title: Martha Nussbaum

text: Nussbaum is a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1988) and the American Philosophical Society (1996). She is an Academician in the Academy of Finland (2000) and a Corresponding Fellow of the British Academy (2008). She has 64 honorary degrees from colleges and universities in North America, Latin America, Europe, Africa and Asia, including:


title: Eurypterid

text: Eurypterids, often informally called sea scorpions, are a group of extinct arthropods that form the order Eurypterida. The earliest known eurypterids date to the Darriwilian stage of the Ordovician period 467.3 million years ago. The group is likely to have appeared first either during the Early Ordovician or Late Cambrian period. With approximately 250 species, the Eurypterida is the most diverse Paleozoic chelicerate order. Following their appearance during the Ordovician, eurypterids became major components of marine faunas during the Silurian, from which the majority of eurypterid species have been described. The Silurian genus "Eurypterus" accounts for more than 90% of all known eurypterid specimens. Though the group continued to diversify during the subsequent Devonian period, the eurypterids were heavily affected by the Late Devonian extinction event. They declined in numbers and diversity until becoming extinct during the Permian–Triassic extinction event (or sometime shortly before) 251.9million years ago.


title: Eurypterid

text: Although popularly called "sea scorpions", only the earliest eurypterids were marine; many later forms lived in brackish or fresh water, and they were not true scorpions. Some studies suggest that a dual respiratory system was present, which would have allowed for short periods of time in terrestrial environments. The name "Eurypterida" comes from the Ancient Greek words ('), meaning 'broad' or 'wide', and ('), meaning 'wing', referring to the pair of wide swimming appendages present in many members of the group.


title: Eurypterid

text: The eurypterids include the largest known arthropods ever to have lived. The largest, "Jaekelopterus", reached in length. Eurypterids were not uniformly large and most species were less than long; the smallest eurypterid, "Alkenopterus", was only long. Eurypterid fossils have been recovered from every continent. A majority of fossils are from fossil sites in North America and Europe because the group lived primarily in the waters around and within the ancient supercontinent of Euramerica. Only a handful of eurypterid groups spread beyond the confines of Euramerica and a few genera, such as "Adelophthalmus" and "Pterygotus", achieved a cosmopolitan distribution with fossils being found worldwide.


title: Eurypterid

text: Like all other arthropods, eurypterids possessed segmented bodies and jointed appendages (limbs) covered in a cuticle composed of proteins and chitin. As in other chelicerates, the body was divided into two tagmata (sections); the frontal prosoma (head) and posterior opisthosoma (abdomen). The prosoma was covered by a carapace (sometimes called the "prosomal shield") on which both compound eyes and the ocelli (simple eye-like sensory organs) were located.


title: Eurypterid

text: The prosoma also bore six pairs of appendages which are usually referred to as appendage pairs I to VI. The first pair of appendages, the only pair placed before the mouth, is called the chelicerae (homologous to the fangs of spiders). They were equipped with small pincers used to manipulate food fragments and push them into the mouth. In one lineage, the Pterygotidae, the chelicerae were large and long, with strong, well-developed teeth on specialised chelae (claws). The subsequent pairs of appendages, numbers II to VI, possessed gnathobases (or "tooth-plates") on the coxae (limb segments) used for feeding. These appendages were generally walking legs that were cylindrical in shape and were covered in spines in some species. In most lineages, the limbs tended to get larger the farther back they were. In the Eurypterina suborder, the larger of the two eurypterid suborders, the sixth pair of appendages was also modified into a swimming paddle to aid in traversing aquatic environments.


title: Eurypterid

text: The opisthosoma comprised 12 segments and the telson, the posteriormost division of the body, which in most species took the form of a blade-like shape. In some lineages, notably the Pterygotioidea, the Hibbertopteridae and the Mycteroptidae, the telson was flattened and may have been used as a rudder while swimming. Some genera within the superfamily Carcinosomatoidea, notably "Eusarcana", had a telson similar to that of modern scorpions and may have been capable of using it to inject venom. The coxae of the sixth pair of appendages were overlaid by a plate that is referred to as the metastoma, originally derived from a complete exoskeleton segment. The opisthosoma itself can be divided either into a "mesosoma" (comprising segments 1 to 6) and "metasoma" (comprising segments 7 to 12) or into a "preabdomen" (generally comprising segments 1 to 7) and "postabdomen" (generally comprising segments 8 to 12).


title: Eurypterid

text: The underside of the opisthosoma was covered in structures evolved from modified opisthosomal appendages. Throughout the opisthosoma, these structures formed plate-like structures termed ( in German). These created a branchial chamber (gill tract) between preceding and the ventral surface of the opisthosoma itself, which contained the respiratory organs. The second to sixth opisthosomal segments also contained oval or triangular organs that have been interpreted as organs that aid in respiration. These organs, termed or "gill tracts", would potentially have aided eurypterids to breathe air above water, while , similar to organs in modern horseshoe crabs, would cover the parts that serve for underwater respiration.


title: Eurypterid

text: The appendages of opisthosomal segments 1 and 2 (the seventh and eighth segments overall) were fused into a structure termed the genital operculum, occupying most of the underside of the opisthosomal segment 2. Near the anterior margin of this structure, the genital appendage (also called the or the median abdominal appendage) protruded. This appendage, often preserved very prominently, has consistently been interpreted as part of the reproductive system and occurs in two recognized types, assumed to correspond to male and female.


title: Eurypterid

text: Eurypterids were highly variable in size, depending on factors such as lifestyle, living environment and taxonomic affinity. Sizes around are common in most eurypterid groups. The smallest eurypterid, "Alkenopterus burglahrensis", measured just in length.


title: Eurypterid

text: The largest eurypterid, and the largest known arthropod ever to have lived, is "Jaekelopterus rhenaniae". A chelicera from the Emsian Klerf Formation of Willwerath, Germany measured in length, but is missing a quarter of its length, suggesting that the full chelicera would have been long. If the proportions between body length and chelicerae match those of its closest relatives, where the ratio between claw size and body length is relatively consistent, the specimen of "Jaekelopterus" that possessed the chelicera in question would have measured between , an average , in length. With the chelicerae extended, another meter (3.28 ft) would be added to this length. This estimate exceeds the maximum body size of all other known giant arthropods by almost half a meter (1.64 ft) even if the extended chelicerae are not included. Two other eurypterids have also been estimated to have reached lengths of 2.5 metres; "Erettopterus grandis" (closely related to "Jaekelopterus") and "Hibbertopterus wittebergensis", but "E. grandis" is very fragmentary and the "H. wittenbergensis" size estimate is based on trackway evidence, not fossil remains.


title: Eurypterid

text: The family of "Jaekelopterus", the Pterygotidae, is noted for several unusually large species. Both "Acutiramus", whose largest member "A. bohemicus" measured , and "Pterygotus," whose largest species "P. grandidentatus" measured , were gigantic. Several different contributing factors to the large size of the pterygotids have been suggested, including courtship behaviour, predation and competition over environmental resources.


title: Eurypterid

text: Giant eurypterids were not limited to the family Pterygotidae. An isolated long fossil metastoma of the carcinosomatoid eurypterid "Carcinosoma punctatum" indicates the animal would have reached a length of in life, rivalling the pterygotids in size. Another giant was "Pentecopterus decorahensis", a primitive carcinosomatoid, which is estimated to have reached lengths of .


title: Eurypterid

text: Typical of large eurypterids is a lightweight build. Factors such as locomotion, energy costs in molting and respiration, as well as the actual physical properties of the exoskeleton, limits the size that arthropods can reach. A lightweight construction significantly decreases the influence of these factors. Pterygotids were particularly lightweight, with most fossilized large body segments preserving as thin and unmineralized. Lightweight adaptations are present in other giant paleozoic arthropods as well, such as the giant millipede "Arthropleura", and are possibly vital for the evolution of giant size in arthropods.


title: Eurypterid

text: In addition to the lightweight giant eurypterids, some deep-bodied forms in the family Hibbertopteridae were also very large. A carapace from the Carboniferous of Scotland referred to the species "Hibbertoperus scouleri" measures wide. As "Hibbertopterus" was very wide compared to its length, the animal in question could possibly have measured just short of in length. More robust than the pterygotids, this giant "Hibbertopterus" would possibly have rivalled the largest pterygotids in weight, if not surpassed them, and as such be among the heaviest arthropods.


title: Eurypterid

text: The two eurypterid suborders, Eurypterina and Stylonurina, are distinguished primarily by the morphology of their final pair of appendages. In the Stylonurina, this appendage takes the form of a long and slender walking leg, while in the Eurypterina, the leg is modified and broadened into a swimming paddle. Other than the swimming paddle, the legs of many eurypterines were far too small to do much more than allow them to crawl across the sea floor. In contrast, a number of stylonurines had elongated and powerful legs that might have allowed them to walk on land (similar to modern crabs).


title: Eurypterid

text: A fossil trackway was discovered in Carboniferous-aged fossil deposits of Scotland in 2005. It was attributed to the stylonurine eurypterid "Hibbertopterus" due to a matching size (the trackmaker was estimated to have been about long) and inferred leg anatomy. It is the largest terrestrial trackway—measuring long and averaging in width—made by an arthropod found thus far. It is the first record of land locomotion by a eurypterid. The trackway provides evidence that some eurypterids could survive in terrestrial environments, at least for short periods of time, and reveals information about the stylonurine gait. In "Hibbertopterus", as in most eurypterids, the pairs of appendages are different in size (referred to as a heteropodous limb condition). These differently sized pairs would have moved in phase, and the short stride length indicates that "Hibbertopterus" crawled with an exceptionally slow speed, at least on land. The large telson was dragged along the ground and left a large central groove behind the animal. Slopes in the tracks at random intervals suggest that the motion was jerky. The gait of smaller stylonurines, such as "Parastylonurus", was probably faster and more precise.


title: Eurypterid

text: The functionality of the eurypterine swimming paddles varied from group to group. In the Eurypteroidea, the paddles were similar in shape to oars. The condition of the joints in their appendages ensured their paddles could only be moved in near-horizontal planes, not upwards or downwards. Some other groups, such as the Pterygotioidea, would not have possessed this condition and were probably able to swim faster. Most eurypterines are generally agreed to have utilized a rowing type of propulsion similar to that of crabs and water beetles. Larger individuals may have been capable of underwater flying (or subaqueous flight) in which the motion and shape of the paddles are enough to generate lift, similar to the swimming of sea turtles and sea lions. This type of movement has a relatively slower acceleration rate than the rowing type, especially since adults have proportionally smaller paddles than juveniles. However, since the larger sizes of adults mean a higher drag coefficient, using this type of propulsion is more energy-efficient.


title: Eurypterid

text: Some eurypterines, such as "Mixopterus" (as inferred from attributed fossil trackways), were not necessarily good swimmers. It likely kept mostly to the bottom, using its swimming paddles for occasional bursts of movements vertically, with the fourth and fifth pairs of appendages positioned backwards to produce minor movement forwards. While walking, it probably used a gait like that of most modern insects. The weight of its long abdomen would have been balanced by two heavy and specialized frontal appendages, and the center of gravity might have been adjustable by raising and positioning the tail.


title: Eurypterid

text: Preserved fossilized eurypterid trackways tend to be large and heteropodous and often have an associated telson drag mark along the mid-line (as with the Scottish "Hibbertopterus" track). Such trackways have been discovered on every continent except for South America. In some places where eurypterid fossil remains are otherwise rare, such as in South Africa and the rest of the former supercontinent Gondwana, the discoveries of trackways both predate and outnumber eurypterid body fossils. Eurypterid trackways have been referred to several ichnogenera, most notably "Palmichnium" (defined as a series of four tracks often with an associated drag mark in the mid-line), wherein the holotype of the ichnospecies "P. kosinkiorum" preserves the largest eurypterid footprints known to date with the found tracks each being about in diameter. Other eurypterid ichnogenera include "Merostomichnites" (though it is likely that many specimens actually represent trackways of crustaceans) and "Arcuites" (which preserves grooves made by the swimming appendages).


title: Eurypterid

text: In eurypterids, the respiratory organs were located on the ventral body wall (the underside of the opisthosoma). , evolved from opisthosomal appendages, covered the underside and created a gill chamber where the "gill tracts" were located. Depending on the species, the eurypterid gill tract was either triangular or oval in shape and was possibly raised into a cushion-like state. The surface of this gill tract bore several spinules (small spines), which resulted in an enlarged surface area. It was composed of spongy tissue due to many invaginations in the structure.


title: Eurypterid

text: Though the is referred to as a "gill tract", it may not necessarily have functioned as actual gills. In other animals, gills are used for oxygen uptake from water and are outgrowths of the body wall. Despite eurypterids clearly being primarily aquatic animals that almost certainly evolved underwater (some eurypterids, such as the pterygotids, would even have been physically unable to walk on land), it is unlikely the "gill tract" contained functional gills when comparing the organ to gills in other invertebrates and even fish. Previous interpretations often identified the eurypterid "gills" as homologous with those of other groups (hence the terminology), with gas exchange occurring within the spongy tract and a pattern of branchio-cardiac and dendritic veins (as in related groups) carrying oxygenated blood into the body. The primary analogy used in previous studies has been horseshoe crabs, though their gill structure and that of eurypterids are remarkably different. In horseshoe crabs, the gills are more complex and composed of many lamellae (plates) which give a larger surface area used for gas exchange. In addition, the gill tract of eurypterids is proportionally much too small to support them if it is analogous to the gills of other groups. To be functional gills, they would have to have been highly efficient and would have required a highly efficient circulatory system. It is considered unlikely, however, that these factors would be enough to explain the large discrepancy between gill tract size and body size.


title: Eurypterid

text: It has been suggested instead that the "gill tract" was an organ for breathing air, perhaps actually being a lung, plastron or a pseudotrachea. Plastrons are organs that some arthropods evolved secondarily to breathe air underwater. This is considered an unlikely explanation since eurypterids had evolved in water from the start and they would not have organs evolved from air-breathing organs present. In addition, plastrons are generally exposed on outer parts of the body while the eurypterid gill tract is located behind the . Instead, among arthropod respiratory organs, the eurypterid gill tracts most closely resemble the pseudotracheae found in modern isopods. These organs, called pseudotracheae, because of some resemblance to the tracheae (windpipes) of air-breathing organisms, are lung-like and present within the pleopods (back legs) of isopods. The structure of the pseudotracheae has been compared to the spongy structure of the eurypterid gill tracts. It is possible the two organs functioned in the same way.


title: Eurypterid

text: Some researchers have suggested that eurypterids may have been adapted to an amphibious lifestyle, using the full gill tract structure as gills and the invaginations within it as pseudotrachea. This mode of life may not have been physiologically possible, however, since water pressure would have forced water into the invaginations leading to asphyxiation. Furthermore, most eurypterids would have been aquatic their entire lives. No matter how much time was spent on land, organs for respiration in underwater environments must have been present. True gills, expected to have been located within the branchial chamber within the , remain unknown in eurypterids.


title: Eurypterid

text: Like all arthropods, eurypterids matured and grew through static developmental stages referred to as instars. These instars were punctuated by periods during which eurypterids went through ecdysis (molting of the cuticle) after which they underwent rapid and immediate growth. Some arthropods, such as insects and many crustaceans, undergo extreme changes over the course of maturing. Chelicerates, including eurypterids, are in general considered to be direct developers, undergoing no extreme changes after hatching (though extra body segments and extra limbs may be gained over the course of ontogeny in some lineages, such as xiphosurans and sea spiders). Whether eurypterids were true direct developers (with hatchlings more or less being identical to adults) or hemianamorphic direct developers (with extra segments and limbs potentially being added during ontogeny) has been controversial in the past.


title: Eurypterid

text: Hemianamorphic direct development has been observed in many arthropod groups, such as trilobites, megacheirans, basal crustaceans and basal myriapods. True direct development has on occasion been referred to as a trait unique to arachnids. There have been few studies on eurypterid ontogeny as there is a general lack of specimens in the fossil record that can confidently be stated to represent juveniles. It is possible that many eurypterid species thought to be distinct actually represent juvenile specimens of other species, with paleontologists rarely considering the influence of ontogeny when describing new species.


title: Eurypterid

text: Studies on a well-preserved fossil assemblage of eurypterids from the Pragian-aged Beartooth Butte Formation in Cottonwood Canyon, Wyoming, composed of multiple specimens of various developmental stages of eurypterids "Jaekelopterus" and "Strobilopterus", revealed that eurypterid ontogeny was more or less parallel and similar to that of extinct and extant xiphosurans, with the largest exception being that eurypterids hatched with a full set of appendages and opisthosomal segments. Eurypterids were thus not hemianamorphic direct developers, but true direct developers like modern arachnids.


title: Eurypterid

text: The most frequently observed change occurring through ontogeny (except for some genera, such as "Eurypterus", which appear to have been static) is the metastoma becoming proportionally less wide. This ontogenetic change has been observed in members of several superfamilies, such as the Eurypteroidea, the Pterygotioidea and the Moselopteroidea.


title: Eurypterid

text: No fossil gut contents from eurypterids are known, so direct evidence of their diet is lacking. The eurypterid biology is particularly suggestive of a carnivorous lifestyle. Not only were many large (in general, most predators tend to be larger than their prey), but they had stereoscopic vision (the ability to perceive depth). The legs of many eurypterids were covered in thin spines, used both for locomotion and the gathering of food. In some groups, these spiny appendages became heavily specialized. In some eurypterids in the Carcinosomatoidea, forward-facing appendages were large and possessed enormously elongated spines (as in "Mixopterus" and "Megalograptus"). In derived members of the Pterygotioidea, the appendages were completely without spines, but had specialized claws instead. Other eurypterids, lacking these specialized appendages, likely fed in a manner similar to modern horseshoe crabs, by grabbing and shredding food with their appendages before pushing it into their mouth using their chelicerae.


title: Eurypterid

text: Fossils preserving digestive tracts have been reported from fossils of various eurypterids, among them "Carcinosoma", "Acutiramus" and "Eurypterus". Though a potential anal opening has been reported from the telson of a specimen of "Buffalopterus", it is more likely that the anus was opened through the thin cuticle between the last segment before the telson and the telson itself, as in modern horseshoe crabs.


title: Eurypterid

text: Eurypterid coprolites discovered in deposits of Ordovician age in Ohio containing fragments of a trilobite and eurypterid "Megalograptus ohioensis" in association with full specimens of the same eurypterid species have been suggested to represent evidence of cannibalism. Similar coprolites referred to the species "Lanarkopterus dolichoschelus" from the Ordovician of Ohio contain fragments of jawless fish and fragments of smaller specimens of "Lanarkopterus" itself.


title: Eurypterid

text: Though apex predatory roles would have been limited to the very largest eurypterids, smaller eurypterids were likely formidable predators in their own right just like their larger relatives.


title: Eurypterid

text: As in many other entirely extinct groups, understanding and researching the reproduction and sexual dimorphism of eurypterids is difficult, as they are only known from fossilized shells and carapaces. In some cases, there might not be enough apparent differences to separate the sexes based on morphology alone. Sometimes two sexes of the same species have been interpreted as two different species, as was the case with two species of "Drepanopterus" ("D. bembycoides" and "D. lobatus").


title: Eurypterid

text: The eurypterid prosoma is made up of the first six exoskeleton segments fused together into a larger structure. The seventh segment (thus the first opisthosomal segment) is referred to as the "metastoma" and the eighth segment (distinctly plate-like) is called the "operculum" and contains the genital aperature. The underside of this segment is occupied by the genital operculum, a structure originally evolved from ancestral seventh and eighth pair of appendages. In its center, as in modern horseshoe crabs, is a genital appendage. This appendage, an elongated rod with an internal duct, is found in two distinct morphs, generally referred to as "type A" and "type B". These genital appendages are often preserved prominently in fossils and have been the subject of various interpretations of eurypterid reproduction and sexual dimorphism.


title: Eurypterid

text: Type A appendages are generally longer than those of type B. In some genera they are divided into different numbers of sections, such as in "Eurypterus" where the type A appendage is divided into three but the type B appendage into only two. Such division of the genital appendage is common in eurypterids, but the number is not universal; for instance, the appendages of both types in the family Pterygotidae are undivided. The type A appendage is also armed with two curved spines called (lit. 'fork' in Latin). The presence of in the type B appendage is also possible and the structure may represent the unfused tips of the appendages. Located between the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the associated with the type A appendages is a set of organs traditionally described as either "tubular organs" or "horn organs". These organs are most often interpreted as spermathecae (organs for storing sperm), though this function is yet to be proven conclusively. In arthropods, spermathecae are used to store the spermatophore received from males. This would imply that the type A appendage is the female morph and the type B appendage is the male. Further evidence for the type A appendages representing the female morph of genital appendages comes in their more complex construction (a general trend for female arthropod genitalia). It is possible that the greater length of the type A appendage means that it was used as an ovipositor (used to deposit eggs). The different types of genital appendages are not necessarily the only feature that distinguishes between the sexes of eurypterids. Depending on the genus and species in question, other features such as size, the amount of ornamentation and the proportional width of the body can be the result of sexual dimorphism. In general, eurypterids with type B appendages (males) appear to have been proportionally wider than eurypterids with type A appendages (females) of the same genera.


title: Eurypterid

text: The primary function of the long, assumed female, type A appendages was likely to take up spermatophore from the substrate into the reproductive tract rather than to serve as an ovipositor, as arthropod ovipositors are generally longer than eurypterid type A appendages. By rotating the sides of the operculum, it would have been possible to lower the appendage from the body. Due to the way different plates overlay at its location, the appendage would have been impossible to move without muscular contractions moving around the operculum. It would have been kept in place when not it use. The on the type A appendages may have aided in breaking open the spermatophore to release the free sperm inside for uptake. The "horn organs," possibly spermathecae, are thought to have been connected directly to the appendage via tracts, but these supposed tracts remain unpreserved in available fossil material.


title: Eurypterid

text: Type B appendages, assumed male, would have produced, stored and perhaps shaped spermatophore in a heart-shaped structure on the dorsal surface of the appendage. A broad genital opening would have allowed large amounts of spermatophore to be released at once. The long associated with type B appendages, perhaps capable of being lowered like the type A appendage, could have been used to detect whether a substrate was suitable for spermatophore deposition.


title: Eurypterid

text: Until 1882 no eurypterids were known from before the Silurian. Contemporary discoveries since the 1880s have expanded the knowledge of early eurypterids from the Ordovician period. The earliest eurypterids known today, the megalograptid "Pentecopterus", date from the Darriwilian stage of the Middle Ordovician, 467.3 million years ago. There are also reports of even earlier fossil eurypterids in deposits of Late Tremadocian (Early Ordovician) age in Morocco, but these have yet to be thoroughly studied.


title: Eurypterid

text: "Pentecopterus" was a relatively derived eurypterid, part of the megalograptid family within the carcinosomatoid superfamily. Its derived position suggests that most eurypterid clades, at least within the eurypterine suborder, had already been established at this point during the Middle Ordovician. The earliest known stylonurine eurypterid, "Brachyopterus", is also Middle Ordovician in age. The presence of members of both suborders indicates that primitive stem-eurypterids would have preceded them, though these are so far unknown in the fossil record. The presence of several eurypterid clades during the Middle Ordovician suggests that eurypterids either originated during the Early Ordovician and experienced a rapid and explosive radiation and diversification soon after the first forms evolved, or that the group originated much earlier, perhaps during the Cambrian period.


title: Eurypterid

text: As such, the exact eurypterid time of origin remains unknown. Though fossils referred to as "primitive eurypterids" have occasionally been described from deposits of Cambrian or even Precambrian age, they are not recognized as eurypterids, and sometimes not even as related forms, today. Some animals previously seen as primitive eurypterids, such as the genus "Strabops" from the Cambrian of Missouri, are now classified as aglaspidids or strabopids. The aglaspidids, once seen as primitive chelicerates, are now seen as a group more closely related to trilobites.


title: Eurypterid

text: The fossil record of Ordovician eurypterids is quite poor. The majority of eurypterids once reportedly known from the Ordovician have since proven to be misidentifications or pseudofossils. Today only 11 species can be confidently identified as representing Ordovician eurypterids. These taxa fall into two distinct ecological categories; large and active predators from the ancient continent of Laurentia, and demersal (living on the seafloor) and basal animals from the continents Avalonia and Gondwana. The Laurentian predators, classified in the family Megalograptidae (comprising the genera "Echinognathus", "Megalograptus" and "Pentecopterus"), are likely to represent the first truly successful eurypterid group, experiencing a small radiation during the Late Ordovician.


title: Eurypterid

text: Eurypterids were most diverse and abundant between the Middle Silurian and the Early Devonian, with an absolute peak in diversity during the Pridoli epoch, 423 to 419.2 million years ago, of the very latest Silurian. This peak in diversity has been recognized since the early twentieth century; of the approximately 150 species of eurypterids known in 1916, more than half were from the Silurian and a third were from the Late Silurian alone.


title: Eurypterid

text: Though stylonurine eurypterids generally remained rare and low in number, as had been the case during the preceding Ordovician, eurypterine eurypterids experienced a rapid rise in diversity and number. In most Silurian fossil beds, eurypterine eurypterids account for 90% of all eurypterids present. Though some were likely already present by the Late Ordovician (simply missing from the fossil record so far), a vast majority of eurypterid groups are first recorded in strata of Silurian age. These include both stylonurine groups such as the Stylonuroidea, Kokomopteroidea and Mycteropoidea as well as eurypterine groups such as the Pterygotioidea, Eurypteroidea and Waeringopteroidea.


title: Eurypterid

text: The most successful eurypterid by far was the Middle to Late Silurian "Eurypterus", a generalist, equally likely to have engaged in predation or scavenging. Thought to have hunted mainly small and soft-bodied invertebrates, such as worms, species of the genus (of which the most common is the type species, "E. remipes") account for more than 90% (perhaps as many as 95%) of all known fossil eurypterid specimens. Despite their vast number, "Eurypterus" are only known from a relatively short temporal range, first appearing during the Late Llandovery epoch (around 432 million years ago) and being extinct by the end of the Pridoli epoch. "Eurypterus" was also restricted to the continent Euramerica (composed of the equatorial continents Avalonia, Baltica and Laurentia), which had been completely colonized by the genus during its merging and was unable to cross the vast expanses of ocean separating this continent from other parts of the world, such as the southern supercontinent Gondwana. As such, "Eurypterus" was limited geographically to the coastlines and shallow inland seas of Euramerica.


title: Eurypterid

text: During the Late Silurian the pterygotid eurypterids, large and specialized forms with several new adaptations, such as large and flattened telsons capable of being used as rudders, and large and specialized chelicerae with enlarged pincers for handling (and potentially in some cases killing) prey appeared. Though the largest members of the family appeared in the Devonian, large two meter (6.5+ ft) pterygotids such as "Acutiramus" were already present during the Late Silurian. Their ecology ranged from generalized predatory behavior to ambush predation and some, such as "Pterygotus" itself, were active apex predators in Late Silurian marine ecosystems. The pterygotids were also evidently capable of crossing oceans, becoming one of only two eurypterid groups to achieve a cosmopolitan distribution.


title: Eurypterid

text: Though the eurypterids continued to be abundant and diversify during the Early Devonian (for instance leading to the evolution of the pterygotid "Jaekelopterus", the largest of all arthropods), the group was one of many heavily affected by the Late Devonian extinction. The extinction event, only known to affect marine life (particularly trilobites, brachiopods and reef-building organisms) effectively crippled the abundance and diversity previously seen within the eurypterids.


title: Eurypterid

text: A major decline in diversity had already begun during the Early Devonian and eurypterids were rare in marine environments by the Late Devonian. During the Frasnian stage four families went extinct, and the later Famennian saw an additional five families going extinct. As marine groups were the most affected, the eurypterids were primarily impacted within the eurypterine suborder. Only one group of stylonurines (the family Parastylonuridae) went extinct in the Early Devonian. Only two families of eurypterines survived into the Late Devonian at all (Adelophthalmidae and Waeringopteridae). The eurypterines experienced their most major declines in the Early Devonian, during which over 50% of their diversity was lost in just 10 million years. Stylonurines, on the other hand, persisted through the period with more or less consistent diversity and abundance but were affected during the Late Devonian, when many of the older groups were replaced by new forms in the families Mycteroptidae and Hibbertopteridae.


title: Eurypterid

text: It is possible that the catastrophic extinction patterns seen in the eurypterine suborder were related to the emergence of more derived fish. Eurypterine decline began at the point when jawless fish first became more developed and coincides with the emergence of placoderms (armored fish) in both North America and Europe.


title: Eurypterid

text: Stylonurines of the surviving hibbertopterid and mycteroptid families completely avoided competition with fish by evolving towards a new and distinct ecological niche. These families experienced a radiation and diversification through the Late Devonian and Early Carboniferous, the last ever radiation within the eurypterids, which gave rise to several new forms capable of "sweep-feeding" (raking through the substrate in search of prey).


title: Eurypterid

text: Only three eurypterid families—Adelophthalmidae, Hibbertopteridae and Mycteroptidae—survived the extinction event in its entirety. These were all freshwater animals, rendering the eurypterids extinct in marine environments. With marine eurypterid predators gone, sarcopterygian fish, such as the rhizodonts, were the new apex predators in marine environments. The sole surviving eurypterine family, Adelophthalmidae, was represented by only a single genus, "Adelophthalmus". The hibbertopterids, mycteroptids and "Adelophthalmus" survived into the Permian.


title: Eurypterid

text: "Adelophthalmus" became the most common of all late Paleozoic eurypterids, existing in greater number and diversity than surviving stylonurines, and diversified in the absence of other eurypterines. Out of the 33 species referred to "Adelophthalmus", 23 (69%) are from the Carboniferous alone. The genus reached its peak diversity in the Late Carboniferous. Though "Adelophthalmus" had already been relatively widespread and represented around all major landmasses in the Late Devonian, the amalgamation of Pangaea into a global supercontinent over the course of the last two periods of the Paleozoic allowed "Adelophthalmus" to gain an almost worldwide distribution.


title: Eurypterid

text: During the Late Carboniferous and Early Permian "Adelophthalmus" was widespread, living primarily in brackish and freshwater environments adjacent to coastal plains. These environments were maintained by favorable climate conditions. They did not persist as climate changes owing to Pangaea's formation altered depositional and vegetational patterns across the world. With their habitat gone, "Adelophthalmus" dwindled in number and had already gone extinct by the Leonardian stage of the Early Permian.


title: Eurypterid

text: Mycteroptids and hibbertopterids continued to survive for some time, with one genus of each group known from Permian strata: "Hastimima" and "Campylocephalus" respectively. "Hastimima" went extinct during the Early Permian, as "Adelophthalmus" had, while "Campylocephalus" persisted longer. A massive incomplete carapace from Permian deposits in Russia represents the sole fossil remains of the species "C. permianus", which might have reached in length, while originally considered to be Late Permian in age other sources suggest a Kungurian-Roadian age for the specimen. A fragment of eurypterid cuticle, given the species name "Woodwardopterus freemanorum" is known from the terminal Permian of Australia, which represents the youngest known eurypterid. No eurypterids are known from fossil beds higher than the Permian. This indicates that the last eurypterids died either in the catastrophic extinction event at its end or at some point shortly before it. This extinction event, the Permian–Triassic extinction event, is the most devastating mass extinction recorded, and rendered many other successful Paleozoic groups, such as the trilobites, extinct.


title: Eurypterid

text: The first known eurypterid specimen was discovered in the Silurian-aged rocks of New York, to this day one of the richest eurypterid fossil locations. Samuel L. Mitchill described the specimen, discovered near Westmoreland in Oneida county in 1818. He erroneously identified the fossil as an example of the fish "Silurus", likely due to the strange, catfish-like appearance of the carapace. Seven years later, in 1825, James E. DeKay examined the fossil and recognized it as clearly belonging to an arthropod. He thought the fossil, which he named "Eurypterus remipes", represented a crustacean of the order Branchiopoda, and suggested it might represent a missing link between the trilobites and more derived branchiopods. The name "Eurypterus" derives from Greek ( 'broad, wide') and ( 'wing').


title: Eurypterid

text: In 1843, Hermann Burmeister published his view on trilobite taxonomy and how the group related to other organisms, living and extinct, in the work "Die Organisation der Trilobiten aus ihren lebenden Verwandten entwickelt". He considered the trilobites to be crustaceans, as previous authors had, and classified them together with what he assumed to be their closest relatives, "Eurypterus" and the genus "Cytherina", within a clade he named "Palaeadae". Within Palaeadae, Burmeister erected three families; the "Trilobitae" (composed of all trilobites), the "Cytherinidae" (composed only of "Cytherina", an animal today seen as an ostracod) and the Eurypteridae (composed of "Eurypterus", then including three species).


title: Eurypterid

text: The fourth eurypterid genus to be described (following "Hibbertopterus" in 1836 and "Campylocephalus" in 1838, not identified as eurypterids until later), out of those still seen as taxonomically valid in modern times, was "Pterygotus" (), described by Louis Agassiz in 1839. "Pterygotus" was considerably larger in size than "Eurypterus" and when the first fossils were discovered by quarrymen in Scotland they were referred to as "Seraphims" by the workers. Agassiz first thought the fossils represented remains of fish, only recognizing their nature as arthropod remains five years later in 1844.


title: Eurypterid

text: In 1849, Frederick M'Coy classified "Pterygotus" together with "Eurypterus" and "Belinurus" (a genus today seen as a xiphosuran) within Burmeister's Eurypteridae. M'Coy considered the Eurypteridae to be a group of crustaceans within the order Entomostraca, closely related to horseshoe crabs. A fourth genus, "Slimonia", based on fossil remains previously assigned to a new species of "Pterygotus", was referred to the Eurypteridae in 1856 by David Page.


title: Eurypterid

text: Jan Nieszkowski's "De Euryptero Remipede" (1858) featured an extensive description of "Eurypterus fischeri" (now seen as synonymous with another species of "Eurypterus", "E. tetragonophthalmus"), which, along with the monograph "On the Genus Pterygotus" by Thomas Henry Huxley and John William Salter, and an exhaustive description of the various eurypterids of New York in Volume 3 of the "Palaeontology of New York" (1859) by James Hall, contributed massively to the understanding of eurypterid diversity and biology. These publications were the first to fully describe the whole anatomy of eurypterids, recognizing the full number of prosomal appendages and the number of preabdominal and postabdominal segments. Both Nieszkowski and Hall recognized that the eurypterids were closely related to modern chelicerates, such as horseshoe crabs.


title: Eurypterid

text: In 1865, Henry Woodward described the genus "Stylonurus" (named and figured, but not thoroughly described, by David Page in 1856) and raised the rank of the Eurypteridae to that of order, effectively creating the Eurypterida as the taxonomic unit it is seen as today. In the work "Anatomy and Relations of the Eurypterida" (1893), Malcolm Laurie added considerably to the knowledge and discussion of eurypterid anatomy and relations. He focused on how the eurypterids related to each other and to trilobites, crustaceans, scorpions, other arachnids and horseshoe crabs. The description of "Eurypterus fischeri" by Gerhard Holm in 1896 was so elaborate that the species became one of the most completely known of all extinct animals, so much so that the knowledge of "E. fischeri" was comparable with the knowledge of its modern relatives (such as the Atlantic horseshoe crab). The description also helped solidify the close relationship between the eurypterids and other chelicerates by showcasing numerous homologies between the two groups.


title: Eurypterid

text: In 1912, John Mason Clarke and Rudolf Ruedemann published "The Eurypterida of New York" in which all eurypterid species thus far recovered from fossil deposits there were discussed. Clarke and Ruedemann created one of the first phylogenetic trees of eurypterids, dividing the order into two families; Eurypteridae (distinguished by smooth eyes and including "Eurypterus", "Anthraconectes", "Stylonurus", "Eusarcus", "Dolichopterus", "Onychopterus" and "Drepanopterus") and Pterygotidae (distinguished by faceted eyes and including "Pterygotus", "Erettopterus", "Slimonia" and "Hughmilleria"). Both families were considered to be descended from a common ancestor, "Strabops". In line with earlier authors, Clarke and Ruedemann also supported a close relationship between the eurypterids and the horseshoe crabs (united under the class Merostomata) but also discussed alternative hypotheses such as a closer relation to arachnids.


title: Eurypterid

text: Historically, a close relationship between eurypterids and xiphosurans (such as the modern Atlantic horseshoe crab) has been assumed by most researchers. Several homologies encourage this view, such as correlating segments of the appendages and the prosoma. Additionally, the presence of plate-like appendages bearing the "gill tracts" on appendages of the opisthosoma (the ) was cited early as an important homology. In the last few decades of the nineteenth century, further homologies were established, such as the similar structures of the compound eyes of "Pterygotus" and horseshoe crabs (seen as especially decisive as the eye of the horseshoe crab was seen as possessing an almost unique structure) and similarities in the ontogeny within both groups. These ontogenetical similarities were seen as most apparent when studying the nepionic stages (the developmental stage immediately following the embryonic stage) in both groups, during which both xiphosurans and eurypterids have a proportionally larger carapace than adults, are generally broader, possess a distinct ridge down the middle, have a lesser number of segments which lack differentiation and have an underdeveloped telson.


title: Eurypterid

text: Due to these similarities, the xiphosurans and eurypterids have often been united under a single class or subclass called Merostomata (erected to house both groups by Henry Woodward in 1866). Though xiphosurans (like the eurypterids) were historically seen as crustaceans due to their respiratory system and their aquatic lifestyle, this hypothesis was discredited after numerous similarities were discovered between the horseshoe crabs and the arachnids. Some authors, such as John Sterling Kingsley in 1894, classified the Merostomata as a sister group to the Arachnida under the class "Acerata" within a subphylum "Branchiata". Others, such as Ray Lankester in 1909, went further and classified the Merostomata as a subclass within the Arachnida, raised to the rank of class.


title: Eurypterid

text: In 1866, Ernst Haeckel classified the Merostomata (containing virtually only the Eurypterida) and Xiphosura within a group he named Gigantostraca within the crustaceans. Though Haeckel did not designate any taxonomic rank for this clade, it was interpreted as equivalent to the rank of subclass, such as the Malacostraca and Entomostraca, by later researchers such as John Sterling Kinsgsley. In subsequent research, Gigantostraca has been treated as synonymous with Merostomata (rarely) and Eurypterida itself (more commonly).


title: Eurypterid

text: A phylogenetic analysis (the results presented in a cladogram below) conducted by James Lamsdell in 2013 on the relationships within the Xiphosura and the relations to other closely related groups (including the eurypterids, which were represented in the analysis by genera "Eurypterus", "Parastylonurus", "Rhenopterus" and "Stoermeropterus") concluded that the Xiphosura, as presently understood, was paraphyletic (a group sharing a last common ancestor but not including all descendants of this ancestor) and thus not a valid phylogenetic group. Eurypterids were recovered as closely related to arachnids instead of xiphosurans, forming the group Sclerophorata within the clade Dekatriata (composed of sclerophorates and chasmataspidids). Lamsdell noted that it is possible that Dekatriata is synonymous with Sclerophorata as the reproductive system, the primary defining feature of sclerophorates, has not been thoroughly studied in chasmataspidids. Dekatriata is, in turn, part of the Prosomapoda, a group including the Xiphosurida (the only monophyletic xiphosuran group) and other stem-genera.


title: Eurypterid

text: The internal classification of eurypterids within the Eurypterida is based mainly on eleven established characters. These have been used throughout the history of eurypterid research to establish clades and genera. These characters include: the shape of the prosoma, the shape of the metastoma, the shape and position of the eyes, the types of prosomal appendages, the types of swimming leg paddles, the structure of the doublure (the fringe of the dorsal exoskeleton), the structure of the opithosoma, the structure of the genital appendages, the shape of the telson and the type of ornamentation present. It is worth noting that not all of these characters are of equal taxonomic importance. They are not applicable to all eurypterids either; stylonurine eurypterids lack swimming leg paddles entirely. Some characters, including the prosoma and metastoma shapes and the position and shapes of the eyes, are seen as important only for the distinction between different genera. Most superfamilies and families are defined based on the morphology of the appendages.


title: Eurypterid

text: The most important character used in eurypterid taxonomy is the type of prosomal appendages as this character is used to define entire suborders. General leg anatomy can also be used to define superfamilies and families. Historically, the chelicerae were considered the most important appendages from a taxonomical standpoint since they only occurred in two general types: a eurypterid type with small and toothless pincers and a pterygotid type with large pincers and teeth. This distinction has historically been used to divide the Eurypterida into the two suborders Eurypterina (small chelicerae) and "Pterygotina" (large and powerful chelicerae). This classification scheme is not without problems. In Victor Tollerton's 1989 taxonomic revision of the Eurypterida, with suborders Eurypterina and Pterygotina recognized, several clades of eurypterids today recognized as stylonurines (including hibbertopterids and mycteroptids) were reclassified as non-eurypterids in the new separate order "Cyrtoctenida" on the grounds of perceived inconsistencies in the prosomal appendages.


title: Eurypterid

text: Modern research favors a classification into suborders Eurypterina and Stylonurina instead, supported by phylogenetic analyses. In particular, pterygotid eurypterids share a number of homologies with derived eurypterine eurypterids such as the adelophthalmids, and are thus best classified as derived members of the same suborder. In the Stylonurina, the sixth pair of appendages is represented by long and slender walking legs and lack a modified spine (referred to as the podomere 7a). In most eurypterids in the Eurypterina, the sixth pair of appendages is broadened into swimming paddles and always has a podomere 7a. 75% of eurypterid species are eurypterines and they represent 99% of all fossil eurypterid specimens. Of all eurypterid clades, the Pterygotioidea is the most species-rich, with over 50 species. The second most species-rich clade is the Adelophthalmoidea, with over 40 species.


title: Eurypterid

text: The cladogram presented below, covering all currently recognized eurypterid families, follows a 2007 study by O. Erik Tetlie. The stylonurine suborder follows a 2010 study by James Lamsdell, Simon J. Braddy and Tetlie. The superfamily "Megalograptoidea", recognized by Tetlie in 2007 and then placed between the Onychopterelloidea and Eurypteroidea, has been omitted as more recent studies suggest that the megalograptids were members of the superfamily Carcinosomatoidea. As such, the phylogeny of the Carcinosomatoidea follows a 2015 study by Lamsdell and colleagues.


title: Orders of magnitude (numbers)

text: This list contains selected positive numbers in increasing order, including counts of things, dimensionless quantities and probabilities. Each number is given a name in the short scale, which is used in English-speaking countries, as well as a name in the long scale, which is used in some of the countries that do not have English as their national language.


title: Pachamama

text: Pachamama is a goddess revered by the indigenous peoples of the Andes. In Inca mythology she is an "Earth Mother" type goddess, and a fertility goddess who presides over planting and harvesting, embodies the mountains, and causes earthquakes. She is also an ever-present and independent deity who has her own creative power to sustain life on this earth. Her shrines are hallowed rocks, or the boles of legendary trees, and her artists envision her as an adult female bearing harvests of potatoes or coca leaves. The four cosmological Quechua principles – Water, Earth, Sun, and Moon – claim Pachamama as their prime origin. Priests sacrifice offerings of llamas, "cuy" (guinea pigs), children (The Capacocha Ritual) and elaborate, miniature, burned garments to her. Pachamama is the mother of Inti the sun god, and Mama Killa the moon goddess. Mama Killa is said to be the wife of Inti.


title: Pachamama

text: After the Spanish colonization of the Americas, they converted the native populations of the region to Roman Catholicism. Due to religious syncretism, the figure of the Virgin Mary was associated with that of the Pachamama for many of the indigenous people.


title: Pachamama

text: As Andean cultures formed modern nations, the figure of Pachamama was still believed to be benevolent, generous with her gifts, and a local name for Mother Nature. In the 21st century, many indigenous peoples in South America base environmental concerns in these ancient beliefs, saying that problems arise when people take too much from nature because they are taking too much from Pachamama.


title: Pachamama

text: "Pachamama" is usually translated as Mother Earth. A more literal translation would be "World Mother" (in the Aymara and Quechua languages).


title: Pachamama

text: The Inca goddess can be referred to in multiple ways; the primary way being Pachamama. Other names for her are: Mama Pacha, La Pachamama, and Mother Earth.


title: Pachamama

text: Pachamama and her son-husband, Inti, are worshiped as benevolent deities in the area known as Tawantinsuyu. Tawantinsuyu is the name of the former Inca Empire, and the region stretches through the Andean mountains in present-day Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile, Peru, and northern Argentina. People usually give a toast to honor Pachamama before meetings and festivities. In some regions, people perform a special kind of libation known as a "challa" on a daily basis. They spill a small amount of "chicha" on the floor, for the goddess, and then drink the rest.


title: Pachamama

text: Pachamama has a special worship day called "Martes de challa" (Challa's Tuesday). People bury food, throw candies, and burn incense to thank Pachamama for their harvests. In some cases, celebrants assist traditional priests, known as "yatiris" in Aymara, in performing ancient rites to bring good luck or the good will of the goddess, such as sacrificing guinea pigs or burning llama fetuses (although this is rare today). The festival coincides with the Christian holiday of Shrove Tuesday, also celebrated among Catholics as "Carnevale" or "Mardi Gras".


title: Pachamama

text: The central ritual to Pachamama is the "Challa" or "Pago" (payment). It is carried out during all of August, and in many places also on the first Friday of each month. Other ceremonies are carried out in special times, as upon leaving for a trip or upon passing an "". According to Mario Rabey and Rodolfo Merlino, Argentine anthropologists who studied the Andean culture from the 1970s to the 1990s,


title: Pachamama

text: "The most important ritual is the challaco. Challaco is a deformation of the Quechua words 'ch'allay' and 'ch'allakuy', that refer to the action to insistently sprinkle. In the current language of the campesinos of the southern Central Andes, the word "challar" is used in the sense of "to feed and to give drink to the land". The challaco covers a complex series of ritual steps that begin in the family dwellings the night before. They cook a special food, the "tijtincha". The ceremony culminates at a pond or stream, where the people offer a series of tributes to Pachamama, including "food, beverage, leaves of coca and cigars."


title: Pachamama

text: Rituals to honor Pachamama take place all year, but are especially abundant in August, right before the sowing season. Because August is the coldest month of the winter in the southern Andes, people feel more vulnerable to illness. August is therefore regarded as a "tricky month." During this time of mischief, Andeans believe that they must be on very good terms with nature to keep themselves and their crops and livestock healthy and protected. In order to do this, families perform cleansing rituals by burning plants, wood, and other items in order to scare evil spirits, who are thought to be more abundant at this time. People also drink mate (a South American hot beverage), which is thought to give good luck.


title: Pachamama

text: On the night before August 1, families prepare to honor Pachamama by cooking all night. The host of the gathering then makes a hole in the ground. If the soil comes out nicely, this means that it will be a good year; if not, the year will not be bountiful. Before any of the guests are allowed to eat, the host must first give a plate of food to Pachamama. Food that was left aside is poured onto the ground and a prayer to Pachamama is recited.


title: Pachamama

text: A main attraction of the Pachamama festival is the Sunday parade. The organizational committee of the festival searches for the oldest woman in the community and elects her the "Pachamama Queen of the Year." This election first occurred in 1949. Indigenous women, in particular senior women, are seen as incarnations of tradition and as living symbols of wisdom, life, fertility, and reproduction. The Pachamama queen who is elected is escorted by the "gauchos", who circle the plaza on their horses and salute her during the Sunday parade. The Sunday parade is considered to be the climax of the festival.


title: Pachamama

text: Since the late 20th century, a New Age practice of worship to Pachamama has developed among Andean white and mestizo peoples. Believers perform a weekly ritual worship which takes place on Sundays and includes invocations to Pachamama in Quechua, although there may be some references in Spanish. They have a temple, which inside contains a large stone with a medallion on it, symbolizing the New Age group and its beliefs. A bowl of dirt on the right of the stone is there to represent Pachamama, because of her status as a Mother Earth.


title: Pachamama

text: Certain travel agencies have drawn upon the emerging New Age movement in Andean communities (drawn from Quechua ritual practices) to urge tourists to visit Inca sites. Tourists visiting such sites as Machu Picchu and Cusco, are also offered the chance to participate in ritual offerings to Pachamama.


title: Pachamama

text: Many rituals related to the Pachamama are practiced in conjunction with those of Christianity, to the point that many families are simultaneously Christian and pachamamistas.


title: Pachamama

text: According to scholar Manuel Marzal, in modern day Peru, the cult of Pachamama has, in some cases, taken on Christian characteristics or been reinterpreted within a Catholic religious framework. Rites like the offering to Pachamama have incorporated “certain Christian symbols and prayers” and have also been “the object of Christian reinterpretations,” both implicit and explicit. One of these reinterpretations is that Pachamama represents the natural bounty created by God. For some Andeans, he writes, “Pachamama has lost its original identity and has changed into a symbol of the providence of the one God, or [...] a sacred reality that feeds humankind on behalf of God.”


title: Pachamama

text: Along similar lines, Pope John Paul II, in two homilies delivered in Peru and Bolivia, identified homage to Pachamama as an ancestral recognition of divine providence that in some sense prefigured a Christian attitude toward creation. On February 3, 1985, he stated that “your ancestors, by paying tribute to the earth (Mama Pacha), were doing nothing other than recognizing the goodness of God and his beneficent presence, which provided them food by means of the land they cultivated.” On May 11, 1988, he stated that God “knows what we need from the food that the earth produces, this varied and expressive reality that your ancestors called “Pachamama” and that reflects the work of divine providence as it offers us its gifts for the good of man.”


title: Pachamama

text: Marzal also states that for some Andeans, Pachamama retains an “intermediary role” between God and man within a primarily Catholic framework similar to that of the saints. Some ethnographic scholars have also noted a syncretic identification of Pachamama with the Virgin Mary. Pachamama is sometimes syncretized as the Virgin of Candelaria.


title: Pachamama

text: In October 2019, native Amazonian artworks were displayed in the Vatican gardens, and in a Roman church, ahead of the Synod of Bishops for the Pan-Amazon region. Wooden sculptures in the form of a pregnant woman were wrongly labeled “Pachamama” in the media, and used as shorthand for them thereafter, despite not matching traditional representation of Pachamama, and the sculptures being called "Our Lady of the Amazon" at the event. Pope Francis, calling them "Pachamama", apologized when they were stolen and thrown into the Tiber by assailants who accused them of idolatry. In his statement, the Pope clarified that there "was no idolatrous intention" in bringing the statues to the Vatican. Cardinal Gerhard Müller stated that "The great mistake was to bring the idols into the church, not to put them out."


title: Pachamama

text: Belief in Pachamama features prominently in the Peruvian national narrative. Former President Alejandro Toledo held a symbolic inauguration on 28 July 2001 atop Machu Picchu. The ceremony featured a Quechua religious elder giving an offering to Pachamama. Some Andean intellectuals identify Pachamama as an example of autochthony.


title: Pachamama

text: Former Bolivian president Evo Morales invoked the name of Pachamama, as well as using language and symbolism that appealed to Bolivia's indigenous population, in speeches throughout his presidency.


title: Domino (2005 film)

text: Domino is a 2005 action crime film directed by Tony Scott with a screenplay by Richard Kelly from a story by Kelly and Steve Barancik. An international co-production between France, the United States, and the United Kingdom, the film is inspired by Domino Harvey, the English daughter of stage and screen actor Laurence Harvey, who became a Los Angeles bounty hunter.


title: Domino (2005 film)

text: Its plot flashes back as Domino (Keira Knightley), fashion model turned bounty hunter, narrates how a $10 million robbery came about 36 hours before. Supporting actors include Mickey Rourke, Édgar Ramírez, Delroy Lindo, Mena Suvari, Mo'Nique, Lucy Liu, and Christopher Walken. The film is dedicated to Harvey, who died at age 35 from an overdose of fentanyl on June 27, 2005, a few months before the film was released.


title: Domino (2005 film)

text: Domino Harvey, a bounty hunter, has been arrested by the FBI, investigating the theft of $10 million from an armored truck. She is interviewed by criminal psychologist Taryn Mills and tells her everything she knows about the case. Domino explains her profession and the events leading up to the theft with Mills occasionally prompting her to give more detail.


title: Domino (2005 film)

text: Domino is a former model living in Los Angeles who becomes a bounty hunter when, after being kicked out of college, she notices a newspaper advertisement for a bounty hunter training seminar. Her colleagues are Ed Moseby, Choco and Afghan driver Alf. They are employed by Claremont Williams III, a bail bondsman who also runs an armored car business, and whose mistress, Lateesha Rodriguez, works for the California Department of Motor Vehicles. Lateesha's granddaughter Mica is suffering from a blood disease and needs an operation that costs $300,000. Claremont sets up the robbery of $10 million from Drake Bishop, the owner of the Stratosphere Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas and a client of Claremont. His bounty hunters would return the stolen money and collect a $300,000 finder's fee from Bishop.


title: Domino (2005 film)

text: Lateesha has been running a counterfeit driver's license racket at the DMV. A teenager named Frances arrives at the DMV and asks Lateesha for fake licenses for himself, his brother, and two of their friends. The FBI are tipped about Lateesha's racket. They threaten to send her to jail unless she gives them information about Frances, whom they have been surveilling. Lateesha throws them off the trail by saying that Frances, his brother, and his two friends are going to commit the armored car robbery, when in reality she and Claremont are doing it themselves.


title: Domino (2005 film)

text: Lateesha carries out the robbery with the help of three co-workers. Claremont finds that Frances and his brother are the sons of mafia boss Anthony Cigliutti. He phones Lateesha and tells her to abort the plan, leaving the money with getaway driver Locus Fender, who takes the money to his mother's trailer home. Claremont has the bounty hunters apprehend Frances, his brother and his two friends and then tells them to deliver them to men working for Drake Bishop. Claremont tells them to retrieve the money from Fender and to deliver it to Bishop at the Stratosphere Casino. Following a shootout with Fender's mother, the $10 million is retrieved. Cigliutti is told about his sons' arrest and is led to believe that Bishop had his sons killed. In reality Bishop's men released the boys after learning that they did not know anything about the robbery. Believing his sons dead, Cigliutti wants revenge and heads for the Stratosphere. In Las Vegas, Domino takes $300,000 of Bishop's money and gives it to Lateesha for Mica's operation.


title: Domino (2005 film)

text: At the Stratosphere, the bounty hunters meet with Bishop, who has an armed crew with him. Domino and Bishop discuss the $10 million and what should happen next. Alf has stolen the money and filled the sacks with plastic explosives. He then reveals that he has the remote detonator taped to his hand, and has shipped the money to free Afghanistan. Shortly after this revelation Cigliutti turns up with his crew. Though Bishop denies he had Cigliutti's sons killed, Cigliutti shoots him. In the ensuing gunfight Choco and Ed are severely wounded, but make it into the elevator with Domino. Alf blows up the top of the Stratosphere and Domino is the only survivor.


title: Domino (2005 film)

text: After telling Taryn Mills everything, Domino is released by the FBI. Mills advises her to retire from bounty hunting. The (nearly) $10 million in boxes is delivered to Afghanistan and opened by celebrating children in the streets, Mica gets her $300,000 operation, and Domino shares a moment with her mother.


title: Domino (2005 film)

text: In addition, Dale Dickey plays Edna Fender, Tom Waits plays the Wanderer, and Riz Abbasi is Alf, the team's driver from Afghanistan. Jerry Springer makes a cameo appearance as himself, hosting his show.


title: Domino (2005 film)

text: In 1994 director Tony Scott was sent an article from the British newspaper "The Mail on Sunday" by his business manager Neville Shulman. The article, written by Sacha Gervasi and titled "My gun for hire: Why a movie star's rebel daughter turned into a bounty hunter", was about an English woman named Domino Harvey who was working as a bounty hunter, apprehending fugitives who had skipped bail for the Celes King Bail Bond agency in South Central Los Angeles. While Harvey was one of the few female bounty hunters, what caught the attention of Shulman and Scott was that she was the daughter of actor Laurence Harvey.


title: Domino (2005 film)

text: Tony Scott tracked Domino to Beverly Hills, where she was living at the time with her mother Paulene Stone and Stone's then-husband Peter Morton. He invited Domino to his office, where he proposed a film of her life. Domino agreed and sold Scott the film rights. According to the "Los Angeles Times", Harvey was paid $360,000 for the rights. Tony Scott interviewed Harvey about her life and her work bounty hunting. Scott also met and interviewed Ed Martinez and Choco, who were Domino's bounty hunting colleagues. She took him to meet Celes King III, the bail bondsman they worked for.


title: Domino (2005 film)

text: 20th Century Fox, which had a first refusal deal on the project, turned it down and in the end the film was financed by New Line Cinema.


title: Domino (2005 film)

text: Steve Barancik wrote the first draft of the screenplay, in 1997, which Scott rejected. A second script was written by Roger Avary, but was also rejected by Scott. Scott described the two rejected screenplays as conventional biopics of Domino Harvey's life, which was not what he had in mind. Finally, Richard Kelly was asked to write the screenplay after Scott read his script for "Southland Tales". Kelly was sent transcripts of Domino Harvey's interviews with Tony Scott, but he did not read the scripts that Scott had rejected. In discussing the finished product, Kelly commented that "...Domino might be one of the most subversive films released by a major studio since "Fight Club"".


title: Domino (2005 film)

text: Tony Scott thought of Keira Knightley for the role of Domino after seeing her in "". Mickey Rourke initially turned down the film, describing the part of bounty hunter Ed Moseby as "one-dimensional"; he agreed to do the film when Scott had the role rewritten.


title: Domino (2005 film)

text: Filming began in Los Angeles on October 4, 2004. Filming locations included the Ambassador Hotel, the Hotel Alexandria, and the Wilshire Grand Hotel. Scenes were also shot at the Santa Monica Department of Motor Vehicles. Filming moved to Nevada in early December 2004. Scenes were filmed at the Valley of Fire State Park, as well as Hoover Dam and Needles, California.


title: Domino (2005 film)

text: During the final week of production, scenes were filmed over six days at the Stratosphere Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas. Interior shots included the resort's Top of the World restaurant, which was closed at the time for renovations. The Stratosphere was not in the original script. Executive producer Barry Waldman met with the casino's owners in summer 2004 to discuss featuring it in the movie, which the owners agreed to after small changes were made to the script. Tony Scott said an eight-minute BMW commercial he shot at the resort was "a testing ground" for "Domino".


title: Domino (2005 film)

text: Scenes were filmed at the Bonnie Springs Ranch motel on December 20, 2004. Scott had wanted to include the ranch and the Valley of Fire in one of his movies. The following day, scenes were filmed at the Stardust Resort and Casino's Starlight Lounge. Filming concluded on December 22, 2004, after scenes were shot at the intersection of South Las Vegas Boulevard and Sahara Avenue. Filming lasted a combined total of 62 days.


title: Domino (2005 film)

text: The release date of the film was announced and delayed several times. The original release date was August 19, 2005. On May 22, 2005, the release date was changed to November 4, 2005. On June 28, 2005, a day after Harvey's death, the release date was changed to November 23, 2005. On July 11, 2005, it was moved to October 14, 2005, which was the date the film was released on. The film had its premiere on October 11, 2005, in Los Angeles.


title: Domino (2005 film)

text: The film was released on October 14, 2005, in 2,223 theaters across America and grossed $4,670,120 on its opening weekend. The film stayed in release for four weeks and ended up with a gross of $10,169,202. In other territories, the film grossed $13,404,855 which, added to the domestic gross, gave the film a total worldwide gross of $23,574,057. This was a box-office flop compared to the film's estimated $50 million cost.


title: Domino (2005 film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 18%, based on 155 reviews, with an average rating of 4.00/10. The site's consensus states: "The life story of model-turned-bounty-hunter Domino Harvey struggles to get out of this overwrought and excessive biopic." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 36 out of 100, based on 36 reviews, which it ranks as "generally unfavorable". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade "C+" on scale of A to F.


title: Domino (2005 film)

text: Owen Gleiberman in "Entertainment Weekly" gave "Domino" a 'D' grade, describing it as "trash shot to look like art imitating trash". Gleiberman criticized the plot as "so dense with ersatz Elmore Leonard convolutions that it manages to stay three steps ahead of the audience and four steps behind common sense". Kenneth Turan in the "Los Angeles Times" also criticized the story, saying that the film was "so over-plotted that it's borderline incomprehensible". A more positive review came from Jeff Otto at IGN who praised the film for originality and also praised the acting. Otto stated that "the final result is a bit of a mess, but it's one hell of an entertaining mess". Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" also wrote a positive review, giving the film three stars and saying he admired it. The film was among Tony Scott's favourites of his own films, although he was also very critical of it, saying, "I didn't let the movie breathe enough. The script was great—Richard Kelly wrote a great script—and I got overcome by the insanity of the world I was touching. I think I fucked up on that one."


title: Domino (2005 film)

text: The film was released on DVD and VHS on February 21, 2006, making it the final film by Scott Free Productions released on the latter format. The DVD contained several extra features including an audio commentary with Tony Scott and Richard Kelly, deleted scenes from the film, featurettes on Domino Harvey and the visual style of the film, the teaser trailer and the theatrical trailer. While the film was released in its original widescreen format in all DVD regions, the film was also released in a full screen format on Region 1. The film was released on Blu-ray on January 20, 2009.


title: Keep Calm and Carry On

text: Keep Calm and Carry On was a motivational poster produced by the Government of the United Kingdom in 1939 in preparation for World War II. The poster was intended to raise the morale of the British public, threatened with widely predicted mass air attacks on major cities. Although 2.45 million copies were printed, and the Blitz did in fact take place, the poster was only rarely publicly displayed and was little known until a copy was rediscovered in 2000 at Barter Books, a bookshop in Alnwick. It has since been re-issued by a number of private companies, and has been used as the decorative theme for a range of products.


title: Keep Calm and Carry On

text: Evocative of the Victorian belief in British stoicism – the "stiff upper lip", self-discipline, fortitude, and remaining calm in adversity – the poster has become recognised around the world. It was thought that only two original copies survived until a collection of approximately 15 was brought in to the "Antiques Roadshow" in 2012 by the daughter of an ex-Royal Observer Corps member. A few further examples have come to light since.


title: Keep Calm and Carry On

text: The "Keep Calm and Carry On" poster was designed by the Ministry of Information during the period of 27 June to 6 July 1939. It was produced as one of three "Home Publicity" posters (the others read "Your Courage, Your Cheerfulness, Your Resolution Will Bring Us Victory" and "Freedom Is in Peril / Defend It With All Your Might"). Each poster showed the slogan under a representation of a "Tudor Crown" (a symbol of the state). "Keep Calm" was intended to be distributed to strengthen morale in the event of a wartime disaster, such as mass bombing of major cities using high explosives and poison gas, which was widely expected within hours of an outbreak of war.


title: Keep Calm and Carry On

text: A career civil servant named A. P. Waterfield came up with "Your Courage" as one of several suggestions to be used as "a rallying war-cry that will bring out the best in everyone of us and put us in an offensive mood at once". Others involved in the planning of the early posters included: John Hilton, Professor of Industrial Relations at Cambridge University, responsible overall as Director of Home Publicity; William Surrey Dane, managing director at Odhams Press; Gervas Huxley, former head of publicity for the Empire Marketing Board; William Codling, controller of HMSO; Harold Nicolson, MP; W. G. V. Vaughan, who became Director of the General Production Division (GPD); H. V. Rhodes, who later wrote an occasional paper on setting up a new government department; Ivison Macadam; "Mr Cruthley"; and "Mr Francis". Ernest Wallcousins was the artist tasked with creating the poster designs.


title: Keep Calm and Carry On

text: Detailed planning for the posters had started in April 1939 and the eventual designs were prepared after meetings between officials from the Ministry of Information and HM Treasury on 26 June 1939 and between officials from the Ministry of Information and HMSO on 27 June 1939. Roughs of the poster were completed on 6 July 1939, and the final designs were agreed by the Home Secretary Samuel Hoare, 1st Viscount Templewood on 4 August 1939. Printing began on 23 August 1939, the day that Nazi Germany and the USSR signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, and the posters were ready to be placed up within 24 hours of the outbreak of war.


title: Keep Calm and Carry On

text: The posters were produced in 11 different sizes, ranging from up to large 48-sheet versions. The background colour was either red or blue. The lettering was probably hand-drawn by Wallcousins: it is similar, but not identical, to humanist sans-serif typefaces such as Gill Sans and Johnston.


title: Keep Calm and Carry On

text: Almost 2,500,000 copies of "Keep Calm and Carry On" were printed between 23 August and 3 September 1939 but while "Your Courage" and "Freedom is in peril" were both widely distributed, "Keep Calm" was not sanctioned for immediate public display. It was instead decided that copies should remain in "cold storage" for use after serious air raids (with resources transferred to "Your Courage" and "Freedom is in Peril"). Copies of "Keep Calm and Carry On" were retained until April 1940, but stocks were then pulped as part of the wider Paper Salvage campaign. A few copies do appear to have been displayed, but such instances were rare and unauthorised. An October 1940 edition of the "Yorkshire Post" reports the poster hung in a shop in Leeds; a photograph discovered in 2016 shows it on the wall of a government laboratory in Bedfordshire. and a large version displayed in a pub appears in a 1941 photograph by Cecil Beaton.


title: Keep Calm and Carry On

text: The posters had been conceived on the assumption that enemy attacks of the civilian population would begin as soon as war was declared, and that there would be a great need for "a copious issue of general reassurance material". In practice, the initial poster campaign co-incided with the Phoney War, and thus to a population as yet completely unaffected by direct encounter with the enemy.


title: Keep Calm and Carry On

text: The remainder of the poster campaign was cancelled in October 1939 following criticism of its cost and impact. Mass Observation analysis of the public response to the campaign was overwhelmingly negative. Criticisms of the posters included "Your Courage" as being too long, confusingly worded, and generally annoying due to the sheer number of posters. In particular some had interpreted the message of "Your Courage" to imply that the common people would suffer for the benefit of the upper classes. Design historian Susannah Walker regards the campaign as "a resounding failure" and reflective of a misjudgement by upper-class civil servants of the mood of the people. Stuart Manley suggests that the negative reaction to the first two posters resulted in "Keep Calm" being held back, and that this was an error of judgement: "If they had started with this one, I think it would have been just as popular then as it is now.


title: Keep Calm and Carry On

text: In late May and early June 1941, 14,000,000 copies of a leaflet entitled "Beating the Invader" were distributed with a message from Prime Minister Winston Churchill. The leaflet begins "If invasion comes..." and exhorts the populace to "Stand Firm" and "Carry On". The two phrases do not appear in one sentence, as they applied to different segments of the population depending on their circumstances, with those civilians finding themselves in areas of fighting ordered to stand firm (i.e., stay put) and those not in areas of fighting ordered to carry on (i.e., continue vital war work). Each mandate is identified as a "great order and duty" should invasion come. The leaflet then lists 14 questions and answers on practical measures to be taken.


title: Keep Calm and Carry On

text: In 2000, Stuart Manley, co-owner with his wife Mary of Barter Books Ltd. in Alnwick, Northumberland, was sorting through a box of second-hand books bought at auction when he uncovered one of the original "Keep Calm and Carry On" posters. The couple framed it and hung it up by the cash register; it attracted so much interest that Manley began to produce and sell copies. In late 2005, "Guardian" journalist Susie Steiner featured the replica posters as a Christmas gift suggestion, raising their profile still further. Other companies followed the Manleys' example, and the design rapidly began to be used as the theme for a wide range of products. Mary Manley later commented, "I didn't want it trivialised; but of course now it's been trivialised beyond belief."


title: Keep Calm and Carry On

text: In early 2012, Barter Books debuted an informational short film, "The Story of Keep Calm and Carry On", providing visual insight into the modernisation and commercialisation of the design and the phrase. As of February 2022 this is no longer available on YouTube.


title: Keep Calm and Carry On

text: The poster has become an evocation of British stoicism: the "stiff upper lip", self-discipline, fortitude and remaining calm in adversity. Susannah Walker comments that it is now seen "not only as a distillation of a crucial moment in Britishness, but also as an inspiring message from the past to the present in a time of crisis". She goes on to point out, however, that such an interpretation overlooks the circumstances of its production, and the relative failure of the campaign of which it formed a part.


title: Keep Calm and Carry On

text: In August 2011, it was reported that a UK-based company called Keep Calm and Carry On Ltd (managed by entrepreneur Mark Coop) had registered the slogan as a community trade mark in the EU, CTM No: 009455619, and in the United States, No. 4066622, after failing to obtain its registration as a trademark in the United Kingdom. The company issued a take-down request against a seller of "Keep Calm and Carry On" products. The company's right to claim the trademark was questioned by, among others, the Manleys of Barter Books, as the slogan had been widely used before registration and was not recognisable as indicating trade origin.


title: Keep Calm and Carry On

text: An application was submitted by British intellectual property advisor and UK trademarking service Trade Mark Direct to cancel the registration on the grounds that the words were too widely used for one person to own the exclusive rights, but the request for cancellation was rejected and the trade mark is still protected in all EU countries. The company subsequently tried to register the slogan as its trademark in both the United States and Canada.


title: Keep Calm and Carry On

text: As the popularity of the poster in various media has grown, innumerable parodies, imitations and co-optations have also appeared, making it a notable meme. Messages range from the cute to the overtly political. Examples have included "Now Panic and Freak Out" (with an upside-down crown), "Get Excited and Make Things" (with a crown incorporating spanners), "Keep Calm and Have a Cupcake" (with a cupcake icon), "Don't Panic and Fake a British Accent", "Keep Spending and Carry On Shopping", "Keep Calm and Don't Sneeze" during the 2009 swine flu pandemic, "Keep Calm and Call Batman" (with the Batman logo), "Keep Calm and Switch to Linux" (with Tux), and "Keep Calm and Wash Your Hands".


title: Keep Calm and Carry On

text: In March–April 2012, the British pop-rock band McFly undertook a theatre tour entitled "The Keep Calm and Play Louder Tour", promoted with a poster closely based on that of 1939. In late 2012 and early 2013, the "Save Lewisham Hospital" campaign (a protest against proposed cuts in services at University Hospital Lewisham) made widespread use of a poster with the slogan "Don't Keep Calm Get Angry and Save Lewisham A&E". The efforts of Naheed Nenshi, mayor of Calgary, Alberta, Canada, to encourage and motivate his citizens in the wake of the 2013 Alberta floods made him the subject of parody "Keep Calm and Nenshi On" fundraising T-shirts.


title: Style of the British sovereign

text: The precise style of British sovereigns has varied over the years. style is officially proclaimed in two languages:


title: Style of the British sovereign

text: The Anglo-Saxon kings of England used numerous different styles, including "King of the Anglo-Saxons" and "King of the English". Grander variations were adopted by some monarchs; for example, Edred used "King of the Anglo-Saxons, Northumbrians, pagans and Britons". These styles were sometimes accompanied by extravagant epithets; for instance, Æthelstan was "King of the English, raised by the right hand of the Almighty to the Throne of the whole Kingdom of Britain".


title: Style of the British sovereign

text: In Scotland the preferred title of the monarch was "King/Queen of Scots" rather than "of Scotland" (although the latter was by no means unknown).


title: Style of the British sovereign

text: William I, the first Norman monarch of England, used the simple "King of the English". His successor, William II, was the first consistently to use "by the Grace of God". Henry I added "Duke of the Normans" in 1121, though he had seized Normandy from his brother Robert in 1106. In 1152 Henry II acquired many further French possessions through his marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine; soon thereafter, he added "Duke of the Aquitanians" and "Count of the Angevins" to his style.


title: Style of the British sovereign

text: "King of the English", "Duke of the Normans", "Duke of the Aquitanians" and "Count of the Angevins" remained in use until King John ascended the throne in 1199, when they changed to "King of England", "Duke of Normandy", "Duke of Aquitaine" and "Count of Anjou", respectively. John, furthermore, was already the titular ruler of Ireland; therefore, he added "Lord of Ireland" to his style.


title: Style of the British sovereign

text: In 1204 England lost both Normandy and Anjou. Nevertheless, they did not renounce the associated titles until 1259. French territory once again became the subject of dispute after the death of the French King Charles IV in 1328. Edward III claimed the French throne, arguing that it was to pass to him through his mother Isabella, Charles IV's sister. In France, however, it was asserted that the throne could not pass to or through a woman. Edward III began to use the title "King of France" (dropping "Duke of Aquitaine") after 1337. In 1340 he entered France, where he was publicly proclaimed King. In 1360, however, he agreed to relinquish his title to the French claimant. Though he stopped using the title in legal documents, he did not formally exchange letters confirming the renunciation with the French King. In 1369 Edward III resumed the title, claiming that the French had breached their treaty.


title: Style of the British sovereign

text: Henry V invaded France, but agreed to the Treaty of Troyes, whereby he was recognised as the Heir and Regent of France, in 1420. He died in 1422, to be succeeded by his infant son, who became Henry VI. Shortly after his accession, Henry VI also inherited the French throne. By the 1450s, however, England had lost all its territories in France, with the exception of Calais. The claim to the title of "King of France" was nonetheless not relinquished until the creation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801, by which time the French monarchy had been overthrown by the French Revolution.


title: Style of the British sovereign

text: After 1422, the royal style remained unchanged for almost a century. Numerous amendments, however, were effected during Henry VIII's reign. After Henry wrote a book against the Protestant Martin Luther, Pope Leo X rewarded him by granting the title "Defender of the Faith". After disagreements with the Papacy over his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, Henry VIII broke away from the Roman Catholic Church, establishing the Church of England in 1533. Pope Paul III rescinded the grant of the title "Defender of the Faith", but Henry continued to use it. In 1535 Henry added "of the Church of England in Earth, under Jesus Christ, Supreme Head" to his style in 1535; a reference to the Church of Ireland was added in 1536. Meanwhile, advised that many Irish people regarded the pope as the true temporal authority in their nation, with the king of England acting as a mere representative, Henry VIII changed "Lord of Ireland" to "King of Ireland" in 1542. All changes made by Henry VIII were confirmed by an English Act of Parliament passed in 1544.


title: Style of the British sovereign

text: Mary I, Henry VIII's Catholic daughter, omitted "of the Church of England and also of Ireland in Earth Supreme Head" in 1553, replacing it with "etc.", but the phrase remained part of the official style until an Act of Parliament to the contrary was passed in 1555. In the meantime Mary had married the Spanish prince Philip. The monarchs adopted a joint style, "King and Queen of England and France, Naples, Jerusalem and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, Princes of Spain and Sicily, Archdukes of Austria, Dukes of Milan, Burgundy and Brabant, Count and Countess of Habsburg, Flanders and Tyrol", acknowledging both Mary's and Philip's titles. Further changes were made after Philip became King of Spain and Sicily upon his father's abdication.


title: Style of the British sovereign

text: When the Protestant Elizabeth I ascended the throne, she used the simpler "Queen of England, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, etc.". The "etc." was added in anticipation of a restoration of the supremacy phrase, which never actually occurred.


title: Style of the British sovereign

text: After James VI of Scotland, ascended the English throne, the official style changed to "King of England, Scotland, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, etc."; his mother Mary, Queen of Scots, had already laid claim to these titles (in a different order, jointly with Francis II of France, then with the King's father, Lord Darnley), but she was beheaded by her Protestant opponent, Elizabeth I. In 1604 James VI made a proclamation permitting the use of "King of Great Britain" instead of "King of England and Scotland". This new style, though commonly used to refer to the King, was never statutory; therefore, it did not appear on legal instruments. It did, however, appear on the inscriptions on coins.


title: Style of the British sovereign

text: The kingdoms of England and Scotland were formally united into a single Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707 by the Act of Union. Queen Anne consequently assumed the style "Queen of Great Britain, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, etc.". It remained in use until 1801, when Great Britain and Ireland combined to become the United Kingdom. George III used the opportunity to drop both the reference to France and "etc." from the style. It was suggested to him that he assume the title "Emperor", but he rejected the proposal. Instead, the style became "King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Defender of the Faith".


title: Style of the British sovereign

text: The style used by Victoria in her proclamation to "the Princes, Chiefs and People of India" in 1858 was: "Victoria, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and of the Colonies and Dependencies thereof in Europe, Asia, Africa, America, and Australasia, Queen, Defender of the Faith".


title: Style of the British sovereign

text: In 1876 "Empress of India" was added to Queen Victoria's titles by the Royal Titles Act 1876, so that the Queen of the United Kingdom, the ruler of a vast empire, would not be outranked by her own daughter who had married the heir to the German Empire (an empire by the necessity of establishing a federal monarchy in which several kings wished to retain their royal titles despite their subjugation to a different monarchy). Her successor, Edward VII, changed the style in 1901, by the Royal Titles Act, to reflect the United Kingdom's other colonial possessions, adding "and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas" after "Ireland". In general usage the monarch came to be called the King-Emperor, especially in the Crown's overseas possessions and in British India and the princely states.


title: Style of the British sovereign

text: In 1922 the Irish Free State gained independence. In 1927 the Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927 changed the description "of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas" to "of Great Britain, Ireland and the British Dominions beyond the Seas". The 1927 Act was also significant for opening the door to dominions (later Commonwealth realms) having the right to determine their own style and title for the sovereign, a right which was first exercised in 1953.


title: Style of the British sovereign

text: The designation "Emperor of India" was dropped from the royal style in 1948 after the independence of India and Pakistan a year earlier, even though King George VI remained king of the dominion of India until 1950, when it became a republic within the Commonwealth. The dominion of Pakistan existed between 1947 and 1956, when it too became a republic within the Commonwealth. Similarly, although the republic of Ireland was constituted in 1949, "Great Britain and Ireland" was not replaced with "Great Britain and Northern Ireland" until 1953. In the same year the phrase "Head of the Commonwealth" was also added, and "British Dominions beyond the Seas" was replaced with "other Realms and Territories". Thus, the style of the present sovereign is "By the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of His other Realms and Territories King, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith".


title: Style of the British sovereign

text: Also in 1953, separate styles were adopted for each of the realms over which the sovereign reigned. Most realms used the form, "Queen of ... and of Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth", omitting the title "Defender of the Faith". Australia, New Zealand and Canada all included a reference to the United Kingdom as well as "Defender of the Faith", but only Canada still uses this form. (Australia dropped both the reference to the United Kingdom and "Defender of the Faith" in 1973; New Zealand dropped the former in 1974.) Canada also publishes an official style in the French language.


title: Style of the British sovereign

text: Official styles of sovereigns are shown below. Heads of state who did not rule as kings or as queens are shown in "italics".


title: Style of the British sovereign

text: The earliest recorded style of the monarchs of what is now Scotland varies: sometimes it is "King of the Picts", sometimes "King of Fortriu", and sometimes "King of Alba". Only after 900 does the latter title become standard. From the reign of David I, the title became either ""rex Scottorum"" ("King of Scots") or ""rex Scotiae"" ("King of Scotland").


title: Style of the British sovereign

text: The former term was the most common, but the latter was used sometimes. James VI and I proclaimed himself "King of Great Brittaine, France and Ireland” by Royal Proclamation, but this was not accepted by the English Parliament. The last three monarchs of Scotland—William II (William III of England), Mary II and Anne—all used "King/Queen of Scotland" in preference to "of Scots".


title: The Legend of Zelda: Link's Awakening (2019 video game)

text: The Legend of Zelda: Link's Awakening is an action-adventure game developed by Grezzo and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo Switch. Released worldwide on September 20, 2019, "Link's Awakening" is a remake of the for the Game Boy. It retains the original's top-down perspective and gameplay, along with elements from the 1998 re-release "Link's Awakening DX".


text: The game features a "retro-modern" art style unique within the series with toy-like character designs, diorama-like world designs, and tilt-shift visuals that evoke the original game's presentation on the Game Boy. It also features customizable dungeons which the player can create and then complete for rewards. The game received positive reviews for its faithfulness, improved gameplay, and unique art style, while its technical issues were criticized. As of December 2021, the game has sold over 6.08 million copies worldwide, making it one of the best-selling games on the Nintendo Switch.