title: Paisley, Renfrewshire

text: The site of the former Rootes/Chrysler/Talbot on the western outskirts of the town is now home to Phoenix Retail Park. Numerous private developers have invested, creating various retail outlets, vehicle showrooms, restaurants, a cinema complex, hotel and a business centre.


title: Paisley, Renfrewshire

text: As the administrative centre of the county of Renfrewshire, Renfrew District and, currently, Renfrewshire council area, Paisley is home to many significant civic buildings. Paisley Town Hall, adjacent to the Abbey, was funded by the will of George Aitken Clark, one of the Clark family, owners of the Anchor Mills. In competition, Sir Peter Coats funded the construction of the modern Paisley Museum and Central Library (1871), also in a neo-Classical style. The Clarks and Coats families dominated Paisley industry until their companies merged in 1896. Renfrewshire's former County Buildings, Police Station and Jail on County Square were demolished in 1821, and the County Council then met in a newer neo-classical building, completed in 1890, which now houses Paisley Sheriff Court.


title: Paisley, Renfrewshire

text: Renfrewshire House, the modern headquarters of Renfrewshire Council, was constructed as Paisley Civic Centre. Designed by Hutchison, Locke and Monk following a competition, the building was designed to house offices of both the county and town councils. It was intended to become a civic hub for Paisley but the absence of any shops and non-council premises prevented this from happening. It became the home of the Renfrew sub-region of Strathclyde Regional Council in 1975 and of Renfrewshire Council in 1996. It is listed by the conservation organisation DoCoMoMo as one of the sixty key Scottish monuments of the post-war period.


title: Paisley, Renfrewshire

text: Other civic buildings of interest include the Russell Institute, an art deco building constructed in 1926.


title: Paisley, Renfrewshire

text: Most noticeable among the buildings of Paisley is its medieval Abbey in the centre of the town dating from the 12th century. The earliest surviving architecture is the south-east doorway in the nave from the cloister, which has a round arched doorway typical of Romanesque architecture which was the prevalent architectural style before the adoption of Gothic. The choir (east end) and tower date from the late 19th and early 20th centuries and are examples of Gothic Revival architecture. They were reconstructed in three main phases of restorations with the tower and choir conforming to the designs of Dr Peter MacGregor Chalmers. The roof in the nave is the most recent of restorations with the plaster ceiling by Rev Dr Boog which was added in the 1790s being replaced by a timber roof in 1981.


title: Paisley, Renfrewshire

text: Former Thomas Coats Memorial Baptist Church, named for the industrialist Thomas Coats (1809–1883), is an example of Gothic Revival architecture. It dominates the town's skyline with its crown spire more than high. Opened in 1894 and designed by Hippolyte Jean Blanc it was the largest Baptist church in Europe. The exterior is made of old red sandstone. Inside, the church is decorated with wood carvings, mosaic floors and marble fonts. The church also contains a 3040 pipe Hill Organ.


title: Paisley, Renfrewshire

text: The St Mirin's Cathedral in Incle Street is the seat of the Catholic Bishop of Paisley. The church was completed in 1931 to replace an earlier building, in nearby East Buchanan Street, which dated from 1808. The original St Mirin's church was the first Catholic church to be built in Scotland since the Reformation. With the erection of the Diocese of Paisley in 1947 the church was raised to cathedral status.


title: Paisley, Renfrewshire

text: St Matthew's Church (Church of the Nazarene) at the junction of Gordon Street and Johnston Street is Art Nouveau in style. Designed by local architect William Daniel McLennan, a contemporary of Charles Rennie Mackintosh, it was built in 1905–07.


title: Paisley, Renfrewshire

text: Dating from circa 1160 Blackhall Manor is the oldest building in Paisley. It was given to the Burgh of Paisley by the Shaw-Stewart family in 1940, but was threatened with demolition in 1978. It was privately purchased in 1982 and fully restored as a private dwelling.


title: Paisley, Renfrewshire

text: As a result of its historic textile industry, Paisley has many examples of Victorian industrial architecture. Most notable is the Category A listed Anchor Mills, built in 1886. The building was converted in 2005 into residential flats. Textiles have a longer history in Paisley, represented by the Sma' Shot cottages complex on Shuttle Street: a small public museum of weaving from its 18th-century origins as a cottage industry.


title: Paisley, Renfrewshire

text: Another landmark connected with the textile industry is the Dooslan Stane or Stone. The stone was a meeting place of the Weavers Union in the south of Paisley; it was also used as a "soapbox" and was originally inscribed with its history (now largely faded). It was moved from its original site at the corner of Neilston Road and Rowan Street to its present location in Brodie Park. Also present, arranged around the Dooslan Stane, are the four original Paisley Tolbooth stones. The Dooslan Stane is still used today as the congregating point for the annual Sma' Shot parade which takes place on the first Saturday in July.


title: Paisley, Renfrewshire

text: The composer Thomas Wilson's 1988 work "Passeleth Tapestry" (later his Fourth Symphony) commemorates the history of Paisley in a single 30-minute movement. Commissioned by Renfrew District Council to mark Paisley's 500th anniversary as a burgh of barony, it was premiered on 6 August 1988 in Paisley Abbey with the Royal Scottish National Orchestra under Bryden Thomson. It was subsequently recorded by the Royal Scottish National Orchestra with conductor Rory Macdonald on the Linn Record Label, and received critical acclaim by the Gramophone, which considered its orchestration as "beguiling", but the string glissandos as "kitsch".


title: Paisley, Renfrewshire

text: Paisley is the main site for the modern University of the West of Scotland, which was created from a merger between the University of Paisley and Bell College in Hamilton, South Lanarkshire. The University of Paisley was granted university status in 1992, having existed previously as a central institution known as Paisley College of Technology. The further education college West College Scotland has a campus in the town; this institution was previously known as Reid Kerr College.


title: Paisley, Renfrewshire

text: There are currently four comprehensive state secondary schools in Paisley: Paisley Grammar School, Castlehead High School, St Andrew's Academy, Paisley and Gleniffer High School. The oldest of these is Paisley Grammar which was founded in 1576 and was one of two former grammar schools in the town – alongside the former John Neilson Institution (latterly John Neilson High School) founded in 1852. Other former secondary schools in the area include Merksworth High School (to the north west of the town), St Mirin's Academy or High School (on the west side of the town), St Aelred's High School and Stanely Green High School (both on the south side of the town). Of the current secondary schools in the town, all are non-denominational save for St Andrew's Academy which is a Roman Catholic school.


title: Paisley, Renfrewshire

text: Paisley is home to a number of religious denominations and is an important historical centre for the Christian faith in Scotland. The town's historic patron saint is Saint Mirin (or Mirren); according to legendary accounts, Mirin settled in Paisley as a missionary sent from Ireland in the 6th century and was instrumental in bringing the relics of St Andrew to Scotland. Paisley Abbey, one of the town's most significant landmarks, was constructed as a priory in the 12th century and raised to abbey status in the 13th. It served as an ecclesiastical centre for a wide area surrounding the county of Renfrewshire for centuries until the Reformation when such religious centres were reduced to the status of parish churches. For the Church of Scotland, Paisley forms part of the Presbytery of Greenock and Paisley in the Synod of Clydesdale ("see: Church of Scotland synods and presbyteries").


title: Paisley, Renfrewshire

text: Other Christian communities have a number of churches in Paisley, many of which were the result of the Industrial Revolution where people from around the British Isles came to Paisley for work. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Paisley, created in 1947, is centred upon the town's St Mirin's Cathedral, the seat of the Bishop of Paisley. Paisley also forms part of the Episcopalian (Anglican) Diocese of Glasgow and Galloway with its main facilities being contained at the Holy Trinity and St Barnabas Church in the town centre, a congregation which united in 2004. There are currently two Baptist congregations in Paisley: in addition to Thomas Coats Memorial Baptist Church (see under "Landmarks – religious sites") is Central Baptist Church, which meets in nearby Lady Lane. Paisley is home to a meetinghouse of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints located on Glenburn Road.


title: Paisley, Renfrewshire

text: Other smaller religious groups exist in the town. The Methodist Church of Great Britain has a church and central hall opposite Paisley Abbey which forms part of the Ayrshire and Renfrewshire Circuit. The Christadelphians meet in a hall on Alice Street.


title: Paisley, Renfrewshire

text: Historically, Paisley was notable as the religious home of the Stewart family who descended from Walter FitzAlan, the first High Steward of Scotland and founder of Paisley Abbey, eventually becoming the Scottish and British Royal Family. The Stewarts once resided at a castle in nearby Renfrew. All six of the High Stewards are buried in the Abbey, as is Marjorie Bruce – the eldest daughter of Robert I of Scotland (Robert the Bruce) – who married the 6th High Steward, thus founding the Stewart dynasty. The first Stewart King of Scotland and son of Marjorie Bruce and Walter Stewart, Robert II, is believed to have been born in the Abbey. His son Robert III is buried there.


title: Paisley, Renfrewshire

text: Ronald Reagan's maternal great-great-grandparents, Claude Wilson and Margaret Downey, were married at Paisley High Church on 23 May 1807.


title: Paisley, Renfrewshire

text: Paisley has one local daily newspaper, the Paisley Daily Express, which is owned by the Trinity Mirror Group. Various local radio stations have operated at times, including Q96 from 1992 to 2007 – serving the Renfrewshire area, although for a considerable period based in neighbouring Glasgow. Its replacement, Glasgow-based Guardian Media Group station 96.3 Rock Radio carries Renfrewshire focused material. In October 2011 Rock Radio, faced with falling advertising revenue, was rebranded by Guardian Media Group as Real Radio XS after a proposed management buyout failed to materialise.


title: Paisley, Renfrewshire

text: Paisley has two local radio stations, Paisleyradio.com broadcasts from the centre of Paisley with a large online audience. Paisleyradio.com won the Prestige Scotland Radio Station of the Year award 2021/22.


title: Paisley, Renfrewshire

text: St Mirren F.C. is Paisley's sole professional association football team. As of 2018, it plays in the Scottish Premiership. In 2009, the team moved from their Love Street stadium to a new 8,029 capacity stadium, known formally as St Mirren Park, on Greenhill Road. The stadium was later renamed as The Paisley 2021 Stadium to mark the town's bid to be UK City of Culture in 2021. St Mirren last won the Scottish Cup on 16 May 1987. The club won the Scottish League Cup for the first time in its history on 17 March 2013. Another professional football team, Abercorn F.C., was based in Paisley until its decline and liquidation in 1920.


title: Paisley, Renfrewshire

text: St Mirren Basketball Club was formed in 1997: they have won the National League title once, in 2000, and have won the Scottish Cup three times (1999, 2002 and 2012).


title: Paisley, Renfrewshire

text: Paisley is connected to the motorway network and the National Rail network, and contains Glasgow Airport within its boundaries.


title: Paisley, Renfrewshire

text: Paisley is connected by road to the UK motorway network, with the M8 running along the northern edge of the town, providing access to Greenock to the west and Glasgow to the east. This forms part of the unsigned E05 Euroroute from Greenock to Gibraltar. Many major A roads converge through the town, including the A726, A737 and A761. The Strathclyde Partnership for Transport, a public body, has direct operational responsibilities covering the area, such as supporting (and in some cases running) local bus services in Paisley (Graham's Bus Service) and across Strathclyde.


title: Paisley, Renfrewshire

text: The town has four railway stations and is linked by rail to Glasgow city centre as well as Inverclyde and the Ayrshire coast. Paisley Gilmour Street is the largest of the stations and is also the fourth busiest train station in Scotland. There are also smaller stations at Paisley St James, Paisley Canal and Hawkhead. The rail links also connect to Glasgow Prestwick International Airport and ferry routes to Dunoon, the Isle of Arran, Isle of Bute and Northern Ireland. Over the years there have been thirteen railway stations in Paisley and three rail lines that are now closed (The Paisley and Barrhead District Railway, the Barrhead Branch of the GSWR, and the Paisley and Renfrew Railway). Paisley Canal station and the Paisley Canal Line owe their names to the Glasgow, Paisley and Johnstone Canal which occupied the route of the line until 1885, when it was filled in.


title: Paisley, Renfrewshire

text: Glasgow Airport, operated by AGS Airports, is Scotland's largest airport, located to the north of Paisley at Abbotsinch. It is adjacent to the M8 motorway and served by buses from Paisley Gilmour Street railway station. The planned Glasgow Airport Rail Link project, which was to run through Paisley, was abandoned in 2009. As mentioned above, Glasgow Prestwick Airport in Ayrshire is directly accessible by rail from Paisley Gilmour Street station.


title: Paisley, Renfrewshire

text: Paisley is the administrative centre for the council area of Renfrewshire Council, and also lies within the registration county of the same name. The town is divided into Community Councils for representation at the most local level.


title: Paisley, Renfrewshire

text: Paisley in represented in the Scottish Parliament by George Adam MSP, who holds the Paisley seat. For the House of Commons of the United Kingdom the town is divided between two constituencies covering the whole of Renfrewshire: Paisley and Renfrewshire North (Gavin Newlands MP) and Paisley and Renfrewshire South (Mhairi Black MP).


title: Paisley, Renfrewshire

text: Paisley lies within the Renfrewshire and Inverclyde Division of the Scottish police service and is one of three Area Commands in that division. Paisley is divided into five community policing areas: Paisley North-west (incorporating Glasgow Airport); Paisley South-west; Paisley East and Ralston; Paisley South; Gallowhill (as part of Renfrew and Gallowhill). Gallowhill is covered by the Renfrew Area Command. For judicial purposes, the area forms part of the sheriffdom of North Strathclyde and public prosecutions are directed by the Procurator Fiscal for Argyll and Clyde.


title: Paisley, Renfrewshire

text: NHS Greater Glasgow and Clyde is the National Health Service Board serving Paisley and the town's main hospital with accident and emergency facilities is the Royal Alexandra Hospital. Strathclyde Fire and Rescue is the statutory fire and rescue service covering Paisley, with one community fire station on the town's Canal Street.


title: Paisley, Renfrewshire

text: Water and sewerage is provided in Paisley by Scottish Water, a public body, and water and sewerage charges are collected alongside council tax by Renfrewshire Council, the local authority, on its behalf. Renfrewshire Council is also responsible for the provision of waste management in the area. Paisley's distribution network operator, the organisation licensed to transmit electricity from the National Grid to consumers, is Scottish Power.


title: Cacio e pepe

text: Cacio e pepe () is a pasta dish from the cuisine of the city of Rome. "Cacio e pepe" means "cheese and pepper" in several central Italian dialects. In keeping with its name, the dish contains grated Pecorino Romano cheese and black pepper, together with spaghetti, or traditionally tonnarelli. All the ingredients keep well for a long time, which made the dish practical for shepherds without fixed abode. Rough-surfaced pasta is recommended, to make the sauce adhere well.


title: Cacio e pepe

text: The pasta is prepared in boiling salted water as usual; it is then poured into the grated pecorino mixed with black pepper, with a little of the hot, starchy, cooking water. The heat melts the cheese, and the starches in the water help bind the pepper and cheese to the pasta.


title: Cacio e pepe

text: While not traditional to cacio e pepe, seafood or bacon may be added, and other shapes of pasta such as rigatoni, always made with a rough surface, may be used.


title: Esoteric programming language

text: An esoteric programming language (sometimes shortened to esolang) is a programming language designed to test the boundaries of computer programming language design, as a proof of concept, as software art, as a hacking interface to another language (particularly functional programming or procedural programming languages), or as a joke. The use of the word "esoteric" distinguishes them from languages that working developers use to write software. The creators of most esolangs do not intend them to be used for mainstream programming, although some esoteric features, such as visuospatial syntax, have inspired practical applications in the arts. Such languages are often popular among hackers and hobbyists.


title: Esoteric programming language

text: Usability is rarely a goal for designers of esoteric programming languages; often their design leads to quite the opposite. Their usual aim is to remove or replace conventional language features while still maintaining a language that is Turing-complete, or even one for which the computational class is unknown.


title: Esoteric programming language

text: The earliest, and still the canonical example of an esoteric programming language, is INTERCAL, designed in 1972 by Don Woods and James M. Lyon, who said that their intention was to create a programming language unlike any with which they were familiar. It parodied elements of established programming languages of the day such as Fortran, COBOL and assembly language.


title: Esoteric programming language

text: For many years, INTERCAL was represented only by paper copies of the INTERCAL manual. Its revival in 1990 as an implementation in C under Unix stimulated a wave of interest in the intentional design of esoteric computer languages.


title: Esoteric programming language

text: In 1993, Wouter van Oortmerssen created FALSE, a small stack-oriented programming language with syntax designed to make the code inherently obfuscated, confusing and unreadable. Its compiler is only 1024 bytes in size. This inspired Urban Müller to create an even smaller language, the now-infamous Brainfuck, which consists of only eight recognized characters. Along with Chris Pressey's Befunge (like FALSE, but with a two-dimensional instruction pointer), Brainfuck is now one of the best-supported esoteric programming languages, with canonical examples of minimal Turing tarpits and needlessly obfuscated language features. Brainfuck is related to the P′′ family of Turing machines.


title: Esoteric programming language

text: While esoteric programming languages differ in many ways, there are some common traits that characterize many languages, such as parody, minimalism, and the goal of making programming difficult.


title: Esoteric programming language

text: Conventional imperative programming languages typically allow data to be stored in variables, but esoteric languages may utilize different methods of storing and accessing data. Languages like Brainfuck and Malbolge only permit data to be read through a single pointer, which must be moved to a location of interest before data is read. Others, like Befunge and Shakespeare, utilize one or more stacks to hold data, leading to a manner of execution akin to Reverse Polish notation. Finally, there are languages which explore alternative forms of number representation: the Brainfuck variant Boolfuck only permits operations on single bits, while Malbolge and INTERCAL variant TriINTERCAL replace bits altogether with a base 3 ternary system.


title: Esoteric programming language

text: Esoteric languages also showcase unique ways of representing program instructions. Some languages, such as Befunge and Piet, represent programs in two or more dimensions, with program control moving around in multiple possible directions through the program. This differs from conventional languages in which a program is a set of instructions usually encountered in sequence. Other languages modify instructions to appear in an unusual form, often one that can be read by humans with an alternate meaning to the underlying instructions. Shakespeare achieves this by making all programs resemble Shakespearian plays. Chef achieves the same by having all programs be recipes. Chef is particularly notable in that some have created programs that successfully function both as a program and as a recipe, demonstrating the ability of the language to produce this double meaning.


title: Esoteric programming language

text: Many esoteric programming languages are designed to produce code that is deeply obfuscated, making it difficult to read and to write. The purpose of this may be to provide an interesting puzzle or challenge for program writers: Malbolge for instance was explicitly designed to be challenging, and so it has features like self-modifying code and highly counterintuitive operations. On the other hand, some esoteric languages become difficult to write due to their other design choices. Brainfuck is committed to the idea of a minimalist instruction set, so even though its instructions are straightforward in principle, the code that arises is difficult for a human to read. INTERCAL's difficulty arises as a result of the choice to avoid operations used in any other programming language, which stems from its origin as a parody of other languages.


title: Esoteric programming language

text: One of the aims of esoteric programming languages is to parody or spoof existing languages and trends in the field of programming. For instance, the first esoteric language INTERCAL began as a spoof of languages used in the 1960's, such as APL, Fortran, and COBOL. INTERCAL's rules appear to be the inverse of rules in these other languages. However, the subject of parody is not always another established programming language. Shakespeare can be viewed as spoofing the structure of Shakespearean plays, for instance. The language Ook! is a parody of Brainfuck, where Brainfuck's 8 commands are replaced by various orangutang sounds like "Ook. Ook?"


title: Esoteric programming language

text: Befunge allows the instruction pointer to roam in multiple dimensions through the code. For example, the following program displays "Hello World" by pushing the characters in reverse order onto the stack, then printing the characters in a loop which circulates clockwise through the instructions codice_1, codice_2, codice_3, codice_4, codice_5, and codice_6.


title: Esoteric programming language

text: Binary lambda calculus is designed from an algorithmic information theory perspective to allow for the densest possible code with the most minimal means, featuring a 29-byte self interpreter, a 21-byte prime number sieve, and a 112-byte Brainfuck interpreter.


title: Esoteric programming language

text: Brainfuck is designed for extreme minimalism and leads to obfuscated code, with programs containing only eight distinct characters. The following program outputs "Hello, world!":


title: Esoteric programming language

text: Chicken has just three tokens, the word "chicken", " ", and "\n". The compiler interprets the amount of "chickens" on a line as an opcode instruction which it uses to manipulate data on a stack. A simple chicken program can contain dozens of lines with nothing but the word "chicken" repeated countless times. Chicken was invented by Torbjörn Söderstedt who drew his inspiration for the language from a parody of a scientific dissertation.


title: Esoteric programming language

text: Chef is a stack-oriented programming language created by David Morgan-Mar, designed to make programs look like cooking recipes. Programs consist of a title, a list of variables and their data values, and a list of stack manipulation instructions. A joking design principle states that "program recipes should not only generate valid output, but be easy to prepare and delicious", and Morgan-Mar notes that an example Hello World program with "101 eggs" and "111 cups oil" would produce "a lot of food for one person."


title: Esoteric programming language

text: A FRACTRAN program is an ordered list of positive fractions together with an initial positive integer input formula_1. The program is run by multiplying the integer formula_1 by the first fraction formula_3 in the list for which formula_4 is an integer. The integer formula_1 is then replaced by formula_4 and the rule is repeated. If no fraction in the list produces an integer when multiplied by formula_1, the program halts. FRACTRAN was invented by mathematician John Conway.


title: Esoteric programming language

text: Programs in GolfScript, a language created for code golf, consist of lists of items, each of which is pushed onto the stack as it is encountered, with the exception of variables which have code blocks as their value, in which case the code is executed.


title: Esoteric programming language

text: INTERCAL, short for "Compiler Language With No Pronounceable Acronym", was created in 1972 as a parody to satirize aspects of the various programming languages at the time.


title: Esoteric programming language

text: JSFuck is an esoteric programming style of JavaScript, where code is written using only six characters: codice_7, codice_8, codice_9, codice_10, codice_11, and codice_12.


title: Esoteric programming language

text: Unlike Brainfuck, which requires its own compiler or interpreter, JSFuck is valid JavaScript code, meaning JSFuck programs can be run in any web browser or engine that interprets JavaScript.


title: Esoteric programming language

text: While the semantics of LOLCODE is not unusual, its syntax has been described as a linguistic phenomenon, representing an unusual example of informal speech and internet slang in programming.


title: Esoteric programming language

text: Malbolge (named after the 8th circle of Hell) was designed to be the most difficult and esoteric programming language. Among other features, code is self-modifying by design and the effect of an instruction depends on its address in memory.


title: Esoteric programming language

text: Piet is a language designed by David Morgan-Mar, whose programs are bitmaps that look like abstract art. The execution is guided by a "pointer" that moves around the image, from one continuous coloured region to the next. Procedures are carried out when the pointer exits a region.


title: Esoteric programming language

text: There are 20 colours for which behaviour is specified: 18 "colourful" colours, which are ordered by a 6-step hue cycle and a 3-step brightness cycle; and black and white, which are not ordered. When exiting a "colourful" colour and entering another one, the performed procedure is determined by the number of steps of change in hue and brightness. Black cannot be entered; when the pointer tries to enter a black region, the rules of choosing the next block are changed instead. If all possible rules are tried, the program terminates. Regions outside the borders of the image are also treated as black. White does not perform operations, but allows the pointer to "pass through". The behaviour of colours other than the 20 specified is left to the compiler or interpreter.


title: Esoteric programming language

text: Variables are stored in memory as signed integers in a single stack. Most specified procedures deal with operations on that stack, while others deal with input/output and with the rules by which the compilation pointer moves.


title: Esoteric programming language

text: Piet was named after the Dutch painter Piet Mondrian. The original intended name, "Mondrian", was already taken by an open-source statistical data-visualization system.


title: Esoteric programming language

text: Rockstar is a computer programming language designed for creating programs that are also hair metal power ballads created by Dylan Beattie.


title: Esoteric programming language

text: Shakespeare is designed to make programs look like Shakespearean plays. For example, the following statement declares a point in the program which can be reached via a GOTO-type statement:


title: Esoteric programming language

text: Unlambda is a minimalist functional programming language based on SKI calculus, but combined with first-class continuations and imperative I/O (with input usually requiring the use of continuations).


title: Esoteric programming language

text: Whitespace uses only whitespace characters (space, tab, and return), ignoring all other characters, which can therefore be used for comments. This is the reverse of many traditional languages, which do not distinguish between different whitespace characters, treating tab and space the same. It also allows Whitespace programs to be hidden in the source code of programs in languages like C.


title: Esoteric programming language

text: The cultural context of esolangs has been studied by Geoff Cox, who writes that esolangs "shift attention from command and control toward cultural expression and refusal", seeing esolangs as similar to code art and code poetry, such as Mez Breeze's mezangelle. Daniel Temkin describes Brainfuck as "refusing to ease the boundary between human expression and assembly code and thereby taking us on a ludicrous journey of logic," exposing the inherent conflict between human thinking and computer logic. He connects programming within an esolang to performing an event score such as those of the Fluxus movement, where playing out the rules of the logic in code makes the point of view of the language clear.


title: Circuit de la Sarthe

text: The Circuit des 24 Heures du Mans, also known as Circuit de la Sarthe (after the 1906 French Grand Prix triangle circuit) located in Le Mans, Sarthe, France, is a semi-permanent motorsport race course, chiefly known as the venue for the 24 Hours of Le Mans auto race. Comprising private, race-specific sections of track in addition to public roads which remain accessible most of the year, its present configuration is long, making it one of the longest circuits in the world. The capacity of the race stadium, where the short "Bugatti Circuit" is situated, is 100,000. The Musée des 24 Heures du Mans is a motorsport museum located at the main entrance of the venue.


title: Circuit de la Sarthe

text: Up to 85% of the lap time is spent on full throttle, putting immense stress on engine and drivetrain components. Additionally, the times spent reaching maximum speed also mean tremendous wear on the brakes and suspension as cars must slow from over to around for the sharp corner at the village of Mulsanne.


title: Circuit de la Sarthe

text: The road racing track, which was a triangle from Le Mans down south to Mulsanne, northwest to Arnage, and back north to Le Mans, has undergone many modifications over the years, with "CIRCUIT N°15" being in use since 2018. Even with the modifications put in place over the years, the Sarthe circuit is still known for being very fast, with prototype cars achieving average lap speeds in excess of .


title: Circuit de la Sarthe

text: In the 1920s, the cars drove from the present pits on "Rue de Laigné" straight into the city, and after a sharp right-hand corner near the river Huisne Pontlieue bridge (a hairpin permanently removed from the circuit in 1929), before exiting the city again on the rather straight section now named "Avenue Georges Durand" after the race's founder. Then long and unpaved, a bypass within the city shortened the track in 1929, but the city was only bypassed completely in 1932, when the section from the pits via the Dunlop Bridge and the Esses to Tertre Rouge was added. This classic configuration was long and remained almost unaltered even after the 1955 tragedy. Its frighteningly narrow pit straight was further narrowed to make room for the pits and was part of the road itself, without the road becoming wider around the pits, and no separation. The pit straight then was about wide, further widened in 1956 after the tragedy, but the race track and pits were not separated for another 15 years.


title: Circuit de la Sarthe

text: Car speeds increased dramatically in the 1960s, pushing the limits of the "classic circuit" and sparking criticism of the track as being unsafe after several trials related fatalities occurred. In 1965, a smaller, but permanent, Bugatti Circuit was added which shares the pit lane facilities and the first corner (including the famous Dunlop bridge) with the full "Le Mans" circuit. For the 1968 race, the Ford chicane was added before the pits to slow down the cars. The circuit was fitted with Armco for the 1969 race. The "Maison Blanche" kink was particularly harrowing, claiming many cars over the years (including three Ferrari 512 variants) and several lives, including the legendary John Woolfe in 1969 behind the wheel of a 917 Porsche. The circuit has been modified ten more times — 1971, a year when prototypes were averaging over , was the last year the classic circuit was used. That year, Armco was added to the pit straight to separate the track from the pits. In 1972, the race track was considerably revamped, at a cost of 300 million francs, with modification of the pit area and the first and final straights, the addition of the quick Porsche curves bypassing "Maison Blanche", the signalling area was moved to the exit of the slow Mulsanne corner, and the track was resurfaced.


title: Circuit de la Sarthe

text: In 1979, due to the construction of a new public road, the profile of "Tertre Rouge" had to be changed. This redesign led to a faster double-apex corner and saw the removal of the second Dunlop Bridge. In 1986, construction of a new roundabout at the Mulsanne corner demanded the addition a new portion of track in order to avoid the roundabout. This created a right hand kink prior to Mulsanne corner. In 1987, a chicane was added to the very fast Dunlop curve, where cars would go under the Dunlop bridge at . Now they would be slowed to .


title: Circuit de la Sarthe

text: Le Mans was most famous for its long straight, called "Ligne Droite des Hunaudières", a part of the "route départementale" (for the Sarthe "département") D338 (formerly Route Nationale N138). As the Hunaudières leads to the village of Mulsanne, it is often called the "Mulsanne Straight" in English, even though the proper "Route du Mulsanne" is the one from or to Arnage.


title: Circuit de la Sarthe

text: After exiting the Tertre Rouge corner, cars spent almost half of the lap at full throttle, before braking for Mulsanne Corner. The Porsche 917 "long tail", used from 1969 to 1971, had reached . After engine size was limited, the top speed dropped until powerful turbo engines were allowed, like in the 1978 Porsche 935, which was clocked at . Speeds on the straight by the Group C prototypes reached over during the late 1980s. At the beginning of the 1988 24 Hours of Le Mans race, Roger Dorchy driving for Welter Racing in a "Project 400" car, which sacrificed reliability for speed, was clocked by radar travelling at . Jean-Louis Lafosse and Jo Gartner would ultimately suffer from fatal high speed accidents in 1981 and 1986, respectively, leading to concerns with the growing speeds on the straight.


title: Circuit de la Sarthe

text: As the combination of high speed and high downforce caused tyre and engine failures, two roughly equally spaced chicanes were consequently added to the Mulsanne Straight before the 1990 race to limit the maximum achievable speed. The chicanes were also added because the FIA decreed it would no longer sanction a circuit which had a straight longer than , which is roughly the length of the "Döttinger Höhe" straight at the Nürburgring Nordschleife. The fastest qualifying lap average speed though only dropped from in 1992. In 1994, the Dunlop chicane was tightened.


title: Circuit de la Sarthe

text: In 2002, the run to the Esses was reconfigured in the wake of renovations to the Bugatti Circuit. The Le Mans circuit was changed between the Dunlop Bridge and Esses, with the straight now becoming a set of fast sweeping turns. This layout allowed for a better transition from the Le Mans circuit to the Bugatti circuit. This layout change would also require the track's infamous carnival to be relocated near the Porsche curves, and in 2006, the ACO redeveloped the area between the Dunlop Curve and Tertre Rouge, moving the Dunlop Chicane in even tighter to create more run-off area, while also turning the area after the Dunlop Chicane into an even larger set of fast, sweeping turns, known as the Esses en route to Tertre Rouge. As part of the development, a new extended pit lane exit was created for the Bugatti Circuit. This second pit exit re-enters the track just beyond the Dunlop Chicane and before the Dunlop Bridge.


title: Circuit de la Sarthe

text: Following the fatal crash of Danish driver Allan Simonsen at the 2013 race at the exit of Tertre Rouge into D338, Tertre Rouge was re-profiled again. The radius will be moved in approximately for safety reasons with new tyre barriers at the exit. The current version of the track has been in use since 2018.


title: Circuit de la Sarthe

text: The official fastest race lap records at the Circuit de la Sarthe for different classes are listed as:


title: Circuit de la Sarthe

text: In 1988, Team WM Peugeot were well aware of their slim chance of winning the 24-hour endurance race outright, but they knew that their Welter Racing designed car had exceptional straight line aerodynamics. Thus they nicknamed their 1988 entry "Project 400" (aiming to be the first car to achieve a speed of on the famous straight), although the official team entry was named WM Secateva.


title: Circuit de la Sarthe

text: Roger Dorchy and Claude Haldi would be the drivers of car 51 while Pascal Pessiot and Jean-Daniel Raulet would drive the team's other car (#52). The latter lasted only 22 laps, and car 51 went into the pits around 17:00 in the afternoon with engine problems. After spending 3.5 hours in the pits, the team had the car back on the track and they decided to go for it. The plan worked: with Roger Dorchy behind the wheel the WM P87 achieved the speed of . The Peugeot retired shortly after that (on lap 59) with an overheating engine. By then it had outlasted two other Group C1 entrants.


title: Circuit de la Sarthe

text: Since Peugeot had just launched its new model 405, the team agreed to advertise the new record as "405". This has led to many people mistakenly stating the record as only , but Dorchy's best run down the Mulsanne straight was clocked at .


title: Circuit de la Sarthe

text: Bugatti Circuit is a permanent race track located within Circuit des 24 Heures, constructed in 1965 and named after Ettore Bugatti. The circuit uses a part of the larger circuit and a separate, purpose-built section. The sections of track on the Bugatti Circuit that are on the Circuit des 24 Heures include the Ford Chicane at the end of the lap, the pit complex, and the straight where the Dunlop Tyres bridge is located. At this point in the overlapping section of the tracks there is a left-right sweep that was added for motorcycle safety in 2002. Vehicles turning to the left continue onto the Circuit des 24 Heures, toward Tertre Rouge and Mulsanne, vehicles turning to the right at La Chapelle will continue the Bugatti Circuit. The infield section features Garage Vert, a back straight, the 'S' du Garage Bleu, and Raccordement, which joins back at the Ford chicane.


title: Circuit de la Sarthe

text: The track was home base for Pescarolo Sport, founded by famous French driver Henri Pescarolo. The circuit currently hosts the 24 Hours of Le Mans motorcycle race, and a round of the MotoGP Championship. The circuit also holds French motor club races and in the past has hosted rounds of the International Formula 3000 Championship and DTM (German Touring Car series).


title: Circuit de la Sarthe

text: In addition to motor racing, it is the venue for the 24 rollers, a 24h race on inline skates or quads.


title: Circuit de la Sarthe

text: The Bugatti Circuit was used for the 1967 French Grand Prix, though it would prove to be the only time the Formula One World Championship would use the circuit, and is the current host of the French motorcycle Grand Prix. It also forms the final round of the FIA European Truck Racing Championship, and was part of the World Series by Renault and 1988 Superbike World Championship seasons.


title: Circuit de la Sarthe

text: Météo France runs a weather station in Le Mans, which exhibits an oceanic climate (Köppen "Cfb"). With both the 24-hour races and the French MotoGP round being run before the peak of summer, high-profile races often have cool temperatures both in terms of ambient and track conditions with rainfall being a potential factor. Although nights cool off, sometimes into the single-digits, during the 24-hour car race, air frosts have never been recorded in June.


title: Bachna Ae Haseeno

text: Bachna Ae Haseeno () is a 2008 Indian Hindi-language romantic comedy film directed by Siddharth Anand, whose previous projects included "Salaam Namaste" (2005) and "Ta Ra Rum Pum" (2007). Produced by Yash Raj Films, the film stars Ranbir Kapoor, Bipasha Basu, Deepika Padukone and Minissha Lamba in lead roles. The title of the film was taken from the popular song "Bachna Ae Haseeno" from "Hum Kisise Kum Naheen" (1977), which starred Kapoor's father Rishi Kapoor.


title: Bachna Ae Haseeno

text: "Bachna Ae Haseeno" released on 15 August 2008 on the eve of the 51st Indian Independence Day and grossed ₹61.57 crore worldwide, thus becoming the eighth-highest grossing Hindi film of 2008. It received mixed-to-positive reviews from critics upon release, who praised its soundtrack, cinematography and costumes, along with major praise directed towards Basu's performance.


title: Bachna Ae Haseeno

text: At the 54th Filmfare Awards, "Bachna Ae Haseeno" received 3 nominations – Best Supporting Actress (Basu), Best Male Playback Singer (KK for "Khuda Jaane") and Best Female Playback Singer (Shilpa Rao for "Khuda Jaane").


title: Bachna Ae Haseeno

text: Raj Sharma is a young playboy who meets three young women at different stages in his life and learns important lessons about love along the way. As the story opens in 2008, it leads to a series of flashbacks over how he has grown to see through life.


title: Bachna Ae Haseeno

text: On a trip to Switzerland with his friends, Raj runs into Mahi Pasricha on the Eurail, who is on vacation with her friends and family. Mahi is a sweet, dreamy girl who believes in true love and is hoping to find her 'Raj' (a reference to "Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge" (1995)) i.e. her true love. When she misses her train, Raj helps her reach the airport through a different route. On the way, they share a kiss after Raj reads her a poem he wrote about her. At the airport, when she opens the paper on which Raj had written the poem, she finds it blank. Raj boasts to his friends about what happened between the pair and how he took full advantage of the situation when she was alone. Mahi overhears this and is shocked and heartbroken. Raj realizes that she has overheard his conversation with his friends and shamefacedly leaves.


title: Bachna Ae Haseeno

text: 6 years after the Switzerland episode, Raj has moved to Mumbai and found a job with Microsoft as a game designer with his best friend Sachin Kulkarni. Pretty soon, he enters into a live-in relationship with neighbor Radhika Kapoor, an aspiring model. Having received an offer to move to Sydney for a Halo 3 game launch, he expects to be able to leave Radhika and move on, assuming she is capable of handling a break-up. This vision is shattered when Radhika declares that she intends to sacrifice her career to marry Raj and join him in Australia. He makes up reasons to Radhika so as to prevent them from getting married, but she remains firm. Raj, unable to express his commitment phobia, boards his flight on the morning of his wedding to Radhika. Radhika learns this while waiting for him at the registrar's office dressed as a bride, and is left crestfallen and heartbroken.


title: Bachna Ae Haseeno

text: 5 years down the line, Raj now enjoys a successful career along with Sachin in Sydney. He meets Gayatri Joshi, a feisty and independent woman who studies at business school during the day, and moonlights as a taxi-driver at night. As they date, he gains feelings for her. He also realizes that his feelings for her challenge his misgivings towards commitment. He proposes to her, but Gayatri turns him down, saying that she is happy with her life as she is and she doesn't believe in marriage and commitment.


title: Bachna Ae Haseeno

text: Rejection cuts Raj deep. He recalls when he broke the hearts of Mahi and Radhika, realizing how they must have felt. He decides to seek them out and ask for forgiveness.


title: Bachna Ae Haseeno

text: On his return to India, in Amritsar, in 2008, Raj first seeks out Mahi, who is now married and has two sons. Her husband Joginder "Jogi" Singh Ahluwalia recognizes Raj from the Switzerland episode and knocks him out. He blames Raj for Mahi no longer believing in love or romance because of him, although he explains that she is a perfect wife and has a perfect home and family. Firm in his decision not to leave without being forgiven, he befriends Jogi's friend Karan Bahl, who is set to be married. At Karan's "sangeet" ceremony, Raj apologizes to Mahi and convinces her that Jogi is her true love, while also reconciling with the Pasrichas in the process. She opens up to Jogi and forgives Raj.


title: Bachna Ae Haseeno

text: Raj then searches for Radhika and discovers that she has changed her name to Shreya Rathore and has become a successful supermodel. Raj tries to meet Shreya at an event but she ignores him. Shreya then flies to Capri, Italy for a vacation and Raj follows her there. Raj finally meets Shreya but she refuses to accept his apologies and tells him that if he really wants her forgiveness, he will have to work for it. Willing to do this, Raj becomes her personal assistant and she makes him do all sorts of tasks, even serving at parties. She humiliates him on every occasion, but he remains firm, serving without complaint. She finally gives up and tells him how hurt she had felt back then, and asks him to leave. However, before Raj goes home, she arrives and tells him that she realized that the root of her frustration was bottled-up hate against him that she no longer bears. She then forgives him as he leaves.


title: Bachna Ae Haseeno

text: Content, Raj returns to Australia. On his return, he finds a pile of letters from Gayatri, written over the six months he was gone. Raj meets Gayatri in her taxi. She regrets turning him down. The lovers reconcile and confess their love.


title: Bachna Ae Haseeno

text: In April 2007, sources indicated that director Siddharth Anand had signed for the main lead in his next film. However, after saying the news was "mere speculation" and "absolutely untrue," Anand later confirmed that Kapoor was starring in his film.


title: Bachna Ae Haseeno

text: Anand was also in talks with the actresses Preity Zinta, Bipasha Basu and Deepika Padukone for the roles in question, but indicated that "it wouldn't be right to reveal their names till we sign them on the dotted line." In June 2007, Katrina Kaif and Deepika Padukone were finalised to play two of the leading ladies, but the former's role was later removed from the script due to the film's story becoming too long. Actress Amrita Rao was also considered to play one of the leading ladies, but opted out.


title: Bachna Ae Haseeno

text: The heroines share very limited time on screen together, and therefore most of their parts were filmed separately. Basu's portions were filmed in Mumbai, India and Capri, Italy. Padukone's portions were filmed in Sydney, while the song "Khuda Jaane" was shot at multiple locations in Italy, including Venice, Alberobello, Santa Cesarea Terme, Mattinata, Apulia, Naples, and Capri. Lamba's portions, inspired by Aditya Chopra's "Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge" (1995), were filmed in the similar locales of Amritsar and Switzerland.


title: Bachna Ae Haseeno

text: Kapoor's look in the film was styled by Aki Narula, which changed with time. In the title track, Kapoor had at least 10 wardrobe changes in a single shot. Though he found styling for 3 lead actresses' characters exciting and challenging, as all play different types who enter into Kapoor's life at different times, so he ensured that the styling was unique without any overlapping.


title: Bachna Ae Haseeno

text: Since two of the film's characters work for Microsoft Game Studios, plenty of video games released by them are referenced. In addition, nearly all of the films referenced are releases from Yash Raj Films, with the notable exception of "Hum Kisise Kum Naheen" (1977).


title: Bachna Ae Haseeno

text: Continuing the tradition of showcasing the first look of their upcoming films with their latest release, Yash Raj Films showcased the first teaser-trailer of the film on 25 April 2008 with the release of Vijay Krishna Acharya's "Tashan" and the official trailer of the film was released on 27 June 2008 with the release of Kunal Kohli's "Thoda Pyaar Thoda Magic".


title: Bachna Ae Haseeno

text: Yash Raj Films usually does not spend much money on promotion. However, it made an exception with "Bachna Ae Haseeno". Instead of the usual promotion 2–3 weeks before a film release, the production house planned a new strategy with promotional activities taking place over a span of 2 months.


title: Bachna Ae Haseeno

text: There are seven tracks in the movie including a remix version. The album entered the Top 3 of the music charts within a couple of days of its arrival on the stands. The lyrics of all the songs are written by Anvita Dutt Guptan, while the title track features lyrics by Majrooh Sultanpuri along with Guptan. According to the Indian trade website "Box Office India", with around units sold, this film's soundtrack album was the year's sixth highest-selling, with the songs "Khuda Jaane" and "Bachna Ae Haseeno" being popular among the masses.


title: Alyssa Edwards

text: Justin Dwayne Lee Johnson (born January 16, 1980), best known by the stage name Alyssa Edwards, is an American drag performer, choreographer, and businessperson. Edwards was known for competing in drag pageantry (notably Miss Gay America 2010) before rising to international attention as a contestant on the fifth season of "RuPaul's Drag Race", becoming a fan favorite during and after her time on the show. Edwards subsequently appeared on the second season of "RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars" and starred in her own web series, "Alyssa's Secret".


title: Alyssa Edwards

text: Johnson lives in Mesquite, Texas, where he owns and operates a dance studio, Beyond Belief Dance Company. Johnson and his dance studio are the centerpieces of a docuseries, "Dancing Queen", produced by RuPaul and World of Wonder that premiered on October 5, 2018 on Netflix.


title: Alyssa Edwards

text: Johnson performs under the stage name Alyssa Edwards. She chose her name in homage to Alyssa Milano and to her drag mother Laken Edwards, a former drag queen. Edwards is part of the drag family "the Haus of Edwards," and serves as drag mother to fellow "RuPaul's Drag Race" contestants Shangela Laquifa Wadley, Laganja Estranja, Gia Gunn, Vivienne Pinay, and Plastique Tiara. Edwards was one of the judges of the 2010 California Entertainer of the Year pageant, where Shangela won.


title: Alyssa Edwards

text: Edwards appeared in the 2008 documentary "Pageant". The film focused on the 34th Miss Gay America pageant of 2006. On December 9, 2010, Edwards was stripped of her 2010 Miss Gay America title for having business dealings in conflict with obligations to the Miss Gay America organization. First alternate Coco Montrese replaced Edwards as the winner of Miss Gay America. That same year, Edwards was also stripped of her title as All American Goddess.


title: Alyssa Edwards

text: In November 2012, Logo announced that Edwards was among 14 drag queens who would be competing on the fifth season of "RuPaul's Drag Race". Also performing on the show was pageant friend and rival Coco Montrese.


title: Alyssa Edwards

text: Edwards performed and won in the ballet-themed main challenge in the "Black Swan: Why It Gotta Be Black?" episode of Rupaul's Drag Race. As part of the show, Edwards sang on the "We Are the World"-inspired song "Can I Get an Amen?" The song's proceeds helped benefit the Los Angeles Gay and Lesbian Center. Edwards was eliminated in episode nine, following a lip sync against Coco Montrese, and finished in sixth place. Edwards has also been a special guest on the podcast series run by RuPaul and Michelle Visage called ""


title: Alyssa Edwards

text: Edwards is also known for her web series titled "Alyssa's Secret". The series stars Alyssa Edwards speaking on a multitude of subjects and often features guests including other members of the Haus of Edwards. The webseries is produced and premieres through World of Wonder Productions.


title: Alyssa Edwards

text: In 2016, Edwards returned as one of 10 contestants in "Season 2 of RuPaul's Drag Race: All Stars", ending in fifth place. Edwards won the main challenge of the third episode titled "Herstory of the World", playing Annie Oakley in a performance featuring other famous women throughout history. She was then eliminated in episode four "Drag Movie Shequels", after playing Bland in "Wha' Ha' Happened to Baby JJ", a parody of "What Ever Happened to Baby Jane?", with Alaska as Baby JJ.


title: Alyssa Edwards

text: Edwards returned in episode five "Revenge of the Queens" by winning a chance to reenter the competition, winning a comedy challenge with Alaska followed by a lip sync of Rihanna's "Shut Up and Drive", in which both Edwards and Tatianna won. Edwards was then controversially eliminated a second time by Detox in episode seven "A Family that Drags Together", coming in fifth place overall.


title: Alyssa Edwards

text: In Episode 2 of All Stars 5, Alyssa made a guest appearance as a "Lip Sync Assassin", where she lip-synced against Shea Couleé, but lost.


title: Alyssa Edwards

text: Edwards was shortlisted for the fourth season of "RuPaul's Drag Race" but was cast as an alternate and instead was on the fifth season of "RuPaul's Drag Race".


title: Alyssa Edwards

text: Edwards appeared on the tenth season of "RuPaul's Drag Race" as a choreographer for PharmaRusical and on the seventh episode of the eleventh season of "RuPaul's Drag Race" as a runway coach. In June 2019, a panel of judges from "New York" magazine placed her fifth on their list of "the most powerful drag queens in America", a ranking of 100 former "RuPaul's Drag Race" contestants.


title: Alyssa Edwards

text: In 2021 Edwards appeared on the 16th season of "America's Got Talent", accompanying members of Beyond Belief as they auditioned for a spot in the competition.


title: Alyssa Edwards

text: In June 2021 Edwards had a one-woman show on London's West End entitled "Alyssa: Memoirs of a Queen". The autobiographical show ran for eight performances, featuring tales from her childhood to "reality TV apotheosis".


title: Hot Rod (2007 film)

text: Hot Rod is a 2007 American comedy film directed by Akiva Schaffer (in his directorial debut) and written by Pam Brady. The film stars Andy Samberg as amateur stuntman Rod Kimble, whose stepfather, Frank (Ian McShane), continuously mocks and disrespects him. When Frank becomes ill, Rod raises money for his heart operation by executing his largest stunt yet. The film also stars Jorma Taccone, Sissy Spacek, Will Arnett, Danny McBride, Isla Fisher and Bill Hader.


title: Hot Rod (2007 film)

text: The film was initially drafted by Pam Brady (who retains full writing credit) as a vehicle for "Saturday Night Live" star Will Ferrell, but the project never commenced. Lorne Michaels convinced Paramount to let The Lonely Island, which was gaining fame for its work on "SNL", take over the film. The group subsequently rewrote the movie with a heavy emphasis on offbeat surreal humor. It was shot in Vancouver in the summer of 2006. The score is by former Yes guitarist Trevor Rabin, and the soundtrack features several songs by the Swedish rock band Europe.


title: Hot Rod (2007 film)

text: Paramount Pictures released "Hot Rod" on August 3, 2007. It was a box-office failure, grossing only $14 million on a $25 million budget. As its producers predicted, it received mixed reviews, with critics criticizing the film's script and humor. It has become a popular cult film on home video.


title: Hot Rod (2007 film)

text: Throughout his life, Rod Kimble has believed his dead father was a successful and respectable stuntman working for Evel Knievel. He aspires to follow in his father's footsteps and become a famous stuntman himself. Meanwhile, his stepfather, Frank, does not respect Rod as a man, often going out of his way to beat him in sparring sessions and mocking his stuntman dreams. Rod makes many attempts to land jumps with his Tomos moped, most of them unsuccessful. After another failed jump attempt at a public pool, he returns home and learns that Frank is in urgent need of a heart transplant that the family's health insurance will not cover. Angered at the thought of Frank dying without getting a chance to gain his respect, Rod runs into the woods to let out his fury and tumbles down a steep hill, where he sees an inspirational billboard and gets an idea. Rod quickly meets with his childhood friends Rico and Dave and his half-brother Kevin, and tells them he plans to jump over 15 school buses and use the proceeds to fund Frank's surgery. Later, Denise, his neighbor and love interest, joins his team.


title: Hot Rod (2007 film)

text: To promote his stunt and raise funds, Rod works parties, corporate get-togethers, and other events, performing activities such as taping pillows to his body and having a washing machine suspended by a crane swing to hit him. One day, he gets curious about what Kevin is working on as he hears music coming from his computer. Kevin says he was experimenting with editing footage, and shows Rod the video. Impressed by Kevin's work, Rod gets the idea to release a stuntman film to raise money. Kevin releases the movie using his footage of Rod's stunts and sells several tickets to the screening, where the audience laughs at Rod as the film depicts his failed training attempts. Rod gets angry and throws the theater's projector out of a window, smashing the projectionist's car below. He gives the projectionist all the money he has raised to cover the damages and avoid arrest. Upset, he returns home, where his mother reveals that his biological father was not the stuntman he thought he was. Humiliated, Rod quits the team and his dream to beat Frank, despite his friends' objections, but is reinvigorated when Dave gives him advice that inspires him to apologize to Kevin. As Kevin accepts his apology, he reveals that Rod's stunt footage has grown popular online and that a show on a local AM radio station, hosted by Barry Pasternak, has offered to cover the planned jump's expenses.


title: Hot Rod (2007 film)

text: Rod gets his friends back together, and they start setting up for the jump. On the day of the event, his friends give him a new suit, a rock representing Rico's extensive pyrotechnic work, and a motorbike. He also receives a kiss from Denise, who broke up with Jonathan, her insensitive and callous boyfriend. As Rod jumps off the ramp, his bike's speed enables him to jump over the buses, but the motorcycle smashes through a stage and goes flying. Rod lands squarely on the ground and has an unconscious out-of-body experience. When he wakes, Rod, with Kevin and Denise's help, triumphantly gets up to applause and sees that the donations have accumulated over $50,000. Six months later, Rod once again spars with Frank, finally gaining the upper hand and Frank's respect.


title: Hot Rod (2007 film)

text: "Hot Rod" was written by Pam Brady, a former "South Park" writer, as a project for Will Ferrell during his tenure at "Saturday Night Live". The project never commenced, and the script remained in limbo at Paramount Pictures for several years. In the meantime, The Lonely Island was hired at "SNL" in 2005, and by the end of the year, it had a breakthrough with its short "Lazy Sunday." The sketch, an "SNL Digital Short," received millions of views online (especially on the then-fledgling YouTube), making the trio, especially Samberg, stars. Lorne Michaels, "SNL"'s creator, convinced Paramount to allow the troupe to direct and star in the film. The trio had no prior experience with feature-length films, but Michaels had confidence, envisioning the film as a "different generation's comedy." The studio wanted the film to remain less coarse to obtain a PG-13 rating from the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA), like "" (2004).


title: Hot Rod (2007 film)

text: Initially reluctant, as the script was designed for Ferrell and the summer filming schedule was less than ideal, Paramount authorized a rewrite, allowing the writers to incorporate bizarre, offbeat humor and absurdist comedy. The script had to "match their standards"—"another way of saying, 'just dumb it down'", said Schaffer. This involved deleting comedy designed for Ferrell (which Samberg called "so well-written") and replacing it with their own. "We didn't want it to seem like I was doing a Ferrell impression," said Samberg. The result was a balance between "weird" humor and what Paramount considered accessible. Samberg was inspired by "Wet Hot American Summer", which was, according to him, "designed to fuck around with what's expected from a movie." Many jokes from the film deemed "too weird" were cut, including a scene in which Rod "jokingly," asks his younger brother Kevin to pull out his genitalia. Samberg aimed for a performance that was:


title: Hot Rod (2007 film)

text: "Hot Rod" was largely filmed in Vancouver in the summer of 2006. Shooting locations include Cloverdale, British Columbia, and under the Surrey end of the Pattullo Bridge southeast of Vancouver. Other locations in British Columbia include Coquitlam, North Vancouver, Burnaby and Downtown Vancouver. Samberg had a stunt double, but did as many of his own stunts as was allowed.


title: Hot Rod (2007 film)

text: The MPAA objected to using the word "semen" in a scene in which Chris Parnell reveals a profane tattoo on his stomach. It was changed to "residue." Another scene that barely made it into the film involved Samberg and Taccone repeating the phrase "cool beans" until it evolves into a "bizarre pseudo-rap." Schaffer initially cut the scene, but Samberg and Taccone edited it themselves. Schaffer reinserted the scene in the film's last test screening, where it received high marks from audiences as one of their favorite bits. The film's original poster featured a silhouetted Samberg atop a hill beside his motorbike in a martial-arts pose. Paramount changed the poster to a large close-up of Samberg's face.


title: Hot Rod (2007 film)

text: Before its release, the Lonely Island promoted the film with interstitials during Comedy Central movie marathons. In the promos, the trio attempt to convince viewers that "Hot Rod" is the story of a sex offender ("He does stunts to raise money to sex-offend") and spoof the quality of films run during daytime marathons ("Stay tuned for "Teen Wolf Too"!"). The premiere was at the John Ford Amphitheatre in Los Angeles.


title: Hot Rod (2007 film)

text: Samberg predicted the film would not do well, telling "Entertainment Weekly", "It will get bad reviews. Comedy is traditionally not reviewed that well." He added that if future generations viewed "Hot Rod" with a similar reverence to films such as "Billy Madison", he would consider it a success.


title: Hot Rod (2007 film)

text: The film opened at #9 at the U.S. box office in 2007 and grossed $5.3 million in its opening weekend. Overall, it bombed in theaters, leaving after 68 days, grossing just under $14 million.


title: Hot Rod (2007 film)

text: "Hot Rod" received mixed reviews from film critics upon its initial release. On Metacritic, it has an average score of 43 out of 100, based on 27 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews". On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a score of 39% from 117 reviews, with an average rating of 4.92/10. The site's consensus reads ""Hot Rod" has brazen silliness and a few humorous set pieces on its side, but it's far too inconsistent to satisfy all but the least demanding slapstick lovers". After its release, "Paper" wrote, "Depending on whom you talk to, "Hot Rod" is either a terrible stinker or a really strange and wonderful movie that you can't believe they got away with making." Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of B− on an A+ to F scale.


title: Hot Rod (2007 film)

text: "The Hollywood Reporter" Frank Scheck criticized the film's "formulaic" script and humor, but commended Samberg's "reasonably engaging and sweet comedic screen presence." "No one seems to have told the Lonely Island boys that the stakes are a little higher in features than they are in music videos and that underlighted shots and sloppy editing are more distracting on the big screen than on television," wrote Marjorie Baumgarten of "The Austin Chronicle". Wesley Morris of "The Boston Globe" called the film "playfully dumb," commenting, "The filmmakers [...] have skipped right past the kitsch of tribute and gone straight for jokey delusion [...] And in that sense, "Hot Rod" is post-parody, taking nothing seriously, not even being a movie." Peter Travers of "Rolling Stone" wrote, "The film's low-key "Wayne's World" vibe takes it only so far. I laughed, then I wished it was funnier, then I just wished it would end. Peter Debruge of "Variety" called the movie "yet another example of a comedy that refuses to be taken seriously—concept as clothesline for all manner of silliness." Nick Schager of "Slant Magazine" noted that the trio "care far less about clever plotting than random ridiculousness," deeming the film "a tired rehash of every SNL alum's big-screen debut since Adam Sandler's "Billy Madison"."


title: Hot Rod (2007 film)

text: For their part, the film's producers remained optimistic about the movie in the press. "The movies I've always liked, comedy-wise—"Billy Madison", "The Jerk"—always got terrible reviews. When our reviews came in, it was like, 'Oh, we're right on track,'" said Samberg.


title: Hot Rod (2007 film)

text: "The A.V. Club" later wrote that the film differentiated itself from other Michaels comedies: "They may be just as poorly received, but their rhythms are unpredictable and exciting, shocked to life by moments of anti-comedy and wacky deconstruction. Hardcore comedy devotees pick up on them like a dog whistle."


title: Hot Rod (2007 film)

text: "Hot Rod" was released on Region One DVD and HD DVD on November 27, 2007, and in Region Two in January 2008. It made $24 million on DVD rentals in the United States—46% over its box office gross. It was released on Blu-ray Disc on December 16, 2008, but the disc went out of print on October 11, 2009. The DVD remained in print. Warner Bros. re-released the Blu-ray, which remains in print as part of its deal to distribute Paramount titles.


title: Hot Rod (2007 film)

text: The soundtrack was composed by ex-Yes guitarist Trevor Rabin. Several songs by the Swedish rock band Europe are in the movie, including "Cherokee" and "Rock the Night." The trailer contains three Swedish rock songs, Europe's "Cherokee" and "The Final Countdown", and The Hives' "See Through Head". It also includes the UK rock band Test Icicles' "Circle. Square. Triangle" as well as American Hi-Fi's "The Art of Losing." The band called Gown that plays at Rod's final jump is actually Queens of the Stone Age.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: London has, in recent decades, become one of the most ethnically diverse cities in the world. Over 300 languages are spoken in Greater London.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: At the 2021 census, London had a population of 8,799,720. Around 37% of the population were born outside the UK.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: Whites form a majority of London's population and are evenly spread. Bromley has the highest White British population as well as highest total White, while Newham has the lowest for both. Brent has the highest White Irish population, while Bexley has the highest White Gypsy/Irish Traveller population and Haringey has the highest for Other White (non-British/Irish/Gypsy/Irish Traveller white).


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: At the 2011 census, the total Black population of London stood at 1,101,688. This is a rise of 39% from the 2001 census, when the population stood at 781,751.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: Inner London and Outer London have a near-equal black population. The 2011 census is the first time that the black population in Outer London has overtaken that of Inner London:


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: The black population of London is noticeably concentrated in South London, with the four boroughs with the highest black populations overall all south of the river, and Greenwich also featuring inside the top 10. Southwark has the highest Black African population, Croydon has the highest Black Caribbean population, and Lambeth has the highest total black population in London. In Southwark, Greenwich and Newham, the Black African population is significantly higher than Black Caribbean; conversely, Lewisham and Brent are almost balanced, and Croydon is the only borough where the Black Caribbean population exceeds the Black African one.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: The twenty London boroughs with the highest total Black population (Black African, Black Caribbean and Other Black) are listed below:


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: At the 2011 census, the total Asian population of London stood at 1,511,546. This is a rise of 60% from the 2001 census, when the population stood at 947,425.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: The Asian population of London is noticeably concentrated in East and West London. Harrow has the highest Indian population, Redbridge has the highest Pakistani population, Tower Hamlets has the highest Bangladeshi population and Barnet has the highest Chinese population. Newham has the highest total Asian population in London. The twenty London boroughs with the highest total Asian population (Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi, Chinese and Other Asian) are listed below.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: At the 2011 census, 36.7% of London's population was foreign born (including 24.5% born outside of Europe), with 3,082,000 residents born abroad in 2014. London has the largest population number (not percentage) of foreign-born residents of any UK city.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: Significant migration from Arab countries to the UK began in the 1940s, mostly by Egyptians. Other waves followed, such as Lebanese fleeing the civil war. The centre of London has a thriving Arab community, centred around Edgware Road.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: A major wave of immigration began in the 1970s, as people from the Sylhet Division arrived in London, fleeing poverty and the Bangladesh Liberation War. Many settled around Brick Lane (Banglatown), where they entered the textile trade. This trade has declined causing unemployment, but the community has moved into other businesses, including restaurants and banking. The level of immigration peaked in 1986 and has since entered a decline with the introduction of stricter immigration laws.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: The community remains concentrated around Bethnal Green and Whitechapel and has spread into other east London boroughs. London as a city is home to the single largest number of people of Bangladeshi origin outside of Bangladesh, with close to 200,000 individuals being of full Bangladeshi origin in 2007.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: The community also annually hosts Europe's largest outdoor Asian event known as the Boishakhi Mela as part of the Bengali New Year celebrations.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: Chinese people constitute the fourth largest Asian group in London (behind the Indians, Pakistanis and Bangladeshis respectively); numbering 114,800 in 2007, they are spread more or less across the entire city and have become successful in British life, especially when it comes to cuisine. The history of the Chinese in London is long and complex, with the first Chinese people arriving in the city in the 19th century as sailors.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: Fiona Moore, author of "The German School in London, UK: Fostering the Next Generation of National Cosmopolitans?", wrote that the London German community "relies on subtle network connections rather than the displaying of obvious membership traits", since London Germans attended the same churches, joined the same clubs, and sent their children to the same schools. According to Moore this aspect was likely influenced by the outcomes of World War I and World War II, resulting in encouragement for UK-based Germans "to try to blend in to a greater degree than elsewhere."


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: The German business and expatriate community is centred on the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames, which houses the German School London (DSL) and most German expatriates residing in London. Moore wrote that the borough "does not immediately show signs of hosting a German community" due to a lack of obvious German businesses and storefronts, but that most residents know of the location of the DSL and that there are "more subtle signs of German presence."


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: German expatriates are located throughout London. Some of them do not go to the Borough of Richmond upon Thames even though the centre of the German community is located there.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: Besides Nigerians, Ghanaians are one of the largest Black African groups in London, with the majority living in the boroughs of Southwark, Lambeth, Newham, Hackney, Haringey, Lewisham, Merton, Waltham Forest, Croydon, Enfield and Brent.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: According to the "History of London's Greek community" by Jonathan Harris, the Greek population of London numbered several thousand by 1870 AD whereas in 1850 AD it was just a few hundred. The 2001 Census recorded 12,360 Greek-born people living in London, with particular concentrations in the Hyde Park, Regent's Park, Chelsea and Kensington Census tracts.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: The Census tracts with the highest number of Cypriot-born people in 2001 were Palmers Green, Upper Edmonton, Cockfosters, Lower Edmonton, Tottenham North and Tottenham South. Many Greek-Cypriots reside in Wood Green, Harringay and Palmers Green, the latter harbouring the largest community of Greek-Cypriots outside Cyprus, resulting in these areas bearing local nicknames whereby the "Green" is replaced by "Greek" – as in "Greek Lanes" and "Palmers Greek".


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: According to a City of London Corporation sponsored report, there are between 280,600 and 310,000 Greek speakers in Greater London.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: The Greek Primary School of London and the Greek Secondary School of London both serve the community.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: British Indians have long been one of London's largest ethnic minority groups and in 2007 over 500,000 Indians were residing in London (this excludes people of half or less Indian origin). Around 7% of London's population is of Indian origin. Indians have been in the British capital for generations and come from all walks of life. They are influential in the city's culture and are major contributors to London's workforce and economy.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: Irish migration to Great Britain has a lengthy history due to the close proximity of, and complex relationship between, the islands of Ireland and Great Britain and the various political entities that have ruled them. Today, millions of residents of Great Britain are either from the island of Ireland or have Irish ancestry. Around six million Britons have an Irish grandfather or grandmother (approximately 10% of the UK population). 900,000 ethnic Irish people live in the capital (12% of the city's population); despite this, some sources put the population of people of Irish descent in London at 77% (some five and a half million people), although the White British and White Irish populations combined are less than this. The highest numbers of the Irish population is in the North and West London boroughs of Brent and Ealing.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: There are records that show black people, predominantly from Jamaica, living in London during the 17th and 18th centuries; but it was not until the arrival of the , on 22 June 1948, that significant numbers of Caribbeans, in particular Jamaicans, arrived in the capital. This has since become an important landmark in the history of modern multicultural Britain. During the post World War II era, the presence of the Caribbean Community was requested to help reconstruct the British economy. Employers such as British Rail, the NHS and London transport recruited almost exclusively from Jamaica. Some 250,000 Londoners are of Jamaican origin. Brixton and Harlesden are considered the community's cultural capitals.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: Junko Sakai, author of "", stated that there is no particular location for the Japanese community in London, but that the families of Japanese "company men" have a tendency of living in North London and West London. Japanese restaurants and shops are located around these groups of Japanese people.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: While Jews normally refer to followers of Judaism, they legally also count as an ethnicity and are considered so by some members. London has the second largest Jewish community in Europe after Paris, numbering some 160,000, particularly in North London. Districts with a high concentration include Finchley, Mill Hill, Edgware, Stanmore, Golders Green, Hendon, Hampstead Garden Suburb, Highgate, and further east the Hasidic-strong exclave in Stamford Hill & South Tottenham.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: As of 2014 there were about 10,000 ethnic Koreans in New Malden proper, and as of the same year the Korean population in the area around New Malden is around 20,000, including about 600 originating from North Korea, giving it the largest group of North Koreans in Europe. Many of the Koreans living in New Malden work for Korean companies, and they are either permanently settled and formerly expatriate, or they are still expatriates. In 2015 Paul Fischer of "The Independent" wrote that the North Koreans were insular, and that there were tensions between the South Korean majority and the North Koreans in New Malden.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: The New Malden area has Korean-language churches and nursery schools as well as restaurants and shops with Korean clientele. The area has Korean supermarkets, about 20 Korean restaurants and cafes, including those serving bulgogi. It also has a noraebang (Karaoke bar). The Korean language is visible on several shop signs. The original Embassy of South Korea to the United Kingdom is in Malden.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: Some factors cited in "The Telegraph" as reasons why the Korean community formed in New Malden included a 1950s joint venture partnership between a chaebol and Racal Avionics (formerly Dacca), Lord Chancellor's Walk in Coombe Lane West previously serving as the residence of the Ambassador of South Korea to the United Kingdom, and Samsung Electronics having its UK offices in New Malden until they moved to their current location in Chertsey, Surrey in 2005. Many Koreans settled in New Malden in the 1970s due to the ambassador's location.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: There is a newspaper published in New Malden, "Free NK", which is opposed to the government of North Korea.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: The Lithuanian community in London goes back to at least the early 20th century. Most of the community came in a wave of Eastern European immigration in the 2000s, after Lithuania joined the European Union.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: Most of London's Lithuanians live in the boroughs of Barking and Dagenham, Newham, Redbridge and Waltham Forest, with smaller numbers elsewhere. The main Lithuanian-speaking Roman Catholic church, St Casimir's, however, lies in Bethnal Green.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: London (in particular the southern boroughs) is home to the largest Nigerian community in the UK, and possibly the largest overseas Nigerian community in the world. The first recorded Nigerian in London was Olaudah Equiano who came to Britain after escaping from slavery over 200 years ago, becoming a member of the abolitionist Sons of Africa group.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: In the mid-20th century a wave of Nigerian immigrants came to London. Civil and political unrest in the country contributed to numerous refugees arriving in England. The vast majority of famous and notable British people of Nigerian origin were either born in or now live in London.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: Peckham (also known as Little Lagos and Yorubatown) is home to one of the largest overseas Nigerian communities in the world; many of the local establishments are Yoruba-owned. Nigerian churches and mosques can be found in the area. As immigrants become assimilated, English is becoming the predominant language of the local Nigerian British population. The Yoruba language is declining in use in the Peckham area despite the increasing Nigerian population. In 2001, about 7% of Peckham's population was born in Nigeria. A much larger proportion of the ward's 60% Black population is of Nigerian descent, as 40% are of other African descent.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: Pakistanis in London form the largest concentrated community of British Pakistanis; immigration from regions which now form Pakistan predate Pakistan's independence. The main concentrations of Pakistani settlement in London are found in Outer London with the boroughs of Redbridge, Newham and Waltham Forest accounting for nearly a third of Londoners of Pakistani descent.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: London has had a notable Polish community since the Second World War. Many of the migrants from Poland in the 1940s were soldiers and their families. The Polish Government in Exile was based in London until it was dissolved in 1991 following the restoration of democracy in Poland. In the 2000s a wave of Polish immigrants came to Britain, including London, after Poland joined the European Union. As of 2016, Poles now account for about 4.5 per cent of London's foreign-born population.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: The boroughs of Ealing, Enfield, Kensington and Chelsea, Haringey, Lambeth, Lewisham and Wandsworth have significant numbers of Poles living there. The Church of the Evangelist in Putney is one of several Polish-speaking Roman Catholic churches in London, and the Polish Social and Cultural Association in Hammersmith is the community's main centre. Polish-style shops, with their distinctive red and white signs accompanied by words in the Polish language, can be found in many parts of London.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: There has been a growing Romanian community in London since World War II. In the 2000s a wave of Romanian immigrants came to the UK, including London, after Romania joined the European Union.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: A particularly concentrated community exists in the Edgware-London suburb of Burnt Oak which has gained the nickname "Little Romania" or "Little Bucharest". Most Romanians belong to the Romanian Orthodox religion.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: There is a large Sri Lankan community in London. The population of Sri Lankans in London was 50,000 in 2001 and 84,000 in 2011. British Sri Lankans in London (mainly Tamils) can be found in Harrow (West London) and Tooting (South London). They have a long presence in the UK dating back to the colonial times in the 19th century. However, the majority came as refugees during the Sri Lankan Civil War.


title: Ethnic groups in London

text: London is home to the largest Turkish community in the UK. The boroughs of Enfield, Haringey and Hackney have a significant number of Turkish inhabitants. A large Turkish-cypriot community is also present in boroughs of South London such as Lambeth and Croydon.


title: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

text: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol synthesis. It results from the deficiency of one of the five enzymes required for the synthesis of cortisol in the adrenal cortex. Most of these disorders involve excessive or deficient production of hormones such as glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, or sex steroids, and can alter development of primary or secondary sex characteristics in some affected infants, children, or adults. It is one of the most common autosomal recessive disorders in humans.


title: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

text: CAH can occur in various forms. The clinical presentation of each form is different and depends to a large extent on the underlying enzyme defect, its precursor retention, and deficient products. Classical forms appear in infancy, and nonclassical forms appear in late childhood. The presentation in patients with classic CAH can be further subdivided into two forms: salt-wasting and simple-virilizing, depending on whether mineralocorticoid deficiency presents or absents, respectively. This subtyping is often not clinically meaningful, though, because all patients lose salt to some degree, and clinical presentations may overlap.


title: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

text: In 75% of cases of severe enzyme deficiency, insufficient aldosterone production can lead to salt wasting, failure to thrive, and potentially fatal hypovolemia and shock. A missed diagnosis of salt-loss CAH is related to the increased risk of early neonatal morbidity and death.


title: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

text: The main feature of CAH in newborn females is the abnormal development of the external genitalia, which has varying degrees of virilization. According to clinical practice guidelines, for newborns found to have bilateral inaccessible gonads, CAH evaluation should be considered. If virilizing CAH cannot be identified and treated, both boys and girls may undergo rapid postnatal growth and virilization.


title: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

text: In addition to the salt-wasting and simple-virilizing forms of CAH diagnosed in infancy, a mild or "nonclassic" form exists, which is characterized by varying degrees of postnatal androgen excess, but is sometimes asymptomatic. The nonclassic form may be noticed in late childhood and may lead to accelerated growth, premature sexual maturation, acne, and secondary polycystic ovary syndrome. In adult males, early balding and infertility may suggest the diagnosis. The nonclassic form is characterized by mild subclinical impairment of cortisol synthesis; serum cortisol concentration is usually normal.


title: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

text: The symptoms of CAH vary depending upon the form of CAH and the sex of the patient. Symptoms can include:


title: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

text: CAH results from mutations of genes for enzymes mediating the biochemical steps of production of mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, or sex steroids from cholesterol by the adrenal glands (steroidogenesis).


title: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

text: Each form of CAH is associated with a specific defective gene. The most common type (95% of cases) involves the gene for 21-hydroxylase, which is found on 6p21.3 as part of the HLA complex; 21-hydroxylase deficiency results from a unique mutation with two highly homologous near-copies in series consisting of an active gene ("CYP21A2") and an inactive pseudogene ("CYP21A1P"). Mutant alleles result from recombination between the active and pseudogenes (gene conversion). About 5% of cases of CAH are due to defects in the gene encoding 11β-hydroxylase and consequent 11β-hydroxylase deficiency. Other, more rare forms of CAH are caused by mutations in genes, including "HSD3B2" (3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 2), "CYP17A1" (17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase)," CYP11A1" (P450scc; cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme), "STAR" (steroidogenic acute regulatory protein; StAR), "CYB5A" (cytochrome b), and "CYPOR "(cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase; POR).


title: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

text: Further variability is introduced by the degree of enzyme inefficiency produced by the specific alleles each patient has. Some alleles result in more severe degrees of enzyme inefficiency. In general, severe degrees of inefficiency produce changes in the fetus and problems in prenatal or perinatal life. Milder degrees of inefficiency are usually associated with excessive or deficient sex hormone effects in childhood or adolescence, while the mildest forms of CAH interfere with ovulation and fertility in adults.


title: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

text: Female infants with classic CAH have ambiguous genitalia due to exposure to high concentrations of androgens "in utero". CAH due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency is the most common cause of ambiguous genitalia in genotypically normal female infants (46XX). Less severely affected females may present with early pubarche. Young women may present with symptoms of polycystic ovarian syndrome (oligomenorrhea, polycystic ovaries, hirsutism).


title: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

text: Males with classic CAH generally have no signs of CAH at birth. Some may present with hyperpigmentation, due to co-secretion with melanocyte-stimulating hormone, and possible penile enlargement. Age of diagnosis of males with CAH varies and depends on the severity of aldosterone deficiency. Boys with salt-wasting disease present early with symptoms of hyponatremia and hypovolemia. Boys with non-salt-wasting disease present later with signs of virilization.


title: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

text: In rarer forms of CAH, males are undermasculinized and females generally have no signs or symptoms at birth.


title: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

text: Genetic analysis can be helpful to confirm a diagnosis of CAH, but it is not necessary if classic clinical and laboratory findings are present.


title: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

text: Classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency typically causes 17α-hydroxyprogesterone blood levels >242 nmol/L. (For comparison, a full-term infant at three days of age should have <3 nmol/L. Many neonatal screening programs have specific reference ranges by weight and gestational age because high levels may be seen in premature infants without CAH.) Salt-wasting patients tend to have higher 17α-hydroxyprogesterone levels than non-salt-wasting patients. In mild cases, 17α-hydroxyprogesterone may not be elevated in a particular random blood sample, but it will rise during a corticotropin stimulation test.


title: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

text: Cortisol is an adrenal steroid hormone required for normal endocrine function. Production begins in the second month of fetal life. Poor cortisol production is a hallmark of most forms of CAH. Inefficient cortisol production results in rising levels of ACTH, because cortisol feeds back to inhibit ACTH production, so loss of cortisol results in increased ACTH. This increased ACTH stimulation induces overgrowth ("hyperplasia") and overactivity of the steroid-producing cells of the adrenal cortex. The defects causing adrenal hyperplasia are congenital (i.e. present at birth).


title: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

text: Cortisol deficiency in CAH is usually partial, and not the most serious problem for an affected person. Synthesis of cortisol shares steps with synthesis of mineralocorticoids such as aldosterone, androgens such as testosterone, and estrogens such as estradiol. The resulting excessive or deficient production of these three classes of hormones produce the most important problems for people with CAH. Specific enzyme inefficiencies are associated with characteristic patterns of over- or underproduction of mineralocorticoids or sex steroids.


title: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

text: Since the 1960s, most endocrinologists have referred to the forms of CAH by the traditional names in the left column, which generally correspond to the deficient enzyme activity. As exact structures and genes for the enzymes were identified in the 1980s, most of the enzymes were found to be cytochrome P450 oxidases and were renamed to reflect this. In some cases, more than one enzyme was found to participate in a reaction, and in other cases, a single enzyme mediated in more than one reaction. Variation in different tissues and mammalian species also was found.


title: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

text: In all its forms, congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency accounts for about 95% of diagnosed cases of CAH. Unless another specific enzyme is mentioned, "CAH" in nearly all contexts refers to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. (The terms "salt-wasting CAH", and "simple virilizing CAH" usually refer to subtypes of this condition.) CAH due to deficiencies of enzymes other than 21-hydroxylase present many of the same management challenges, as 21-hydroxylase deficiency, but some involve mineralocorticoid excess or sex steroid deficiency.


title: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

text: Currently, in the United States and over 40 other countries, every child born is screened for 21-hydroxylase CAH at birth. This test detects elevated levels of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP). Detecting high levels of 17-OHP enables early detection of CAH. Newborns detected early enough can be placed on medication and live relatively normal lives.


title: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

text: The screening process, however, is characterized by a high false-positive rate. In one study, CAH screening had the lowest positive predictive value (111 true-positive cases among 20,647 abnormal screening results in a 2-year period, or 0.53%, compared with 6.36% for biotinidase deficiency, 1.84% for congenital hypo-thyroidism, 0.56% for classic galactosemia, and 2.9% for phenylketonuria). According to this estimate, 200 unaffected newborns required clinical and laboratory follow-up for every true case of CAH.


title: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

text: In 2020, Wael AbdAlmageed from USC Information Sciences Institute and Mimi Kim from USC Keck School Of Medicine led a joint study in which they used deep learning technology to analyze the facial morphology and features of CAH patients compared to control. In this cross-sectional study of 102 patients with CAH and 144 control participants, deep learning methods achieved a mean area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 92% for predicting CAH from facial images. Facial features distinguished patients with CAH from controls, and analyses of facial regions found that the nose and upper face were most contributory. The findings suggest that facial morphologic features, as analyzed by deep neural network techniques, can be used as a phenotypic biomarker to predict CAH.


title: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

text: Since the clinical manifestations of each form of CAH are unique and depend to a large extent on the underlying enzyme defects, their precursor retention and defective products, the therapeutic goal of CAH is to replenish insufficient adrenal hormones and suppress excess of precursors.


title: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

text: If CAH is caused by the deficiency of the 21-hydroxylase enzyme, then treatment aims to normalize levels of main substrate of the enzyme - 17α-hydroxyprogesterone.


title: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

text: The incidence varies ethnically. In the United States, congenital adrenal hyperplasia in its classic form is particularly common in Native Americans and Yupik Inuit (incidence ). Among American Caucasians, the incidence of the classic form is about ).


title: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

text: An Italian anatomist, Luigi De Crecchio (1832-1894) provided the earliest known description of a case of probable CAH.


title: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

text: De Crecchio then described the internal organs, which included a normal vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries.


title: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

text: He interviewed many people and satisfied himself that Joseph Marzo "conducted himself within the sexual area exclusively as a male", even to the point of contracting the "French disease" on two occasions. The cause of death was another in a series of episodes of vomiting and diarrhea.


title: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

text: This account was translated by Alfred Bongiovanni from De Crecchio (""Sopra un caso di apparenzi virili in una donna". "Morgagni" 7:154–188, 1865) in 1963 for an article in "The New England Journal of Medicine".