title: Personal income in the United States

text: Those identifying as Hispanic or Latino (who may have been of any race) had the lowest overall median personal income, earning 28.51% less than Whites and 35% less than Asian Americans. The second largest racial or ethnic gap was between Whites and African Americans with the former earning roughly 22% more than the latter. Thus one can observe a significant discrepancy with the median income of Asians and Whites and that of African Americans and Hispanics.


title: Personal income in the United States

text: Overall the race gap between African Americans and Whites has remained roughly equal between both races over the past decade. Both races saw a gain in median income between 1996 and 2006, with the income growth among African Americans slightly outpacing that of Whites. In 1996 the median income for Whites was $5,957 (31%) higher than for Blacks. In 2006 the gap in median incomes was nearly identical with the median income for Whites being $5,929 (22%) higher than that for African Americans. While the gap remains numerically unchanged, the percentage difference between the two races has decreased as a result of mutual increases in median personal income.


title: Personal income in the United States

text: Measuring income by per capita is another way to look at personal earnings by race. Unlike median statistics, per capita statistics are affected by extremely high and low incomes. According to the U.S Census Bureau "The per capita income for the overall population in 2008 was $26,964; for non-Hispanic Whites, it was $31,313; for Blacks, it was $18,406; for Asians, it was $30,292; and for Hispanics, it was $15,674."


title: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte

text: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte, commonly known as Kotte (), is the legislative capital of Sri Lanka. Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte is a satellite city and located within the urban area of Sri Lanka's de facto economic, executive, and judicial capital, Colombo.


title: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte

text: The village of Darugama lay at the confluence of two streams, the Diyawanna Oya and the Kolonnawa Oya. As Darugama was a naturally secure place, it was not easy for enemies to enter it. Here, in the 13th century, a local chieftain, Nissanka Alagakkonara, built a "Kotte", or fortress.


title: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte

text: Alagakkonara is mentioned by Ibn Batuta as ruling in Kurunegala, but other sources indicate that he was the Bandara (Guardian) of Raigama Korale (county) in the modern Kalutara District. Arya Chakravarthy's army was held by Alagakkonara in front of Kotte, while he defeated the enemy's invasion fleet at Panadura to the south-west.


title: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte

text: Kotte was a "jala durgha" (water fortress), in the shape of a triangle, with the Diyawanna Oya and Kolonnawa Oya marshes forming two long sides; along the shorter third (land) side a large moat (the 'inner moat') was dug. The fortress was nearly in area, fortified with ramparts of "kabook" or laterite rock, high and in breadth.


title: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte

text: In 1391, following the conquest of the Kingdom of Jaffna by Prince Sapumal (Sembahap Perumal), Kotte was given the epithet 'Sri Jayawardenepura' ('resplendent city of growing victory'). It became the capital of the ancient Kingdom of Kotte, which it remained until the end of the 16th century.


title: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte

text: From the ramparts to the magnificent three storied buildings that housed the kings palace, laterite and clay were the main raw material used in its construction. One of the places from which the laterite blocks were mined can be seen even today inside the premises of Ananda Sasthralaya (a local school).


title: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte

text: The Portuguese arrived on the island in 1505 and were initially welcomed by the king, but they had militaristic and monopolistic intentions and gained control of the city by 1565. Failing to withstand repeated assaults by the forces of the neighbouring kingdom of Sitawaka, the city was abandoned by the Portuguese, who made Colombo their new capital.


title: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte

text: Like similar cities of that era, Sri Jayawardenepura was built with security in mind. A rampart and moat protected the entire city. Traces of this moat and rampart are still visible today at certain places. Along parts of the rampart, encroachers have now built houses, garages and even toilets.


title: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte

text: The urbanisation of Kotte restarted in the 19th century. The archaeological remains were torn up and used as building materials (a process that continues)—some of it even ending up in the Victoria Bridge, across the Kelani River.


title: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte

text: The New Parliament was inaugurated on 29 April 1982. The buildings were built on reclaimed land, after a massive lake was formed by dredging the marshlands around the Diyawanna Oya. The new parliamentary buildings were built on Duwa, a 50,000 square metre (12 acre) island in the centre of the lake. The island (off Baddegana Road, Pita Kotte) had been used as a recreation and brawling spot for Portuguese soldiers in the last days of Kotte era, alcohol being banned from the Royal City. It had belonged to E. W. Perera and had housed a chicken farm prior to being vested in the state. On 29 April 1982, the new parliamentary complex was declared open by the former president J. R. Jayewardene.


title: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte

text: The process of relocating government institutions from the former capital of Colombo is still in progress.


title: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte

text: The Kotte Urban Development Council was created in the 1930s, with a modern building at Rajagiriya. It was succeeded by the Kotte Urban Council, which had a large section of its area removed and tagged onto the Colombo Municipal Council ward of Borella while the Battaramulla urban council was dissolved and a small section of Battaramulla tagged onto the Kotte Urban Council. The Kotte Urban Council became the Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte Municipal Council in 1997, with Chandra Silva as the first Mayor.


title: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte

text: There are 20 Members of the Municipal Council (MMCs), elected on proportional representation. There are 18 wards, but these are now merely polling divisions, without individual representation.


title: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte

text: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte is a multi-ethnic, multi-religious urban centre. According to the census of 2012, the demographics by ethnicity and religion is as follows:


title: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte

text: The only main railway station is at Nugegoda, on the Kelani Valley Line . Also at Nugegoda is the main bus terminus. There are subsidiary bus stands at Pita Kotte. This urban area is well served by buses and there is a CTB bus depot at Udahamulla.


title: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte

text: In 2005, a Passenger boat service was being finalised and would commence adjacent to Parliament Junction at Bataramulla and end at the Wellawatte canal near Marine drive. Each journey would take around 30 minutes. It would have stations at the Kotte Marsh, Nawala, Open University, Apollo Hospital, Duplication road, Wellawatte and at St Peter's College, Colombo. The Sri Lanka Navy is conducting a pilot project between the Open University and Wellawatte.


title: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte

text: The main hospital of area situated at Madivela known as Sri Jayawardenepura Hospital is a gift from the Japanese government. There is a dedicated Eye & ENT hospital at Rajagiriya, and another maternity hospital under construction in Nawala. A small private health centre, the Blue Cross Hospital at Rajagiriya, provides basic facilities for medical diagnostics, and there is a small nursing home in Park Lane, Welikada, much patronised by Maldivians.


title: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte

text: There are a number of state and private schools in Kotte. They are either "national schools" (run by the central government; Main School President's College, Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte), "government schools" (run by the Provincial Councils), semi-government/private schools, or International schools (run by trusts and individuals; Gateway College Colombo is an example of the latter class of school).


title: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte

text: The oldest English school on the island is Sri Jayawardenepura Maha Vidyalaya, formerly known as Christian College, located in Pita Kotte. The Ananda Sastralaya at Pita Kotte is the oldest Buddhist school in the city, and Anula Vidyalaya, Nugegoda is the biggest Buddhist girls school in South Asia, with over 5000 students.


title: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte

text: A considerable number of the students living within the zone study at government owned colleges and International schools in Colombo.


title: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte

text: Located at Nawala is the Open University, Sri Lanka, and at Nugegoda is the University of Sri Jayewardenepura. Public Libraries are conveniently located, and can be found at Nugegoda and Rajagiriya.


title: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte

text: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte features a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen: Af) more subject to the Intertropical Convergence Zone than the trade winds. Since there are a few cyclones, the climate is not purely equatorial but subequatorial, with little variation in temperatures throughout the course of the year. The city does feature wetter and drier months, with February on average being its driest month, seeing on average of precipitation. However, since none of the average monthly precipitation falls below , Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte falls under the tropical rainforest climate category.


title: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte

text: Cricket is the most popular sport in this urban area as well as the country and is usually played in the grounds around the city.


title: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte

text: Association football was at one time the most popular sport in the Colombo area, although it was eclipsed by cricket after 1980. Four separate football clubs (Lido, Welikada Progress, Welikada Red Star and Welikada United) once used the EW Perera Park grounds at Welikada, Rajagiriya where a pavilion was constructed in the 1970s. However, when the grounds were destroyed by the JR Jayawardene regime in the late 1970s, the football clubs disappeared. Football continued to be played at the grounds at Obeysekerapura in Rajagiriya.


title: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte

text: In the 1990s, the Kotte Municipal Council constructed the Chandra Silva Stadium, to replace the EW Perera Grounds. Part of the grounds was sold and later used to construct the HSBC building. In 2007 the Municipality, with aid from the Ministry of Urban Development, completed the first stage of the new Chandra Silva Stadium on the site of a rubbish dump behind the HSBC building.


title: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte

text: Recently, football has once more grown in popularity, and the sport now has a considerable following. The football association's new training facility at Kotte is aimed at harnessing and developing the available talent and organizing the individual players into a cohesive team. It includes a football playground with a sprinkler system, gym and a host of other facilities.


title: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte

text: Other sports are mostly played in the numerous clubs and gyms, and include tennis, squash, billiards, horse riding, indoor cricket, badminton and table tennis. Horse riding can be pursued at the Premadasa Riding School in Nugegoda.


title: Carmela Soprano

text: Carmela Soprano ("née" DeAngelis), played by Edie Falco, is a fictional character on the HBO TV series "The Sopranos". She is married to Mafia boss Tony Soprano. A young Carmela, portrayed by Lauren DiMario, appears in the 2021 prequel film, "The Many Saints of Newark".


title: Carmela Soprano

text: Edie Falco's performance as Carmela was universally lauded. She won Emmy Awards for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series in 1999, 2001 and 2003, and received six nominations for her role in the series. Falco has also won two Golden Globe Awards and three Screen Actors Guild Awards.


title: Carmela Soprano

text: Carmela was Tony Soprano's high school sweetheart, and the couple married at a young age. They have two children together: Meadow Soprano and Anthony "A.J." Soprano, Jr. In 'Knight in White Satin Armor', Tony mentions that they have been married for 18 years. Carmela attended Montclair State University for an unspecified period of time before dropping out.


title: Carmela Soprano

text: Carmela is a homemaker for the Soprano household, and works to create a semblance of legitimacy for her family even though she is well aware their wealth is built on "blood money". Tony trusts Carmela enough to confide in her, to a degree, about some of his Mafia dealings, notably the failed attempt on his life and the death of Richie Aprile. Tony's work and constant infidelity have put a serious strain on the marriage and caused a period of separation.


title: Carmela Soprano

text: Carmela is an observant Roman Catholic and has difficulty rationalizing her husband's profession and the flaws in their marriage. Tony and Carmela often reconcile after Tony presents her with expensive gifts, notably jewelry, designer clothing, furs, cars, and a $600,000 plot of land she wants to build a spec house on.


title: Carmela Soprano

text: Carmela sometimes has intense guilt for having sacrificed her children's security for the luxuries Tony's career could provide. She defends her children from Tony when they do something wrong. She has shown herself willing to use her mob-wife status to intimidate others, as she does in "Full Leather Jacket", where she not-too-subtly manipulates her neighbor's Georgetown-alumna sister into writing a letter of recommendation for Meadow to Georgetown, hoping Meadow would not go to UC Berkeley but rather stay closer to home. She discards a letter from Berkeley to Meadow requesting transcripts but later retrieves it from the trash in a moment of guilt.


title: Carmela Soprano

text: While she is very proud of Meadow's accomplishments and ambition, Carmela is also jealous and resentful of her daughter for achieving the independence and success she always wanted herself. She constantly frets over A.J.'s troubles and inactivity, yet tends to coddle him and is unwilling to impose any real restrictions on him. She has trouble with her husband's profession, considering him more a Robin Hood-like character and just another "crook" rather than a brutal murderer.


title: Carmela Soprano

text: Carmela's resentment of her husband's infidelity has often driven her to the brink of breaking her marriage vows during some sexually charged moments with her priest, Father Phil Intintola (in "College"), and painter-decorator Vic Musto. During the fourth season, Carmela has a mutual romantic infatuation with Furio Giunta. Tony had secured Furio from the Camorra clan while on an inaugural trip to Naples, the Soprano family's ancestral homeland, a trip that Carmela had wanted to be a part of.


title: Carmela Soprano

text: Carmela reaches a low point with Tony's constant string of affairs and the two have a romantically tense but "arms-length" relationship for a period. Each confides to separate friends that they are falling for each other but Furio, who is no longer able to bear the burden that the internal conflict is causing him, that of his feelings conflicting with his honor, as well as his respect for the "family" hierarchy, sells his house and moves back to Italy. Carmela was devastated, and eventually revealed her feelings for him in an argument with Tony, to which Tony replies "If certain men see him, he's a dead man."


title: Carmela Soprano

text: By the end of the fourth season, Tony and Carmela separate after Tony's former mistress Irina Peltsin calls the Soprano home, talks to A.J., and informs Carmela that Tony slept with Svetlana Kirilenko, Irina's cousin and the former nurse of Livia Soprano. Carmela begins dating A.J.'s guidance counselor, Robert Wegler. She pursues divorce proceedings against Tony, but is drawn back to her husband by financial concerns and difficulties in rearing A.J., as well as a difficult breakup with Wegler, who correctly accuses Carmela of using sex to manipulate him into giving A.J. special treatment in school.


title: Carmela Soprano

text: At the end of the fifth season, Carmela agrees to reunite with Tony after he agrees to purchase a $600,000 investment property in Montville, under Carmela's name, so she could build a spec house. Despite some initial awkwardness, the two are firmly reunited after Tony is shot by his uncle, Junior, both during his coma and after his hospital release. The crisis seems to have strengthened their bond.


title: Carmela Soprano

text: Carmela's corrupt, materialistic nature is never far from the surface. After Tony surprises his delighted wife with a Porsche Cayenne Turbo, Carmela proceeds to flaunt her new car in front of Ginny Sack and Angie Bonpensiero, both of whom were reported to be having serious financial problems. Carmela is somewhat embarrassed when Angie admires Carmela's car and tells her that she recently purchased a Corvette with her own money, showing that Angie has achieved a certain level of financial independence and Carmela has not.


title: Carmela Soprano

text: Carmela's own efforts to become financially independent have been less successful, as Tony neglects to intervene for a long period when an inspector determines that materials used on her spec house are not up to code, thereby halting construction and straining her relationship with her father, who was building the house with her. Tony later recants, and orders Silvio Dante to lean on the inspector to change his mind. Around this time, Carmela is concerned for the whereabouts of Adriana La Cerva, who seemingly had disappeared.


title: Carmela Soprano

text: Carmela's concern intensifies when she encountered Adriana's mother, Liz La Cerva, at the Feast of St. Elzear (Episode 74, "The Ride"). Liz, who has stopped taking care of herself, tells Carmela that Adriana is dead and that Christopher is responsible, going on to say the FBI told her so. The next day Carmela confronts Tony, who dismisses her: "Let me school you on domestic violence," he says. "First and foremost, there is always a body."


title: Carmela Soprano

text: Carmela is not aware that Adriana was a low-level informant for the FBI and that Christopher, who had learned this truth from Adriana herself, informed Tony, who in turn had her executed by Silvio (in "Long Term Parking"). She is unaware that Tony murdered Christopher after he had flipped off the highway in the SUV in which both were traveling (in "Kennedy and Heidi").


title: Carmela Soprano

text: Carmela becomes greatly concerned for A.J. after he tries to commit suicide and is subsequently placed in the psychiatric ward at Mountainside Hospital. Carmela, along with Tony, encourages A.J. to become part of the production team for a film written by Daniel Baldwin and financed by Little Carmine, rather than enlist in the Army. She is shown considering building plans for a beach house. In the final scene of the series, she meets Tony at a diner for a family meal.


title: Cael Sanderson

text: Cael Norman Sanderson ( ; born June 20, 1979) is an American former folkstyle and freestyle wrestler who is the current head coach of Penn State University's wrestling team. As a wrestler, he won an Olympic Gold medal and was undefeated in four years of college wrestling at Iowa State University (ISU) (159–0), becoming a four-time NCAA Division I champion (1999–2002). He is the only wrestler in NCAA Division I history to go undefeated in official matches with more than 100 wins. "Sports Illustrated" named his college career as the second most impressive college sports feat of all-time, behind the setting of four world records by Jesse Owens in a single hour at the 1935 Big Ten track and field conference championship meet.


title: Cael Sanderson

text: Born in Salt Lake City, Utah, to Steve and Debbie Sanderson, Cael attended Wasatch High School in Heber City, Utah, where he was coached by his father, a former wrestler at Brigham Young University. As a high school wrestler, Sanderson was a four-time UHSAA state champion (1994–97), like his brother Cody, and compiled a record of 127–3.


title: Cael Sanderson

text: Upon graduation, Sanderson followed his brothers, Cody and Cole, to ISU. After redshirting in 1997-98, Sanderson won all 39 of his matches to his first NCAA and Big 12 Conference titles at 184 pounds (his brother, Cody, was the runner-up at 133 pounds). He was also the first freshman in NCAA history to be named the Outstanding Wrestler (OW) at Nationals. His next three seasons were virtually identical, compiling 40 wins and no losses in each and finishing with the only perfect record in NCAA Division I history at 159-0. By winning all of his matches, he became only the second wrestler in history to that point to win four NCAA Division I titles. He was also named the OW in all of the NCAA tournaments he competed in.


title: Cael Sanderson

text: Sanderson was a three-time Dan Hodge Trophy winner (equivalent to the Heisman Trophy), being the first to win the award multiple times and the only person to win it three times. He holds the longest win-streak across all NCAA divisions. All of this combined, makes him the most accomplished collegiate wrestler in the history of the sport.


title: Cael Sanderson

text: Sanderson was a two-time US Cadet World Team Member, placing third and fourth in 1994 and 1995, respectively. He was also a US University National Champion in 1999 and a University World Champion in 2000.


title: Cael Sanderson

text: He became the US National Champion in 2001, 2002 and 2003. He was also an original US World Team Member in 2001 and 2002, however, he chose not to participate at the 01' World Championships to focus in folkstyle, and the USA team chose to not compete in 2002.


title: Cael Sanderson

text: In 2003, he won the Manitoba Open in Canada in February, placed second at the World Cup in April, third at the 2003 Pan American Games and second at the World Championships. In 2004, he once again claimed the Manitoba Open title and won the US Olympic Team Trials.


title: Cael Sanderson

text: At the 2004 Summer Olympics, Sanderson claimed wins over Magomed Kurugliyev, Siarhei Borchanka, Majid Khodaei, Yoel Romero and Moon Eui-jae to become an Olympic Gold medalist in Athens, Greece.


title: Cael Sanderson

text: While already a full-time coach at Penn State, Sanderson came out of retirement in 2011 and took home an Ion Corneanu Memorial title, won the US World Team Trials and placed fifth at the World Championships.


title: Cael Sanderson

text: Sanderson began his coaching career with the season ending in 2004 as a special assistant for the wrestling team at ISU. After short stints in associate head coaching positions, he became the head coach for the season ending in 2007. In three seasons, Sanderson led ISU's wrestling team to NCAA Division I national placements of second, fifth, and third. He also coached his wrestlers to two individual NCAA Division I national titles.


title: Cael Sanderson

text: Before the 2010 season ended, Sanderson became the head coach of Penn State's wrestling team. As of 2022, Sanderson's Penn State teams have won nine NCAA Division I team titles. During that time, he also coached his wrestlers to 32 individual NCAA Division I titles.


title: Heidelberg University

text: Heidelberg University, officially the Ruprecht Karl University of Heidelberg, (; ) is a public research university in Heidelberg, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Founded in 1386 on instruction of Pope Urban VI, Heidelberg is Germany's oldest university and one of the world's oldest surviving universities; it was the third university established in the Holy Roman Empire. Heidelberg is one of the most prestigious and highly ranked universities in Europe and the world.


title: Heidelberg University

text: Heidelberg has been a coeducational institution since 1899. The university consists of twelve faculties and offers degree programmes at undergraduate, graduate and postdoctoral levels in some 100 disciplines. The language of instruction is usually German, while a considerable number of graduate degrees are offered in English as well as some in French.


title: Heidelberg University

text: As of 2021, 57 Nobel Prize winners have been affiliated with the city of Heidelberg and 33 with the university itself. Modern scientific psychiatry, psychopharmacology, experimental psychology, psychiatric genetics, Mathematical statistics, environmental physics, and modern sociology were introduced as scientific disciplines by Heidelberg students or faculty. Approximately 1,000 doctorates are completed every year, with more than one third of the doctoral students coming from abroad. International students from some 130 countries account for more than 20 percent of the entire student body.


title: Heidelberg University

text: Heidelberg is a German Excellence University, part of the U15, as well as a founding member of the League of European Research Universities and the Coimbra Group. The university's noted alumni include eleven domestic and foreign heads of state or heads of government. In international comparison Heidelberg University occupies top positions in rankings and enjoys a high academic reputation.


title: Heidelberg University

text: The Great Schism of 1378 made it possible for Heidelberg, a relatively small city and capital of the Electorate of the Palatinate, to gain its own university. The Great Schism was initiated by the election of two popes after the death of Pope Gregory XI in the same year. One successor resided in Avignon (elected by the French) and the other in Rome (elected by the Italian cardinals). The German secular and spiritual leaders voiced their support for the successor in Rome, which had far-reaching consequences for the German students and teachers in Paris: they lost their stipends and had to leave.


title: Heidelberg University

text: Rupert I recognized the opportunity and initiated talks with the Curia, which ultimately led to a Papal Bull for foundation of a university. After having received, on 23 October 1385, permission from pope Urban VI to create a school of general studies (), the final decision to found the university was taken on 26 June 1386 at the behest of Rupert I, Count Palatine of the Rhine. As specified in the papal charter, the university was modelled after the University of Paris and included four faculties: philosophy, theology, jurisprudence, and medicine.


title: Heidelberg University

text: On 18 October 1386 a special Pontifical High Mass in the "Heiliggeistkirche" was the ceremony that established the university. On 19 October 1386 the first lecture was held, making Heidelberg the oldest university in Germany. In November 1386, Marsilius of Inghen was elected first rector of the university. The rector seal motto was "semper apertus"—i.e., "the book of learning is always open." The university grew quickly and in March 1390, 185 students were enrolled at the university.


title: Heidelberg University

text: Between 1414 and 1418, theology and jurisprudence professors of the university took part in the Council of Constance and acted as counselors for Louis III, who attended this council as representative of the emperor and chief magistrate of the realm. This resulted in establishing a good reputation for the university and its professors.


title: Heidelberg University

text: Due to the influence of Marsilius, the university initially taught the nominalism or "via moderna". In 1412, both realism and the teachings of John Wycliffe were forbidden at the university but later, around 1454, the university decided that realism or "via antique" would also be taught, thus introducing two parallel ways ().


title: Heidelberg University

text: The transition from scholastic to humanistic culture was effected by the chancellor and bishop Johann von Dalberg in the late 15th century. Humanism was represented at Heidelberg University particularly by the founder of the older German Humanistic School Rudolph Agricola, Conrad Celtes, Jakob Wimpfeling, and Johann Reuchlin. Æneas Silvius Piccolomini was chancellor of the university in his capacity as provost of Worms, and later always favored it with his friendship and good-will as Pope Pius II. In 1482, Pope Sixtus IV permitted laymen and married men to be appointed professors in the ordinary of medicine through a papal dispensation. In 1553, Pope Julius III sanctioned the allotment of ecclesiastical benefices to secular professors.


title: Heidelberg University

text: Martin Luther's disputation at Heidelberg in April 1518 made a lasting impact, and his adherents among the masters and scholars soon became leading Reformationists in Southwest Germany. With the Electorate of the Palatinate turn to the Reformed faith, Otto Henry, Elector Palatine, converted the university into a calvinistic institution. In 1563, the Heidelberg Catechism was created under collaboration of members of the university's divinity school.


title: Heidelberg University

text: As the 16th century was passing, the late humanism stepped beside Calvinism as a predominant school of thought; and figures like Paul Schede, Jan Gruter, Martin Opitz, and Matthäus Merian taught at the university. It attracted scholars from all over the continent and developed into a cultural and academic center. However, with the beginning of the Thirty Years' War in 1618, the intellectual and fiscal wealth of the university declined. In 1622, the then-world-famous Bibliotheca Palatina (the library of the university) was stolen from the University Cathedral and taken to Rome. The reconstruction efforts thereafter were defeated by the troops of King Louis XIV, who destroyed Heidelberg in 1693 almost completely.


title: Heidelberg University

text: As a consequence of the late Counter-Reformation, the university lost its Protestant character, and was channeled by Jesuits. In 1735, the Old University was constructed at University Square, then known as Domus Wilhelmina. Through the efforts of the Jesuits a preparatory seminary was established, the Seminarium ad Carolum Borromæum, whose pupils were also registered in the university. After the suppression of the Jesuit Order, most of the schools they had conducted passed into the hands of the French Congregation of Lazarists in 1773. They deteriorated from that time forward, and the university itself continued to lose in prestige until the reign of the last elector Charles Theodore, Elector Palatine, who established new chairs for all the faculties, founded scientific institutes such as the Electoral Academy of Science, and transferred the school of political economy from Kaiserslautern to Heidelberg, where it was combined with the university as the faculty of political economy. He also founded an observatory in the neighboring city of Mannheim, where Jesuit Christian Mayer labored as director. In connection with the four hundredth anniversary of the university, the elector approved a revised statute book that several professors had been commissioned to prepare. The financial affairs of the university, its receipts and expenditures, were put in order. At that time, the number of students varied from 300 to 400; in the jubilee year, 133 matriculated. As a consequence of the disturbances caused by the French Revolution, and particularly because of the Treaty of Lunéville, the university lost all its property on the left bank of the Rhine, so that its complete dissolution was expected.


title: Heidelberg University

text: This decline did not stop until 1803, when the university was reestablished as a state-owned institution by Karl Friedrich, Grand Duke of Baden, to whom the part of the Palatinate situated on the right bank of the Rhine was allotted. Since then, the university bears his name together with the name of Ruprecht I. Karl Friedrich divided the university into five faculties and placed himself at its head as rector, as did also his successors. During this decade, Romanticism found expression in Heidelberg through Clemens Brentano, Achim von Arnim, Ludwig Tieck, Joseph Görres, and Joseph von Eichendorff, and there went forth a revival of the German Middle Ages in speech, poetry, and art.


title: Heidelberg University

text: The German Students Association exerted great influence, which was at first patriotic and later political. After Romanticism had eventually died out, Heidelberg became a center of Liberalism and the movement in favor of German national unity. The historians Friedrich Christoph Schlosser and Georg Gottfried Gervinus were the guides of the nation in political history. The modern scientific schools of medicine and natural science, particularly astronomy, were models in point of construction and equipment, and Heidelberg University was especially noted for its influential law school. The university as a whole became the role model for the transformation of American liberal arts colleges into research universities, in particular for the then-newly established Johns Hopkins University. Heidelberg's professors were important supporters of the Vormärz revolution and many of them were members of the first freely elected German parliament, the Frankfurt Parliament of 1848. During the late 19th century, the university housed a very liberal and open-minded spirit, which was deliberately fostered by Max Weber, Ernst Troeltsch and a circle of colleagues around them.


title: Heidelberg University

text: In February 1900, the Grand Duchy of Baden issued a decree that gave women the right to access universities in Baden. Thus, the universities of Freiburg and Heidelberg were the first ones to allow women to study.


title: Heidelberg University

text: In the Weimar Republic, the university was widely recognized as a center of democratic thinking, coined by professors like Karl Jaspers, Gustav Radbruch, Martin Dibelius and Alfred Weber. Unfortunately, there were also dark forces working within the university: Nazi physicist Philipp Lenard was head of the physical institute during that time. Following the assassination of the liberal German-Jewish Foreign Minister Walther Rathenau, he refused to half mast the national flag on the institute, thereby provoking its storming by communist students.


title: Heidelberg University

text: After the establishment of Nazi Germany in 1933, the university supported Adolf Hitler and the Nazis like all other German universities at the time. It dismissed a large number of staff and students for political and racial reasons. Many dissident fellows had to emigrate and most Jewish and Communist professors who did not leave Germany were deported. At least two professors directly fell victim to Nazi terror. On 17 May 1933, members of the university faculty and students took part in book burnings at "Universitätsplatz" ("University Square") and Heidelberg eventually became infamous as a NSDAP university. The inscription above the main entrance of the New University was changed from "The Living Spirit" to "The German Spirit", and many professors paid homage to the new motto. The university was involved in Nazi eugenics: forced sterilizations were carried out at the women's clinic and the psychiatric clinic, then directed by Carl Schneider, was involved in Action T4 Euthanasia program.


title: Heidelberg University

text: The heads of the university helped in the deportation of Jewish men, women and children directly to the gas chambers.


title: Heidelberg University

text: Since Heidelberg was spared from destruction during World War II, the reconstruction of the university was realized rather quickly. With the foundation of the Collegium Academicum, Heidelberg University became the home of Germany's first and, until today, only self-governed student hall. Newly laid statutes obliged the university to "The Living Spirit of Truth, Justice and Humanity".


title: Heidelberg University

text: During the 1960s and 1970s, the university grew dramatically in size. At this time, it developed into one of the main scenes of the left-wing student protests in Germany. In 1975, a massive police force arrested the entire student parliament AStA. Shortly thereafter, the building of the Collegium Academicum, a progressive college in immediate vicinity to the university's main grounds, was stormed by over 700 police officers and closed once and for all. On the outskirts of the city, in the Neuenheimer Feld area, a large campus for medicine and natural sciences was constructed.


title: Heidelberg University

text: Today, about 28,000 students are enrolled for studies at Heidelberg University. There are 4,196 full-time faculty, including 476 university professors. In 2007, and again in 2012, the university was appointed "University of Excellence" under an initiative started by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research and the German Research Foundation. This enhanced the German university system by establishing a small network of exceptionally well-funded universities, which are expected to generate strong international appeal.


title: Heidelberg University

text: In 2022, a mass shooting occurred in the university, killing a woman and injuring three other people. The gunman then committed suicide.


title: Heidelberg University

text: Heidelberg is a city with approximately 140,000 inhabitants. It is situated in the Rhine Neckar Triangle, a European metropolitan area with approximately 2.4 million people living there, comprising the neighboring cities of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Ludwigshafen, and a number of smaller towns in the perimeter. Heidelberg is known as the cradle of Romanticism, and its old town and castle are among the most frequented tourist destinations in Germany. Its pedestrian zone is a shopping and night life magnet for the surrounding area and beyond. Heidelberg is about 40 minutes by train away from Frankfurt International Airport.


title: Heidelberg University

text: Heidelberg University's facilities are, generally speaking, separated in two parts. The faculties and institutes of humanities and social sciences are embedded in the Old Town Campus. The sciences faculties and the medical school, including three large university hospitals, are located on the New Campus in the Neuenheimer Feld on the outskirts of Heidelberg.


title: Heidelberg University

text: The so-called New University is regarded as the center of the Old Town Campus. It is situated at the "Universitätsplatz" (University Square) in the pedestrian zone, in direct vicinity to the University Library and to the main administration buildings. The New University was officially opened in 1931. Its erection was largely financed by donations of wealthy American families, in line with a fundraising campaign of Jacob Gould Schurman, an alumnus of Heidelberg University and former United States Ambassador to Germany. It houses the new assembly hall, the largest lecture halls, and a number of smaller seminar rooms, mostly used by faculties of humanities and social sciences. Education in humanities and social sciences takes place to a great extent in buildings spread over the ancient part of town, though most are less than ten minutes walk from University Square. The faculties maintain their own extensive libraries and work spaces for students. Seminars and tutorials are usually held in the faculty buildings.


title: Heidelberg University

text: In the 1960s the university started building a new campus near the city district Neuenheim, called the Neuenheimer Feld. It is today the largest part of the university, and the largest campus for natural sciences and life science in Germany. Almost all science faculties and institutes, the medical school, University Hospital Heidelberg, and the science branch of the University Library are situated on the New Campus. Most of the dormitories and the athletic facilities of the university can be found there as well.


title: Heidelberg University

text: Several independent research institutes, such as the German Cancer Research Center and two of the Max-Planck-Institutes have settled there. The New Campus is also the seat of several biomedical spin-off companies. The old part of town can be reached by tram and bus in about 10 minutes. The Neuenheimer Feld campus has extensive parking lots for faculty and student vehicles for long term and short term parking, as well as visitors and patients of the various university hospitals. The Faculty of Physics and Astronomy is not located on either campus, but on the Philosophers' Walk, separated from the Old Town by the River Neckar, and some away from the New Campus. It also maintains observatory facilities on the Königstuhl Mountain.


title: Heidelberg University

text: The Bergheim Campus is located in the former Ludolf Krehl clinic (named after Ludolf von Krehl) in the inner-city suburb of Heidelberg-Bergheim. Since March 2009 it has housed the institutes economics, political science, and sociology (together the Heidelberg University Faculty of Economics and Social Sciences) that formerly resided at the Old Town campus. The Bergheim campus offers one lecture theatre, several seminar rooms, the most modern of the university libraries, and a cafe (rather than the full cafeteria present in the other campuses). Since 2019, the Bergheim Campus has also become the location of the of the Heidelberg University.


title: Heidelberg University

text: The University Library is the main library of the university, and constitutes together with the decentralized libraries of the faculties and institutes, the integral university library system comprising approximately 6.7 million printed books. It is Germany's most frequently used library, and it is currently placed 1st in a ranking of Germany's best libraries. The University Library's stocks exceeded one million in 1934. Today, it holds about 3.2 million books, about 500,000 other media such as microfilms and video tapes, as well as 10,732 scientific periodicals. Moreover, it holds 6,600 manuscripts, most notably the Codex Manesse, 1,800 incunabula, 110,500 autographs, and a collection of old maps, paintings, and photographs. The further 83 decentralized libraries of the faculties and institutes hold another 3.5 million printed books. In 2005, 34,500 active users of the University Library accessed 1.4 million books a year. The conventional book supply is complemented by numerous electronic services. Around 3,000 commercial scientific journals can be accessed via e-journal. The University Library of today traces its roots back to the purchase of a chest of documents by the first Rector Marsilius von Inghen in 1388, which was stored in the Heiliggeistkirche, then the University Cathedral. Since 1978, the science branch of the University Library serves the institutes of natural sciences and medicine on the New Campus. In 2016, extensive refurbishments were finalized with the University Library now housing additional study spaces.


title: Heidelberg University

text: Heidelberg University founded a in Santiago, Chile in 2001. It has the task of organizing, managing, and marketing the courses of study maintained either independently by Heidelberg University or in cooperation with the Pontifical Catholic University of Chile and the University of Chile. The center has responsibility for programs of postgraduate education. It also coordinates the activities of Heidelberg University in Latin America, and provides a platform for scientific cooperation. Heidelberg University's South Asia Institute maintains branch offices in New Delhi (India)), Islamabad (Pakistan), Kathmandu (Nepal), and Colombo (Sri Lanka).


title: Heidelberg University

text: The university is also represented by a liaison office in New York. Its main tasks include promoting existing collaborations, building up new networks, creating joint study programs, and maintaining and expanding academic contacts with American universities.


title: Heidelberg University

text: The university has its own museum, in the main building of the old campus. Visitors are able to view the Great Hall (when not in use), and the former "student jail".


title: Heidelberg University

text: The Rectorate is the 'executive body' of the university, headed by rector Bernhard Eitel. The rectorate consists of the chancellor, , who is the head of the central administration and responsible for the university's budgeting, and three pro-rectors, who are responsible for international relations, teaching and communication, and research and structure respectively.


title: Heidelberg University

text: The Senate is the 'legislative branch' of the university. The rector and the members of the rectorate are senators "ex officio", as are also the deans of the faculties, as well as the medical and managing directors of the University Hospital, and the university's equal opportunities officer. Another 20 senators are elected for four-year terms, within the following quotas: eight university professors; four academic staff; four delegates of the student body; and four employees of the university administration.


title: Heidelberg University

text: The University Council is the advisory board to the aforementioned entities and encompasses, among others, the former Israeli Ambassador to Germany Avi Primor, as well as CEOs of German industries.


title: Heidelberg University

text: After a 2003 structural reformation, the university consists of 12 faculties, which in turn comprise several disciplines, departments, and institutes. As a consequence of the Bologna process, most faculties now offer Bachelor's, Master's, and PhD degrees to comply with the new European degree standard. Notable exceptions are the undergraduate programs in law, medicine, dentistry and pharmacy, from which students still graduate with the State Examination, a central examination at Master's level held by the State of Baden-Württemberg.


title: Heidelberg University

text: The university has partnerships nationally and internationally. In particular, it maintains longstanding collaborations in research and education with the following independent research institutes located in and around Heidelberg:


title: Heidelberg University

text: The university employs more than 15,000 academic staff; most of them are physicians engaged in the University Hospital. As of 2008, the faculty encompasses 4,196 full-time staff, excluding visiting professors as well as graduate research and teaching assistants. 673 faculty members have been drawn from abroad. Heidelberg University also attracts more than 500 international scholars as visiting professors each academic year. The university enrols a total of 26,741 students, including 5,118 international students. In addition there are 1,467 international exchange students at Heidelberg. 23,636 students pursue taught degrees, 4,114 of whom are international students, and 919 are international exchange students. 3,105 students pursue a doctoral degree, including 1,004 international doctoral students and 15 international exchange students. In 2007, the university awarded 994 PhD degrees.


title: Heidelberg University

text: The academic year is divided into two semesters. The winter semester runs from 1 October to 31 March and the summer semester from 1 April to 30 September. Classes are held from mid-October to mid-February and mid-April to mid-July. Students can generally begin their studies either in the winter or the summer semester. However, there are several subjects students can begin only in the winter semester. The standard time required to finish a Bachelor's degree is principally six semesters, and a further four semesters for consecutive Master's degrees. The normal duration of PhD programmes for full-time students is 6 semesters. The overall period of study for an undergraduate degree is divided into two parts: a period of basic study, lasting at least four semesters, at the end of which students must sit a formal examination, and a period of advanced study, lasting at least two semesters, after which students take their final examinations.


title: Heidelberg University

text: In the winter-semester 2006/2007, the university offered 3,926 places in undergraduate programs restricted by numerus clausus, with an overall acceptance rate of 16.3%. Most selective are the undergraduate programs in clinical medicine, molecular biotechnology, political science, and law, with acceptance rates of 3.6%, 3.8%, 7.6% and 9.1% respectively. The selection is exercised by allocating the best qualified applicants to a given number of places available in the respective discipline, thus depending primarily on the chosen subjects and the grade point average of the Abitur or its equivalent. For some majors and minors in humanities—particularly for conceptually non-vocational like classics and ancient history—unrestricted admission is granted under certain criteria (e.g., relevant language proficiency), as applications regularly do not exceed the number of places available.


title: Heidelberg University

text: For prospective international undergraduate students, a language test for German—such as the DSH—is required. Admission to consecutive Master's programs always requires at least an undergraduate degree equivalent to the German grade "good" (i.e., normally B+ in American, or 2:1 in British terms). Except for the Master's programs taught in English, a language test for German must be passed as well. PhD admission prerequisite is normally a strong Master's-level degree, but specific admission procedures vary and cannot be generalized. International applicants usually make up considerably more than 20% of the applicant pool and are considered individually by the merits achieved in their respective country of origin.


title: Heidelberg University

text: The German state heavily subsidizes university study to keep higher education affordable regardless of socio-economic background.


title: Heidelberg University

text: From 2007 to 2012, Heidelberg has charged tuition fees of approximately €1,200 p.a. for undergraduate, consecutive Master's, and doctoral programs, for both EU and non-EU citizens, and for any subject area. However, from spring term 2012 onwards, tuition fees have been abolished. The usual housing costs for on-campus dormitories range from €2,200 to €3,000 p.a.


title: Heidelberg University

text: In the fiscal year 2005, Heidelberg University had an overall operating budget of approximately €856 M, consisting of approximately €413 M government funds, approximately €311 M basic budget, and approximately €132 M from external grants. The university spent approximately €529 M in payroll costs and approximately €326 M in other expenditures. Additionally, the university receives another €150 M in research grants, distributed over 5 years from 2012 onwards, due to the German Universities Excellence Initiative. In the fiscal year 2007, the university for the first time raised approximately €19 M through tuition fees, exclusively to further improve the conditions of study. Only approximately €9.5 M of these were spent at the end of the year and the rectorate had to urge the faculties to make use of their additional means.


title: Heidelberg University

text: Among historical scientific achievements of Heidelberg researchers features prominently the invention of spectroscopy, and of the Bunsen burner; the discovery of chemical elements Caesium and Rubidium; the identification of the absolute point of ebullition; and the identification and isolation of nicotine as the main pharmacologically active component of tobacco. Modern scientific psychiatry; psychopharmacology; psychiatric genetics; environmental physics; and modern sociology were introduced as scientific disciplines by Heidelberg faculty. Almost 800 dwarf planets, the North America Nebula, and the return of Halley's Comet have been discovered and documented at institutes of the Heidelberg Center for Astronomy. Moreover, Heidelberg researchers invented the process of plastination to preserve body tissue, conducted the first successful transplantation of hematopoietic stem cells, and recently developed a new strategy for a vaccination against certain forms of cancer, which earned Harald zur Hausen of the university the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2008.


title: Heidelberg University

text: Today, the university puts an emphasis on natural sciences and medicine, but it retains its traditions with highly ranked faculties of humanities and social sciences. The "Marsilius Kolleg", named after Marsilius of Inghen, was established in 2007 as a Center for Advanced Study to promote interdisciplinary dialogue and research especially between the sciences and the humanities. Other institutes such as the "Interdisciplinary Center for Scientific Computing", the "Interdisciplinary Center for Neurosciences", the "Heidelberg Center for American Studies", and the "South Asia Institute" also build a bridge between faculties and thus emphasize the concept of a comprehensive university.


title: Heidelberg University

text: Noted regular publications of the Center for Astronomy include the Gliese catalogue of nearby stars, the fundamental catalogues FK5 and FK6 and the annual published Apparent places, a high precision catalog with pre-calculated positions for over 3,000 stars for each day. The Heidelberg Institute for International Conflict Research publishes the annual Conflict Barometer, which describes the recent trends in global conflict developments, escalations, de-escalations, and settlements. Regular publications by the Max Planck Institute for International Law include the "Heidelberg Journal of International Law", the "Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law"; the "Journal of the History of International Law"; the "Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law"; and the semi-annual bibliography "Public International Law".


title: Heidelberg University

text: The German Research Foundation (DFG) currently funds twelve long-term Collaborative Research Centers (SFB) with a duration of up to 12 years at Heidelberg, four Priority Programs (SPP) with a duration of six years, two Research Units (FOR) with a duration of up to six years, as well as numerous individual projects at the university's faculties and institutes. As a result of the German Universities Excellence Initiative, two Clusters of Excellence are funded with €6.5 M each—""Cellular Networks: From Molecular Mechanisms to Quantitative Understanding of Complex Functions"", and "Asia and Europe in a Global Context".


title: Heidelberg University

text: Heidelberg is a founding member of the League of European Research Universities, the Coimbra Group, and the European University Association. The university forms part of the German-Japanese University Consortium HeKKSaGOn, and it participates in 7 European exchange schemes for researchers and students, such as ERASMUS. Furthermore, it is actively involved in the development of the German-speaking Andrássy University of Budapest, and co-runs the school of German law at the Jagiellonian University of Kraków. The city of Heidelberg being twinned with Cambridge, England, and Montpellier, France, there are close academic ties to the University of Cambridge and the Université de Montpellier. Beyond Europe, the university and its faculties maintain specific agreements with 58 partner universities in Africa, the Americas, Asia, Australia and the Russian Federation. In total, the Higher Education Compass of the German Rector's Conference lists staff and student exchange agreements as well as research cooperations with 236 universities worldwide. Some of the most notable partner universities include Cornell University, Duke University, Georgetown University, Harvard University, Paris Institute of Political Studies (Sciences Po), Pantheon Sorbonne University, University of Cambridge, University of Oxford, Tsinghua University, and Yale University.


title: Heidelberg University

text: The university offers a broad variety of athletics, such as teams in 16 different court sports from American football to volleyball, courses in 11 different martial arts, 26 courses in physical fitness and body building, 9 courses in health sports from aquapower to yoga, and groups in 12 different dance styles. Moreover, equestrian sports, sailing, rowing, skiing in the French Alps, track and field, swimming, fencing, cycling, acrobatics, gymnastics, and much more. Most of the sports are free of charge. Heidelberg's competition teams are particularly successful in soccer, volleyball, equestrian sports, judo, karate, track and field, and basketball. The University Sports Club men's basketball team, USC Heidelberg, is the championship record holder, won 13 national championships, and is the only university team playing at a professional level in the second division of Germany's national league.


title: Heidelberg University

text: Moreover, the university supports a number of student groups in various fields of interest. Among them are four drama clubs, the university orchestra Collegium Musicum, four choirs, six student media groups, six groups of international students, nine groups of political parties and NGO's, several departments of European organizations of students in certain disciplines, four clubs dedicated to fostering international relations and cultural exchange, a chess club, a literature club, two debate societies (one focused on English debating, the other focused on German debating), one student consulting group, and four religious student groups. Student unions structure themselves as "Studierendenrat" (Student body council) as well as on department level.


title: Heidelberg University

text: Heidelberg's student newspaper ""ruprecht"" is—with editions of more than 10,000 copies—one of Germany's largest student-run newspapers. It was recently distinguished by the MLP Pro Campus Press Award as Germany's best student newspaper. The jury of journalists from major newspapers commended its "well balanced, though critical attitude" and its "simply great" layout that "suffices highest professional demands." The ruprecht is financed entirely by advertising revenues, thus retaining independence from university management. Some renowned journalists emerged from "ruprecht"s editorial board.


title: Heidelberg University

text: However, the critical online student newspaper "UNiMUT", which is run by the joint student council of the faculties, criticized the "ruprecht" often for being conformed, and exceedingly layout-oriented.


title: Heidelberg University

text: Heidelberg is also home of Germany's oldest student law review "Heidelberg Law Review". The journal is published quarterly, at the beginning and end of each semester break, and is circulated throughout all of Germany.


title: Heidelberg University

text: Heidelberg hosts 34 student corporations, which were largely founded in the 19th century. Corporations are to some extent comparable to the fraternities in the US. As traditional symbols (couleur) corporation members wear colored caps and ribbons at ceremonial occasions ("Kommers") and some still practice the traditional academic fencing, a kind of duel, to "shape their members for the challenges of life." In the 19th and early 20th century, corporations played an important role in Germany's student life. Today, however, corporations include only a relatively small number of students. Their self-declared mission is to keep academic traditions alive and to create friendships for life. The corporations' often representative 19th-century mansions are present throughout the Old Town.


title: Heidelberg University

text: Heidelberg is not least famous for its student night life. Besides the various parties regularly organized by the student councils of the faculties, the semester opening and closing parties of the university, the dormitory parties, and the soirées of Heidelberg's 34 student fraternities, the city, and the metropolitan area even more, offers night life for any taste and budget. Adjacent to University Square is Heidelberg's major night life district, where one pub is placed next to each other. From Thursday on, it is all night very crowded and full of atmosphere. Moreover, Heidelberg has five major discos. The largest of them is located at the New Campus. The city of Mannheim, which is about twice as large as Heidelberg, is a 15-minute train ride away, and offers an even more diverse night life, having a broad variety of clubs and bars well-frequented by both Heidelberg's and Mannheim's student community.


title: Heidelberg University

text: Alumni and faculty of the university include many founders and pioneers of academic disciplines, and a large number of internationally acclaimed philosophers, poets, jurisprudents, theologians, natural and social scientists. 33 Nobel Laureates, at least 18 Leibniz laureates, and two "Oscar" winners have been associated with Heidelberg University. Nine Nobel laureates received the award during their tenure at Heidelberg.


title: Heidelberg University

text: Besides several federal ministers of Germany and prime ministers of German states, five chancellors of Germany have attended the university, the latest being Helmut Kohl, the "Chancellor of the Reunification". Heads of state or government of Belgium, Bulgaria, Greece, Nicaragua, Serbia, Thailand, a British heir apparent, a secretary general of NATO and a director of the International Peace Bureau have also been educated at Heidelberg; among them Nobel Peace laureates Charles Albert Gobat and Auguste Beernaert. Former university affiliates in the field of religion include Pope Pius II, cardinals, bishops, and with Philipp Melanchthon and Zacharias Ursinus, two key leaders of the Protestant Reformation. Outstanding university affiliates in the legal profession include a president of the International Court of Justice, two presidents of the European Court of Human Rights, a president of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, a vice president of the International Criminal Court, an advocate general at the European Court of Justice, at least 16 justices of the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany, a president of the Federal Court of Justice, a president of the Federal Court of Finance, a president of the Federal Labor Court, two attorneys general of Germany, and a British law lord. In business, Heidelberg alumni and faculty notably founded, co-founded or presided over ABB; Astor corporate enterprises; BASF; BDA; Daimler AG; Deutsche Bank; EADS; Krupp AG; Siemens and Thyssen AG.


title: Heidelberg University

text: Alumni in the field of arts include classical composer Robert Schumann, philosophers Ludwig Feuerbach and Edmund Montgomery, poet Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff and writers Christian Friedrich Hebbel, Gottfried Keller, Irene Frisch, Heinrich Hoffmann, Sir Muhammad Iqbal, National Hero of the Philippines José Rizal, W. Somerset Maugham, Jean Paul, Literature Nobel laureate Carl Spitteler, and novelist Jagoda Marinić. Amongst Heidelberg alumni in other disciplines are the "Father of Psychology" Wilhelm Wundt, the "Father of Physical Chemistry" J. Willard Gibbs, the "Father of American Anthropology" Franz Boas, Dmitri Mendeleev, who created the periodic table of elements, inventor of the two-wheeler principle Karl Drais, Alfred Wegener, who discovered the continental drift, as well as political theorist Hannah Arendt, gender theorist Judith Butler, political scientist Carl Joachim Friedrich, and sociologists Karl Mannheim, Robert E. Park and Talcott Parsons.


title: Heidelberg University

text: Philosophers Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Karl Jaspers, Hans-Georg Gadamer, and Jürgen Habermas served as university professors, as did also the pioneering scientists Hermann von Helmholtz, Robert Wilhelm Bunsen, Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, Emil Kraepelin, the founder of scientific psychiatry, and outstanding social scientists such as Max Weber, the founding father of modern sociology.


title: Heidelberg University

text: Present faculty include Medicine Nobel Laureates Bert Sakmann (1991) and Harald zur Hausen (2008), Chemistry Nobel Laureate Stefan Hell (2014), seven Leibniz laureates, former justice of the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany Paul Kirchhof, and Rüdiger Wolfrum, the former president of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea.


title: Heidelberg University

text: In 1880 Mark Twain humorously detailed his impressions of Heidelberg's student life in "A Tramp Abroad". He painted a picture of the university as a school for aristocrats, where students pursued a dandy's lifestyle, and described the great influence the student corporations exerted on the whole of Heidelberg's student life.


title: Heidelberg University

text: In William Somerset Maugham's 1915 masterpiece novel "Of Human Bondage", he described the one-year stay of the protagonist Philip Carey at Heidelberg University, in a largely autobiographical way. Heidelberg also featured in the respective film versions of the novel, released in 1934 (starring Leslie Howard as Philip, and Bette Davis as Mildred), 1946 (with Paul Henreid and Eleanor Parker in the lead roles), and 1964 (with Laurence Harvey and Kim Novak in the lead roles).


title: Heidelberg University

text: E. C. Gordon, the hero of Robert Heinlein's 1964 novel "Glory Road", mentions his desire for a degree from Heidelberg and the dueling scars to go with it.


title: Heidelberg University

text: In Bernhard Schlink's semi-autobiographical 1995 novel "The Reader", Heidelberg University is one of the main scenes of Part II. Nearly a decade after his affair with an older woman came to a mysterious end, Michael Berg, a law student at the university, re-encounters his former lover as she defends herself in a war-crimes trial, which he observes as part of a seminar. The university is also featured in the Academy Award-winning 2008 film version The Reader, starring Kate Winslet, David Kross and Ralph Fiennes.


title: Heidelberg University

text: The 1927 silent film "The Student Prince in Old Heidelberg", based on Wilhelm Meyer-Förster's play "Alt Heidelberg" (1903), starring Ramón Novarro and Norma Shearer, continued Mark Twain's image of Heidelberg, showing the story of a German prince who comes to Heidelberg to study there, but falls in love with his innkeeper's daughter. Having been very popular in the first half of the 20th century, it presents the typical student life of the 19th and early 20th century, and it is today considered a masterpiece of the late silent film era. MGM's 1954 color remake "The Student Prince", featuring the voice of Mario Lanza, is based on Sigmund Romberg's operetta version of the story.


title: Council house

text: A council house is a form of British public housing built by local authorities. A council estate is a building complex containing a number of council houses and other amenities like schools and shops. Construction took place mainly from 1919 after the Housing Act 1919 to the 1980s, with much less council housing built since then. There were local design variations, but they all adhered to local authority building standards. The Housing Acts of 1985 and 1988 facilitated the transfer of council housing to not-for-profit housing associations with access to private finance, and these new housing associations became the providers of most new public-sector housing. By 2003, 36.5% of the social rented housing stock was held by housing associations.


title: Council house

text: House design in the United Kingdom is defined by a series of Housing Acts, and public housing house design is defined by government directives and central governments' relationship with local authorities. From the first interventions in the Public Health Act 1875, council houses could be general housing for the working class, general housing, part of slum clearance programmes or just homes provided for the most needy. They could be funded directly by local councils, through central government incentive or by revenue obtained when other houses were sold. Increasingly, they have been transferred through the instrument of housing associations into the private sector.


title: Council house

text: Woolwich Borough Council was responsible for the Well Hall Estate designed for workers at the munition factories at Woolwich Arsenal. The estate and the house were built to the garden suburb philosophy: houses were all different. The estate received the royal seal of approval when, on Friday 24 March 1916, Queen Mary made an unannounced visit.


title: Council house

text: A programme of council house building started after the First World War following on from the David Lloyd George’s government’s Housing Act of 1919. The 'Addison Act' brought in subsidies for council house building and aimed to provide 500,000 "homes fit for heroes" within a three-year period although less than half of this target was met.


title: Council house

text: The housing built comprised three-bedroom dwellings with parlour and scullery: larger properties also include a living room. The standards are based on the Tudor Walters Report of 1919, and the Design Manual written according to the 1913 building standards.


title: Council house

text: In 1923 the Chamberlain Act withdrew subsidies for council houses except for private builders and houses for sale. Councils could undertake to build houses and offer these for sale but also to sell off some of their existing properties. This was essentially reversed by the incoming Labour government of 1924. The Wheatley Act (1924) passed by the new Labour Government introduced higher subsidies for council housing and also allowed for a contribution to be made from the rates. The housing revenue account was always separated from the general account. This was a major period of council house construction.


title: Council house

text: The Housing Act 1930 stimulated slum clearance, i.e., the destruction of inadequate houses in the inner cities that had been built before the 1875 Act. This released land for housing and the need for smaller two bedroomed houses to replace the two-up two-down houses that had been demolished. Smaller three bedroom properties were also built. The Housing Act 1935 led to a continuation of this policy, but the war stopped all construction, and enemy action reduced the usable housing stock.


title: Council house

text: The Housing (Temporary Accommodation) Act 1944 led to the building of prefab bungalows with a design life of ten years. Innovative steel-framed properties were also tried in an attempt to speed up construction. A number survive well into the 21st century, a testament to the durability of a series of housing designs and construction methods only envisaged to last 10 years.


title: Council house

text: The Burt Committee, formed in 1942 by the wartime government of Winston Churchill, proposed to address the need for an anticipated 200,000 shortfall in post-war housing stock, by building 500,000 prefabricated houses, with a planned life of up to 10 years within five years of the end of the Second World War. The eventual bill, under the post-war Labour government of Prime Minister Clement Attlee, agreed to deliver 300,000 units within 10 years, within a budget of £150m. Of 1.2 million new houses built from 1945 to 1951 when the programme officially ended, 156,623 prefab houses were constructed.


title: Council house

text: Mainly during the immediate post-war years, and well into the 1950s, council house provision was shaped by the New Towns Act 1946 and the Town and Country Planning Act 1947 of the 1945–51 Labour government. At the same time this government introduced housing legislation that removed explicit references to housing for the working class and introduced the concept of "general needs" construction (i.e., that council housing should aim to fill the needs for a wide range of society). In particular, Aneurin Bevan, the Minister for Health and Housing, promoted a vision of new estates where "the working man, the doctor and the clergyman will live in close proximity to each other".


title: Council house

text: A landlord's obligations are set out in several pieces of legislation, including the Landlord and Tenant Act 1985, which applies to tenancies entered into after 1961. In summary, section 11 provides that a landlord shall:


title: Council house

text: If a landlord refuses to repair a rented property, the tenant can take action to require them to carry out necessary works and claim compensation.


title: Council house

text: The Addison Act 1919 houses were usually three-bedroom houses with a living room and scullery, sometimes also with a parlour. Some had two, four, or even five bedrooms, as well as generously sized back gardens intended for vegetable growing. At most, they were built at 3,000/km. They were generally built to the recommendations of the Tudor Walters Report. Examples are found in Downham, Watling Estate, and Becontree.


title: The Fanatic (2019 film)

text: The Fanatic is a 2019 American psychological thriller film directed and co-written by Fred Durst. It stars John Travolta as Moose, an autistic man who develops an unhealthy obsession with his favorite actor Hunter Dunbar (Devon Sawa) and stalks him. The film was given a limited theatrical and a VOD release, on August 30, 2019 by Quiver Distribution and Redbox Entertainment, and received mainly negative reviews, with some praise towards Travolta's performance.


title: The Fanatic (2019 film)

text: Moose is a man with autism who works as a street performer on Hollywood Boulevard. He is also an avid film buff, filling his apartment with memorabilia from various movies, including those of cult horror and action film star Hunter Dunbar, with whom he develops an unhealthy obsession. When Moose finally gets an opportunity to meet him and get an autograph for an expensive jacket he purchased at a fan auction, he loses his chance when Dunbar's ex-wife abruptly comes to see him. Moose is friends with a young paparazzi photographer, Leah, who shows Moose an app that publishes the home addresses of famous celebrities, including his hero.


title: The Fanatic (2019 film)

text: Moose goes to Dunbar's house and tries to give him a letter while also begging him for an autograph. Dunbar confronts Moose, threatening him with violence, and tells him to stay out of his neighborhood. Moose comes back again and climbs a fence, but is scared off by Dunbar's housekeeper. Moose keeps returning and eventually gains entry to the house after accidentally pushing the housekeeper into a stone fountain, inadvertently killing her. Moose is again rejected by Dunbar, who calls Moose a stalker and says he'll kill him if he sees him again.


title: The Fanatic (2019 film)

text: The experience causes Moose to suffer a complete mental breakdown, and he returns and ties up Dunbar in his bed. When Dunbar wakes up, he sees Moose lying on the floor, appearing to have killed himself, only for Moose to start laughing and get up. Next, Moose dresses up in a Jason Voorhees mask and pretends to stab Dunbar, but his blade is revealed to be a retractable prop knife. A terrified Dunbar pleads for Moose to untie him with promises of autographs and friendship, and he does. Dunbar attacks and nearly kills Moose, shooting off his fingers with a hidden rifle and stabbing him in the eye. Moose starts to cry hysterically and after a seeming change of heart, Dunbar calmly escorts him out of his home.


title: The Fanatic (2019 film)

text: Moose wanders the streets of Hollywood, sobbing and passing tourists who request to take photos with him, believing his wounds to be a part of a realistic costume, before Leah finds him and takes him to a hospital. Meanwhile, Dunbar is seen being arrested after police, having been informed of his assault on Moose, find the dead housekeeper and mistakenly assume Dunbar killed her.


title: The Fanatic (2019 film)

text: Pretzel Fang produced the film with VMI Worldwide, Wonderfilm Media, Media Finance Capital, Primal Film LLC and Quiver Distribution funded the film. In March 2018, principal photography began in Birmingham, Alabama. Redbox Entertainment also funded the film in exchange for release via the Redbox kiosks and streaming services.


title: The Fanatic (2019 film)

text: "The Fanatic" earned $3,153 from 52 theaters in the U.S. on its opening day, making it a US box-office failure.


title: The Fanatic (2019 film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average score of . The website's critical consensus reads: "John Travolta gives it his oddly coiffed all, but "The Fanatic" rings hollow as an examination of the way fan appreciation can curdle into toxic obsession." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 18 out of 100, based on 19 critics, indicating "overwhelming dislike".


title: The Fanatic (2019 film)

text: NPR's Simon Abrams gave the film a negative review, calling it a noticeable downgrade from director Fred Durst's "The Education of Charlie Banks" and "The Longshots", and labeling the work a "miserable psychodrama." Specific elements attracting criticism included the "cliché-filled voiceover narration" and "a bunch of scenes where Travolta zealously overacts". Glenn Kenny of "The New York Times" also wrote a negative review of the film, arguing that it "delineates the border that separates the merely stale from the genuinely rancid."


title: The Fanatic (2019 film)

text: In a positive review, Josh Millican of Dread Central called the film "a riveting indie with genuine suspense", and he praised both Travolta's and Sawa's performances.


title: The Fanatic (2019 film)

text: The film was nominated for three Golden Raspberry Awards, Worst Picture, Worst Director (Fred Durst), and Worst Actor which John Travolta won (also for his performance in "Trading Paint").


title: Due process

text: Due process of law is application by state of all legal rules and principles pertaining to the case so all legal rights that are owed to the person are respected. Due process balances the power of law of the land and protects the individual person from it. When a government harms a person without following the exact course of the law, this constitutes a due process violation, which offends the rule of law.


title: Due process

text: Due process has also been frequently interpreted as limiting laws and legal proceedings (see substantive due process) so that judges, instead of legislators, may define and guarantee fundamental fairness, justice, and liberty. That interpretation has proven controversial. Analogous to the concepts of natural justice and procedural justice used in various other jurisdictions, the interpretation of due process is sometimes expressed as a command that the government must not be unfair to the people or abuse them physically. The term is not used in contemporary English law, but two similar concepts are natural justice, which generally applies only to decisions of administrative agencies and some types of private bodies like trade unions, and the British constitutional concept of the rule of law as articulated by A. V. Dicey and others. However, neither concept lines up perfectly with the American theory of due process, which, as explained below, presently contains many implied rights not found in either ancient or modern concepts of due process in England.


title: Due process

text: Due process developed from clause 39 of Magna Carta in England. Reference to due process first appeared in a statutory rendition of clause 39 in 1354 thus: "No man of what state or condition he be, shall be put out of his lands or tenements nor taken, nor disinherited, nor put to death, without he be brought to answer by due process of law." When English and American law gradually diverged, due process was not upheld in England but became incorporated in the US Constitution.


title: Due process

text: In clause 39 of Magna Carta, issued in 1215, John of England promised: "No free man shall be seized or imprisoned, or stripped of his rights or possessions, or outlawed or exiled, or deprived of his standing in any other way, nor will we proceed with force against him, or send others to do so, except by the lawful judgment of his equals or by the law of the land." Magna Carta itself immediately became part of the "law of the land", and Clause 61 of that charter authorized an elected body of 25 barons to determine by majority vote what redress the King must provide when the King offends "in any respect against any man". Thus, Magna Carta established the rule of law in England by not only requiring the monarchy to obey the law of the land but also limiting how the monarchy could change the law of the land. However, in the 13th century, the provisions may have been referring only to the rights of landowners, and not to ordinary peasantry or villagers.


title: Due process

text: Shorter versions of Magna Carta were subsequently issued by British monarchs, and Clause 39 of Magna Carta was renumbered "29". The phrase "due process of law" first appeared in a statutory rendition of Magna Carta in 1354 during the reign of Edward III of England, as follows: "No man of what state or condition he be, shall be put out of his lands or tenements nor taken, nor disinherited, nor put to death, without he be brought to answer by due process of law."


title: Due process

text: In 1608, the English jurist Edward Coke wrote a treatise in which he discussed the meaning of Magna Carta. Coke explained that no man shall be deprived but by "legem terrae", the law of the land, "that is, by the common law, statute law, or custom of England... (that is, to speak it once and for all) by the due course, and process of law.."


title: Due process

text: Both the clause in Magna Carta and the later statute of 1354 were again explained in 1704 (during the reign of Queen Anne) by the Queen's Bench, in the case of "Regina v. Paty". In that case, the British House of Commons had deprived John Paty and certain other citizens of the right to vote in an election and committed them to Newgate Prison merely for the offense of pursuing a legal action in the courts. The Queen's Bench, in an opinion by Justice Littleton Powys, explained the meaning of "due process of law" as follows:


title: Due process

text: Chief Justice Holt dissented in this case because he believed that the commitment had not in fact been by a legal authority. The House of Commons had purported to legislate unilaterally, without approval of the British House of Lords, ostensibly to regulate the election of its members. Although the Queen's Bench held that the House of Commons had not infringed or overturned due process, John Paty was ultimately freed by Queen Anne when she prorogued Parliament.


title: Due process

text: Throughout centuries of British history, many laws and treatises asserted various requirements as being part of "due process" or included in the "law of the land". That view usually held in regards to what was required by existing law, rather than what was intrinsically required by due process itself. As the United States Supreme Court has explained, a due process requirement in Britain was not "essential to the idea of due process of law in the prosecution and punishment of crimes, but was only mentioned as an example and illustration of due process of law as it actually existed in cases in which it was customarily used".


title: Due process

text: Ultimately, the scattered references to "due process of law" in English law did not limit the power of the government; in the words of American law professor John V. Orth, "the great phrases failed to retain their vitality." Orth points out that this is generally attributed to the rise of the doctrine of parliamentary supremacy in the United Kingdom, which was accompanied by hostility towards judicial review as an undemocratic foreign invention.


title: Due process

text: Scholars have occasionally interpreted Lord Coke's ruling in "Dr. Bonham's Case" as implying the possibility of judicial review, but by the 1870s, Lord Campbell was dismissing judicial review as "a foolish doctrine alleged to have been laid down extra-judicially in Dr. Bonham's Case..., a conundrum [that] ought to have been laughed at". Lacking the power of judicial review, English courts possessed no means by which to declare government statutes or actions invalid as a violation of due process. In contrast, American legislators and executive branch officers possessed virtually no means by which to overrule judicial invalidation of statutes or actions as due process violations, with the sole exception of proposing a constitutional amendment, which are rarely successful. As a consequence, English law and American law diverged. Unlike their English counterparts, American judges became increasingly assertive about enforcing due process of law. In turn, the legislative and executive branches learned how to avoid such confrontations in the first place, by tailoring statutes and executive actions to the constitutional requirements of due process as elaborated upon by the judiciary.


title: Due process

text: In 1977, an English political science professor explained the present situation in England for the benefit of American lawyers:


title: Due process

text: An American constitutional lawyer might well be surprised by the elusiveness of references to the term 'due process of law' in the general body of English legal writing... Today one finds no space devoted to due process in Halsbury's "Laws of England", in Stephen's "Commentaries", or Anson's "Law and Custom of the Constitution." The phrase rates no entry in such works as Stroud's "Judicial Dictionary" or Wharton's "Law Lexicon."


title: Due process

text: Two similar concepts in contemporary English law are natural justice, which generally applies only to decisions of administrative agencies and some types of private bodies like trade unions, and the British constitutional concept of the rule of law as articulated by A. V. Dicey and others. However, neither concept lines up perfectly with the American conception of due process, which presently contains many implied rights not found in the ancient or modern concepts of due process in England.


title: Due process

text: The Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution each contain a Due Process Clause. Due process deals with the administration of justice and thus the Due Process Clause acts as a safeguard from arbitrary denial of life, liberty, or property by the government outside the sanction of law. The Supreme Court of the United States interprets the clauses as providing four protections: procedural due process (in civil and criminal proceedings), substantive due process, a prohibition against vague laws, and as the vehicle for the incorporation of the Bill of Rights.


title: Due process

text: Various countries recognize some form of due process under customary international law. Although the specifics are often unclear, most nations agree that they should guarantee foreign visitors a basic minimum level of justice and fairness. Some nations have argued that they are bound to grant no more rights to aliens than they do to their own citizens, the doctrine of national treatment, which also means that both would be vulnerable to the same deprivations by the government. With the growth of international human rights law and the frequent use of treaties to govern treatment of foreign nationals abroad, the distinction, in practice, between these two perspectives may be disappearing.


title: Phileas Fogg

text: Phileas Fogg () is the protagonist in the 1872 Jules Verne novel "Around the World in Eighty Days". Inspirations for the character were the American entrepreneur George Francis Train and American writer and adventurer William Perry Fogg.


title: Phileas Fogg

text: Fogg is a man of independent means and is a gentleman who is "exact", as in has a perfect and a routine life right down to the number of steps he walks to the temperature of his shaving water. Having fired a servant for the latter, he hires Jean Passepartout as a new servant. Fogg makes a wager of £20,000 (£2.4 million in 2022) with members of London's Reform Club that he can circumnavigate the world in 80 days or less. He sets out with his French servant Jean Passepartout to win the wager, unaware that he is being followed by a detective named Fix, who suspects Fogg of having robbed the Bank of England. Fix spends the first half of the book trying to delay Fogg's journey to keep him in British territory, However, after Fogg reaches America, Fix helps Fogg complete his bet in order to get him back to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, where he will be under British jurisdiction and Fix can arrest him (while still suspicious that Fogg will run off and go into hiding somewhere on the journey).


title: Phileas Fogg

text: While in India, Fogg saves a widowed princess, Aouda, from "sati" during her husband's funeral and she accompanies Fogg for the rest of his journey after initial plans to take her to an uncle failed as the uncle had moved. Together, the trio have numerous exciting adventures which come to an abrupt end when he is arrested by Fix immediately upon their arrival back in England. Although Fogg is quickly exonerated of the crime, the delay caused by his false arrest appears to have cost him the wager.


title: Phileas Fogg

text: Believing himself ruined, Fogg returns home to ponder his options. Seeing his despair, Aouda, who has grown to love him and who feels guilty that he might have won the wager if he had not delayed to rescue her, proposes to marry him to help him cope with a difficult future. At this selfless offer, Fogg's reserve finally breaks and he joyously accepts Aouda's proposal. As it turns out, Aouda's gesture actually does save the day because as a result, Passepartout discovers that Fogg has miscalculated their travel time: he had not taken into account the fact that because they had travelled from west to east, they had gained one day compared to Fogg's fellow club members who had stayed in London. Fogg had not missed the deadline after all. The three hurry off to the Reform Club and arrive just in time for Fogg to win the wager. Fogg splits his profits with Passepartout and Fix, and marries Aouda.


title: Phileas Fogg

text: In Albert Robida's "Voyages très extraordinaires de Saturnin Farandoul" (1879), Fogg appears in the narrative having gone on an attempt to travel the world again, this time in 77 days. He is portrayed as a serial saviour of ladies, having over three hundred rescued women accompanying him on his travels, which have lasted well over three years by the time he is introduced.


title: Phileas Fogg

text: In Philip José Farmer's "The Other Log of Phileas Fogg" (1973), he is said to be Eridanean, an Earth-born member of the more benevolent of two extraterrestrial factions attempting to control the Earth; Fogg is a member of Farmer's Wold Newton family. Fogg's adventures continue in "Phileas Fogg and the War of Shadows" and "Phileas Fogg and the Heart of Orsra", both by Josh Reynolds, and in "Being an Account of the Delay at Green River, Wyoming, of Phileas Fogg, World Traveler, or, The Masked Man Meets an English Gentleman" by Win Scott Eckert.


title: Transmission line

text: In electrical engineering, a transmission line is a specialized cable or other structure designed to conduct electromagnetic waves in a contained manner. The term applies when the conductors are long enough that the wave nature of the transmission must be taken into account. This applies especially to radio-frequency engineering because the short wavelengths mean that wave phenomena arise over very short distances (this can be as short as millimetres depending on frequency). However, the theory of transmission lines was historically developed to explain phenomena on very long telegraph lines, especially submarine telegraph cables.


title: Transmission line

text: Transmission lines are used for purposes such as connecting radio transmitters and receivers with their antennas (they are then called feed lines or feeders), distributing cable television signals, trunklines routing calls between telephone switching centres, computer network connections and high speed computer data buses. RF engineers commonly use short pieces of transmission line, usually in the form of printed planar transmission lines, arranged in certain patterns to build circuits such as filters. These circuits, known as distributed-element circuits, are an alternative to traditional circuits using discrete capacitors and inductors.


title: Transmission line

text: Ordinary electrical cables suffice to carry low frequency alternating current (AC), such as mains power, which reverses direction 100 to 120 times per second, and audio signals. However, they cannot be used to carry currents in the radio frequency range, above about 30 kHz, because the energy tends to radiate off the cable as radio waves, causing power losses. Radio frequency currents also tend to reflect from discontinuities in the cable such as connectors and joints, and travel back down the cable toward the source. These reflections act as bottlenecks, preventing the signal power from reaching the destination. Transmission lines use specialized construction, and impedance matching, to carry electromagnetic signals with minimal reflections and power losses. The distinguishing feature of most transmission lines is that they have uniform cross sectional dimensions along their length, giving them a uniform "impedance", called the characteristic impedance, to prevent reflections. Types of transmission line include parallel line (ladder line, twisted pair), coaxial cable, and planar transmission lines such as stripline and microstrip. The higher the frequency of electromagnetic waves moving through a given cable or medium, the shorter the wavelength of the waves. Transmission lines become necessary when the transmitted frequency's wavelength is sufficiently short that the length of the cable becomes a significant part of a wavelength.


title: Transmission line

text: At microwave frequencies and above, power losses in transmission lines become excessive, and waveguides are used instead, which function as "pipes" to confine and guide the electromagnetic waves. Some sources define waveguides as a type of transmission line; however, this article will not include them. At even higher frequencies, in the terahertz, infrared and visible ranges, waveguides in turn become lossy, and optical methods, (such as lenses and mirrors), are used to guide electromagnetic waves.


title: Transmission line

text: Mathematical analysis of the behaviour of electrical transmission lines grew out of the work of James Clerk Maxwell, Lord Kelvin, and Oliver Heaviside. In 1855, Lord Kelvin formulated a diffusion model of the current in a submarine cable. The model correctly predicted the poor performance of the 1858 trans-Atlantic submarine telegraph cable. In 1885, Heaviside published the first papers that described his analysis of propagation in cables and the modern form of the telegrapher's equations.


title: Transmission line

text: For the purposes of analysis, an electrical transmission line can be modelled as a two-port network (also called a quadripole), as follows:


title: Transmission line

text: In the simplest case, the network is assumed to be linear (i.e. the complex voltage across either port is proportional to the complex current flowing into it when there are no reflections), and the two ports are assumed to be interchangeable. If the transmission line is uniform along its length, then its behaviour is largely described by a single parameter called the "characteristic impedance", symbol Z. This is the ratio of the complex voltage of a given wave to the complex current of the same wave at any point on the line. Typical values of Z are 50 or 75 ohms for a coaxial cable, about 100 ohms for a twisted pair of wires, and about 300 ohms for a common type of untwisted pair used in radio transmission.


title: Transmission line

text: When sending power down a transmission line, it is usually desirable that as much power as possible will be absorbed by the load and as little as possible will be reflected back to the source. This can be ensured by making the load impedance equal to Z, in which case the transmission line is said to be "matched".


title: Transmission line

text: Some of the power that is fed into a transmission line is lost because of its resistance. This effect is called "ohmic" or "resistive" loss (see ohmic heating). At high frequencies, another effect called "dielectric loss" becomes significant, adding to the losses caused by resistance. Dielectric loss is caused when the insulating material inside the transmission line absorbs energy from the alternating electric field and converts it to heat (see dielectric heating). The transmission line is modelled with a resistance (R) and inductance (L) in series with a capacitance (C) and conductance (G) in parallel. The resistance and conductance contribute to the loss in a transmission line.


title: Transmission line

text: The total loss of power in a transmission line is often specified in decibels per metre (dB/m), and usually depends on the frequency of the signal. The manufacturer often supplies a chart showing the loss in dB/m at a range of frequencies. A loss of 3 dB corresponds approximately to a halving of the power.


title: Transmission line

text: High-frequency transmission lines can be defined as those designed to carry electromagnetic waves whose wavelengths are shorter than or comparable to the length of the line. Under these conditions, the approximations useful for calculations at lower frequencies are no longer accurate. This often occurs with radio, microwave and optical signals, metal mesh optical filters, and with the signals found in high-speed digital circuits.


title: Transmission line

text: The telegrapher's equations (or just telegraph equations) are a pair of linear differential equations which describe the voltage (formula_1) and current (formula_2) on an electrical transmission line with distance and time. They were developed by Oliver Heaviside who created the "transmission line model", and are based on Maxwell's equations.


title: Transmission line

text: The transmission line model is an example of the distributed-element model. It represents the transmission line as an infinite series of two-port elementary components, each representing an infinitesimally short segment of the transmission line: