title: Middle Class Abbayi

text: The film was released on 21 December 2017. "The Times of India" reported that the film was released in over 900 screens. The theatrical rights of the film were sold at a cost of ₹30 crore. BlueSky Cinemas have acquired the distribution rights of the film in the United States for ₹3.50 crore. "Sakshi Post" reported that the film was released in over 150 screens across North America.


title: Middle Class Abbayi

text: On its opening day, the film collected a total gross of ₹28 crore worldwide. As of 8 January 2018, the film grossed US$1.07 million (₹6.85 crore) at the United States box office. By the end of its theatrical run, "Middle Class Abbayi" grossed ₹70 crore worldwide, with the distributors' share of ₹40 crore.


title: Middle Class Abbayi

text: Neeshita Nyayapati of "The Times of India" gave a rating of 2.5 out of 5 and wrote that ""MCA" is good enough for a one-time watch, especially if you're a Nani fan or a sucker for family dramas". Opining the same "Sify" wrote that ""MCA" starts off well and engages the audiences with cute romance and some fun elements. The entire first half is neat and entertaining. However, it drifts away soon and turns too predictable. Nani and Sai Pallavi's romantic thread is the major highlight in this otherwise regular commercial movie that is too bland." Writing to "The News Minute", Sowmya Rajendran felt that the film has some original ideas but turns predictable – like the middle-class kid who wants to become a rock star but ends up in engineering. She further wrote:""Middle Class Abbayi" is a middling entertainer with a lot of fresh ideas that unnecessarily turns into a routine drama".


title: Middle Class Abbayi

text: "Firstpost" stated that "MCA is not a bad film, but it also leaves you with a feeling that it could have been a lot more. In another era, a similar plotline, of a guy wanting to save a girl from the clutches of a villain, formed the basis of Mahesh Babu's "Okkadu"". Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of "The Hindu" wrote in her review: "Three versatile performers are the saving grace in this partly entertaining and partly middling film". Manoj Kumar R of "The Indian Express" wrote that "Venu has banked heavily on the charming performances of Nani and Pallavi to make MCA click with the audience, as his writing is unambitious and mostly filled with clichés like his idea of middle class".


title: Middle Class Abbayi

text: The film was remade in Hindi as "Nikamma" and released on 17 June 2022. Produced by Shabbir Khan Films and Sony Pictures India, the film features Abhimanyu Dassani, Shirley Setia and Shilpa Shetty reprising the lead roles played by Nani, Sai Pallavi and Bhumika Chawla respectively.


title: Chauffeur

text: A chauffeur is a person employed to drive a passenger motor vehicle, especially a luxury vehicle such as a large sedan or limousine.


title: Chauffeur

text: Originally, such drivers were often personal employees of the vehicle owner, but this has changed to specialist chauffeur service companies or individual drivers that provide both driver and vehicle for hire. Some service companies merely provide the driver.


title: Chauffeur

text: The term "chauffeur" comes from the French term for stoker because the earliest automobiles, like their railroad and sea vessel counterparts, were steam-powered and required the driver to stoke the engine. Early petrol/gasoline-powered motor cars, before the advent of electric ignition, were ignited by 'hot tubes' in the cylinder head which had to be pre-heated before the engine would start. Hence the term "chauffeur" which, in this context, means something like "heater-upper". The chauffeur would prime the hot tubes at the start of a journey, after which the natural compression cycle of the engine would keep them at the correct temperature. The chauffeur also maintained the car, including routine maintenance and cleaning, and had to be a skilled mechanic to deal with breakdowns and tyre punctures en route, which were very common in the earliest years of the automobile.


title: Chauffeur

text: Only the very wealthy could afford the first automobiles, and they generally employed chauffeurs rather than driving themselves. A 1906 article in "The New York Times" reported that "the chauffeur problem to-day is one of the most serious that the automobilist has to deal with", and complained that "young men of no particular ability, who have been earning from $10 to $12 a week, are suddenly elevated to salaried positions paying from $25 to $50" and recommended the re-training of existing coach drivers.


title: Chauffeur

text: While the term may refer to anybody who drives for a living, it usually implies a driver of an elegant passenger vehicle such as a horse-drawn carriage, luxury sedan, motor coach, or especially a limousine; those who operate buses or non-passenger vehicles are generally referred to as "drivers". In some countries, particularly developing nations where a ready supply of labor ensures that even the middle classes can afford domestic staff and among the wealthy, the chauffeur may simply be called the "driver".


title: Chauffeur

text: People currently sometimes employ chauffeurs full-time to drive themselves in their own personal vehicles, yet there are also professional services offering limousines or rental cars driven by chauffeurs. This is very similar to but much more luxurious than taking a taxicab. A variety of benefits are cited for using chauffeurs, including convenience, productivity and time savings, and driving safety for business people and seniors. Insurance costs for luxury vehicles are often lower if the designated driver is a chauffeur.


title: Chauffeur

text: The legal requirements to be a chauffeur vary depending on the local jurisdiction and class of vehicle. In some cases, a simple permit is all that is required, but in others an additional professional license is needed with certain minimum standards in areas such as: age, health, driving experience, criminal record, local geographic knowledge, training attended.


title: Chauffeur

text: In addition to the minimum legal requirements, limousine companies often require their chauffeurs to undergo specific extra training. These courses may involve evasive driving or defensive driving techniques, the proper methods to ensure safety in the most extreme conditions such as inclement weather, a flat tire at high speeds, or other exterior influences for loss of vehicular control, etc. Most companies also have their own courses as to what they expect from their chauffeurs. Chauffeurs may be taught proper etiquette for use when they are in presence of their clientele. They may also be trained for services to the client beyond the car itself, such as for a personal valet or bodyguard. Many companies and local licensing agencies currently require random drug screening – in the United States this was especially the case after professional ice hockey player Vladimir Konstantinov's career-ending injuries when his recently hired chauffeur, Richard Gnida, lost control of their limousine and crashed.


title: Chauffeur

text: In many places (or at times in the past), proper physical presence is presented by the chauffeur at all times. This usually includes a well-groomed individual, conservatively dressed in a clean and crisply pressed black or dark business suit or tuxedo, dress shirt, and appropriately matching tie, with black leather gloves and freshly polished matching footwear. In some areas, such as Japan, white gloves are the norm. Some companies have complete uniforms for their chauffeurs, and some require that hats be worn as part of the uniform.


title: 77th Academy Awards

text: The 77th Academy Awards ceremony, presented by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), took place on February 27, 2005, at the Kodak Theatre in Hollywood, Los Angeles beginning at 5:30 p.m. PST / 8:30 p.m. EST. During the ceremony, AMPAS presented Academy Awards (commonly referred to as the Oscars) in 24 categories honoring films released in 2004. The ceremony, televised in the United States by ABC, was produced by Gil Cates and was directed by Louis J. Horvitz. Actor Chris Rock hosted the show for the first time. Two weeks earlier in a ceremony at The Ritz-Carlton Huntington Hotel & Spa in Pasadena, California held on February 12, the Academy Awards for Technical Achievement were presented by host Scarlett Johansson.


title: 77th Academy Awards

text: "Million Dollar Baby" won four awards, including Best Picture. Other winners included "The Aviator" with five awards, "The Incredibles" and "Ray" with two, and "Born into Brothels: Calcutta's Red Light Kids", "Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind", "Finding Neverland", "Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events", "", "The Motorcycle Diaries", "Ryan", "The Sea Inside", "Sideways", "Spider-Man 2", and "Wasp" with one. The telecast garnered over 42 million viewers in the United States alone.


title: 77th Academy Awards

text: The nominees for the 77th Academy Awards were announced on January 25, 2005, at the Samuel Goldwyn Theater in Beverly Hills, California, by Frank Pierson, president of the academy, and actor Adrien Brody. "The Aviator" received the most nominations with eleven; "Finding Neverland" and "Million Dollar Baby" tied for second with seven nominations each.


title: 77th Academy Awards

text: The winners were announced during the awards ceremony on February 27, 2005. At age 74, Clint Eastwood became the oldest winner for Best Director in Oscar history. With his latest unsuccessful nomination for directing "The Aviator", nominee Martin Scorsese joined Robert Altman, Clarence Brown, Alfred Hitchcock, and King Vidor as the most nominated individuals in the Best Director category without a single win at the time. Best Actor winner Jamie Foxx became the second actor and tenth individual overall to earn two acting nominations in the same year. By virtue of her portrayal of Katharine Hepburn, Best Supporting Actress winner Cate Blanchett was the first performer to portray a previous Oscar winner. "Al otro lado del río" from "The Motorcycle Diaries" became the second song with non-English lyrics to win Best Original Song. The first to achieve this feat was the titular song from the 1960 Greek film "Never on Sunday" at the 33rd Academy Awards.


title: 77th Academy Awards

text: The following individuals, listed in order of appearance, presented awards or performed musical numbers.


title: 77th Academy Awards

text: Opting for a younger face in an attempt to increase viewership, while renewing interest with the nominated films, producer Gil Cates selected actor and comedian Chris Rock to host the 2005 ceremony. Cates explained his decision to hire Rock for the telecast in a press release saying, "I am a huge fan of Chris Rock. He always makes me laugh and he always has something interesting to say. Chris represents the best of the new generation of comics. Having him host the Oscars is terrific. I can't wait." By virtue of his selection, Rock became the first African American man to solo host the gala.


title: 77th Academy Awards

text: Nearly a month before the ceremony Rock told Josh Wolk of "Entertainment Weekly", "Come on, it's a fashion show. No one performs; it's not like a music show. What straight black man sits there and watches the Oscars? Show me one." Political blogger Matt Drudge later reported that several anonymous AMPAS members wanted Rock fired from his hosting job as a result of the comments. Nevertheless, producer Cates issued a statement defending the host saying, "Chris' comments are meant to be humorous digs at a show that some people, obviously including Chris himself, think may be a bit too stuffy." Furthermore, Wolk dismissed any controversy regarding Rock's comments and that Drudge exaggerated the host's comments. GLAAD Executive Director Joan Garry also issue a statement in light of the controversy stating, "Chris Rock isn't making fun of gays – he's poking fun at the Oscars." Rock appeared on "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno" the Monday before the ceremony to clarify his comments. When Leno asked about the statement, Rock replied "I did not say that. I said only gay people watch the Tonys." However, he reiterated, "I really don't know any straight men who aren't in show business that have ever watched the Oscars."


title: 77th Academy Awards

text: Notable changes were made to give the ceremony a sleek, interactive look while shortening the length of the ceremony. Cates announced that in certain categories, all five nominees would be up onstage prior to the announcement of the award. In other instances, the actor or actress would present the award in the audience. In addition, production designer Roy Christopher designed an technologically ambitious stage for the telecast that both saluted the past while look toward the future. The set prominently featured 26 high-definition video monitors floating over the first twelve rows of the audience and a 40-foot LED screen situated beneath a layer of plexiglass on the stage floor. Both screens were used display images of previous Oscar appearances as presenters took the stage or random film clips during several commercial breaks. A gold rod featuring 23 different life-sized Oscar statuettes spiraling upward was placed at center stage.


title: 77th Academy Awards

text: Several other people were involved with the production of the ceremony. Film composer and musician Bill Conti served as musical director of the ceremony. AMPAS graphics designer Brett Davidson designed the official ceremony poster consisting of a profile of the Oscar statuette in front of four neon-colored squares. Freelance producer Cochise and media firm Dig and Media Island released a trailer shown in movie theaters nationwide promoting the ceremony featuring clips from past Oscar ceremonies against the four squares backdrop in the aforementioned poster. The trailer featured the song "Hey Mama" by The Black Eyed Peas. Two-time Oscar-winning actor Dustin Hoffman narrated the opening montage highlighting the evolution of the movies.


title: 77th Academy Awards

text: When the nominations were announced on January 25, the field of Best Picture nominees did not include a bona fide blockbuster at the U.S. box office. It was the first time since 1986 that none of the five films in that category were among the top ten releases in box office prior to the nominations announcement. Furthermore, before the ceremony, all five films sold the lowest cumulative number of tickets sold since 1984. "Ray" was the highest-grossing film among the Best Picture nominees with $73 million in domestic box office receipts. The film was followed by "The Aviator" ($58.4 million), "Finding Neverland" ($32.7 million), "Sideways" ($32.4 million), and finally "Million Dollar Baby" ($8.4 million). The combined gross of the five Best Picture nominees when the Oscars were announced was $205 million with an average gross of $41.3 million per film.


title: 77th Academy Awards

text: Among the rest of the top 50 releases of 2004 in U.S. box office before the nominations, 44 nominations went to 14 films on the list. Only "Shrek 2" (1st), "The Incredibles" (4th), "Shark Tale" (11th), "Collateral" (22nd), "Ray" (37th), and "The Aviator" (49th) were nominated for Best Picture, Best Animated Feature, directing, acting, or screenwriting. The other top 50 box office hits that earned the nominations were "Spider-Man 2" (2nd), "The Passion of the Christ" (3rd), "Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban" (5th), "The Polar Express" (10th), "I, Robot" (12th), "Troy" (13th), "Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events" (18th), and "The Village" (20th).


title: 77th Academy Awards

text: During his monologue, host Rock joked, "Clint Eastwood's a star, OK? Tobey Maguire's just a boy in tights," He also added, "You want Tom Cruise and all you can get is Jude Law? Wait. You want Russell Crowe and all you can get is Colin Farrell? Wait. "Alexander" is not "Gladiator"." In response, Sean Penn rebutted Rock's remarks praising Law as one of his generation's "finest actors". Over a year later, Law expressed his anger toward Rock in "The New York Times" telling columnist Craig Modderno, "At first I laughed because I didn't think he knew who I was. Then I got angry as his remarks became personal. My friends were livid. It's unfortunate I had five or six films come out at the same time."


title: 77th Academy Awards

text: Robin Williams initially wanted to sing a humorous song written by Marc Shaiman and Scott Wittman during the presentation of the Best Animated Feature award satirizing the controversy regarding Focus on the Family and a music video sponsored by We Are Family Foundation featuring animated characters such as SpongeBob SquarePants singing the song "We Are Family". The song contained lyrics such as "Pinocchio's had his nose done! Sleeping Beauty is popping pills!/ The Three Little Pigs ain't kosher! Betty Boop works Beverly Hills!" However, Cates and ABC officials deemed the song overly vulgar and offensive for the telecast and was dropped altogether after writers Shaiman and Wittman had trouble rewriting more appropriate lyrics. Williams eventually presented the Best Animated Feature award as scheduled, but silently mocked the debacle by entering the stage with duct tape over his mouth before speaking.


title: 77th Academy Awards

text: The show received a mixed reception from media publications. Some media outlets were more critical of the show and Rock's performance as host. "USA Today" television critic Robert Bianco wrote, "Loud, snide and dismissive, he wasn't just a disappointment; he ranks up there with the worst hosts ever." He also called the decision to have several nominees of several technical categories stand on stage embarrassing and disrespectful. Columnist Robert. P. Lawrence of the "San Diego Union Tribune" commented, "It was a frustratingly average, three-hour-12-minute exhibition of mutual admiration in the inimitable Hollywood style." He later said that despite Rock's edgy and provocative opening, his humor and energy diminished as the night wore on. Vince Horiuchi of "The Salt Lake Tribune" wrote of Rock's performance, "He was bound by stale jokes (none of the winners "tested positive for steroids"), a rigid opening monologue (he didn't even make reference to his prior controversial comments about the Oscars), and tired comedy bits (Rock playing like Catherine Zeta-Jones with Adam Sandler)." He also described the cast and production of the ceremony as "moribund" and "clumsy".


title: 77th Academy Awards

text: Other media outlets received the broadcast more positively. Film critic Roger Ebert noted that Rock "opened on a high-energy quick-talking note" He also added, "Chris Rock hit a home run with his opening monologue, which was surprisingly pointed, topical, and not shy of controversy." Television critic Frazier Moore commented that Rock's performance was a "needed pick-me-up, presiding over the broadcast with saucy finesse." He added, "In sum, the broadcast felt brisk, though not rushed. It felt modern and refreshingly free of chronic self-importance." Brian Lowry of "Variety" gave an average review of Rock but remarked, "For all the hand-wringing about the awards descending into the muck, the 77th Academy Awards proved a classy affair, with precious little red meat to satiate Hollywood bashers."


title: 77th Academy Awards

text: The American telecast on ABC drew an average of 42.14 million people over its length, which was a 3% decrease from the previous year's ceremony. The show also drew lower Nielsen ratings compared to the two previous ceremonies with 25.4 of households watching over a 38 share. It also drew a lower 18–49 demo rating with a 15.1 rating over a 34 share among viewers in that demographic.


title: 77th Academy Awards

text: The annual "In Memoriam" tribute was presented by actress Annette Bening. Musician Yo-Yo Ma performed during the segment.


title: 77th Academy Awards

text: A special tribute to five-time host Johnny Carson was presented by host Chris Rock with previous presenter Whoopi Goldberg discussing Carson's legacy to television and the Academy Awards in the segment. Later on in the broadcast, Best Actor winner Jamie Foxx briefly eulogized singer and musician Ray Charles, who died in June 2004, during his acceptance speech.


title: The Tunnel (TV series)

text: The Tunnel () is a British-French crime drama television series adapted from the 2011 Danish-Swedish crime series "The Bridge" ("Bron"/"Broen"). The series began broadcasting on 16 October 2013 on Sky Atlantic in the UK, and on 11 November 2013 on Canal+ in France. The series stars Stephen Dillane and Clémence Poésy as British and French police detectives Karl Roebuck and Elise Wassermann. The plot follows the two detectives working together to find a serial killer who left the upper half of a French politician and the lower half of a British prostitute in the Channel Tunnel at the midpoint between France and the UK. The killer is nicknamed the "Truth Terrorist" and is on a moral crusade to highlight many social problems, terrorising both countries in the process. As the series progresses, the killer's true intention is revealed.


title: The Tunnel (TV series)

text: The Anglo–French adaptation of "The Bridge" was announced as a joint project between Sky and Canal+ in January 2013. "Tunnel" head writer Ben Richards worked with Hans Rosenfeldt, the creator of the original series. Due to the setting, the dialogue of the series is bilingual, a first for a British / French television co-production. Filming took place between February and August 2013 with a budget of £15 million, and was shot on location in Kent, England and Nord-Pas-de-Calais, France. It was produced with both British and French crew members. The premieres on both Sky Atlantic and Canal+ received strong ratings for the respective channels, with an initial consolidated figure of almost 900,000 in the UK and 1.3 million in France. Critical reception of the series has been generally positive, with Dillane and Poésy's acting being praised, as well as the plot's grittiness. Some reviewers made favourable comparisons with "The Bridge", though others criticised "The Tunnel" for being identical. The producers admit that the first episode is a copy of the original.


title: The Tunnel (TV series)

text: On 16 February 2015, Canal+ and Sky Atlantic announced that a second series would begin production in March, set to air in early 2016, entitled "The Tunnel: Sabotage", and consisting of eight episodes. Series 2 would focus on the crash of an airliner into the English Channel, with Dillane and Poésy returning; it premiered on Canal+ on 7 March 2016. The debut on Sky Atlantic was originally set for 5 April 2016 but was put off until a week later in deference to the Brussels terrorist attacks on 22 March 2016. It premiered in the UK on 12 April 2016 and was made available via Sky's On Demand service.


title: The Tunnel (TV series)

text: The renewal for a third and final series was announced on 20 January 2017 entitled "The Tunnel: Vengeance" and consisting of six episodes. It began filming in March 2017 and premiered on Sky Atlantic on 14 December 2017, with all episodes released on the same day. Canal+ did not announce a corresponding date for France at the time of the UK release. Season 3 premiered on Canal+ on 4 June 2018.


title: The Tunnel (TV series)

text: In the United States, the first season aired on many PBS stations from June through August 2016. The second season was broadcast from June through August 2017. The third season aired July through August 2018.


title: The Tunnel (TV series)

text: Stephen Dillane plays Detective Chief Inspector Karl Roebuck of Northbourne Police (a fictional counterpart to the real life Kent Police), an ageing British detective used to getting his own way. Roebuck's role parallels that of Martin Rohde (played by Kim Bodnia), the Danish detective in "The Bridge". Karl and Martin share some characteristics, but also differ in certain ways; for instance, Karl is "more educated and a more troubled man". Dillane was drawn to the political questions raised in the storyline, as well as the series' "novelistic telling".


title: The Tunnel (TV series)

text: Clémence Poésy plays Capitaine (later Commander) Elise Wassermann of the DCPJ, the French detective and Roebuck's opposite. Wasserman's role parallels that of Saga Norén (played by Sofia Helin), the Swedish detective in "The Bridge". Elise shares some characteristics with Saga, including driving a Porsche (in Elise's case, a Porsche 944), picking up men from bars for casual sex, and exhibiting behaviour consistent with Asperger syndrome. The innate seriousness of the character was a trait that Poésy found "quite annoying", but the actress came to appreciate Elise's honesty. Both Dillane and Poésy opted not to view the original Scandinavian series, with the latter stating that it would allow her more freedom in interpreting the character. Poésy dubbed her English lines for the French broadcast.


title: The Tunnel (TV series)

text: The series includes several guest stars. Joseph Mawle plays a social worker named Stephen Beaumont, Tom Bateman appears as journalist Danny Hiller, and Tobi Bakare plays Chuks Akinade. Thibault de Montalembert plays Olivier Pujol, who is the head of the Calais police service, and Elise's superior. Sigrid Bouaziz plays Cécile Cabrillac and Cédric Vieira plays Philippe Viot; these characters are police officers who work with Elise. Mathieu Carrière and Jeanne Balibar play banker Alain Joubert, and his wife Charlotte, respectively. "Merlin" actress Angel Coulby stars as Laura Roebuck, Karl's wife, while Jack Lowden plays Adam, his son. Keeley Hawes guest-starred as Suze Harcourt, a care worker and drug addict, along with Liz Smith, who plays Harriet, an elderly woman under Harcourt's care.


title: The Tunnel (TV series)

text: James Frain plays Kieran Ashton ("John Sumner"), a former colleague of Karl, who faked his suicide and became the Truth Terrorist, serving as the primary antagonist of the first season and a behind-the-scenes antagonist in the second season. The character is motivated by the loss of his identity and family, as well as betrayal from Karl by his affair with Kieran's wife before her death. Frain believed that Kieran is the most disturbing character he has played. Portraying the character, the actor wanted to make his actions understandable, though not justifiable.


title: The Tunnel (TV series)

text: The Anglo–French adaption of the Danish/Swedish series "The Bridge" was first announced by Sky in January 2013. The ten-part series was to be a co-production between British broadcaster Sky and French broadcaster Canal+. Sky Atlantic director Elaine Pyke commissioned the show with the intention of establishing the channel as a home for British dramas following the channel's release of the drama series "Hit & Miss" and "Falcón". Due to the setting of the series, it would be bilingual, with dialogue being spoken in English and French. This made "The Tunnel", according to its producers, the first series in British and French television to be bilingual.


title: The Tunnel (TV series)

text: Being a "50–50 co-production" between the British and French, the crew were a mix from both countries, and neither party has "final control". The series employed both British and French writers and directors to collaborate on the series, with former "Spooks" writer Ben Richards leading the writing team. Multiple versions of the script were used, which were translated for both languages. Five directors were hired for the series, three of them British and the other two French. Dominik Moll is considered the head director, with the other directors being Hettie MacDonald, Thomas Vincent, Udayan Prasad and Philip Martin. The series' executive producers are Sky's Anne Mensah; Canal+'s Fabrice De La Patellière; Kudos' Jane Featherstone, Karen Wilson, Manda Levin and Ben Richards; Shine France's Nora Melhli; and Filmlance's Lars Blomgren. Ruth Kenley-Letts is the series producer. Jane Featherstone, the chief executive of the production company Kudos, said of the British–French collaboration: "We have had to work very collaboratively to make sure we are appealing to both nations. I honestly don't know if we have got that right yet. The French like things to be slightly slower, we like them pacier."


title: The Tunnel (TV series)

text: In developing the storyline of the series Featherstone said that "the team took what was wonderful from [the original] and then forgot about it, in the nicest possible way, and made their own show." While working for the series, Richards worked with Hans Rosenfeldt, the Swedish writer who created "The Bridge". Many aspects of the first episode are virtual copies of the first episode of the Scandinavian series, including: the female lead "stripping unselfconsciously to her underwear in the office", the male lead's relationship with his teenage son, and the "sleazy journalist [being] held captive in his own car with a ticking bomb", the last of which was a sequence Richards wanted to repeat in the remake. However, Richards said that as the series progressed and the drama unfolded the storylines would diverge from the original. Featherstone also noted there would be plenty of changes, saying that many had "seen both ["The Bridge" and "The Tunnel"], who feel that they get satisfaction because the characters go on different journeys and the actors all bring a whole new level of interest in it".


title: The Tunnel (TV series)

text: The budget of the series is estimated to be £15 million. Filming began in February 2013 and concluded in August 2013, with location shooting largely taken place in Kent and northern France. Filming in Kent was based in Discovery Park in Sandwich and was supported by the Kent Film Office. A former Pfizer facility was used as a number of sets, including the Calais police station and Elise's apartment. The series was filmed throughout five districts: Canterbury, Dover, Folkestone and Hythe, Swale and Thanet. Several prominent locales were featured, including Folkestone Harbour; The Turner Contemporary art gallery; Westwood Cross shopping centre; and the towns of Dover, Folkestone and Margate. Production also made use of the Kent Film Office's legal powers to close certain roads for uninterrupted filming. An estimated £2.5 million of the budget was spent on, among other services, accommodation, locations, parking and catering, providing a boost for the Kent economy. The filming in France was supported by the Nord-Pas de Calais Film Commission and benefited from the Tax Rebate International. Shooting took place over 31 days across Boulogne-sur-Mer, Calais, Dunkerque, and Wissant.


title: The Tunnel (TV series)

text: Some scenes of "The Tunnel" were also shot in the Channel Tunnel itself, which makes the series the first television drama production to do so. The producers spent "months of gentle negotiation" with Eurotunnel, the company that operates the tunnel, for permission to shoot scenes there. Eurotunnel allowed it. According to Moll, "The only thing they didn't want was to see train passengers in danger or fires." Moll also noted that they did not shoot in the actual midpoint of the tunnel, stating "once you are a few kilometres in, it all looks the same."


title: The Tunnel (TV series)

text: Filming for series two again took place in Kent and France. The production filmed for 85 days in Kent between April and July 2015, with a further 50 days in the county for pre- and post-production, spending an estimated £1.5 million. The Kent filming locations included Eurotunnel, Folkestone Harbour, Discovery Park, Deal (including the pier), Folkestone, Dover (including the port and Dover Castle), Westwood Industrial Estate Margate, Ramsgate, The Barn in Upstreet, St Martin's Hospital, and Knowlton Court.


title: The Tunnel (TV series)

text: For series three, filming locations in East Kent included Reculver, Botany Bay, Ramsgate Royal Harbour and Port of Dover.


title: The Tunnel (TV series)

text: "The Tunnel" had a world premiere on 7 October 2013 in France at the international television trade exhibition MIPCOM in Cannes.


title: The Tunnel (TV series)

text: In the United Kingdom, Sky Atlantic premiered the series on 16 October 2013 at 9 pm, and continued weekly until 18 December. The debut was seen by an average of 362,000 overnight viewers, considered strong ratings for the channel. With consolidated ratings taken into account, the first episode went up to 803,000 viewers on Sky Atlantic, with an extra 90,000 viewing from its catch-up channel, Sky Atlantic +1. However, the second episode dropped a third of its overnight audience, leaving it with 236,000 viewers. The finale was seen by 267,000 overnight viewers.


title: The Tunnel (TV series)

text: In France, the series premiered on Canal+ on 11 November 2013 at 8:55 pm, with two out of ten episodes airing consecutively, and concluded on 9 December 2013. The premiere attracted 1.3 million viewers, making it one of the highest rated original series debut for the channel. The first series had an average audience of 1.04 million viewers per episode.


title: The Tunnel (TV series)

text: Series 2, titled "The Tunnel: Sabotage", premiered on Canal+ on 7 March 2016, and concluded on 28 March 2016.


title: The Tunnel (TV series)

text: The second series debut on Sky Atlantic was originally set for 5 April 2016 but was put off until a week later in deference to the Brussels terrorist attacks on 22 March 2016. Series 2 premiered in the UK on 12 April 2016 and was made available via Sky's On Demand service. The season finished on 31 May 2016.


title: The Tunnel (TV series)

text: Series 3, titled "The Tunnel: Vengeance", premiered on Sky Atlantic on 14 December 2017, with all episodes released on the same day. The season premiered on Canal+ on 4 June 2018, and the finale aired on 18 June 2018.


title: The Tunnel (TV series)

text: In the United States, "The Tunnel" was broadcast on many PBS stations. Season 1 aired from 19 June through 21 August 2016, Season 2 from 15 June through 3 August 2017, and Season 3 from 1 July through 5 August 2018.


title: The Tunnel (TV series)

text: A four-disc DVD box set (Region 2) of Series 1 was released in France by StudioCanal on 20 December 2013, with special features including a "making of" feature and interviews featuring Clémence Poésy and Dominik Moll. The DVD and Blu-ray of Series 1 was released in the United Kingdom on 13 January 2014 by Acorn Media UK, and includes three discs, with special features including a making-of feature, cast and crew interviews, and a picture gallery.


title: The Tunnel (TV series)

text: Starting on 1 February 2014, the first episodes of "The Tunnel" – along with some other original Sky Television series – were released for free in the UK on YouTube as an attempt to attract more Sky subscribers.


title: The Tunnel (TV series)

text: "The Tunnel" received generally positive reviews from television critics. Alex Fletcher of Digital Spy stated that while remakes are "often underwhelming", "The Tunnel" was "gripping stuff", and he believed that viewers "should find plenty to enjoy" in the series. The performances of Dillane and Poésy were also lauded. Gerard Gilbert of "The Independent" was positive in his assessment of the series, stating that "as an avid fan of "The Bridge", I am happy to report that "The Tunnel" works well in its own right – it's intelligently made, well cast and ambitiously cinematic", adding that it had "succeeded in its high-risk strategy of re-working a near-flawless Scandi-drama in our Anglo-French image". Ellen E Jones, also of "The Independent", said that Dillane and Poésy's performances "stuck closely" to the original characterisation of the leads from the Scandinavian version. Of the execution, Jones stated: "should you bother watching "The Tunnel" even if you've already seen the original? The early signs are good. The makers obviously have sense enough to preserve what was effective about the original, and invention enough to distinguish their work too."


title: The Tunnel (TV series)

text: In a review posted early in the first season, Gerard O'Donovan of "The Daily Telegraph" expressed mixed feelings about the series "so far at least", saying: "there was no sense that this was doing much different from other mainstream crime thrillers. Sticking too close to the original script meant a golden opportunity was missed to dig deeper into the attitudes and history that both connect and divide the UK and France". However, he also wrote that he would be "happy to be persuaded otherwise if the action develops".


title: The Tunnel (TV series)

text: Harry Venning of "The Stage" believed that, plotwise, the collaboration between the British and French police forces and style were "all very effectively done, creepily atmospheric and splendidly gruesome", but also stated that the best thing about the series was "the interplay between Stephen Dillane's easygoing, laddish, rosbif detective inspector and his po-faced, glacial but – wouldn't you know it – extremely sexy Gallic counterpart, played by Clémence Poésy." "Metro" reviewer Keith Watson, having rated the series four stars out of five, stated: "the idea is great. But what's surprising about "The Tunnel" (Sky Atlantic) is that it's less a version of, more a faithful remake."


title: The Tunnel (TV series)

text: "The Guardian" posted a number of reviews on its website. Julia Raeside deemed the series a "perfectly cast remake of Swedish-Danish crime hit", and stated that "this confirms Dillane as one of our very finest. Such control. Poésy is beautifully chilly, and Joseph Mawle (another cracker) leads an asylum-seeker subplot. It's also really funny." Writing about the finale, Reaside said of Dillane's performance: "If this were on a terrestrial channel, he'd be up for all the awards." On the Karl–Elise partnership, she stated: "I wasn't sure about them as a pairing but was immediately convinced by their uncomfortable chemistry." Having not enjoyed "The Bridge", Andrew Anthony called "The Tunnel" an "attractive proposition", adding that "there's an engaging confidence to the slow revelation of the story. All in all, this looks good." Sam Wollaston was more critical of the series, stating that, while the tone was "atmospheric, intriguing, gripping" and there were strong performances from the lead cast members, "The Tunnel" was "exactly the same as the (recent) original". Wollaston felt that the only "obvious" difference was that, in the original series, there "was a bridge, this is a tunnel. However magnificent an engineering feat the Channel tunnel is, it can't compete as a spectacular location with the Øresund Bridge."


title: Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 1771

text: Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 1771 was a scheduled flight along the West Coast of the United States, from Los Angeles, California, to San Francisco. On December 7, 1987, the British Aerospace 146-200A, registration N350PS, crashed in San Luis Obispo County near Cayucos, after being hijacked by a passenger.


title: Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 1771

text: All 43 passengers and crew aboard the plane died, five of whom, including the two pilots, were presumably shot dead before the plane crashed. The perpetrator, David Burke, was a disgruntled former employee of USAir, the parent company of Pacific Southwest Airlines. The crash was the second-worst mass murder in Californian history, after the similar crash of Pacific Air Lines Flight 773 in 1964.


title: Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 1771

text: USAir, which had recently purchased Pacific Southwest Airlines (PSA), terminated David A. Burke, a ticketing agent, for petty theft of $69 from in-flight cocktail receipts; he had also been suspected of involvement with a narcotics ring. After meeting with Ray Thomson, his manager, in an unsuccessful attempt to be reinstated, Burke purchased a ticket on PSA Flight 1771, a daily flight from Los Angeles International Airport (LAX) to San Francisco International Airport (SFO). Thomson was a passenger on the flight, which he regularly took for his daily commute from his workplace at LAX to his home in the San Francisco Bay Area. Flight 1771 departed from LAX at 15:31 PST, scheduled to arrive in San Francisco at 16:43.


title: Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 1771

text: Using USAir employee credentials that he had not yet surrendered, Burke, armed with a Smith & Wesson Model 29 .44 Magnum revolver that he had borrowed from a coworker, was able to bypass the normal passenger security checkpoint at LAX. He gained access to the plane via the locked crew door using the access code scratched above the lock as reported by one of the lawyers representing families of two dead passengers. After boarding the plane, Burke wrote a message on an airsickness bag, but whether or not he gave the message to Thomson to read before shooting him is unknown. The note read:


title: Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 1771

text: Hi Ray. I think it's sort of ironical that we end up like this. I asked for some leniency for my family. Remember? Well, I got none and you'll get none.


title: Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 1771

text: The exact sequence of events remains undetermined, though some details were able to be determined based on information from the aircraft's cockpit voice recorder (CVR). Due to the poor quality of the recording, it was not possible to decipher everything spoken in the cockpit, nor was it possible to positively attribute phrases to specific individuals. As the aircraft, a four-engined British Aerospace BAe 146-200, cruised at over the central California coast, the CVR recorded either Captain Gregg Lindamood (43) or First Officer James Nunn (48) asking air traffic control about reports of turbulence. During the controller's reply, the CVR picked up two "high-level gunshot-like sound[s]." Burke had likely shot Thomson at this time. One of the pilots reported twice to the center controller that there had been gunshots fired aboard the aircraft. As the controller asked the pilots whether they wished to divert to Monterey, the sound of the cockpit door opening could be heard, followed by the sound of a female voice, believed to be Flight Attendant Debbie Neal. What was said by her could not be discerned, aside from the word "captain."" This was followed one second later by a male voice saying something that was mostly not intelligible on the recording but ended with the word "problem." The FBI's transcript notes that this may have been Burke's voice. Although it is popularly believed that the complete phrase spoken by Burke had been "I'm the problem," this does not appear in the official FBI report. Immediately following this exchange, two more gunshot sounds were registered, followed by another gunshot six seconds later.


title: Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 1771

text: Most likely, Burke shot Lindamood and Nunn, incapacitating them, if not outright killing them. Fifteen seconds later, the CVR picked up the sound of the cockpit door either opening or closing, as well as increasing windscreen noise as the airplane pitched down and accelerated. Thirty-two seconds after the sounds made by the cockpit door, a sixth and final gunshot was heard. All that could be determined was that this shot occurred in the passenger cabin. Some speculation arose that Burke shot himself, though this seems unlikely, because a fragment of Burke's fingertip was lodged in the trigger when the investigators found the revolver. This indicated that he was alive and was holding the gun until the moment of impact. The most probable victim was an off-duty pilot that was working for PSA, Douglas Arthur, who was likely trying to enter the cockpit in an attempt to get the plane out of the dive. For the remainder of the recording, the sound of windscreen noise and "distant voices" could be heard.


title: Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 1771

text: At 4:16 pm, the plane crashed into a hillside on the Santa Rita cattle ranch in the Santa Lucia Mountains between Paso Robles and Cayucos. The plane was estimated to have crashed slightly faster than the speed of sound, around , disintegrating instantly. Based on the deformation of the titanium black box data recorder case, the aircraft experienced a deceleration of 5,000 times the force of gravity (G-force) when it hit the ground. It was traveling around a 70° angle toward the south. The plane struck a rocky hillside, leaving a crater less than deep and across. Only 11 of the passengers were ever identified.


title: Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 1771

text: After the crash site was located by a CBS News helicopter piloted by Zoey Tur, investigators from the National Transportation Safety Board were joined by the Federal Bureau of Investigation. After two days of digging through what was left of the plane, they found the parts of a handgun containing six spent cartridge cases and the note on the airsickness bag written by Burke, indicating that he may have been responsible for the crash. FBI investigators were able to lift a print from a fragment of finger stuck in the revolver's trigger guard, which positively identified Burke as holding the weapon when the aircraft crashed. In addition to the evidence uncovered at the crash site, other factors surfaced. Burke's coworker admitted to having lent him the gun, and Burke had also left a farewell message on his girlfriend's answering machine.


title: Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 1771

text: David Augustus Burke (18 May 1952 – 7 December 1987) was born in Croydon, England to Jamaican parents. Burke later emigrated to the United States with his parents. He had previously worked for USAir in Rochester, New York, where he was a suspect in a drug-smuggling ring that was bringing cocaine from Jamaica to Rochester via the airline. Never officially charged, he reportedly relocated to Los Angeles to avoid future suspicions. Some former girlfriends, neighbors, and law enforcement officials described him as a violent man before the events of Flight 1771. He had seven children from four women, but never married.


title: Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 1771

text: Several federal laws were passed after the crash, including a law that required "immediate seizure of all airline and airport employee credentials" after an employee's termination, resignation or retirement from an airline or airport position. A policy was also implemented stipulating that all airline flight crew and airport employees were to be subject to the same security measures as airline passengers.


title: Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 1771

text: The crash killed the president of Chevron USA, James Sylla, along with three of the company's public-affairs executives. Also killed were three officials of Pacific Bell, prompting many large corporations to create policies to forbid travel by multiple executives on the same flight.


title: Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 1771

text: In the "Garden of Hope" section of the Los Osos Valley Memorial Park, a granite and bronze marker honors the 42 victims of Flight 1771, and a number of the passengers and crew are buried in that cemetery.


title: Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 1771

text: An episode of the Canadian documentary TV series "Mayday" titled "I'm the Problem" ("Murder on Board" for UK broadcasts) chronicled the events of Flight 1771 and its ensuing investigation.


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA axis or HTPA axis) is a complex set of direct influences and feedback interactions among three components: the hypothalamus (a part of the brain located below the thalamus), the pituitary gland (a pea-shaped structure located below the hypothalamus), and the adrenal (also called "suprarenal") glands (small, conical organs on top of the kidneys). These organs and their interactions constitute the HPA axis.


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: The HPA axis is a major neuroendocrine system that controls reactions to stress and regulates many body processes, including digestion, the immune system, mood and emotions, sexuality, and energy storage and expenditure. It is the common mechanism for interactions among glands, hormones, and parts of the midbrain that mediate the general adaptation syndrome (GAS).


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: While steroid hormones are produced mainly in vertebrates, the physiological role of the HPA axis and corticosteroids in stress response is so fundamental that analogous systems can be found in invertebrates and monocellular organisms as well.


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: The HPA axis, hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis (HPG), hypothalamic–pituitary–thyroid axis (HPT), and the hypothalamic–neurohypophyseal system are the four major neuroendocrine systems through which the hypothalamus and pituitary direct neuroendocrine function.


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: CRH and vasopressin are released from neurosecretory nerve terminals at the median eminence. CRH is transported to the anterior pituitary through the portal blood vessel system of the hypophyseal stalk and vasopressin is transported by axonal transport to the posterior pituitary gland. There, CRH and vasopressin act synergistically to stimulate the secretion of stored ACTH from corticotrope cells. ACTH is transported by the blood to the adrenal cortex of the adrenal gland, where it rapidly stimulates biosynthesis of corticosteroids such as cortisol from cholesterol. Cortisol is a major stress hormone and has effects on many tissues in the body, including the brain. In the brain, cortisol acts on two types of receptor – mineralocorticoid receptors and glucocorticoid receptors, and these are expressed by many different types of neurons. One important target of glucocorticoids is the hypothalamus, which is a major controlling centre of the HPA axis.


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: Vasopressin can be thought of as "water conservation hormone" and is also known as "antidiuretic hormone". It is released when the body is dehydrated and has potent water-conserving effects on the kidney. It is also a potent vasoconstrictor.


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: Release of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) from the hypothalamus is influenced by stress, physical activity, illness, by blood levels of cortisol and by the sleep/wake cycle (circadian rhythm). In healthy individuals, cortisol rises rapidly after wakening, reaching a peak within 30–45 minutes. It then gradually falls over the day, rising again in late afternoon. Cortisol levels then fall in late evening, reaching a trough during the middle of the night. This corresponds to the rest-activity cycle of the organism. An abnormally flattened circadian cortisol cycle has been linked with chronic fatigue syndrome, insomnia and burnout.


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: The HPA axis has a central role in regulating many homeostatic systems in the body, including the metabolic system, cardiovascular system, immune system, reproductive system and central nervous system. The HPA axis integrates physical and psychosocial influences in order to allow an organism to adapt effectively to its environment, use resources, and optimize survival.


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: Anatomical connections between brain areas such as the amygdala, hippocampus, prefrontal cortex and hypothalamus facilitate activation of the HPA axis. Sensory information arriving at the lateral aspect of the amygdala is processed and conveyed to the amygdala's central nucleus, which then projects out to several parts of the brain involved in responses to fear. At the hypothalamus, fear-signaling impulses activate both the sympathetic nervous system and the modulating systems of the HPA axis.


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: Increased production of cortisol during stress results in an increased availability of glucose in order to facilitate fighting or fleeing. As well as directly increasing glucose availability, cortisol also suppresses the highly demanding metabolic processes of the immune system, resulting in further availability of glucose.


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: Glucocorticoids have many important functions, including modulation of stress reactions, but in excess they can be damaging. Atrophy of the hippocampus in humans and animals exposed to severe stress is believed to be caused by prolonged exposure to high concentrations of glucocorticoids. Deficiencies of the hippocampus may reduce the memory resources available to help a body formulate appropriate reactions to stress.


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: There is bi-directional communication and feedback between the HPA axis and the immune system. A number of cytokines, such as IL-1, IL-6, IL-10 and TNF-alpha can activate the HPA axis, although IL-1 is the most potent. The HPA axis in turn modulates the immune response, with high levels of cortisol resulting in a suppression of immune and inflammatory reactions. This helps to protect the organism from a lethal overactivation of the immune system, and minimizes tissue damage from inflammation.


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: The CNS is in many ways "immune privileged", but it plays an important role in the immune system and is affected by it in turn. The CNS regulates the immune system through neuroendocrine pathways, such as the HPA axis. The HPA axis is responsible for modulating inflammatory responses that occur throughout the body.


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: During an immune response, proinflammatory cytokines (e.g. IL-1) are released into the peripheral circulation system and can pass through the blood–brain barrier where they can interact with the brain and activate the HPA axis. Interactions between the proinflammatory cytokines and the brain can alter the metabolic activity of neurotransmitters and cause symptoms such as fatigue, depression, and mood changes. Deficiencies in the HPA axis may play a role in allergies and inflammatory/ autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis.


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: When the HPA axis is activated by stressors, such as an immune response, high levels of glucocorticoids are released into the body and suppress immune response by inhibiting the expression of proinflammatory cytokines (e.g. IL-1, TNF alpha, and IFN gamma) and increasing the levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines (e.g. IL-4, IL-10, and IL-13) in immune cells, such as monocytes and neutrophils


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: The relationship between chronic stress and its concomitant activation of the HPA axis, and dysfunction of the immune system is unclear; studies have found both immunosuppression and hyperactivation of the immune response.


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: The HPA axis is involved in the neurobiology of mood disorders and functional illnesses, including anxiety disorder, bipolar disorder, insomnia, posttraumatic stress disorder, borderline personality disorder, ADHD, major depressive disorder, burnout, chronic fatigue syndrome, fibromyalgia, irritable bowel syndrome, and alcoholism. Antidepressants, which are routinely prescribed for many of these illnesses, serve to regulate HPA axis function.


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: Sex differences are prevalent in humans with respect to psychiatric stress-related disorders such as anxiety and depression, where women experience these disorders more often than men. Particularly in rodents, it has been shown that females may lack the ability to tolerate as well as process stress (particularly for chronic stress) due to possible down regulation of glucocorticoid receptor expression as well as a deficiency of FKBP51 binding protein in the cytosol. By constantly activating the HPA axis, this could lead to higher instances of stress and disorders that would only get worse with chronic stress. Specifically in rodents, females show greater activation of the HPA axis following stress than males. These differences also likely arise due to the opposing actions that certain sex steroids have, such as testosterone and oestrogen. Oestrogen functions to enhance stress-activated ACTH and CORT secretion while testosterone functions to decrease HPA axis activation and works to inhibit both ACTH and CORT responses to stress. However, more studies are required to better understand the underlying basis of these sex differences.


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: Experimental studies have investigated many different types of stress, and their effects on the HPA axis in many different circumstances. Stressors can be of many different types—in experimental studies in rats, a distinction is often made between "social stress" and "physical stress", but both types activate the HPA axis, though via different pathways. Several monoamine neurotransmitters are important in regulating the HPA axis, especially dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). There is evidence that an increase in oxytocin, resulting for instance from positive social interactions, acts to suppress the HPA axis and thereby counteracts stress, promoting positive health effects such as wound healing.


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: The HPA axis is a feature of mammals and other vertebrates. For example, biologists studying stress in fish showed that social subordination leads to chronic stress, related to reduced aggressive interactions, to lack of control, and to the constant threat imposed by dominant fish. Serotonin (5HT) appeared to be the active neurotransmitter involved in mediating stress responses, and increases in serotonin are related to increased plasma α-MSH levels, which causes skin darkening (a social signal in salmonoid fish), activation of the HPA axis, and inhibition of aggression. Inclusion of the amino acid -tryptophan, a precursor of 5HT, in the feed of rainbow trout made the trout less aggressive and less responsive to stress. However, the study mentions that plasma cortisol was not affected by dietary -tryptophan. The drug LY354740 (also known as Eglumegad, an agonist of the metabotropic glutamate receptors 2 and 3) has been shown to interfere in the HPA axis, with chronic oral administration of this drug leading to markedly reduced baseline cortisol levels in bonnet macaques ("Macaca radiata"); acute infusion of LY354740 resulted in a marked diminution of yohimbine-induced stress response in those animals.


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: Studies on people show that the HPA axis is activated in different ways during chronic stress depending on the type of stressor, the person's response to the stressor and other factors. Stressors that are uncontrollable, threaten physical integrity, or involve trauma tend to have a high, flat diurnal profile of cortisol release (with lower-than-normal levels of cortisol in the morning and higher-than-normal levels in the evening) resulting in a high overall level of daily cortisol release. On the other hand, controllable stressors tend to produce higher-than-normal morning cortisol. Stress hormone release tends to decline gradually after a stressor occurs. In post-traumatic stress disorder there appears to be lower-than-normal cortisol release, and it is thought that a blunted hormonal response to stress may predispose a person to develop PTSD.


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: It is also known that HPA axis hormones are related to certain skin diseases and skin homeostasis. There is evidence shown that the HPA axis hormones can be linked to certain stress related skin diseases and skin tumors. This happens when HPA axis hormones become hyperactive in the brain.


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: There is evidence that prenatal stress can influence HPA regulation. In animal experiments, exposure to prenatal stress has been shown to cause a hyper-reactive HPA stress response. Rats that have been prenatally stressed have elevated basal levels and abnormal circadian rhythm of corticosterone as adults. Additionally, they require a longer time for their stress hormone levels to return to baseline following exposure to both acute and prolonged stressors. Prenatally stressed animals also show abnormally high blood glucose levels and have fewer glucocorticoid receptors in the hippocampus. In humans, prolonged maternal stress during gestation is associated with mild impairment of intellectual activity and language development in their children, and with behaviour disorders such as attention deficits, schizophrenia, anxiety and depression; self-reported maternal stress is associated with a higher irritability, emotional and attentional problems.


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: There is growing evidence that prenatal stress can affect HPA regulation in humans. Children who were stressed prenatally may show altered cortisol rhythms. For example, several studies have found an association between maternal depression during pregnancy and childhood cortisol levels. Prenatal stress has also been implicated in a tendency toward depression and short attention span in childhood. There is no clear indication that HPA dysregulation caused by prenatal stress can alter adult behavior.


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: The role of early life stress in programming the HPA axis has been well-studied in animal models. Exposure to mild or moderate stressors early in life has been shown to enhance HPA regulation and promote a lifelong resilience to stress. In contrast, early-life exposure to extreme or prolonged stress can induce a hyper-reactive HPA axis and may contribute to lifelong vulnerability to stress. In one widely replicated experiment, rats subjected to the moderate stress of frequent human handling during the first two weeks of life had reduced hormonal and behavioral HPA-mediated stress responses as adults, whereas rats subjected to the extreme stress of prolonged periods of maternal separation showed heightened physiological and behavioral stress responses as adults.


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain these findings in rat models of early-life stress exposure. There may be a critical period during development during which the level of stress hormones in the bloodstream contribute to the permanent calibration of the HPA axis. One experiment has shown that, even in the absence of any environmental stressors, early-life exposure to moderate levels of corticosterone was associated with stress resilience in adult rats, whereas exposure to high doses was associated with stress vulnerability.


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: Another possibility is that the effects of early-life stress on HPA functioning are mediated by maternal care. Frequent human handling of the rat pups may cause their mother to exhibit more nurturant behavior, such as licking and grooming. Nurturant maternal care, in turn, may enhance HPA functioning in at least two ways. First, maternal care is crucial in maintaining the normal stress hypo responsive period (SHRP), which in rodents, is the first two weeks of life during which the HPA axis is generally non-reactive to stress. Maintenance of the SHRP period may be critical for HPA development, and the extreme stress of maternal separation, which disrupts the SHRP, may lead to permanent HPA dysregulation. Another way that maternal care might influence HPA regulation is by causing epigenetic changes in the offspring. For example, increased maternal licking and grooming has been shown to alter expression of the glutocorticoid receptor gene implicated in adaptive stress response. At least one human study has identified maternal neural activity patterns in response to video stimuli of mother-infant separation as being associated with decreased glucocorticoid receptor gene methylation in the context of post-traumatic stress disorder stemming from early life stress. Yet clearly, more research is needed to determine if the results seen in cross-generational animal models can be extended to humans.


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: Though animal models allow for more control of experimental manipulation, the effects of early life stress on HPA axis function in humans has also been studied. One population that is often studied in this type of research is adult survivors of childhood abuse. Adult survivors of childhood abuse have exhibited increased ACTH concentrations in response to a psychosocial stress task compared to unaffected controls and subjects with depression but not childhood abuse. In one study, adult survivors of childhood abuse that are not depressed show increased ACTH response to both exogenous CRF and normal cortisol release. Adult survivors of childhood abuse that are depressed show a blunted ACTH response to exogenous CRH. A blunted ACTH response is common in depression, so the authors of this work posit that this pattern is likely to be due to the participant's depression and not their exposure to early life stress.


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: Heim and colleagues have proposed that early life stress, such as childhood abuse, can induce a sensitization of the HPA axis, resulting in particular heightened neuronal activity in response to stress-induced CRH release. With repeated exposure to stress, the sensitized HPA axis may continue to hypersecrete CRH from the hypothalamus. Over time, CRH receptors in the anterior pituitary will become down-regulated, producing depression and anxiety symptoms. This research in human subjects is consistent with the animal literature discussed above.


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: The HPA axis was present in the earliest vertebrate species, and has remained highly conserved by strong positive selection due to its critical adaptive roles. The programming of the HPA axis is strongly influenced by the perinatal and early juvenile environment, or "early-life environment". Maternal stress and differential degrees of caregiving may constitute early life adversity, which has been shown to profoundly influence, if not permanently alter, the offspring's stress and emotional regulating systems. Widely studied in animal models (e.g. licking and grooming/LG in rat pups), the consistency of maternal care has been shown to have a powerful influence on the offspring's neurobiology, physiology, and behavior.


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: Whereas maternal care improves cardiac response, sleep/wake rhythm, and growth hormone secretion in the neonate, it also suppresses HPA axis activity. In this manner, maternal care negatively regulates stress response in the neonate, thereby shaping his/her susceptibility to stress in later life. These programming effects are not deterministic, as the environment in which the individual develops can either match or mismatch with the former's "programmed" and genetically predisposed HPA axis reactivity. Although the primary mediators of the HPA axis are known, the exact mechanism by which its programming can be modulated during early life remains to be elucidated. Furthermore, evolutionary biologists contest the exact adaptive value of such programming, i.e. whether heightened HPA axis reactivity may confer greater evolutionary fitness.


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: Various hypotheses have been proposed, in attempts to explain why early life adversity can produce outcomes ranging from extreme vulnerability to resilience, in the face of later stress. Glucocorticoids produced by the HPA axis have been proposed to confer either a protective or harmful role, depending on an individual's genetic predispositions, programming effects of early-life environment, and match or mismatch with one's postnatal environment. The predictive adaptation hypothesis (1), the three-hit concept of vulnerability and resilience (2) and the maternal mediation hypothesis (3) attempt to elucidate how early life adversity can differentially predict vulnerability or resilience in the face of significant stress in later life. These hypotheses are not mutually exclusive but rather are highly interrelated and unique to the individual.


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: (1) The predictive adaptation hypothesis: this hypothesis is in direct contrast with the diathesis stress model, which posits that the accumulation of stressors across a lifespan can enhance the development of psychopathology once a threshold is crossed. Predictive adaptation asserts that early life experience induces epigenetic change; these changes predict or "set the stage" for adaptive responses that will be required in his/her environment. Thus, if a developing child (i.e., fetus to neonate) is exposed to ongoing maternal stress and low levels of maternal care (i.e., early life adversity), this will program his/her HPA axis to be more reactive to stress. This programming will have predicted, and potentially be adaptive in a highly stressful, precarious environment during childhood and later life. The predictability of these epigenetic changes is not definitive, however – depending primarily on the degree to which the individual's genetic and epigenetically modulated phenotype "matches" or "mismatches" with his/her environment (See: Hypothesis (2)).


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: (2) Three-Hit Concept of vulnerability and resilience: this hypothesis states that within a specific life context, vulnerability may be enhanced with chronic failure to cope with ongoing adversity. It fundamentally seeks to explicate why, under seemingly indistinguishable circumstances, one individual may cope resiliently with stress, whereas another may not only cope poorly, but consequently develop a stress-related mental illness. The three "hits" – chronological and synergistic – are as follows: genetic predisposition (which predispose higher/lower HPA axis reactivity), early-life environment (perinatal – i.e. maternal stress, and postnatal – i.e. maternal care), and later-life environment (which determines match/mismatch, as well as a window for neuroplastic changes in early programming). (Figure 1)6 The concept of match/mismatch is central to this evolutionary hypothesis. In this context, it elucidates why early life programming in the perinatal and postnatal period may have been evolutionarily selected for. Specifically, by instating specific patterns of HPA axis activation, the individual may be more well equipped to cope with adversity in a high-stress environment. Conversely, if an individual is exposed to significant early life adversity, heightened HPA axis reactivity may "mismatch" him/her in an environment characterized by low stress. The latter scenario may represent maladaptation due to early programming, genetic predisposition, and mismatch. This mismatch may then predict negative developmental outcomes such as psychopathologies in later life.


title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: Ultimately, the conservation of the HPA axis has underscored its critical adaptive roles in vertebrates, so, too, various invertebrate species over time. The HPA axis plays a clear role in the production of corticosteroids, which govern many facets of brain development and responses to ongoing environmental stress. With these findings, animal model research has served to identify what these roles are – with regards to animal development and evolutionary adaptation. In more precarious, primitive times, a heightened HPA axis may have served to protect organisms from predators and extreme environmental conditions, such as weather and natural disasters, by encouraging migration (i.e. fleeing), the mobilization of energy, learning (in the face of novel, dangerous stimuli) as well as increased appetite for biochemical energy storage. In contemporary society, the endurance of the HPA axis and early life programming will have important implications for counseling expecting and new mothers, as well as individuals who may have experienced significant early life adversity.


title: Kotor

text: Kotor (Montenegrin Cyrillic: Котор, ; historically known as Cattaro, from Italian: ) is a coastal town in Montenegro. It is located in a secluded part of the Bay of Kotor. The city has a population of 13,510 and is the administrative center of Kotor Municipality.


title: Kotor

text: The old Mediterranean port of Kotor is surrounded by fortifications built during the Venetian period. It is located on the Bay of Kotor ("Boka Kotorska"), one of the most indented parts of the Adriatic Sea. Some have called it the southernmost fjord in Europe, but it is a ria, a submerged river canyon. Together with the nearly overhanging limestone cliffs of Orjen and Lovćen, Kotor and its surrounding area form an impressive landscape.


title: Kotor

text: Since the early 2000s Kotor has seen an increase in tourists, many of them coming by cruise ship. Visitors are attracted by the natural environment of the Gulf of Kotor and by the old town of Kotor. Kotor is part of the World Heritage Site dubbed the Natural and Culturo-Historical Region of Kotor.


title: Kotor

text: The fortified city of Kotor was also included in UNESCO's World Heritage Site list as part of in 2017.


title: Kotor

text: Once populated by the Illyrians, the exact time of foundation of the first settlement is not known. According to some sources, the oldest settled area dates two millennia back.


title: Kotor

text: The town, first mentioned in 168 BC, was settled during Ancient Roman times, when it was known as Acruvium, Ascrivium, or Ascruvium () and was part of the Roman province of Dalmatia.


title: Kotor

text: The town has been fortified since the early Middle Ages, when Emperor Justinian built a fortress above Ascrivium in 535, after expelling the Ostrogoths. Ascrivium was plundered by the Saracens in 840. It was further fortified towards the peak of Saint Ivan by Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos in the 10th century.


title: Kotor

text: It was one of the more influential Dalmatian city-states, initially with a Romance-speaking population, as throughout the early Middle Ages, and until the 11th century the Dalmatian language was still spoken in Kotor. The city was part of Byzantine Dalmatia in that period, and the modern name of Kotor probably originated in the Byzantine name for the town: "Dekatera" or "Dekaderon".


title: Kotor

text: In 1002, the city suffered damage under the occupation of the First Bulgarian Empire, and in the following year it was ceded to Duklja by the Bulgarian Tsar Samuil. Duklja, or Dioclea, was a vassal duchy of Byzantium at the time. The local population resisted the pact and, taking advantage of its alliance with Dubrovnik, maintained its high autonomy. During this time, the small romanised Illyrian population of Kotor was slowly assimilated by a significant Slav population coming from neighboring areas. Duklja, the biggest Serb duchy at the time, gradually became more powerful under Vojislavljević dynasty and eventually independent from Byzantium in 1042. The city remained autonomous up until Duklja was once again subdued by Byzantium in 1143.


title: Kotor

text: The city was conquered in 1185 by Stefan Nemanja, the ruler of the Grand Principality of Serbia and founder of the Nemanjić dynasty. At that time Kotor was already an episcopal see subordinated to the archbishopric of Bari, and in 13th century, Dominican and Franciscan monasteries were established to check the spread of Bogomilism. Under the rule of the Nemanjić Kotor became a partially autonomous city, enjoying many privileges and maintaining its republican institutions. This is backed by a statute from 1301, which demonstrates that Kotor had the status of a city under Serbian rule. In the 14th century the commerce of "Cattaro", as named in Latin scripts (in Serbian "Котор, град краљев/Kotor, city of the King"), rivaled that of Republic of Ragusa, and caused the Republic of Venice to be envious. Kotor remained the most important trading port of subsequent Serb states – Kingdom of Serbia and Serbian Empire, up to its downfall in 1371.


title: Kotor

text: After the fracturing of the Serbian Empire, the city was taken by the Kingdom of Hungary, only to change hands repeatedly between them and the Republic of Venice in the period between 1371 and 1384. After that, Kotor was held by the Kingdom of Bosnia under Tvrtko I Kotromanić between 1384 and 1391. The king of Bosnia, who claimed the Serbian throne, minted his coins in Kotor.


title: Kotor

text: After the death of Tvrtko in 1391, Kotor became fully independent, until the administration, wary of the looming Ottoman danger, asked the Republic of Venice for protection. The city acknowledged the suzerainty of the Republic of Venice in 1420.


title: Kotor

text: Four centuries of Venetian domination have given the city the typical Venetian architecture, that contributes to make Kotor a UNESCO world heritage site.


title: Kotor

text: In the 14th and 15th centuries, there was an influx of settlers from the oblasts of Trebinje (the region around forts Klobuk Ledenica and Rudina) and the "Hum lands" (Gacko and Dabar) to Kotor. The Italian name of the city is "Cattaro". Under Venetian rule, Kotor was besieged by the Ottoman Empire in 1538 and 1657, endured the plague in 1572, and was nearly destroyed by earthquakes in 1563 and 1667.


title: Kotor

text: After the Treaty of Campo Formio in 1797, it passed to the Habsburg monarchy. However, in 1805, it was assigned to the French Empire's client state, the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy, by the Treaty of Pressburg, although in fact held by a Russian squadron under Dmitry Senyavin. After the Russians retreated, Kotor was united in 1806 with this Kingdom of Italy and then in 1810 with the French Empire's Illyrian Provinces. Kotor was captured by the British in an attack on the Bay led by Commodore John Harper in the brig sloop (18 guns). To seal off Kotor, residents along the shore literally pulled the ship in windless conditions with ropes. The Saracen's crew later hauled naval 18-pounder guns above Fort St. John, the fortress near Kotor, and were reinforced by Captain William Hoste with his ship (38 guns). The French garrison had no alternative but to surrender, which it did on 5 January 1814.


title: Kotor

text: It was restored to the Habsburg monarchy by the Congress of Vienna. Until 1918, the town, then known as "Cattaro", was head of the district of the same name, one of the 13 "Bezirkshauptmannschaften" in the Kingdom of Dalmatia.


title: Kotor

text: During World War I, "Cattaro" was one of three main bases of the Austro-Hungarian Navy, the home port of the Austrian Fifth Fleet, consisting of pre-dreadnought battleships and light cruisers, and a base for Austrian and German submarines.


title: Kotor

text: The area was the site of some of the fiercest battles between local Montenegrins and Austria-Hungary. After 1918, the city became a part of Yugoslavia and officially became known as "Kotor".


title: Kotor

text: Between 1941 and 1943 the Kingdom of Italy annexed the area of Kotor which became one of three provinces of the Italian Governorate of Dalmatia – the Province of Cattaro had an area (subdivided in 15 "Comuni") of 547 km and a population of 39,800 inhabitants. Most of the city's inhabitants were Orthodox (with some Roman Catholics). After the war the remaining members of Dalmatian Italians of Kotor (300 inhabitants) left Yugoslavia towards Italy (Istrian-Dalmatian exodus).


title: Kotor

text: Kotor has one of the best preserved medieval old towns in the Adriatic and is a double Unesco World Heritage Site: it is part of Natural and Culturo-Historical Region of Kotor and .


title: Kotor

text: It is home to numerous sights, such as the Cathedral of Saint Tryphon in the old town (built in 1166), and the ancient walls which stretch for directly above the city. Sveti Đorđe and Gospa od Škrpijela islets off the coast of Perast are also among the tourism destinations in the vicinity of Kotor.


title: Kotor

text: Kotor hosts several summer events, such as the "Summer Carnival" or "Bokeljska Noć". Together with Budva, and the small town of Tuzi, near Podgorica, the city hosted the Federation of European Carnival Cities (FECC) World Carnival City Congress in May 2009.


title: Kotor

text: Kotor Festival of Theatre for Children is one of the most important festivals of its kind in Southeast Europe. Thirty years of this manifestation have marked performances by artists from over 30 countries, from 5 different continents. It was founded in 1993, not far from the place where the first play for children in the Balkans was performed in 1829. The 2017/18 festival was awarded the EFFE Label by the EFA (European Festivals Association). Kotor Festival is highly regarded in the local community and has a large volunteer base.


title: Kotor

text: Kotor has a large population of cats that have become a symbol of the city. The city has several cat stores and a cat museum, as well as the Cats' Square ("Trg od mačaka"). Water and food is left throughout the city for the cats to feed on, and cardboard boxes are often arranged to be a place for the cats to sleep in. Tourists may notice cats in poor health, which may be due to malnutrition, lack of shelter, fighting, or illness (often a common viral respiratory condition for which medicine is unavailable). The charity Kotor Kitties exists to try and help the cats of Kotor through spaying and neutering.


title: Kotor

text: Kotor is the administrative centre of Kotor municipality, which includes the towns of Risan and Perast, as well as many small hamlets around the Bay of Kotor, and has a population of 22,601.


title: Kotor

text: The town of Kotor itself has 961 inhabitants, but the administrative limits of the town encompass only the area of the Old Town. The urban area of Kotor also includes Dobrota (8,819) and Škaljari (3,807), bringing the population of Kotor's urban area close to 13,000 inhabitants. The total number rises to around 15,000 if the neighbouring hamlets of Muo, Prčanj and Stoliv are included. The entire population of Kotor Municipality was 22,947, as of the 2003 census.


title: Kotor

text: Until the 19th century the main language of Kotor was Italian. During the 19th century, the use of Italian began to decline in favour of Serbian. In 1890, the 18.7% of the population was Italian. The majority of the Italian minority left the city for Italy after the Treaty of Rapallo (1920). The remaining Italians were assimilated or left Kotor after 1945. Today, only 31 people in Kotor identify as ethnic Italians.


title: Kotor

text: According to documents from 1900, Kotor had 7,617 Catholics, and 7,207 Orthodox Christians. Kotor is still the seat of the Catholic Bishopric of Kotor, which covers the entire gulf. In 2011, 78% citizens of Kotor were Orthodox Christians, while 12% were listed as Roman Catholic.


title: Kotor

text: The local football team is FK Bokelj, who have spent several seasons in the country's top and second tiers. They play their home games at the Stadion pod Vrmcem.


title: Kotor

text: Kotor is a national powerhouse of water polo, which is a popular sport in Montenegro. The team of Primorac Kotor won the LEN Champions League in 2009. Another club from Kotor, VA Cattaro, won the 2010 edition of the LEN Euro Cup.


title: Kotor

text: Kotor is connected to the Adriatic Highway and the rest of the coast and inland Montenegro by Vrmac Tunnel. Inland is reachable by detouring from Adriatic highway at Budva or Sutomore (through Sozina tunnel). There is also a historic road connecting Kotor with Cetinje, which has views of Kotor bay.


title: Kotor

text: Tivat Airport is away, and there are regular flights to Belgrade, Moscow, Paris and London. Dozens of charter planes land daily on Tivat airport during the summer season.


title: Kotor

text: Podgorica Airport is away, and it has regular flights to major European destinations throughout the year.


title: Michelle Knotek

text: Michelle Knotek is an American convicted murderer from Raymond, Washington. She was convicted in 2004 of second-degree murder and manslaughter for her role in the torture and deaths of Kathy Loreno and Ronald Woodworth, who were both boarders in Knotek's home. Her husband, David Knotek, was also convicted of the murder of her 17-year-old nephew Shane Watson, who lived with the Knoteks. Michelle is also suspected of possible involvement in the death of James McClintock, an 81-year-old whose assets she inherited after he died of head trauma incurred while Knotek was employed as his caregiver on February 9, 2002. The Knoteks' crimes made national headlines due to allegations of abuse and torture.


title: Michelle Knotek

text: Michelle Knotek was sentenced to 22 years in prison. She served approximately 18 years at the Washington Corrections Center for Women in Gig Harbor and was released on November 8, 2022. Her husband David Knotek was sentenced to 15 years in prison. He served approximately 13 years at the Monroe Correctional Complex before being paroled in 2016.


title: Michelle Knotek

text: Kathy Loreno was a hairdresser working in South Bend, Washington, when she met Michelle Knotek, and the two became friends. In 1991 after an argument between Loreno and her family, Loreno moved out of their home and into the home of Michelle and David Knotek. During her stay at the Knoteks' home, it was alleged that Loreno suffered physical abuse. In 1994, Loreno was reported missing by family members. When interviewed by authorities, the Knoteks stated that Loreno had run away with a truck driver and moved to California.


title: Michelle Knotek

text: Michelle Knotek maintained that she and Loreno were in regular contact. However, a private investigator hired by Loreno's brother concluded that she had probably been murdered by Michelle Knotek. David Knotek claimed that Loreno died by asphyxiating on her own vomit, but he did not take her to a hospital or report her death to police because of the physical injuries to Loreno's body.


title: Michelle Knotek

text: Shane Watson, born in 1975 in Tacoma, was Michelle Knotek's nephew. Watson moved in with the Knoteks around 1988. Shortly after Loreno's disappearance in 1994, Watson seemingly vanished too. The Knoteks initially claimed that Watson had run away to Alaska to work on a fishing vessel. David Knotek later claimed that he had shot Watson with a .22 caliber rifle.


title: Michelle Knotek

text: Investigators alleged that David Knotek killed Watson because Michelle was enraged that Watson took pictures documenting the abuse of Loreno. David Knotek also stated that he burned the bodies of Shane Watson and Kathy Loreno and scattered their ashes at the beach.


title: Michelle Knotek

text: Ronald Woodworth was a local man who went to live with the Knoteks around 2001. Like Kathy Loreno, Woodworth was also subject to severe physical abuse. Witnesses described seeing Woodworth being forced to do chores outside wearing only his underwear, and to jump from the second story roof onto gravel, wearing nothing on his feet, causing broken bones and severe lacerations. They also claimed that Michelle Knotek would burn Woodworth's injured feet with boiling water and pure bleach.


title: Michelle Knotek

text: Woodworth went missing in 2003. David Knotek later admitted to burying Woodworth's body on their property after Michelle told him that Woodworth had committed suicide. An autopsy performed by the King County medical examiner determined that Woodworth's death was murder.


title: Michelle Knotek

text: The Pacific County Deputy Prosecutor stated that Michelle Knotek showed "extreme indifference to human life". Michelle was charged with two counts of first-degree murder in the deaths of Kathy Loreno and Ronald Woodworth. David Knotek was charged with first-degree murder in the death of Shane Watson. He was also charged with rendering criminal assistance and unlawful disposal of human remains.


title: Michelle Knotek

text: Through plea negotiations, both Knoteks pleaded guilty to lesser charges in 2004. Michelle Knotek entered an Alford plea, in which she did not admit responsibility but acknowledged the prosecutor's case against her. She pleaded guilty to one count of second-degree murder and one count of manslaughter. While an initial agreement with prosecutors would have sent her to prison for 17 years, Judge Mark McCauley sentenced her to 22 years in prison. Michelle Knotek appealed her convictions, but was denied by the Washington Court of Appeals. She served approximately 18 years at the Washington Corrections Center for Women in Gig Harbor and was released on November 8, 2022.


title: Michelle Knotek

text: David Knotek was sentenced to 15 years in prison for the second-degree murder of Shane Watson. He served approximately 13 years at the Monroe Correctional Complex before being paroled in 2016.


title: Michelle Knotek

text: The Knotek cases have been featured on several television programs, including "Wicked Attraction", "Sins and Secrets" and "Snapped".


title: Michelle Knotek

text: A book by true crime author Gregg Olsen, "If You Tell: A True Story of Murder, Family Secrets, and the Unbreakable Bond of Sisterhood", was published in 2019.


title: Volkswagen T-Roc

text: The Volkswagen T-Roc is a subcompact crossover SUV (B-segment) manufactured by German automaker Volkswagen since 2017. It is based on the Volkswagen Group MQB A1 platform, and positioned between the Tiguan and the slightly smaller T-Cross.


title: Volkswagen T-Roc

text: The T-Roc was previewed as a concept car with the same name at the 2014 Geneva Motor Show. It features an all-wheel drive drivetrain.


title: Volkswagen T-Roc

text: The production version of the T-Roc for the European market was launched in Italy on 23 August 2017 as Volkswagen's fourth SUV in the European market. It is the second Volkswagen SUV to sit in the compact crossover SUV class and also the first Volkswagen SUV to sit in the B-SUV segment. The T-Roc is based on the MQB A1 platform and is closely related with the Volkswagen Golf Mk7, SEAT León Mk3, Audi A3 Mk3, and the Škoda Octavia Mk3. It is equipped with a MacPherson strut front suspension and, depending on the engine and drive system, either a torsion beam or multi-link rear suspension in combination with optional adaptive dampers.


title: Volkswagen T-Roc

text: European market units are assembled at Volkswagen Autoeuropa plant in Palmela, Setúbal, Portugal. Chinese market cars are assembled by FAW-Volkswagen joint-venture plant in Foshan, Guangdong.


title: Volkswagen T-Roc

text: The T-Roc was showcased in India at the 2020 Auto Expo, and was launched in the country as an import in March 2020.


title: Volkswagen T-Roc

text: Previewed earlier as the Volkswagen T-Rocstar concept, the T-Roc was unveiled to the Chinese market on 23 March 2018 and went on sale on 30 July 2018. The Chinese version of the T-Roc is larger than the European one, having the wheelbase longer by 90 mm, length by 84 mm, and its height taller by 9 mm. It is equipped with two 1.4-litre TSI engine options with either or , and an entry-level 1.2-litre TSI engine producing . The powertrains are mated with the 5-speed manual transmission, the "DQ200" 7-speed dry dual clutch transmission for two wheel-drive versions and the "DQ381" 7-speed wet dual clutch transmission for all-wheel-drive versions.


title: Volkswagen T-Roc

text: A high performance version of the T-Roc was launched as the T-Roc R in February 2019. It shared the same 2.0-litre turbocharged petrol engine with the Golf R, making and . It is offered with "4Motion" all-wheel-drive carried over from the Golf R as standard. With a new suspension setup, it is also lower than the standard car. It also comes with extra kit, including Akrapovič quad-exhausts and interior upgrades.


title: Volkswagen T-Roc

text: The T-Roc Cabriolet was launched in Germany in April 2020 as VW's first convertible model in two years. Despite being based on the standard SUV model, the model does not share many body panels with the standard T-Roc, since every sheet metal behind the front wheel arches is new, and it features a longer wheelbase. It loses two rear side doors and the B-pillar in order to make the folding fabric hood possible. To deal with the loss of rigidity caused by the absent roof and B-pillar, the chassis has been strengthened with new crossbeams, and the A-pillar has been reinforced.


title: Volkswagen T-Roc

text: The roof mechanism is hidden behind the bodywork next to the rear seats, which meant the rear seat can only accommodate two passengers. Instead of a wide-opening tailgate, the boot is accessed by a smaller gap. The boot is smaller with only 284 litres available, a reduction of 161 litres over the standard version. The fabric roof can be opened or closed at speeds of up to , taking only nine seconds to retract at the press of a button and 11 seconds to raise it. The mechanism for the roof is shared with the discontinued Golf Cabriolet, and the soft top canvas is only available in black.


title: Volkswagen T-Roc

text: VW narrowed down the engine range of the wider T-Roc crossover line-up to just two petrol engine options for the cabriolet, 1.0-litre three-cylinder unit, developing and a 1.5-litre four-cylinder unit producing . It is only offered in just two trim levels, which are Design and R-Line. This variant is assembled in Volkswagen plant in Osnabrück, Germany as the plant is a specialist in terms of designing and manufacturing convertible models.


title: Volkswagen T-Roc

text: It was reported that Volkswagen brand CEO Herbert Diess was dismissive and derisive of the idea of a convertible SUV, believing any vehicle in the segment will not be successful just months before announcing the T-Roc Cabriolet.


title: Volkswagen T-Roc

text: In Europe, there are a variety of turbocharged petrol and diesel engines offered. For petrol engines, there are 1.0-litre TSI turbo, 1.5-litre TSI Evo with cylinder deactivation, the 2.0-litre TSI petrol and the range-topping 2.0-litre TSI for the T-Roc R. All petrol engines come with a 6-speed manual except the 2.0-litre TSI, which has a 7-speed DSG transmission, while it is available as an option with the 1.5-litre TSI Evo engine. "4Motion" four-wheel drive is also standard with the 2.0-litre TSI. Diesel engines available are the 1.6 TDI with a 6-speed manual or 2.0-litre TDI with a 7-speed DSG transmission.


title: I Love You, Beth Cooper (film)

text: I Love You, Beth Cooper is a 2009 American teen romantic comedy film directed by Chris Columbus and starring Hayden Panettiere and Paul Rust. It is based on the novel by Larry Doyle, with Doyle also writing the film's screenplay.


title: I Love You, Beth Cooper (film)

text: On graduation day at Buffalo Glenn High School, valedictorian Denis Cooverman confesses his love for head cheerleader and long time crush, beautiful Beth Cooper in his speech while also taunting vain rich girl Valli, ignorant bully Greg, and Beth's Army soldier boyfriend Kevin; and urging his best friend Rich to finally admit he's gay. Afterwards, Denis invites Beth and her friends, Cammy and Treece, to a party he has planned at his house.


title: I Love You, Beth Cooper (film)

text: At Denis's house, his parents leave but not before his father revealing that he has condoms upstairs if he needs them. They arrive at Denis's house for the party. Kevin and his Hummer soon come barging in, with his Army buddies Dustin and Sean, vowing revenge on Denis. They wreck the kitchen attempting to beat Denis up, but the five teenagers escape in Beth's Echo.


title: I Love You, Beth Cooper (film)

text: They drive to a gas station hoping to get beer, but the clerk will not accept Beth's drivers license, which states that she is 37. Beth successfully bribes the clerk with a kiss, which makes Denis realize that she is not who he thinks she is.


title: I Love You, Beth Cooper (film)

text: The group starts a bonfire in an isolated section of town where Rich, Cammy, and Treece are chased by a stampede of cows after trying to tip one over. When Denis puts on the KISS song "Beth", Beth tells him that she was named after the song. Denis thinks it's cool that Beth has two "headbangers" for parents. Beth slowly warms to Denis, becoming aware that he genuinely loves her, much to her amazement.


title: I Love You, Beth Cooper (film)

text: They all jump in the Echo and Beth, a crazy reckless driver, drives without lights. They stumble upon Denis' parents, having sex in their car, by almost crashing into them. Rather than facing Denis' father with his pants down, Beth drives them away unseen, going to a private party at Valli's house. Kevin and his friends track them there, and Kevin challenges Denis to a fight. Greg briefly overpowers the three, in defence of Denis, then Beth crashes Kevin's Hummer through the front of Valli's house and rescues her four friends.


title: I Love You, Beth Cooper (film)

text: Beth takes them to their vacant school, entering with her head cheerleader key. After showcasing their cheerleading routine, Beth decide they should all shower in the girls' locker room. Just as Denis is undressing to join the others, Kevin and his buddies arrive in the Echo and jump Denis again. Rich attacks the thugs in a towel whipping 'duel', as he has been training for years after being towel whipped as a young kid. Rich towel-whips them unconscious down a flight of stairs, then the kids flee in the Echo, going to Treece's family cabin. Rich, Treece, and Cammy have a threesome, while Beth and Denis enjoy the sun rise and finally share their first kiss.


title: I Love You, Beth Cooper (film)

text: They return to Denis' house, where his father is delighted to see he has 'hooked up', but makes him aware he still needs to be punished for leaving the house a wreck. Beth says goodbye, gives Denis a kiss, and touchingly thanks him for loving her. Denis tells her "what's not to love" and that she mustn't forget that. They promise to reunite at their high school reunion and agree to marry if they are both still single.


title: I Love You, Beth Cooper (film)

text: After the girls leave, Rich proclaims to Denis that he might be gay after all, or perhaps bisexual, but jokes that after the threesome, he's still more heterosexual than Denis. Denis informs Rich that he will not wait until the reunion to talk to Beth again, and that he is going to ask her out on Facebook. Richard tells Denis that he should make a grand gesture by going to her house with a boom box (a reference to "Say Anything...") and wait for her. They continue debating how Denis should go about asking Beth on a date.