomit. Emeteophobics might also avoid the mentions of "barfing", vomiting, "throwing up", or "puking."


title: Emetophobia

text: It is common for those who suffer from emetophobia to be underweight or malnourished due to strict diets and restrictions they make for themselves. The thought of someone possibly vomiting can cause the phobic person to engage in extreme behaviors to escape from their anxiety triggers, e.g. going to great lengths to avoid even potential situations that could even be perceived as "threatening".


title: Emetophobia

text: Emetophobia is clinically considered an "elusive predicament" because limited research has been done pertaining to it. The fear of vomiting receives little attention compared with other irrational fears.


title: Emetophobia

text: The event of vomiting may make anyone with this peculiar phobia flee the scene. Some may fear someone throwing up, while others may fear themselves throwing up. Some may have both. Some may have anxiety which makes them feel like they will throw up when they actually might not. People with emetophobia usually experience anxiety; they often may scream, cry, or if it is severe, possibly pass out when someone or something has been sick.


title: Emetophobia

text: Emetophobics may also have other complicating disorders and phobias, such as social anxiety, fear of flying and agoraphobia. These three are very common, because people who fear vomiting are often terrified of doing so, or encountering it, in a public place. Therefore, they may restrict their social activities so they avoid any situations with alcohol or dining out in restaurants. Emetophobics may also limit exposure to children for fear of germs. Women with this disorder delayed pregnancy or avoided it altogether because of the fear of morning sickness. People who have a fear of vomiting may avoid travel because of the worry about motion sickness or others experiencing it around them. They may also fear roller coasters for the same reason.


title: Emetophobia

text: Lipsitz et al.'s findings also showed that those with emetophobia often have difficulties comfortably leading a normal life. Many find that they have problems being alone with young children, and they may also avoid social gatherings where alcohol is present. Retaining an occupation becomes difficult for emetophobics. Professions and personal goals can be put on hold due to the high anxiety associated with the phobia, and travelling becomes almost impossible for some.


title: Emetophobia

text: In Lipsitz et al.'s survey, women with emetophobia said that they either delayed pregnancy or avoided pregnancy altogether because of the morning sickness associated with the first trimester, and if they did become pregnant, it made pregnancy difficult.


title: Emetophobia

text: Other inhibitions on daily life can be seen in meal preparation. Many emetophobic people also have specific "rituals" for the food they eat and how they prepare it. They frequently check the freshness of the food along with washing it several times in order to prevent any potential sicknesses that they could contract from foods not handled properly. They might overcook food products in fear of getting a foodborne illness Eating out is also avoided, if possible, and when asked Lipsitz et al.'s survey, many felt they were underweight because of the strict diets that they put upon themselves. In addition, many emetophobes avoid certain foods all together due to negative memories they may have with it relating to vomiting, and often eat a limited number of foods due to feeling like a vast majority of foods aren't 'safe'. Those who suffer from emetophobia might avoid anything that has an unpleasant smell or aroma, in fear of This includes eating anything that might have a bad smell. They might also avoid any sight that may induce vomiting in them or other people.


title: Emetophobia

text: There are some cases where anorexia is the result of a fear of vomiting instead of the typical psychological problems that trigger it. In Frank M. Datillio's clinical case study, a situation where anorexia results from emetophobia is mentioned. Datillio says, "...in one particular case report, atypical anorexia in several adolescent females occurred as a result of a fear of vomiting that followed a viral illness as opposed to the specific desire to lose weight or because of an anxiety reaction.". It is not clear that this should be termed "anorexia", however. In cases such as this, many emetophobes may also have avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID), which is characterized by a general disinterest in food, sensory issues with food (taste, texture, look, smell) or a fear of adverse consequences from eating (vomiting or choking).


title: Emetophobia

text: Oftentimes, this phobia is comorbid with several others, making it necessary to deal with each phobia individually in order for the patient to recover fully. For example, it is common for people with emetophobia to also have a fear of food, known as cibophobia, where they worry that the food they are eating is carrying pathogens that can cause vomiting. As such, people will develop specific behaviors that will, in their minds, make the food safe to eat, such as a ritualistic type of washing or the intentional overcooking of meat to avoid the intake of harmful pathogens. In time, these fears can become so ingrained that the person who has them can begin to experience anorexia nervosa. Again, it is not clear that this should be deemed "anorexia" rather than, for instance OCD, given this different presentation.


title: Emetophobia

text: There are many cases of emetophobes can also suffer from Obsessive–compulsive disorder. Both Emetophobia and Obsessive–compulsive disorder have similar symptoms and behaviors according to Allen H. Weg, EdD. This includes:"obsessional thinking, hyper-awareness and reactivity, avoidance, compulsive rituals, and safety behaviors" Often, Emetophobia will get misdiagnosed as Obsessive–compulsive disorder.


title: Emetophobia

text: There is a strong agreement in the scientific community that there is no specific cause of emetophobia. Some emetophobics report a traumatic experience with vomiting, always in childhood. Some suggest that individuals with emetophobia are victims of childhood abuse – sexual or physical. Although this is occasionally true, it seems to be no more prevalent than in the general population (Christie, 2004). Some experts believe that emetophobia may be linked to worries about lack of control. Many people try to control themselves and their environment in every possible way, but vomiting is difficult or impossible to control which can lead to anxiety or in other cases severe anxiety.


title: Emetophobia

text: There are many factors that can cause a legitimate case of emetophobia. Dr. Angela L. Davidson "et al". conducted an experiment where it was concluded through various surveys that people with emetophobia are more likely to have an internal locus of control pertaining to their everyday life as well as health-related matters. A locus of control is an individual's perception of where control comes from. Having an internal locus of control means that an individual perceives that they have their own control over a situation, whereas an external locus of control means that an individual perceives that some things are out of their control. She explains how this phobia is created through the locus of control by stating, "Thus far, it seems reasonable to stipulate that individuals with a vomiting phobia deem events as being within their control and may therefore find it difficult to relinquish this control during the act of vomiting, thus inducing a phobia."


title: Emetophobia

text: In an internet survey conducted by Dr. Joshua D. Lipsitz "et al." given to emetophobic people, respondents gave many different reasons as to why they became emetophobic. Among some of the causes listed were several severe bouts of vomiting as children and being firsthand witnesses to many severe vomiting in others due to illness, pregnancy or alcoholism.


title: Emetophobia

text: There are two assessment tools used to diagnose emetophobia: the Specific Phobia of Vomiting inventory and the Emetophobia Questionnaire. They are self-report questionnaires that focus on a different range of symptoms.


title: Emetophobia

text: There have been a limited number of studies in regard to emetophobia. Victims of the phobia usually experience fear before vomiting but feel less afterwards. The fear comes back, however, if the victim fears they will throw up again.


title: Emetophobia

text: Also noted in the emetophobia internet survey was information about medications. People were asked whether they would consider taking anxiety medication to potentially help their fear, and many in the study answered they wouldn't for fear that the drugs would make them nauseated. Others, however, stated that some psychotropic medications (such as benzodiazepines and antidepressants) did help with their phobia, and some said gastrointestinal medications were also beneficial.


title: Emetophobia

text: Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a psychological treatment that can be used to help calm anxiety. It is most commonly used to treat certain behaviors by changing people's actions and thoughts by using a variety of different techniques to figure out why the fear is occurring.


title: Emetophobia

text: Exposure methods, using video-taped exposure to others vomiting, hypnosis, exposure to nausea and exposure to cues of vomiting, systemic behavior therapy, psychodynamic and psychotherapy have also shown positive effects for the treatment of emetophobia. However, in some cases it may cause re-traumatization, and the phobia may become more intense as a result.


title: Emetophobia

text: The root word for emetophobia is "emesis", from the Greek word , which means "an act or instance of vomiting", with "-phobia" meaning "an exaggerated usually inexplicable fear of a particular object, class of objects, or situation."


title: Emetophobia

text: People with emetophobia frequently report a vomit-related traumatic event, such as a long bout of stomach flu, accidentally vomiting in public or having to witness someone else vomit, as the start of the emetophobia. They may also be afraid of hearing that someone is feeling like vomiting or that someone has vomited or the mention of any word relating to the act of vomiting, usually in conjunction with the fears of seeing someone vomit or seeing vomit.


title: Gospel of Mary

text: The Gospel of Mary is a non-canonical text discovered in 1896 in a 5th-century papyrus codex written in Sahidic Coptic. This Berlin Codex was purchased in Cairo by German diplomat Carl Reinhardt.


title: Gospel of Mary

text: Although the work is popularly known as the Gospel of Mary, it is not classed as a gospel by some scholars, who restrict the term 'gospel' to texts "primarily focused on recounting the teachings and/or activities of Jesus during his adult life".


title: Gospel of Mary

text: The Berlin Codex, also known as the Akhmim Codex, also contains the "Apocryphon of John", the "Sophia of Jesus Christ", and a summary of the "Act of Peter". All four works contained in the manuscript are written in the Sahidic dialect of Coptic. Two other fragments of the Gospel of Mary have been discovered since, both written in Greek (Papyrus Oxyrhynchus L 3525 and Papyrus Rylands 463). P.Oxy. L 3525 "... was in fact found by Grenfell and Hunt some time between 1897 and 1906, but only published in 1983,"


title: Gospel of Mary

text: The two fragments were published in 1938 and 1983 respectively, and the Coptic translation was published in 1955 by Walter Till.


title: Gospel of Mary

text: Dating the gospel, as with most ancient literary texts, is problematic. As the earliest extant fragment of the gospel (the Rylands papyrus) dates to the early Third Century, it must predate this. Karen L. King, Hollis Professor of Divinity at Harvard Divinity School, suggested that the gospel was composed early in the Second Century, noting that it evidences familiarity with the Gospel of John, and perhaps the letters of Paul, thus likely postdating 90–100 CE. Christopher Tuckett's discussion in his 2007 volume notes Pasquier's preference for a date in the second half of the century; Tuckett himself ultimately opts for a middle positionhe places it in the first half of the Second Century but later than King.


title: Gospel of Mary

text: The Gospel of Mary is not present in the list of apocryphal books of section five of the Decretum Gelasianum.


title: Gospel of Mary

text: Scholars do not always agree which of the New Testament people named Mary is the central character of the Gospel of Mary. Stephen J. Shoemaker and F. Stanley Jones have suggested that she may be Mary the mother of Jesus. Barbara J. Silvertsen alternatively suggests that she may be a sister of Jesus - an individual who has largely been lost in history. Silvertsen says that while none of the canonical Gospels identify Jesus' sisters by name (, ), one of his sisters is identified as "Mary" in the Gospel of Philip.


title: Gospel of Mary

text: Arguments in favor of Mary Magdalene are based on her status as a known follower of Jesus, the tradition of being the first witness of his resurrection, and her appearance in other early Christian writings. She is mentioned as accompanying Jesus on his journeys () and is listed in the Gospel of Matthew as being present at his crucifixion (). In the Gospel of John, she is recorded as the first witness of Jesus' resurrection (); ( later manuscripts).


title: Gospel of Mary

text: Esther A. de Boer compares her role in other non-canonical texts, noting that "in the Gospel of Mary it is Peter who is opposed to Mary’s words, because she is a woman. Peter has the same role in the Gospel of Thomas and in Pistis Sophia. In Pistis Sophia the Mary concerned is identified as Mary Magdalene." The final scene in the Gospel of Mary may also provide evidence that Mary is indeed Mary Magdalene. Levi, in his defense of Mary and her teaching, tells Peter, "Surely the Saviour knows her very well. That is why he loved her more than us." In the Gospel of Philip, a similar statement is made about Mary Magdalene.


title: Gospel of Mary

text: King also argues in favor of naming Mary Magdalene as the central figure in the Gospel of Mary. She summarizes: “It was precisely the traditions of Mary as a woman, as an exemplary disciple, a witness to the ministry of Jesus, a visionary of the glorified Jesus, and someone traditionally in contest with Peter, that made her the only figure who could play all the roles required to convey the messages and meanings of the Gospel of Mary.”


title: Gospel of Mary

text: Richard Valantasis writes in "The Beliefnet Guide to Gnosticism and Other Vanished Christianities" (see Beliefnet) that the Mary here is Mary Magdalene. Valantasis clarifies that this doesn’t “confirm an earthly marriage between her and Jesus – far from it – but it opens an incredible window into the intellectual and spiritual world of the second century C.E.” The idea that there would be a gospel from Mary Magdalene is “controversial,” however because Andrew objected to the strangeness of Mary’s revelations from Jesus. Peter argued, as Valantasis mentions, that “Jesus would not have revealed such important teachings to a woman,” and that “her stature cannot be greater than that of the male apostles."


title: Gospel of Mary

text: The most complete text of the Gospel of Mary is contained in the Berlin Codex, but even so, it is missing six manuscript pages at the beginning of the document and four manuscript pages in the middle. As such, the narrative begins in the middle of a scene, leaving the setting and circumstances unclear. King believes, however, that references to the death of the Savior and the commissioning scene later in the narrative indicate the setting in the first section of the text is a post-resurrection appearance of the Savior. As the narrative opens, the Savior is engaged in dialogue with his disciples, answering their questions on the nature of matter and the nature of sin. At the end of the discussion, the Savior departs, leaving the disciples distraught and anxious. According to the story, Mary speaks up with words of comfort and encouragement. Then Peter asks Mary to share with them any special teaching she received from the Savior, “Peter said to Mary, ‘Sister, we know that the Savior loved you more than the rest of the women. Tell us the words of the Savior which you rememberwhich you know (but) we do not, nor have we heard them.’” Mary responds to Peter’s request by recounting a conversation she had with the Savior about visions.


title: Gospel of Mary

text: (Mary) said, "I saw the Lord in a vision and I said to him, ‘Lord, I saw you today in a vision.’" He answered and said to me: “Blessed are you, that you did not waver at the sight of me. For where the mind is, there is the treasure." I said to him, "So now, Lord, does a person who sees a vision see it <through> the soul <or> through the spirit?"


title: Gospel of Mary

text: In the conversation, the Savior teaches that the inner self is composed of soul, spirit/mind, and a third mind that is between the two which sees the vision. Then the text breaks off and the next four pages are missing. When the narrative resumes, Mary is no longer recalling her discussion with the Savior. She is instead recounting the revelation given to her in her vision. The revelation describes an ascent of a soul, which as it passes on its way to its final rest, engages in dialogue with four powers that try to stop it.


title: Gospel of Mary

text: But Andrew answered and said to the brethren, "Say what you think concerning what she said. For I do not believe that the Savior said this. For certainly these teachings are of other ideas."


title: Gospel of Mary

text: Peter also opposed her in regard to these matters and asked them about the Savior. "Did he then speak secretly with a woman, in preference to us, and not openly? Are we to turn back and all listen to her? Did he prefer her to us?"


title: Gospel of Mary

text: The Gospel of Mary is often interpreted as a Gnostic text. According to Pheme Perkins, on the basis of thirteen works she has analyzed, the Gospel follows a format similar to other known Gnostic dialogues which contain a revelation discourse framed by narrative elements. The dialogues are generally concerned with the idea of the Savior as reminder to human beings of their bond with God and true identity, as well as the realization of the believer that redemption consists of the return to God and liberty from matter after death. The Gospel of Mary contains two of these discourses (7:1–9:4 and 10:10–17:7) including addresses to New Testament figures (Peter, Mary, Andrew and Levi) and an explanation of sin as adultery (encouragement toward an ascetic lifestyle) which also suit a Gnostic interpretation. Scholars also say that the 5th-century Coptic version of the Gospel is part of the Berlin Codex along with the Apocryphon of John and The Sophia of Jesus Christ which are typically viewed as Gnostic texts. However, while many scholars take for granted the Gnostic character of the Gospel of Mary, the Gnostic beliefs concerning creation theory and the Demiurge that would suggest an extreme dualism in the creation is not present in the portions currently retrieved.


title: Gospel of Mary

text: According to Bart Ehrman, "Mary (Magdalene) is accorded a high status among the apostles of Jesus." Levi actually acknowledges that Jesus loved her more than he loved all of the other apostles. Mary said she had a conversation with Jesus, and Andrew and Peter questioned this. "Four pages are lost from the manuscript", so there is really no way for anyone to know exactly what happened.


title: Gospel of Mary

text: De Boer (2004), however, suggests that the Gospel of Mary should not be read as a Gnostic specific text, but that it is to be "interpreted in the light of a broader Christian context". She argues that the Gospel stems from a monistic view of creation rather than the dualistic one central to Gnostic theology and also that the Gospel’s views of both Nature and an opposite nature are more similar to Jewish, Christian, and Stoic beliefs. She suggests that the soul is not to be freed from Powers of Matter, but rather from the powers of the opposite nature. She also says that the Gospel’s main purpose is to encourage fearful disciples to go out and preach the gospel.


title: Gospel of Mary

text: an intriguing glimpse into a kind of Christianity lost for almost fifteen hundred years...[it] presents a radical interpretation of Jesus' teachings as a path to inner spiritual knowledge; it rejects His suffering and death as the path to eternal life; it exposes the erroneous view that Mary of Magdala was a prostitute for what it isa piece of theological fiction; it presents the most straightforward and convincing argument in any early Christian writing for the legitimacy of women's leadership; it offers a sharp critique of illegitimate power and a utopian vision of spiritual perfection; it challenges our rather romantic views about the harmony and unanimity of the first Christians; and it asks us to rethink the basis for church authority.


title: Gospel of Mary

text: King concludes that “both the content and the text’s structure lead the reader inward toward the identity, power and freedom of the true self, the soul set free from the Powers of Matter and the fear of death”. “The Gospel of Mary is about inter-Christian controversies, the reliability of the disciples’ witness, the validity of teachings given to the disciples through post-resurrection revelation and vision, and the leadership of women.”


title: Gospel of Mary

text: King also sees evidence for tensions within 2nd-century Christianity, reflected in "the confrontation of Mary with Peter, [which is] a scenario also found in "The Gospel of Thomas", "Pistis Sophia", and the "Coptic Gospel of the Egyptians". Peter and Andrew represent orthodox positions which deny the validity of esoteric revelation and reject the authority of women to teach."


title: Tony Cox (actor)

text: Joseph Anthony Cox (born March 31, 1958) is an American actor known for his roles in "Bad Santa", "Friday", "Me, Myself & Irene," "Date Movie," "Epic Movie", "Disaster Movie", and "Leprechaun 2". He is also known for his role in George Lucas's "Willow", as an Ewok in "Return of the Jedi" and as The Preacher in Tim Burton's "Beetlejuice". Cox also appeared in various music videos.


title: Tony Cox (actor)

text: Cox was born in Uniontown, Alabama, the son of Henrietta Cox-Penn and Joe Cox. He spent his childhood in Uniontown, with his grandmother and grandfather, Lottie and Henry Jones. His mother and stepfather, Rudolph (Rudy) Penn, live in College Park, Georgia. By the age of 10 he became an avid drummer. He met his future wife, Otelia, during high school. They were eventually married in 1981 when Cox was 23 years old.


title: Tony Cox (actor)

text: After graduation from high school, Cox attended the Alabama State University and originally planned to study music. Cox said in a 2003 interview with "Jet" magazine, "I played by ear. It was exactly like in "Drumline". I played against some of the drummers from the school, and they didn't have anything on me. I just couldn't read music."


title: Tony Cox (actor)

text: Shortly thereafter, Cox decided to pursue acting after watching Billy Barty, a little person who was an actor and also founder of the organization Little People of America. Encouraged by relatives and friends, he moved to Los Angeles at age 18. He began taking classes at the Merrick Studio School of Acting with Scriptwriter De De Tillman and soon began working in commercials, film, and television roles. He is better known for his roles in "Bad Santa" where he played Marcus, the brains of a safe cracking duo, and in "Date Movie" where he played a parody of Dr. Hitch from "Hitch". As second lead to Billy Bob Thornton, Cox's role in "Bad Santa" was a rare occurrence of a little person actor in a leading role. Cox reprised his role as Marcus in "Bad Santa 2", released in 2016.


title: Tony Cox (actor)

text: Cox also appeared on the TV show "Martin" in the first season, playing the character Bennie, in which he helps his friend Trey, played by Bushwick Bill, beat up Tommy played by Thomas Mikal Ford, over Tommy allegedly "stealing" his ex-girlfriend.


title: Tony Cox (actor)

text: Cox also appeared in a pivotal role in the Farrelly Brothers' movie "Me, Myself & Irene", playing a Mensa International-member limousine driver who steals Jim Carrey's character's wife.


title: Plutonium-239

text: Plutonium-239 (Pu or Pu-239) is an isotope of plutonium. Plutonium-239 is the primary fissile isotope used for the production of nuclear weapons, although uranium-235 is also used for that purpose. Plutonium-239 is also one of the three main isotopes demonstrated usable as fuel in thermal spectrum nuclear reactors, along with uranium-235 and uranium-233. Plutonium-239 has a half-life of 24,110 years.


title: Plutonium-239

text: The nuclear properties of plutonium-239, as well as the ability to produce large amounts of nearly pure Pu more cheaply than highly enriched weapons-grade uranium-235, led to its use in nuclear weapons and nuclear power plants. The fissioning of an atom of uranium-235 in the reactor of a nuclear power plant produces two to three neutrons, and these neutrons can be absorbed by uranium-238 to produce plutonium-239 and other isotopes. Plutonium-239 can also absorb neutrons and fission along with the uranium-235 in a reactor.


title: Plutonium-239

text: Of all the common nuclear fuels, Pu has the smallest critical mass. A spherical untamped critical mass is about 11 kg (24.2 lbs), 10.2 cm (4") in diameter. Using appropriate triggers, neutron reflectors, implosion geometry and tampers, the critical mass can be less than half of that. This optimization usually requires a large nuclear development organization supported by a sovereign nation.


title: Plutonium-239

text: The fission of one atom of Pu generates 207.1 MeV = 3.318 × 10 J, i.e. 19.98 TJ/mol = 83.61 TJ/kg, or about 23 gigawatt hours/kg.


title: Plutonium-239

text: Plutonium is made from uranium-238. Pu is normally created in nuclear reactors by transmutation of individual atoms of one of the isotopes of uranium present in the fuel rods. Occasionally, when an atom of U is exposed to neutron radiation, its nucleus will capture a neutron, changing it to U. This happens more easily with lower kinetic energy (as U fission activation is 6.6MeV). The U then rapidly undergoes two β decays — an emission of an electron and an anti-neutrino (formula_1), leaving a proton — the first β decay transforming the U into neptunium-239, and the second β decay transforming the Np into Pu:


title: Plutonium-239

text: Fission activity is relatively rare, so even after significant exposure, the Pu is still mixed with a great deal of U (and possibly other isotopes of uranium), oxygen, other components of the original material, and fission products. Only if the fuel has been exposed for a few days in the reactor, can the Pu be chemically separated from the rest of the material to yield high-purity Pu metal.


title: Plutonium-239

text: Pu has a higher probability for fission than U and a larger number of neutrons produced per fission event, so it has a smaller critical mass. Pure Pu also has a reasonably low rate of neutron emission due to spontaneous fission (10 fission/s·kg), making it feasible to assemble a mass that is highly supercritical before a detonation chain reaction begins.


title: Plutonium-239

text: In practice, however, reactor-bred plutonium will invariably contain a certain amount of Pu due to the tendency of Pu to absorb an additional neutron during production. Pu has a high rate of spontaneous fission events (415,000 fission/s-kg), making it an undesirable contaminant. As a result, plutonium containing a significant fraction of Pu is not well-suited to use in nuclear weapons; it emits neutron radiation, making handling more difficult, and its presence can lead to a "fizzle" in which a small explosion occurs, destroying the weapon but not causing fission of a significant fraction of the fuel. (However, in modern nuclear weapons using neutron generators for initiation and fusion boosting to supply extra neutrons, fizzling is not an issue.) It is because of this limitation that plutonium-based weapons must be implosion-type, rather than gun-type. Moreover, Pu and Pu cannot be chemically distinguished, so expensive and difficult isotope separation would be necessary to separate them. Weapons-grade plutonium is defined as containing no more than 7% Pu; this is achieved by only exposing U to neutron sources for short periods of time to minimize the Pu produced.


title: Plutonium-239

text: Plutonium is classified according to the percentage of the contaminant plutonium-240 that it contains:


title: Plutonium-239

text: A nuclear reactor that is used to produce plutonium for weapons therefore generally has a means for exposing U to neutron radiation and for frequently replacing the irradiated U with new U. A reactor running on unenriched or moderately enriched uranium contains a great deal of U. However, most commercial nuclear power reactor designs require the entire reactor to shut down, often for weeks, in order to change the fuel elements. They therefore produce plutonium in a mix of isotopes that is not well-suited to weapon construction. Such a reactor could have machinery added that would permit U slugs to be placed near the core and changed frequently, or it could be shut down frequently, so proliferation is a concern; for this reason, the International Atomic Energy Agency inspects licensed reactors often. A few commercial power reactor designs, such as the "reaktor bolshoy moshchnosti kanalniy" (RBMK) and pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR), do permit refueling without shutdowns, and they may pose a proliferation risk. (In fact, the RBMK was built by the Soviet Union during the Cold War, so despite their ostensibly peaceful purpose, it is likely that plutonium production was a design criterion.) By contrast, the Canadian CANDU heavy-water moderated natural-uranium fueled reactor can also be refueled while operating, but it normally consumes most of the Pu it produces "in situ;" thus, it is not only inherently less proliferative than most reactors, but can even be operated as an "actinide incinerator". The American IFR (Integral Fast Reactor) can also be operated in an "incineration mode", having some advantages in not accumulating the plutonium-242 isotope or the long-lived actinides, which cannot be easily burned except in a fast reactor. Also IFR fuel has a high proportion of burnable isotopes, while in CANDU an inert material is needed to dilute the fuel; this means the IFR can burn a higher fraction of its fuel before needing reprocessing. Most plutonium is produced in research reactors or plutonium production reactors called breeder reactors because they produce more plutonium than they consume fuel; in principle, such reactors make extremely efficient use of natural uranium. In practice, their construction and operation is sufficiently difficult that they are generally only used to produce plutonium. Breeder reactors are generally (but not always) fast reactors, since fast neutrons are somewhat more efficient at plutonium production.


title: Plutonium-239

text: Plutonium-239 is more frequently used in nuclear weapons than uranium-235, as it is easier to obtain in a quantity of critical mass. Both plutonium-239 and uranium-235 are obtained from Natural uranium, which primarily consists of uranium-238 but contains traces of other isotopes of uranium such as uranium-235. The process of enriching uranium, i.e. increasing the ratio of U to U to weapons grade, is generally a more lengthy and costly process than the production of plutonium-239 from U and subsequent reprocessing.


title: Plutonium-239

text: The "supergrade" fission fuel, which has less radioactivity, is used in the primary stage of US Navy nuclear weapons in place of the conventional plutonium used in the Air Force's versions. "Supergrade" is industry parlance for plutonium alloy bearing an exceptionally high fraction of Pu (>95%), leaving a very low amount of Pu, which is a high spontaneous fission isotope (see above). Such plutonium is produced from fuel rods that have been irradiated a very short time as measured in MW-day/ton burnup. Such low irradiation times limit the amount of additional neutron capture and therefore buildup of alternate isotope products such as Pu in the rod, and also by consequence is considerably more expensive to produce, needing far more rods irradiated and processed for a given amount of plutonium.


title: Plutonium-239

text: Plutonium-240, in addition to being a neutron emitter after fission, is a gamma emitter, and so is responsible for a large fraction of the radiation from stored nuclear weapons. Whether out on patrol or in port, submarine crew members routinely live and work in very close proximity to nuclear weapons stored in torpedo rooms and missile tubes, unlike Air Force missiles where exposures are relatively brief. The need to reduce radiation exposure justifies the additional costs of the premium supergrade alloy used on many naval nuclear weapons. Supergrade plutonium is used in W80 warheads.


title: Plutonium-239

text: In any operating nuclear reactor containing U, some plutonium-239 will accumulate in the nuclear fuel. Unlike reactors used to produce weapons-grade plutonium, commercial nuclear power reactors typically operate at a high burnup that allows a significant amount of plutonium to build up in irradiated reactor fuel. Plutonium-239 will be present both in the reactor core during operation and in spent nuclear fuel that has been removed from the reactor at the end of the fuel assembly's service life (typically several years). Spent nuclear fuel commonly contains about 0.8% plutonium-239.


title: Plutonium-239

text: Plutonium-239 present in reactor fuel can absorb neutrons and fission just as uranium-235 can. Since plutonium-239 is constantly being created in the reactor core during operation, the use of plutonium-239 as nuclear fuel in power plants can occur without reprocessing of spent fuel; the plutonium-239 is fissioned in the same fuel rods in which it is produced. Fissioning of plutonium-239 provides more than one-third of the total energy produced in a typical commercial nuclear power plant. Reactor fuel would accumulate much more than 0.8% plutonium-239 during its service life if some plutonium-239 were not constantly being "burned off" by fissioning.


title: Plutonium-239

text: A small percentage of plutonium-239 can be deliberately added to fresh nuclear fuel. Such fuel is called MOX (mixed oxide) fuel, as it contains a mixture of uranium dioxide (UO) and plutonium dioxide (PuO). The addition of plutonium-239 reduces the need to enrich the uranium in the fuel.


title: Plutonium-239

text: Plutonium-239 emits alpha particles to become uranium-235. As an alpha emitter, plutonium-239 is not particularly dangerous as an external radiation source, but if it is ingested or breathed in as dust it is very dangerous and carcinogenic. It has been estimated that a pound (454 grams) of plutonium inhaled as plutonium oxide dust could give cancer to two million people. However, ingested plutonium is by far less dangerous as only a tiny fraction is absorbed in gastrointestinal tract. 800 mg would be unlikely to cause a major health risk as far as radiation is concerned. As a heavy metal, plutonium is also chemically toxic. See also Plutonium#Precautions.


title: Plutonium-239

text: Weapons grade plutonium (with greater than 90% Pu) is used to make nuclear weapons and has many advantages over other fissile material for that purpose. Lower proportions of Pu would make a reliable weapon design difficult or impossible; this is due to the spontaneous fission (and thus neutron production) of the undesirable Pu.


title: System call

text: In computing, a system call (commonly abbreviated to syscall) is the programmatic way in which a computer program requests a service from the operating system on which it is executed. This may include hardware-related services (for example, accessing a hard disk drive or accessing the device's camera), creation and execution of new processes, and communication with integral kernel services such as process scheduling. System calls provide an essential interface between a process and the operating system.


title: System call

text: In most systems, system calls can only be made from userspace processes, while in some systems, OS/360 and successors for example, privileged system code also issues system calls.


title: System call

text: The architecture of most modern processors, with the exception of some embedded systems, involves a security model. For example, the "rings" model specifies multiple privilege levels under which software may be executed: a program is usually limited to its own address space so that it cannot access or modify other running programs or the operating system itself, and is usually prevented from directly manipulating hardware devices (e.g. the frame buffer or network devices).


title: System call

text: However, many applications need access to these components, so system calls are made available by the operating system to provide well-defined, safe implementations for such operations. The operating system executes at the highest level of privilege, and allows applications to request services via system calls, which are often initiated via interrupts. An interrupt automatically puts the CPU into some elevated privilege level and then passes control to the kernel, which determines whether the calling program should be granted the requested service. If the service is granted, the kernel executes a specific set of instructions over which the calling program has no direct control, returns the privilege level to that of the calling program, and then returns control to the calling program.


title: System call

text: Generally, systems provide a library or API that sits between normal programs and the operating system. On Unix-like systems, that API is usually part of an implementation of the C library (libc), such as glibc, that provides wrapper functions for the system calls, often named the same as the system calls they invoke. On Windows NT, that API is part of the Native API, in the library; this is an undocumented API used by implementations of the regular Windows API and directly used by some system programs on Windows. The library's wrapper functions expose an ordinary function calling convention (a subroutine call on the assembly level) for using the system call, as well as making the system call more modular. Here, the primary function of the wrapper is to place all the arguments to be passed to the system call in the appropriate processor registers (and maybe on the call stack as well), and also setting a unique system call number for the kernel to call. In this way the library, which exists between the OS and the application, increases portability.


title: System call

text: The call to the library function itself does not cause a switch to kernel mode and is usually a normal subroutine call (using, for example, a "CALL" assembly instruction in some Instruction set architectures (ISAs)). The actual system call does transfer control to the kernel (and is more implementation-dependent and platform-dependent than the library call abstracting it). For example, in Unix-like systems, codice_1 and codice_2 are C library functions that in turn execute instructions that invoke the codice_1 and codice_4 system calls. Making the system call directly in the application code is more complicated and may require embedded assembly code to be used (in C and C++), as well as requiring knowledge of the low-level binary interface for the system call operation, which may be subject to change over time and thus not be part of the application binary interface; the library functions are meant to abstract this away.


title: System call

text: On exokernel based systems, the library is especially important as an intermediary. On exokernels, libraries shield user applications from the very low level kernel API, and provide abstractions and resource management.


title: System call

text: IBM's OS/360, DOS/360 and TSS/360 implement most system calls through a library of assembly language macros, although there are a few services with a call linkage. This reflects their origin at a time when programming in assembly language was more common than high-level language usage. IBM system calls were therefore not directly executable by high-level language programs, but required a callable assembly language wrapper subroutine. Since then, IBM has added many services that can be called from high level languages in, e.g., z/OS and z/VSE. In more recent release of MVS/SP and in all later MVS versions, some system call macros generate Program Call (PC).


title: System call

text: On Unix, Unix-like and other POSIX-compliant operating systems, popular system calls are codice_5, codice_6, codice_7, codice_8, codice_9, codice_4, codice_1, codice_12, and codice_13. Many modern operating systems have hundreds of system calls. For example, Linux and OpenBSD each have over 300 different calls, NetBSD has close to 500, FreeBSD has over 500, Windows has close to 2000, divided between win32k (graphical) and ntdll (core) system calls while Plan 9 has 51.


title: System call

text: Tools such as strace, ftrace and truss allow a process to execute from start and report all system calls the process invokes, or can attach to an already running process and intercept any system call made by the said process if the operation does not violate the permissions of the user. This special ability of the program is usually also implemented with system calls such as ptrace or system calls on files in procfs.


title: System call

text: Implementing system calls requires a transfer of control from user space to kernel space, which involves some sort of architecture-specific feature. A typical way to implement this is to use a software interrupt or trap. Interrupts transfer control to the operating system kernel, so software simply needs to set up some register with the system call number needed, and execute the software interrupt.


title: System call

text: This is the only technique provided for many RISC processors, but CISC architectures such as x86 support additional techniques. For example, the x86 instruction set contains the instructions codice_14/codice_15 and codice_16/codice_17 (these two mechanisms were independently created by AMD and Intel, respectively, but in essence they do the same thing). These are "fast" control transfer instructions that are designed to quickly transfer control to the kernel for a system call without the overhead of an interrupt. Linux 2.5 began using this on the x86, where available; formerly it used the codice_18 instruction, where the system call number was placed in the codice_19 register before interrupt 0x80 was executed.


title: System call

text: An older mechanism is the call gate; originally used in Multics and later, for example, see call gate on the Intel x86. It allows a program to call a kernel function directly using a safe control transfer mechanism, which the operating system sets up in advance. This approach has been unpopular on x86, presumably due to the requirement of a far call (a call to a procedure located in a different segment than the current code segment) which uses x86 memory segmentation and the resulting lack of portability it causes, and the existence of the faster instructions mentioned above.


title: System call

text: For IA-64 architecture, codice_20 (Enter Privileged Code) instruction is used. The first eight system call arguments are passed in registers, and the rest are passed on the stack.


title: System call

text: In the IBM System/360 mainframe family, and its successors, a Supervisor Call instruction (), with the number in the instruction rather than in a register, implements a system call for legacy facilities in most of IBM's own operating systems, and for all system calls in Linux. In later versions of MVS, IBM uses the Program Call (PC) instruction for many newer facilities. In particular, PC is used when the caller might be in Service Request Block (SRB) mode.


title: System call

text: The PDP-11 minicomputer used the and instructions, which, similar to the IBM System/360 and x86 , put the code in the instruction; they generate interrupts to specific addresses, transferring control to the operating system. The VAX 32-bit successor to the PDP-11 series used the , , and instructions to make system calls to privileged code at various levels; the code is an argument to the instruction.


title: System call

text: System calls in most Unix-like systems are processed in kernel mode, which is accomplished by changing the processor execution mode to a more privileged one, but no "process" context switch is necessary although a "privilege" context switch does occur. The hardware sees the world in terms of the execution mode according to the processor status register, and processes are an abstraction provided by the operating system. A system call does not generally require a context switch to another process; instead, it is processed in the context of whichever process invoked it.


title: System call

text: In a multithreaded process, system calls can be made from multiple threads. The handling of such calls is dependent on the design of the specific operating system kernel and the application runtime environment. The following list shows typical models followed by operating systems:


title: Sally Hardesty

text: Sally Hardesty is a fictional character in "The Texas Chainsaw Massacre" franchise. She made her first appearance in "The Texas Chain Saw Massacre" (1974) as a young woman investigating her grandfather's grave after local grave robberies—crossing paths with Leatherface and his cannibalistic family in the process. In this film and later in "" (1995), she was portrayed by Marilyn Burns. Olwen Fouéré was cast in the sequel "Texas Chainsaw Massacre" (2022). The character, renamed Erin Hardesty and played by Jessica Biel, also appeared in a remake of the original film in 2003.


title: Sally Hardesty

text: Filming was particularly challenging for Burns as she endured numerous injuries throughout the notoriously difficult shoot. In one such scene, Hansen cut her index finger with a razor due to the crew being unable to get theatrical blood to come out of the tube of a malfunctioned prop. Burns' stage clothes were so drenched with fake blood that they were solid by the last day of shooting.


title: Sally Hardesty

text: The character has become a pop culture figure and is commonly referenced by film scholars when discussing the final girl theory; a trope of which Hardesty is credited for being the catalyst.


title: Sally Hardesty

text: Although the character Sally Hardesty is the lone survivor of the four young protagonist friends in the original 1974 "The Texas Chain Saw Massacre", her character dies in the 2022 reboot "Texas Chainsaw Massacre" from Leatherface chainsawing her in the stomach.


title: Sally Hardesty

text: The character made her cinematic debut in "The Texas Chain Saw Massacre" on October 11, 1974. Created by Kim Henkel and Tobe Hooper, in this film, Sally (Marilyn Burns) is a free-spirited young woman traveling across Texas with her brother Franklin and friends to investigate her grandfather's grave after a series of local grave robberies. After visiting the abandoned Hardesty homestead, their friends are murdered by the cannibalistic Leatherface and his sadistic family. While searching for them, Leatherface appears and kills Franklin and Sally is pursued and captured. Bound at the family's dinner table, she breaks free and escapes. Although she does not physically appear in the following two sequels, Sally's aftermath from the first film receives mention in "The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2" (1986), which identifies her as Sally Hardesty-Enright. In the opening, the narrator states that Sally describes her traumatic encounter with Leatherface and his family as feeling like she had "broken out of a window in hell" and that she became catatonic after revealing her ordeal to the police. In the intro speech for "" (1990), the narrator states that Sally died in a private health care facility in 1977. Burns briefly reprises the role in a non-speaking cameo appearance in "" (1995) as a patient on a gurney. Written by Henkel, he included Sally to convey "an emotional connection between the Sally character and the Jenny character, a kind of perverse passing of the torch". Sally returns in "Texas Chainsaw Massacre" (2022). Olwen Fouéré was recast as Sally following the passing of Burns in 2014. It is the first film since the original to feature Sally as a focal point, with her having a five-decade-long vendetta against Leatherface.


title: Sally Hardesty

text: While studying at the University of Texas at Austin, Burns auditioned for the role of Sally when a casting call was held for "The Texas Chain Saw Massacre" (1974). Burns previously met Hooper when he was kicked off the set of Sidney Lumet's drama film "Lovin' Molly" (1974), in which Burns worked as a stand-in for Susan Sarandon and Blythe Danner. Burns did most of her own stunts during filming, such as jumping through the window during the ending and during the dinner scene, her finger was actually cut by a real knife with no fake blood being used. Originally, the 2003 remake was intended to be told in flashback format with an aged Sally recounting her experience with Leatherface to authorities. Burns was set to reprise her role. Ultimately, this version of the film was scrapped.


title: Sally Hardesty

text: Hardesty was a featured character, alongside Leatherface, in Universal Orlando's 2012 "Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Saw is the Law" Halloween Horror Nights amusement park attraction—appearing during a reenactment of the dinner table sequence from the 1974 film. American singer Tinashe homaged the character in the music video to her "333" (2021) single "Naturally" in a sequence featuring the singer covered in blood and laughing maniacally in the back of a pickup truck.


title: Sally Hardesty

text: In "Making and Remaking Horror in the 1970s and 2000s: Why Don't They Do It Like They Used To?", David Roche contrasts Sally to Laurie Strode from the "Halloween" series stating: "All in all, Sally Hardesty and Laurie Strode have very little in common, apart from the fact that both characters survive the horror they have witnessed" and goes on to say that "Sally, the hippie, is very 'feminine' and not especially heroic: she undergoes intense suffering, attempts to sell her body, and seems to lose her mind. Sally is, in effect, the most resisting body. As such, the character of Sally simultaneously enables the Family to attempt to assert its masculinity in the face of the abject female and contributes to the discovery of the instability of sexist patriarchal values by bearing witness to the way the Family's mimicry of patriarchy reveals its constructiveness; these two functions coalesce in the shots of Sally's eyes. I would, thus, argue that the character of Sally by no means represents a feminist development, but her resilience does enable an anti-essentialist subtext to emerge to some extent". However, James Rose believes that Sally and Laurie have a lot of similarities, describing:


title: Sally Hardesty

text: Editor Stefano Lo Verme compared Burns' performance as Sally to the performances of Sandra Peabody as Mari Collingwood in "The Last House on the Left" (1972) and Jamie Lee Curtis as Laurie Strode in "Halloween" (1978).


title: Philippe Pozzo di Borgo

text: Philippe Pozzo di Borgo (born 14 February 1951) is a Corsican French businessman who is the Director of Pommery and was the owner of an inherited historic "hôtel particulier" in Paris used as a function hall.


title: Philippe Pozzo di Borgo

text: Philippe is the second son of the French duke Pozzo di Borgo and the Marquis de Vogue. The noble family dates back to the 1500s. After completing his education, he began working in the champagne industry. Prior to his job as director of Pommery, Philippe was a manager at Moët and Chandon.


title: Philippe Pozzo di Borgo

text: Philippe di Borgo became a diabetic quadriplegic in 1993 following a paragliding accident. Because of his disability, he attempted to commit suicide by wrapping an oxygen tube around his neck.


title: Philippe Pozzo di Borgo

text: The story of Philippe and his Algerian attendant, Abdel Sellou, was told in a 2003 documentary, "A la vie, à la mort". Their story was also adapted in the biographical movies "The Intouchables" (2011), and the Indian, Argentine, and American re-makes, respectively, "Oopiri" (2016), (Spanish article) "" (2016), and "The Upside" (2017). These movies were based on his memoir, "A Second Wind".


title: MTR

text: The Mass Transit Railway (MTR) is a major public transport network serving :Hong Kong. Operated by the MTR Corporation Limited (MTRCL), it consists of heavy rail, light rail, and feeder bus service centred on a 10-line rapid transit network serving the urbanised areas of Hong Kong Island, Kowloon, and the New Territories. The system included of rail as of 2022 with 167 stations, including 98 heavy rail stations, 68 light rail stops and one high-speed rail terminus.


title: MTR

text: Under the government's rail-led transport policy, the MTR system is a common mode of public transport in Hong Kong, with over five million trips made in an average weekday. It consistently achieves a 99.9 per cent on-time rate on its train journeys. As of 2018, the MTR has a 49.3 per cent share of the franchised public transport market, making it the most popular transport option in Hong Kong. The integration of the Octopus smart card fare-payment technology into the MTR system in September 1997 has further enhanced the ease of commuting on the MTR.


title: MTR

text: Construction of the MTR was prompted by a study, released in 1967, commissioned by the Government of British Hong Kong to find solutions to the increasing road congestion problem caused by the territory's fast-growing economy. Construction started soon after the release of the study, and the first line opened in 1979. The MTR was immediately popular with residents of Hong Kong; as a result, subsequent lines have been built to cover more territory. There are continual debates regarding how and where to expand the MTR network.


title: MTR

text: The MTRCL is involved in the construction and operation of railway projects in three Mainland China cities, namely Beijing, Shenzhen and Hangzhou. MTRCL also constructs and operates the Macao Light Rapid Transit. MTRCL operates railway services in London in the United Kingdom, Stockholm in Sweden, and Melbourne in Australia, and is involved in the construction and operation of a railway project in Sydney, Australia. For MTRCL’s network worldwide, see MTR Corporation.


title: MTR

text: During the 1960s, the government of Hong Kong saw a need to accommodate increasing road traffic as Hong Kong's economy grew rapidly. In 1966, British transport consultants Freeman, Fox, Wilbur Smith & Associates were appointed to study the transport system of Hong Kong. The study was based on the projection of the population of Hong Kong for 1986, estimated at 6,868,000. On 1 September 1967, the consultants submitted the "Hong Kong Mass Transport Study" to the government, which recommended the construction of a rapid transit rail system in Hong Kong. The study suggested that four rail lines be developed in six stages, with a completion date set between December 1973 and December 1984. Detailed locations of lines and stations were presented in the study. These four lines were the Kwun Tong line (from Mong Kok to Ma Yau Tong), Tsuen Wan line (from Admiralty to Tsuen Wan), Island line (from Kennedy to Chai Wan Central), and Shatin line (from Tsim Sha Tsui to Wo Liu Hang).


title: MTR

text: The study was submitted to the Legislative Council on 14 February 1968. The consultants received new data from the 1966 by-census on 6 March 1968. A short supplementary report was submitted on 22 March 1968 and amended in June 1968. The by-census indicated that the projected 1986 population was reduced by more than one million from the previous estimate to 5,647,000. The dramatic reduction affected town planning. The population distribution was largely different from the original study. The projected 1986 populations of Castle Peak New Town, Sha Tin New Town, and, to a lesser extent, Tsuen Wan New Town, were revised downward, and the plan for a new town in Tseung Kwan O was shelved. In this updated scenario, the consultants reduced the scale of the recommended system. The supplementary report stated that the originally suggested four tracks between Admiralty station and Mong Kok station should be reduced to two, and only parts of the Island line, Tsuen Wan line, and Kwun Tong line should be constructed for the initial system. The other lines would be placed in the list of extensions. This report led to the final study in 1970.


title: MTR

text: In 1970, a revised system with four lines was laid out in the British consultants' new report, "Hong Kong Mass Transit: Further Studies". The four lines were to be the Kwun Tong line, Tsuen Wan line, Island line, and East Kowloon line. The lines that were eventually constructed were somewhat different compared to those presented in this report and the "Hong Kong Mass Transport Study".


title: MTR

text: In 1972, the Hong Kong government authorised construction of the "Initial System", a system that roughly translates to today's Kwun Tong line between Kwun Tong and Prince Edward, Tsuen Wan line between Mei Foo and Admiralty, and Island line between Sheung Wan and Admiralty. The Mass Transit Steering Committee, chaired by the Financial Secretary Philip Haddon-Cave, began negotiations with four major construction consortia in 1973. The government's intention was to tender the entire project, based on the British design, as a single tender at a fixed price. A consortium from Japan, led by Mitsubishi, submitted the only proposal within the government's $5-billion price ceiling. They signed an agreement to construct the system in early 1974, but in December of the same year, pulled out of the agreement for reasons stemming from fears of the oil crisis.


title: MTR

text: Several weeks later, in early 1975, the Mass Transit Steering Group was replaced by the Mass Transport Provisional Authority, which held more executive powers. It announced that the Initial System would be reduced to and renamed the "Modified Initial System" (now part of the Kwun Tong and Tsuen Wan lines). Plans for a single contract were abandoned in favour of 25 engineering contracts and 10 electrical and mechanical contracts. On 7 May 1975 the Legislative Council passed legislation setting up the government-owned Mass Transit Railway Corporation (MTRC) to replace the Mass Transport Provisional Authority.


title: MTR

text: Construction commenced in November 1975. The northern section was completed on 30 September 1979 and was opened on 1 October 1979 by Governor Murray MacLehose. Trains on this route ran from Shek Kip Mei to Kwun Tong in Phase 1, Tsim Sha Tsui to Kwun Tong in Phase 2 in December 1979, and Chater to Kwun Tong in the last phase, initially in a four-car configuration. The first train drivers were trained on the London Underground. It was designed by a consortium of consultants led by Freeman Fox and Partners. On later extensions to the railway the stations were designed under the supervision of Roland Paoletti, the chief architect at MTR.


title: MTR

text: The full Modified Initial System was opened on 12 February 1980 by Princess Alexandra, who rode the inaugural train through the immersed tube beneath Victoria Harbour to Central station. Trains were gradually extended to six cars to accommodate an increase in passenger numbers.


title: MTR

text: The government approved construction of the Tsuen Wan line in 1977, then known as the Tsuen Wan Extension, and works commenced in November 1978. The project added a section to the MTR system, from Prince Edward station to Tsuen Wan. The line started service on 10 May 1982 with a total cost of construction (not adjusted for inflation) of HK$4.1 billion (US$526 million). The plan was modified from that in the 1970 report "Hong Kong Mass Transit: Further Studies", with Kwai Chung station, Lap Sap Wan station, and a planned depot in Kwai Chung next to Lap Sap Wan station being replaced by stations in Kwai Hing and Kwai Fong and a depot in Tsuen Wan. Several stations also had names different to that during planning: So Uk station became Cheung Sha Wan, Cheung Sha Wan became Lai Chi Kok, and Lai Chi Kok became Lai Wan (later renamed Mei Foo).


title: MTR

text: When service of this line started, the section of the Kwun Tong line from Chater to Argyle (since renamed Central and Mong Kok respectively) was transferred to the Tsuen Wan line. Thus, Waterloo station (since renamed Yau Ma Tei) became the terminus of the Kwun Tong line, and both Argyle and Prince Edward stations became interchange stations. This change was made because system planners expected the patronage of the Tsuen Wan line to exceed that of the Kwun Tong line. This forecast proved to be accurate, necessitating a bypass from the northwestern New Territories to Hong Kong Island. The Tung Chung line was therefore launched in 1998 with an interchange station at Lai King for that purpose.


title: MTR

text: Although land acquisitions were made for a station at Tsuen Wan West (near Tsuen King Circuit), beyond Tsuen Wan station, as part of the Tsuen Wan branch, the station was never built. This is not to be confused with the modern-day Tsuen Wan West station on Tuen Ma line, which lies on a newly reclaimed area near the former ferry pier.


title: MTR

text: Since opening in 1982, the Tsuen Wan line is the line whose alignment has remained the same for the longest time. For example, the Kwun Tong line's alignment has changed three times since its opening—the taking over of Tsuen Wan line from Mong Kok to Central, the taking over of Eastern Harbour Crossing section by the Tseung Kwan O line, and its extension to Whampoa.


title: MTR

text: Government approvals were granted for construction of the Island line in December 1980. Construction commenced in October 1981. On 31 May 1985, the Island line was opened with service between Admiralty station and Chai Wan station. Both Admiralty and Central stations became interchange stations with the Tsuen Wan line. Furthermore, each train was extended to eight cars. On 23 May 1986, the Island line was extended to Sheung Wan station. Construction was delayed for one year, as government offices which were located over the station had to be moved before the construction could start.


title: MTR

text: In 1984, the government approved the construction of the Eastern Harbour Crossing, a tunnel to be used by cars and MTR trains. The Kwun Tong line was extended across the harbour on 5 August 1989 to Quarry Bay station, which became an interchange station for the Kwun Tong line and the Island line. An intermediate station, Lam Tin, started operations on 1 October 1989.


title: MTR

text: The decision was made in October 1989 to construct a new international airport at Chek Lap Kok on Lantau Island to replace the overcrowded Kai Tak International Airport. The government invited the MTRC to build a train line, then known as the Lantau Airport Railway, to the airport. Construction started in November 1994, after the Chinese and British governments settled their financial and land disagreements.


title: MTR

text: The new line was included in the financing plans of the new Hong Kong International Airport as the airport was not considered viable without direct public transport links. Construction costs were also shared by the MTRC, which was granted many large-scale developments in the construction plans for the new stations.


title: MTR

text: The Lantau Airport Railway included two MTR lines, the Tung Chung line and the Airport Express. The Tung Chung line was officially opened on 21 June 1998 by Hong Kong Chief Executive Tung Chee-hwa, and service commenced the next day. The Airport Express opened for service on 6 July 1998 along with the new Hong Kong International Airport.


title: MTR

text: The Airport Express also offers flight check-in facilities at Kowloon station and Hong Kong station—the in-town check-ins offer a more convenient and time-saving routine; a free shuttle bus service transports travellers from these stations to their respective hotels as well. Porters are also available to help transport luggage from and onto trains. It is the second most popular means of transport to the airport after buses. In 2012, it had a 21.8 per cent of share of the traffic to and from the airport. However, this has declined from a peak of 32 per cent in 1999.


title: MTR

text: The Quarry Bay Congestion Relief Works extended the Hong Kong Island end of the Kwun Tong line from Quarry Bay to North Point via a pair of tunnels. The project was initiated due to overcrowding at Quarry Bay and persistent passenger complaints about the five-minute walk from the Island line platforms to the Kwun Tong line platform. Construction began in September 1997 and was completed in September 2001 at a cost of HK$3.1 billion. As with most earlier interchange stations, a cross-platform interchange arrangement was provided here in both directions.


title: MTR

text: Construction of the Tseung Kwan O line (called the Tseung Kwan O extension line in the planning stage) was approved on 18 August 1998 to serve the growing Tseung Kwan O New Town. Construction began on 24 April 1999 and the line officially opened in 2002. It took over the existing Kwun Tong line tracks running through the Eastern Harbour Tunnel, so that the full line stretches from Po Lam to North Point. When the line opened, the Kwun Tong line was diverted to Tiu Keng Leng on the new line. Construction costs were partly covered by the Hong Kong Government and private developers which linked construction of the Tseung Kwan O line to new real estate and commercial developments.


title: MTR

text: The interchange between the Kwun Tong line and the Tsuen Wan line (except Yau Ma Tei) as well as that between the Kwun Tong line and the Tseung Kwan O line, are two stations long, allowing cross-platform interchange wherein a passenger leaves a train on one side of the platform and boards trains on the other side of the platform for another line. For example, when passengers are travelling on the Kwun Tong line towards Tiu Keng Leng, getting off at Yau Tong would allow them to switch trains across the platform for the Tseung Kwan O line towards North Point. Whereas, staying on the train and reaching Tiu Keng Leng would allow them to board the Tseung Kwan O line trains towards Po Lam/LOHAS Park. This design makes interchanging more convenient and passengers do not have the need to change to different levels. However this interchange arrangement is not available for all transferring passengers at Kowloon Tong, Central, Hong Kong, Quarry Bay, Nam Cheong (except transfer between Tuen Mun and Hong Kong bound trains), Mei Foo, Tai Wai (only between southbound Tuen Ma line and East Rail line trains) and Sunny Bay (except transfer between Tung Chung and Disneyland Resort bound trains) stations, mainly because this service is available only when there are two continuous stations shared as interchange stations by two lines.


title: MTR

text: Two major works were undertaken to ease interchange between the Kwun Tong line and East Rail line. The modification of Kowloon Tong station started in June 2001. A new pedestrian link to Kowloon Tong station southern concourse and a new entrance (Exit D) opened on 15 April 2004 to cope with the increase in interchange passenger flow. Modification to Tsim Sha Tsui station involved upgrading station facilities and concourse layout to facilitate access from the East Tsim Sha Tsui station via its pedestrian links. New entrances to the subway links were opened on 19 September 2004 (Exit G) and 30 March 2005 (Exit F), with the whole scheme completed in May 2005.


title: MTR

text: The Disneyland Resort line, previously known as Penny's Bay Rail Link, provides service to the Hong Kong Disneyland Resort which was opened on 12 September 2005. Service to Sunny Bay station on the Tung Chung line started in 2005. The new line and the Disneyland Resort station opened on 1 August 2005. It is a single-track railway that runs between Sunny Bay station and Disneyland Resort station. The Disneyland Resort station itself was designed to blend in with the ambiance of the resort. The line operates fully automated trains running every four to ten minutes without a driver. The carriages are refurbished M-train rolling stock to match the recreational and adventurous nature of the 3.5-minute journey.


title: MTR

text: The AsiaWorld–Expo station is an extension of the Airport Express serving a new international exhibition centre, AsiaWorld–Expo, at Hong Kong International Airport. The station opened on 20 December 2005 along with the exhibition centre. To cope with the projected increase in patronage, Airport Express trains were lengthened to eight cars from the previous seven. Additional trains are also deployed on the Tung Chung line during major exhibitions and events.


title: MTR

text: On 5 October 2000 the operator of the MTR network, the Mass Transit Railway Corporation (MTRC), became Hong Kong's first rail company to be partially privatised, marking the beginning of the Hong Kong government's initiative to reduce its interests in public utilities. Prior to its listing on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange, the Mass Transit Railway Corporation (MTRC) was wholly owned by the Hong Kong government. The offering involved the sale of about one billion shares, and the company now has the largest shareholder base of any company listed in Hong Kong. In June 2001, MTRCL was transferred to the Hang Seng Index.


title: MTR

text: MTRCL has often developed properties next to stations to complement its profitable railway business. Many recently built stations were incorporated into large housing estates or shopping complexes. For example, Tsing Yi station is built next to the Maritime Square shopping centre and directly underneath the Tierra Verde housing estate.


title: MTR

text: On 11 April 2006, MTRCL signed a non-binding memorandum of understanding with the Hong Kong government, the owner of Kowloon–Canton Railway Corporation, to merge the operation of the two railway networks in Hong Kong in spite of the strong opposition of KCRC staff. The minority shareholders of the corporation approved the proposal at an extraordinary general meeting on 9 October 2007, allowing MTRCL to take over the operation of the KCR network and combine the fare system of the two networks on 2 December 2007.


title: MTR

text: On 2 December 2007 the Kowloon-Canton Railway Corporation (KCRC) granted a 50-year service concession (which may be extended) of the KCR network to MTRCL, in return for making annual payments to KCRC, thereby merging the railway operations of the two corporations under MTRCL's management. At the same time MTRCL changed its Chinese name from "地下鐵路有限公司" (Subway Limited Company) to "香港鐵路有限公司" (Hong Kong Railway Limited Company), but left its English name unchanged; at the same time the system's Chinese name changed from "地鐵" ("underground railway") to "港鐵" ("Hong Kong Railway"). After the merger, the MTR network included three more lines—East Rail line, West Rail line, and Ma On Shan line (now the Tuen Ma line)—as well as the light rail network and Guangdong through train to Guangzhou.


title: MTR

text: On 28 September 2008, fare zones of all urban lines, East Rail line, Ma On Shan line, and West Rail line were merged. A passenger could travel on these networks with only one ticket, except where a transfer is made between Tsim Sha Tsui and East Tsim Sha Tsui stations, where two tickets are required. Student discounts on Octopus Card were also issued.


title: MTR

text: The MTR system has been extended numerous times since the railway merger. Relevant projects include the LOHAS Park spur line (2009), the Kowloon Southern Link (2009), the West Island line (2014), the Kwun Tong line extension (2016), the South Island line (2016) and the Tuen Ma line Phase 1 (2020).


title: MTR

text: The LOHAS Park Spur Line is an extension of the Tseung Kwan O line, splitting off after Tseung Kwan O station. It serves the new residential development of LOHAS Park (formerly "Dream City"), a estate with fifty residential towers. The project is divided into 9 to 13 phases and is about halfway complete as of 2016. These high rises sit above LOHAS Park station, which opened on 26 July 2009.


title: MTR

text: The West Island line, first put forward to the government on 21 January 2003, is an extension of the Island line. It serves the Western District of Hong Kong Island. The construction of the West Island line started on 10 August 2009. Kennedy Town station and HKU station opened on 28 December 2014. Sai Ying Pun station opened later, on 29 March 2015, due to construction delays.


title: MTR

text: A proposal to extend the existing Kwun Tong line to Whampoa Garden was made in April 2006 and approved in March 2008 as part of the bid for the Sha Tin to Central Link. Two new stations at Whampoa and Ho Man Tin opened on 23 October 2016.


title: MTR

text: The South Island line opened on 28 December 2016 between Admiralty and South Horizons, linking the MTR to Southern District for the first time. With the opening of the South Island line, all 18 districts of Hong Kong are served by the MTR.


title: MTR

text: The first section of the Tuen Ma line, an extension of the former Ma On Shan line connecting Tai Wai via Hin Keng and Diamond Hill to Kai Tak station, opened on 14 February 2020. The second and final section of the line was completed and opened on 27 June 2021, linking the previously opened Tuen Ma Line Phase One and the West Rail Line together connecting from Kai Tak station to Hung Hom station.


title: MTR

text: An extension of the East Rail line, phase two of the Sha Tin to Central Link (SCL) from Hung Hom station to Admiralty station across Victoria Harbour was completed and opened on 15 May 2022. An intermediate station was opened at Exhibition Centre.


title: MTR

text: The Tuen Mun South extension on the Tuen Ma line is a proposed 2.4-kilometre extension to a new western terminus, Tuen Mun South, near Tuen Mun Ferry Pier. The extension will extend southwards from the current terminus of the Tuen Ma line, Tuen Mun station. It will include the construction of the A16 station (placeholder name used by MTR) and the new terminus Tuen Mun South station.


title: MTR

text: Additionally, the addition of a new infill station, Hung Shui Kiu station, along the Tuen Ma line in between Siu Hong station and Tin Shui Wai station. It is currently under planning. It may be built depending on the development of the Hung Shui Kiu New Town.


title: MTR

text: The Northern Link is a proposed new line which connects Tuen Ma line with the Lok Ma Chau Spur Line of East Rail line. It also has Au Tau, Ngau Tam Mei, San Tin, a future interchange station between East Rail line and Northern Link, Kwu Tung, which will become a terminus for Northern link. This potential line would serve the future Northern Metropolis in current planning by the Hong Kong government. It would help to connect planned population centres isolated in the New Territories with Kowloon and Hong Kong.


title: MTR

text: Two new stations are planned on the Tung Chung line, namely: Tung Chung West and Tung Chung East. Tung Chung East station will serve the eastern part of Tung Chung, while Tung Chung West station will serve Yat Tung Estate and nearby developments.


title: MTR

text: The Oyster bay station is a planned infill station between Sunny Bay station and the future Tung Chung East station. It is expected to be complete in 2030.


title: MTR

text: The East Kowloon line is planned to serve the East Kowloon area to Tseung Kwan O New Town via the hilly Sau Mau Ping residential area.