title: Dinosaur size

text: Scientists will probably never be certain of the largest and smallest dinosaurs. This is because only a small fraction of animals ever fossilize, and most of these remains will either never be uncovered, or will be unintentionally destroyed as a result of human activity. Of the specimens that are recovered, few are even relatively complete skeletons, and impressions of skin and other soft tissues are rarely discovered. Rebuilding a complete skeleton by comparing the size and morphology of bones to those of similar, better-known species is an inexact art (though governed by some established allometric trends), and reconstructing the muscles and other organs of the living animal is, at best, a process of educated guesswork, and never perfect. Mass estimates for dinosaurs are much more variable than length estimates given the lack of soft tissue preservation in the fossilization process. Modern mass estimation is often done with the laser scan skeleton technique that puts a "virtual" skin over the known or implied skeleton, but the limitations inherent in previous mass estimation techniques remain.


title: Dinosaur size

text: Sauropodomorph size is difficult to estimate given their usually fragmentary state of preservation. Sauropods are often preserved without their tails, so the margin of error in overall length estimates is high. Mass is calculated using the cube of the length, so for species in which the length is particularly uncertain, the weight is even more so. Estimates that are particularly uncertain (due to very fragmentary or lost material) are preceded by a question mark. Each number represents the highest estimate of a given research paper. One large sauropod, "Maraapunisaurus fragillimus", was based on particularly scant remains that have been lost since their description by paleontologists in 1878. Analysis of the illustrations included in the original report suggested that "M. fragillimus" may have been the largest land animal of all time, possibly weighing and measuring between long. One later analysis of the surviving evidence, and the biological plausibility of such a large land animal, suggested that the enormous size of this animal was an over-estimate due partly to typographical errors in the original report. This would later be challenged by a different study, which argued Cope's measurements were genuine and there's no basis for assuming typographical errors. The study, however, also reclassified the species and correspondingly gave a much lower length estimate of and a mass of . This in itself would later be disputed as being too small for an animal of such size, with some believing it to be even larger at around and weighing around .


title: Dinosaur size

text: Generally, the giant sauropods can be divided into two categories: the shorter but stockier and more massive forms (mainly titanosaurs and some brachiosaurids), and the longer but slenderer and more light-weight forms (mainly diplodocids).


title: Dinosaur size

text: Because different methods of estimation sometimes give conflicting results, mass estimates for sauropods can vary widely causing disagreement among scientists over the accurate number. For example, the titanosaur "Dreadnoughtus" was originally estimated to weigh 59.3 tonnes by the allometric scaling of limb-bone proportions, whereas more recent estimates, based on three-dimensional reconstructions, yield a much smaller figure of 22.1–38.2 tonnes.


title: Dinosaur size

text: The sauropods were the longest and heaviest dinosaurs. For much of the dinosaur era, the smallest sauropods were larger than almost anything else in their habitat, and the largest were an order of magnitude more massive than anything else known to have walked the Earth since. Giant prehistoric mammals such as "Paraceratherium" and "Palaeoloxodon" (the largest land mammals ever discovered) were dwarfed by the giant sauropods, and only modern whales approach or surpass them in weight, though they live in the oceans. There are several proposed advantages for the large size of sauropods, including protection from predation, reduction of energy use, and longevity, but it may be that the most important advantage was dietary. Large animals are more efficient at digestion than small animals, because food spends more time in their digestive systems. This also permits them to subsist on food with lower nutritive value than smaller animals. Sauropod remains are mostly found in rock formations interpreted as dry or seasonally dry, and the ability to eat large quantities of low-nutrient browse would have been advantageous in such environments.


title: Dinosaur size

text: One of the tallest and heaviest dinosaurs known from good skeletons is "Giraffatitan brancai" (previously classified as a species of "Brachiosaurus"). Its remains were discovered in Tanzania between 1907 and 1912. Bones from several similar-sized individuals were incorporated into the skeleton now mounted and on display at the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin; this mount is tall and long, and would have belonged to an animal that weighed between . One of the longest complete dinosaurs is the "Diplodocus", which was discovered in Wyoming in the United States and displayed in Pittsburgh's Carnegie Natural History Museum in 1907.


title: Dinosaur size

text: There were larger dinosaurs, but knowledge of them is based entirely on a small number of fragmentary fossils. Most of the largest herbivorous specimens on record were discovered in the 1970s or later, and include the massive titanosaur "Argentinosaurus huinculensis", which is the largest dinosaur known from uncontroversial and relatively substantial evidence, estimated to have been and long. Some of the longest sauropods were those with exceptionally long, whip-like tails, such as the "Diplodocus hallorum" (formerly "Seismosaurus") and the "Barosaurus".


title: Dinosaur size

text: In 2014, the fossilized remains of a previously unknown species of sauropod were discovered in Argentina. The titanosaur, named "Patagotitan mayorum", was estimated to have been around long weighing around , larger than any other previously found sauropod. The specimens found were remarkably complete, significantly more so than previous titanosaurs. It since been suggested that "Patagotitan" was not necessarily larger than "Argentinosaurus" and "Puertasaurus". In 2019, "Patagotitan" was estimated to have been long and massive.


title: Dinosaur size

text: The largest of non-sauropod sauropodomorphs was "Euskelosaurus". It reached in length and in weight. Another large sauropodomorph "Yunnanosaurus youngi" reached long.


title: Dinosaur size

text: "Tyrannosaurus" was for many decades the largest and best-known theropod to the general public. Since its discovery, however, a number of other giant carnivorous dinosaurs have been described, including "Spinosaurus", "Carcharodontosaurus", and "Giganotosaurus". These large theropod dinosaurs are estimated to rival or even exceeded "Tyrannosaurus rex" in size, though more recent studies and reconstructions show that "Tyrannosaurus", although shorter, was the bulkier animal overall. Specimens such as Sue and Scotty are both estimated to be the most massive theropods known to science. There is still no clear explanation for exactly why these animals grew so bulky and heavy compared to the land predators that came before and after them.


title: Dinosaur size

text: The smallest non-avialan theropod known from adult specimens may be "Anchiornis huxleyi", at in weight and in length. However, some studies suggest that "Anchiornis" was actually an avialan. The smallest dinosaur known from adult specimens which is definitely not an avialan is "Parvicursor remotus", at and measuring long. However, in 2022 its holotype was recognized as a juvenile individual. Among living dinosaurs, the bee hummingbird ("Mellisuga helenae") is smallest at and long.


title: Dinosaur size

text: Recent theories propose that theropod body size shrank continuously over the past 50 million years, from an average of down to , as they eventually evolved into modern birds. This is based on evidence that theropods were the only dinosaurs to get continuously smaller, and that their skeletons changed four times faster than those of most other dinosaur species.


title: Adam's Song

text: "Adam's Song" is a song recorded by the American rock band Blink-182 for their third studio album, "Enema of the State" (1999). It was released as the third and final single from "Enema of the State" on March 14, 2000, through MCA Records. "Adam's Song" shares writing credits between the band's guitarist Tom DeLonge and bassist Mark Hoppus, but Hoppus was the primary composer of the song. The track concerns suicide, depression and loneliness. It incorporates a piano in its bridge section and was regarded as one of the most serious songs the band had written to that point.


title: Adam's Song

text: Hoppus was inspired by the loneliness he experienced while on tour; while his bandmates had significant others to return home to, he was single. He was also influenced by a teen suicide letter he read in a magazine. The song takes the form of a suicide note, and contains lyrical allusions to the Nirvana song "Come as You Are". "Adam's Song" was one of the last songs to be written and recorded for "Enema of the State", and it was nearly left off the album. Though Hoppus worried the subject matter was too depressing, his bandmates were receptive to its message. The song was produced by Jerry Finn.


title: Adam's Song

text: "Adam's Song" peaked at number two on the US "Billboard" Hot Modern Rock Tracks chart; it was also a top 25 hit in Canada and Italy, but did not replicate its success on other charts. It received praise from music critics, who considered it a change of pace from the trio's more lighthearted singles. The single's music video, a hit on MTV, was directed by Liz Friedlander. Though the song was intended to inspire hope to those struggling with depression, it encountered controversy when a student of Columbine High School died by suicide with the track playing on repeat in 2000.


title: Adam's Song

text: Beginning in the summer of 1997, Blink-182 would enter an extended period of touring to support their second studio album, "Dude Ranch". The group had played a handful of dates on the Vans Warped Tour 1996, a lifestyle tour promoting skateboarding and punk rock music. However, upon "Dude Ranch" release and popularity, Blink-182 would play every date of the 1997 tour worldwide with the bands NOFX and Social Distortion. The group were gone from their hometown of San Diego for nearly nine months straight beginning in late 1997. "When we did our longest tour stretch, it was right when I started dating my fiancee," recalled vocalist/guitarist Tom DeLonge. "We were all new and in love, and I had to leave. It was just, "Hey, I'll see you in nine months." It was really hard."


title: Adam's Song

text: Bassist Mark Hoppus penned "Adam's Song" to vent these frustrations and the loneliness he experienced on the tour; while the other members had longtime girlfriends to return home to, Hoppus was single. "When you're on tour, you're so lonely," Hoppus said. "You hang out with all your bros and it's a great time and everything, but everybody wants to come home and have a girlfriend. And every time we'd fly home, Tom and [former drummer] Scott [Raynor] always had girlfriends waiting for them at the airport, and I didn't. It's about me being depressed and lonely out on tour, and not really having anything to come home to." The couplet "I couldn't wait til I got home/To pass the time in my room alone" originally ended "to get off the plane alone." In opposition to what Hoppus was feeling was the fact that the band were reaching professional highs: "Dude Ranch" had gone gold and the band were on the verge of stardom. "It feels ridiculous saying, 'Our band's doing really good, but personally, I'm not feeling like I'm connecting.' It felt like I had too much good fortune to complain about anything," he recalled in a later interview.


title: Adam's Song

text: Hoppus said the song's inspiration came from "reading a magazine where some teenage kid had killed himself and left a letter for his family." Online rumors purported that the song was inspired by a friend from Hoppus' high school years who committed suicide, or a play titled "Adam's Letter" (2005) that has the same focus, but was not written until years after the song's release. John Cosper, the writer behind "Adam's Letter", said, "the naming of the central character was a coincidence. The name goes back to the original script; I had no knowledge of Blink-182 or their music at that time."


title: Adam's Song

text: In his memoir "Can I Say", drummer Travis Barker wrote that the song's title was taken from a "sketch on "Mr. Show" about a band [Titannica] that writes a song with that name encouraging one particular fan to kill himself." David Cross, co-creator of "Mr. Show", confirmed this, commenting, "They were fans of the show and that was a knowing tribute that I thought was pretty cool."


title: Adam's Song

text: "Adam's Song" was among the last tracks composed and recorded for "Enema of the State", and was nearly absent from the final album. The band was halfway finished with recording when Hoppus developed the idea. Though he worried it was "a bit too far and depressing for what we were trying to do," his bandmates were receptive towards the idea:


title: Adam's Song

text: Although vocals would usually take many alternate takes to complete, Hoppus completed much of the vocal track for "Adam's Song" in a single take. "It's in a pretty high register for me, so I just blasted it out one night after dinner. That's, like, 90 percent of what's on the final track," he told "Kerrang!". The idea to include piano in the track came without much forethought; "We realized, 'Well, this part here could sound rad if we put piano in here.' So we tried it out, and it sounded rad," said Hoppus. The piano was performed by session musician Roger Joseph Manning, Jr., best known for his work with Beck.


title: Adam's Song

text: "Adam's Song" was a departure from the content of the band's previous singles, in favor of a slower tempo and more depressing lyrics. Brian Wallace of MTV wrote that Blink-182 "explores new ground on "Adam's Song," setting aside their normal pop-punk punch for a more emo-influenced approach." The song is a pop punk, emo, and alternative rock track composed in the key of C major and is set in time signature of common time with a tempo of 136 beats per minute. Hoppus' vocal range spans from G to G.


title: Adam's Song

text: The song begins with the narrator contemplating suicide with the lyrics "I never thought I'd die alone." The lyrics continue: "I'm too depressed to go on / You'll be sorry when I'm gone." "Adam's Song" includes a reference to "Come as You Are" by Nirvana. "Come as You Are" by Nirvana includes the lyrics "Take your time, hurry up, the choice is yours, don't be late". "Adam's Song", in turn, includes the lyrics "I took my time, I hurried up, The choice was mine, I didn't think enough".


title: Adam's Song

text: Barker's drum track was labeled by Drummerworld as "one of the most creative beats of his career," and mainly consists of the same basic beat repeated in sections throughout the verses. The first measure begins with the kick drum and splash cymbal playing on the downbeat, followed by a hit on the bell of the ride cymbal on the "and" of beat two, preceding an open hi-hat that rings out for a full count on beat three. "The kick, snare, and floor tom are all hit simultaneously on beat four, followed by floor tom hits on the last two sixteenth-note triplets of beat four." The snare is hit on beats two and four, respectively. The song "gradually builds to a powerful, piano-laden crescendo," and the song's final chorus and conclusion take a more uplifting view of the world: "Tomorrow holds such better days / Days when I can still feel alive/ When I can't wait to get outside." DeLonge noted that over six guitar parts were recorded for the "gigantic, sad" choruses, but upon mixing, only four were used. "The extra ones didn't really do anything besides make it a little more unclear what was going on."


title: Adam's Song

text: "Adam's Song" was mainly a commercial success in the United States, but it was a top 25 hit in Canada and Italy as well. In the US, it debuted on "Billboard" Modern Rock Tracks chart at number 38 in the issue dated March 18, 2000. Over the following weeks, it gradually ascended the chart to a peak of number two in the issue dated April 29. It remained at that position for seven weeks, held off the top position by "Otherside" by the Red Hot Chili Peppers, and "Kryptonite" by 3 Doors Down. On May 13, the single peaked at number one on the Bubbling Under the Hot 100 chart. In "CMJ New Music Report", a trade magazine that contained exclusive charts of non-commercial and college radio airplay and independent and trend-forward retail sales, "Adam's Song" was a number one hit on their Commercial Alternative Cuts chart in the issue dated May 15, 2000. The song made its sole appearance on "Billboard" Hot 100 Airplay chart on that same date, peaking at number 79. The song's last appearance on the Modern Rock Tracks chart came on September 9, 2000; as a whole, it spent 26 weeks on the chart. In the "Billboard" issue for July 19, 2003, Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems recognized the single with the BDS Certified Award for 100,000 radio spins. The song later made an appearance on "Billboard" Rock Digital Songs at position 38 shortly after the release of the band's sixth album, "Neighborhoods", in October 2011.


title: Adam's Song

text: In Canada, the single debuted on the Rock Report chart, compiled by "RPM", on May 15, 2000, at number 26. Over the ensuing weeks, its position fluctuated, but it reached a peak of number 20 on June 12, 2000. It last appeared on the chart on July 24 at number 29 before dropping out. In Italy, the single reached a peak of number 21 and spent three weeks on the charts. In New Zealand, the song reached a peak of number 39 and spent six weeks on the chart, while in Germany, the single fared poorly, spending only one week and reaching a peak of 98. Although the song did not chart in the United Kingdom, the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) awarded the song a silver certification in October 2021 for sales and streams of over 200,000 units.


title: Adam's Song

text: "Adam's Song" is generally considered one of the band's more serious songs, one "that hints at the emotional maturity they'd show on later releases," particularly their eponymous 2003 release. Richard Harrington of "The Washington Post" deemed the song "a powerful exploration of exhaustion and depression." Alex Pappademas, writing for "Spin", compared the song to the music of Weezer. Katy Kroll of "Billboard" recognized it among her top 10 singles of 2000, calling it "a good old-fashioned depressing song with mainstream flair." Geoff Boucher, writing for the "Los Angeles Times", called it "a poignant essay on a teen mulling over suicide"; conversely, Steve Appleford of the "Los Angeles Times" dubbed it a "moving if unremarkable examination." Scott Mervis of the "Pittsburgh Post-Gazette" called it a "rare departure from the usual Blink fare."


title: Adam's Song

text: Writers for "The A.V. Club" listed it among other suicide-related songs in 2009, describing it as "surprisingly affecting, especially when the band reaches the bombastic chorus, and when the song describes suicide's crushing aftermath." In a retrospective review, Chris Payne of "Billboard" wrote, "Stylistically, it's also a Blink breakthrough: rather than putting their heads down and plowing through at breakneck speed, the band dials back the verses and interludes to let them breathe a bit. The resulting chorus achieves an arena-worthy feel not achieved anywhere else on "Enema of the State"."


title: Adam's Song

text: In 2016, "Stereogum" ranked the song number two on their list of the 10 greatest Blink-182 songs, and in 2022, "Kerrang" ranked the song number five on their list of the 20 greatest Blink-182 songs.


title: Adam's Song

text: The song caused a controversy in 2000 when it was set to replay indefinitely on a nearby stereo as 17-year-old Greg Barnes, a teenager who attended Columbine High School and had lost one of his best friends in the massacre the previous year, hanged himself in the garage of his family's home. Both Hoppus and DeLonge were sympathetic but stressed the song's meaning during an MTV News interview in 2001:


title: Adam's Song

text: Hoppus also told interviewers that he received fan mail following the song's release from fans that had contemplated suicide, but decided not to go through with it after hearing the song. "Rolling Stone" compared the controversy to that of Ozzy Osbourne's "Suicide Solution", which was played before a teen committed suicide in January 1986.


title: Adam's Song

text: The song's music video was directed by Liz Friedlander and debuted on MTV's "Total Request Live" on March 7, 2000. It consists of performance footage of the trio in a warehouse in front of a wall decorated with photographs. In between verses, the photos' origins are explored through the different perspectives of individuals near the band. As the band prepares to play a show, a man has a conversation with a girl and is subsequently left alone. In another, while DeLonge and Hoppus read magazines inside a late-night convenience store, a melancholy woman attempts to make a call via a pay phone. Other montages show the trio in the company of friends and practicing, a man looking out upon the sea, and a solitary man deserted by others at an outdoor restaurant. The final montage consists of personal photos from the band's past. Friedlander's vision for the video was to focus on everyday individuals, going through difficult moments in their lives. "We never know what's going on in other people's lives," she told Andrew Limbong of NPR in 2018. "We all are dealing with our stuff, and we don't look, and don't see, and so then we don't notice."


title: Adam's Song

text: The band retired the song in 2009 after the death of Adam Goldstein, best known as DJ AM, a close personal friend of Barker and of the band. Hoppus noted that he could not bring himself to perform the tune, believing it to be "too hard". However, the band brought the song back after nine years, playing it again during their "Kings of the Weekend" Las Vegas residency in 2018. When asked about its revival, Hoppus said he found new meaning in the song: "I think of it more, now, as almost a celebration, of hardships gone through and friends lost."


title: Adam's Song

text: For a 2018 broadcast of NPR's "All Things Considered", reporter Andrew Limbong chose "Adam's Song" as part of their series of "American Anthems"—"music that challenges, unites, and celebrates". In describing his selection, he wrote:


title: Adam's Song

text: All songs written by Mark Hoppus and Tom DeLonge, except where noted. Live tracks recorded in November 1999 at the Universal Amphitheatre, Los Angeles, California.


title: Pressure Machine

text: Pressure Machine is the seventh studio album by American rock band the Killers. It was released on August 13, 2021. The album features the return of guitarist Dave Keuning to the studio with the band, after his absence on the previous album "Imploding the Mirage", while bassist Mark Stoermer was absent due to difficulties caused by the COVID-19 pandemic during recording. Jonathan Rado and Shawn Everett returned to produce the album.


title: Pressure Machine

text: "Pressure Machine" is a concept album based on lead singer Brandon Flowers' childhood in Nephi, Utah. The album features a guest collaboration from singer Phoebe Bridgers on the track "Runaway Horses". Heavily influenced by Bruce Springsteen, lyrical influences also include "The Pastures of Heaven" by John Steinbeck and "Winesburg, Ohio" by Sherwood Anderson.


title: Pressure Machine

text: "Pressure Machine" was a major critical success and charted well in a number of territories. It reached number nine on the US "Billboard" 200 and topped both the Top Rock Albums and Top Folk Albums charts, becoming the band's first album to chart on the latter. The album also became the Killers' seventh consecutive number one album on the UK Albums Chart. No singles were released from the album, although music videos were produced for "Quiet Town" and "Runaway Horses" as well as "The Getting By II" from the deluxe edition.


title: Pressure Machine

text: "Pressure Machine" originated during the early months of the COVID-19 pandemic when The Killers recognized that the planned Imploding the Mirage world tour would have to be postponed. Although The Killers briefly considered using some of the songs left over from "Imploding the Mirage" to start their next album, they instead chose to embrace the idea of a concept record based on Brandon Flowers's childhood. Drummer Ronnie Vannucci Jr. described the choice by saying “But the sky was falling and we were hit with this emotion – especially Brandon. We wanted to do something following that feeling. I remember him saying, ‘Follow me down this road’. We put those songs to the side and embarked on something new and fresh. That’s what became ‘Pressure Machine’.” Dave Keuning rejoined the band in studio after having completed his own solo album "A Mild Case of Everything", released in June 2021.


title: Pressure Machine

text: Musically, the album has been described as Americana, heartland rock and folk rock. Flowers decided to write all the lyrics to the album prior to writing the album's music, and in the process tried to reflect on his own childhood. For "Quiet Town" Flowers reflected on a teenage couple Tiffany JaNae Taylor and Raymond Leo Newton that were killed at a grade crossing accident with a Union Pacific train in 1994 when both were 17 years old. “Here, 25 years later, I was still really affected by this train accident from when I was in the eighth grade... Two seniors from the high school were killed. I had seen one of them that morning. They had a baby. I didn’t go to grief counselling, they weren’t my best friends – but I was just shocked at how emotional I was when I started to write this verse.” Other aspects of the lyrics were based on the opioid epidemic with the opening track "West Hills" narrating the story of an opioid addict in “possession of them hillbilly heroin pills.”


title: Pressure Machine

text: The lyrics for the song "Terrible Thing" were written from the perspective of a gay teenager contemplating suicide as Flowers described “There were kids I grew up with who I didn’t know until years later that they were gay... It must have just been so hard. I think the world is moving in a more positive direction and a more inclusive direction, but this was still in the 90s and people kept this stuff close.” The song "Runaway Horses" featuring Phoebe Bridgers was partially inspired by her own cover of "Human" in 2019.


title: Pressure Machine

text: For recording the band chose to use analog recording methods as Flowers described, "You can get caught up in having money, and having time, in studios, and laboring over something. We were definitely guilty of that. This was different. Shawn was not allowed to mix on the computer. We are mixing on a board, old school to tape, and we weren’t making a bunch of changes. We’re going to try to keep the dust on this thing." Sonically the band took inspiration from "Nebraska" by Bruce Springsteen, while also citing influences from Johnny Cash and John Prine; while the spoken word interludes were inspired by "This American Life".


title: Pressure Machine

text: A deluxe edition of the album, featuring seven reimagined versions of three "Pressure Machine" tracks, was released on March 25, 2022. "The Getting By II", "The Getting By V" and "Runaway Horses II" present a more upbeat sound, while "The Getting By III", "The Getting By IV", "West Hills II" and "West Hills III" feature downbeat reinterpretations of the original songs. "West Hills III" is a gospel rendition of the opening track. "Runaway Horses II" sees Phoebe Bridgers removed from the mix.


title: Pressure Machine

text: "Pressure Machine" has received generally positive reviews from critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album has an average score of 79 out of 100, which indicates "generally favourable reviews" based on 22 reviews. Neil Z. Yeung of AllMusic considered the albums' "matured focus on concept and mood [to save] the album from becoming an odd catalog misstep. Robin Murray of "Clash" felt that "Pressure Machine" "is perhaps the closest we’ve come to the emotional core of the group itself." Damien McCormick of "The Guardian" called the album "their best album in years" and an "uncharacteristically reflective album." Utah-based radio station KXRK praised the album for its authenticity in capturing life in rural Utah stating, "I think everyone from a small town in Utah and throughout the country will appreciate this spectacular gem. But make no mistake, it is blatantly local."


title: Pressure Machine

text: Helen Brown of "The Independent" was less positive stating, "some of these lyrics would be better sold if Flowers could allow himself to stop the eyes-closed singing and adopt a conversational tone. A little more campfire crackle to his delivery would have helped lift these good short stories from the prettily glowing embers of forgettable and occasionally recycled melodies. Steven Loftin of "The Line of Best Fit" praised the album for being different from the bands' previous albums and stated, "Pressure Machine isn’t made to compete with their jubilant, indie trenched past. It’s made to be an honest portrayal of a life that, in its own desolate way, holds a white-hot shine to those that in turn hold it dear." "NME"s review stated regarding the album "It’s a homecoming of discreet intentions, not the pompous heroes return they’re likely used to – the modesty and subtlety suits them."


title: Pressure Machine

text: Candace McDuffie of "Paste" felt that the "emotional turmoil [of the record] makes it a thrilling—and kind of frightful—experience from start to finish." Shaad D'Souza of "Pitchfork" was less positive stating, "Pressure Machine rarely escapes Flowers’ Brandon Flowers-ness: try as he might—and you do get the sense that he’s trying so, so hard—his usual wide-tipped brush can’t do justice to what should be finely detailed scenes." Sal Cinquemani of "Slant Magazine" was positive towards the album and called it "the band’s most sonically restrained effort to date." "Sputnikmusic" praised the album stating, "it's almost unbelievable how much more profound, mature, and seamless all of the songwriting, lyrics, and symbolism is here compared to any prior Killers' outing. Clearly, the toll of the pandemic and the change in scenery to Brandon's hometown brought out the best in him, and in turn, the entire band."


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: Federal Reserve Notes, also United States banknotes, are the currently issued banknotes of the United States dollar. The United States Bureau of Engraving and Printing produces the notes under the authority of the Federal Reserve Act of 1913 and issues them to the Federal Reserve Banks at the discretion of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. The Reserve Banks then circulate the notes to their member banks, at which point they become liabilities of the Reserve Banks and obligations of the United States.


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: Federal Reserve Notes are legal tender, with the words "this note is legal tender for all debts, public and private" printed on each note. The notes are backed by financial assets that the Federal Reserve Banks pledge as collateral, which are mainly Treasury securities and mortgage agency securities that they purchase on the open market by fiat payment.


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: Prior to centralized banking, each commercial bank issued its own notes. The first institution with responsibilities of a central bank in the U.S. was the First Bank of the United States, chartered in 1791 by Alexander Hamilton. Its charter was not renewed in 1811. In 1816, the Second Bank of the United States was chartered; its charter was not renewed in 1836, after President Andrew Jackson campaigned heavily for its disestablishment. From 1837 to 1862, in the Free Banking Era, there was no formal central bank, and banks issued their own notes again. From 1862 to 1913, a system of national banks was instituted by the 1863 National Banking Act.


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: Federal Reserve Notes have been printed from Series 1914 in large-note format, and from Series 1928 in modern-day (small-note) format. The latter dimensions originated from the size of the Philippine peso Silver Certificates issued in 1903 while William Howard Taft served as Philippine governor-general under the United States colonial administration. In view of its highly successful run, President Taft subsequently appointed a committee that reported favorably on the advantages and savings from adopting the dimensions of Philippine notes for use in the United States.


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: The authority of the Federal Reserve Banks to issue notes comes from the Federal Reserve Act of 1913. Legally, they are liabilities of the Federal Reserve Banks and obligations of the United States government. Although not issued by the United States Treasury, Federal Reserve Notes carry the (engraved) signature of the Treasurer of the United States and the United States Secretary of the Treasury. The long vacancy of the Treasurer's position led to over a year's delay before a new currency series was produced in the Biden Administration.


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: At the time of the Federal Reserve's creation, the law provided for notes to be redeemed to the Treasury in gold or "lawful money." The latter category was not explicitly defined, but included United States Notes, National Bank Notes, and certain other notes held by banks to meet reserve requirements, such as clearing certificates. The Emergency Banking Act of 1933 removed the gold obligation and authorized the Treasury to satisfy these redemption demands with current notes of equal face value (effectively making change). Under the Bretton Woods system, although citizens could not legally possess gold (except as rare coins, jewelry, for industrial purposes and the like), the federal government continued to maintain a stable international gold price. This system ended with the Nixon Shock of 1971. Present-day Federal Reserve Notes are not backed by convertibility to any specific commodity, but only by the collateral assets that Federal Reserve Banks post in order to obtain them.


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: Series 1914 FRN were the first of two large-size issues. Denominations were $5, $10, $20, $50, and $100 printed first with a red seal and then continued with a blue seal. Series 1918 notes were issued in $500, $1,000, $5,000, and $10,000 denominations. The latter two denominations exist only in institutional collections. Series 1914 and 1918 notes in the following two tables are from the National Numismatic Collection at the National Museum of American History (Smithsonian Institution).


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: Per the Treasury Department Appropriation Bill of 1929, notes issued 1928 and earlier were and later issues were to be , which allowed the Treasury Department to produce 12 notes per sheet of paper that previously would yield 8 notes at the old size.


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: Modern measurements of these large size notes reveal an average dimension of . Small size notes (described as such due to their size relative to the earlier large-size notes) are an average , the size of modern U.S. currency. Each measurement is ± to account for margins and cutting. (Note: differences in size may also involve in historical changes in the definition of the inch.)


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: A commercial bank that maintains a reserve account with the Federal Reserve can obtain notes from the Federal Reserve Bank in its district whenever it wishes. The bank must pay the face value of the notes by debiting (drawing down) its reserve account. Smaller banks without a reserve account at the Federal Reserve can maintain their reserve accounts at larger "correspondent banks" which themselves maintain reserve accounts with the Federal Reserve.


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: Federal Reserve Notes are printed by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing (BEP), a bureau of the Department of the Treasury. When Federal Reserve Banks require additional notes for circulation, they must post collateral in the form of direct federal obligations, private bank obligations, or assets purchased through open market operations. If the notes are newly printed, they also pay the BEP for the cost of printing (about 4¢ per note). This differs from the issue of coins, which are purchased for their face value.


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: A Federal Reserve Bank can retire notes that return from circulation, which entitles it to recover collateral that it posted for an earlier issue. Retired notes in good condition are held in the bank's vault for future issues. Notes in poor condition are destroyed and replacements are ordered from the BEP. The Federal Reserve shreds 7,000 tons of worn out currency each year.


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: As of 2018, Federal Reserve notes remain, on average, in circulation for the following periods of time:


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: The Federal Reserve does not publish an average life span for the $2 bill. This is likely due to its treatment as a collector's item by the general public; it is, therefore, not subjected to normal circulation.


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: Starting with the Series 1996 $100 note, bills $5 and above have a special letter in addition to the prefix letters which range from A-P. The first letter is A for series 1996; the first letter is B for series 1999; the first letter is C for series 2001; the first letter is D for series 2003; the first letter is F for series 2003A; the first letter is H for series 2006; and the first letter is K for series 2006A, L is for Series 2009 $100 bills, M is Series 2013, N is Series 2017 and P is Series 2017A. Series 2021 will likely use R.


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: The Series 2004 $20, the first note in the second redesign, has kept the element of the special double prefix. The first letter is E for series 2004; the first letter is G for series 2004A; the first letter is I for series 2006; the first letter is J for series 2009; the first letter is L for series 2009A; and the first letter is M for series 2013.


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: Federal Reserve Notes are made of 75% cotton and 25% linen fibers, supplied by Crane Currency of Dalton, Massachusetts specifically for that purpose.


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: U.S. paper currency has had many nicknames and slang terms. The notes themselves are generally referred to as "bills" (as in "five-dollar bill"). Notes can be referred to by the first or last name of the person on the portrait (George for one dollar, or even more popularly, "Benjamins" for $100 notes).


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: Despite the relatively late addition of color and other anti-counterfeiting features to U.S. currency, critics hold that it is still a straightforward matter to counterfeit these bills. They point out that the ability to reproduce color images is well within the capabilities of modern color printers, most of which are affordable to many consumers. These critics suggest that the Federal Reserve should incorporate holographic features, as are used in most other major currencies, such as the pound sterling, Canadian dollar and euro banknotes, which are more difficult and expensive to forge. Another robust technology, the polymer banknote, has been developed for the Australian dollar and adopted for the New Zealand dollar, Romanian leu, Papua New Guinea kina, Canadian dollar, and other circulating, as well as commemorative, banknotes of a number of other countries. They are said to be more secure, cleaner and more durable than paper notes but that is not the case with U.S. banknotes which are already designed to be more durable than traditional cotton-based banknotes, circulation life shows this to be the case. One major issue with implementing these or any new counterfeiting countermeasures, however, is that (other than under Executive Order 6102) the United States has never demonetized or required a mandatory exchange of any existing currency. Consequently, would-be counterfeiters can easily circumvent any new security features simply by counterfeiting older designs, although once a new design is launched, the older designs are usually withdrawn from circulation as they cycle through the Federal Reserve Banks.


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: U.S. currency does, however, bear several anti-counterfeiting features. Two of the most critical anti-counterfeiting features of U.S. currency are the paper and the ink. The ink and paper combine to create a distinct texture, particularly as the currency is circulated. The paper and the ink alone have no effect on the value of the dollar until post print. These characteristics can be hard to duplicate without the proper equipment and materials. Furthermore, recent redesigns of the $5, $10, $20, and $50 notes have added EURion constellation patterns which can be used by scanning software to recognize banknotes and refuse to scan them.


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: The differing sizes of other nations' banknotes is a security feature that eliminates one form of counterfeiting to which U.S. currency is prone: Counterfeiters can simply bleach the ink off a low-denomination note, such as a $1 or $5 bill, and reprint it as a higher-value note, such as a $100 bill. To counter this, the U.S. government has included in all $5 and higher denominated notes since the 1990 series a security thread, which is a vertical laminate strip imprinted with denomination information. Under ultraviolet light, the security thread fluoresces a different color for each denomination ($5 note: blue; $10 note: orange; $20 note: green; $50 note: yellow; $100 note: red). Additionally the newly designed $100 launched in 2013 has a 3D security ribbon which has proven to be highly resistant to counterfeiting, yet easily understood by the public without special tools or lights.


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: According to the central banks, the number of counterfeited bank notes seized annually is about 10 in one million of real bank notes for the Swiss franc, of 50 in one million for the Euro, of 100 in one million for United States dollar and of 300 in one million for pound sterling (old style).


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: Critics, such as the American Council of the Blind, note that U.S. bills are relatively hard to tell apart: they use very similar designs, they are printed in the same colors (until the 2003 banknotes, in which a faint secondary color was added), and they are all the same size. The American Council of the Blind has argued that American paper currency design should use increasing sizes according to value or raised or indented features to make the currency more usable by the vision-impaired, since the denominations cannot currently be distinguished from one another non-visually. Use of Braille codes on currency is not considered a desirable solution because these markings would only be useful to people who know how to read Braille, and one Braille symbol can become confused with another if even one bump is rubbed off. Though some blind individuals say that they have no problems keeping track of their currency because they fold their bills in different ways or keep them in different places in their wallets, they nevertheless must rely on sighted people or currency-counting machines to determine the value of each bill before filing it away using the system of their choice. This means that no matter how organized they are, blind people still have to trust sighted people or machines each time they receive U.S. banknotes.


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: By contrast, other major currencies, such as the pound sterling and euro, feature notes of differing sizes: the size of the note increases with the denomination and different denominations are printed in different, contrasting colors. This is useful not only for the vision-impaired; they nearly eliminate the risk that, for example, someone might fail to notice a high-value note among low-value ones.


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: Multiple currency sizes were considered for U.S. currency, but makers of vending and change machines successfully argued that implementing such a wide range of sizes would greatly increase the cost and complexity of such machines. Similar arguments were unsuccessfully made in Europe prior to the introduction of multiple note sizes.


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: Alongside the contrasting colors and increasing sizes, many other countries' currencies contain tactile features missing from U.S. banknotes to assist the blind. For example, Canadian banknotes have a series of raised dots (not Braille) in the upper right corner to indicate denomination. Mexican peso banknotes also have raised patterns of dashed lines. The Indian rupee has raised patterns of different shapes printed for various denominations on the left of the watermark window (20: vertical rectangle; 50: square; 100: triangle; 500: circle; 1,000: diamond).


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: Ruling on a lawsuit filed in 2002 ("American Council of the Blind v. Paulson"), on November 28, 2006, U.S. District Judge James Robertson ruled that the American bills gave an undue burden to the blind and denied them "meaningful access" to the U.S. currency system. In his ruling, Robertson noted that the United States was the only nation out of 180 issuing paper currency that printed bills that were identical in size and color in all their denominations and that the successful use of such features as varying sizes, raised lettering and tiny perforations used by other nations is evidence that the ordered changes are feasible. The plaintiff's attorney was quoted as saying "It's just frankly unfair that blind people should have to rely on the good faith of people they have never met in knowing whether they've been given the correct change." Government attorneys estimated that the cost of such a change ranges from $75 million in equipment upgrades and $9 million annual expenses for punching holes in bills to $178 million in one-time charges and $50 million annual expenses for printing bills of varying sizes.


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: Robertson accepted the plaintiff's argument that current practice violates Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: The judge ordered the United States Department of the Treasury to begin working on a redesign within 30 days,


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: On May 20, 2008, in a 2-to-1 decision, the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit upheld the earlier ruling, pointing out that the cost estimates were inflated and that the burdens on blind and visually impaired currency users had not been adequately addressed.


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: On October 3, 2008, on remand from the D.C. Circuit, D.C. District Court Judge Robertson granted the injunction.


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: As a result of the court's injunction, the Bureau of Engraving and Printing is planning to implement a raised tactile feature in the next redesign of each note, except the $1 bill (which is not allowed to be redesigned, ), though the version of the $100 bill already is in progress. It also plans larger, higher-contrast numerals, more color differences, and distribution of currency readers to assist the visually impaired during the transition period. The Bureau received a comprehensive study on accessibility options in July 2009, and solicited public comments from May to August 2010.


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: The Secretary of the Treasury is charged with the obligation to produce currency and bonds. 31 U.S.C. § 5114. Treasury Department regulations further specify the quality of paper and ink to be used. 31 C.F.R. Part 601. The denominations and design of currency are not further specified by law; for example, the choice of $1, $5, $10, $20, $50, and $100, and the portraits on each, are largely left to the discretion of the Secretary of the Treasury.


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: There are few requirements set by Congress. The national motto "In God We Trust" must appear on all U.S. currency and coins. Though the motto had periodically appeared on coins since 1865, it did not appear on currency (other than interest-bearing notes in 1861) until a law passed in 1956 required it. It began to appear on Federal Reserve Notes delivered from 1964 to 1966, depending on denomination.


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: The portraits appearing on the U.S. currency can feature only people who have died, whose names should be included below each of the portraits. Since the standardization of the bills in 1928, the Department of the Treasury has chosen to feature the same portraits on the bills. These portraits were decided upon in 1929 by a committee appointed by the Treasury. Originally, the committee had decided to feature U.S. presidents because they were more familiar to the public than other potential candidates. The Treasury altered this decision, however, to include three statesmen who were also well known to the public: Alexander Hamilton (the first Secretary of the Treasury who appears on the $10 bill), Salmon P. Chase (the Secretary of the Treasury during the American Civil War who appeared on the now obsolete $10,000 bill), and Benjamin Franklin (a signer of the Declaration of Independence and of the Constitution, who appears on the $100 bill). In 2016, the Treasury announced a number of design changes to the $5, $10 and $20 bills; to be introduced over the next ten years. The redesigns include:


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: After an unsuccessful attempt in the proposed Legal Tender Modernization Act of 2001, the Omnibus Appropriations Act of 2009 required that none of the funds set aside for either the Treasury or the Bureau of Engraving and Printing may be used to redesign the $1 bill. This is because any change would affect vending machines and the risk of counterfeiting is low for this small denomination. This superseded the Federal Reserve Act (Section 16, Paragraph 8) which gives the Treasury permission to redesign any banknote to prevent counterfeiting.


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: Note: The series 2006A was produced from 2011 to 2013 due to issues with the printing process for the colorized (NextGen) $100 notes.


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: Beginning in 2003, the Federal Reserve introduced a new series of bills, featuring images of national symbols of freedom. The new $20 bill was first issued on October 9, 2003; the new $50 on September 28, 2004; the new $10 bill on March 2, 2006; the new $5 bill on March 13, 2008; the new $100 bill on October 8, 2013. The one and two dollar bills still remain small portrait, unchanged, and not watermarked.


title: Federal Reserve Note

text: While the series 2009A was the first series of these $100 bills released for circulation, the first printing was series 2009 printed in 2010 and 2011. These were withheld from circulation due to issues with the printing process and none were released until 2016.


title: Germanic mythology

text: Germanic mythology consists of the body of myths native to the Germanic peoples, including Norse mythology, Anglo-Saxon mythology, and Continental Germanic mythology. It was a key element of Germanic paganism.


title: Germanic mythology

text: As the Germanic languages developed from Proto-Indo-European language, Germanic mythology is ultimately a development of Proto-Indo-European mythology. Archaeological remains, such as petroglyphs in Scandinavia, suggest continuity in Germanic mythology since at least the Nordic Bronze Age.


title: Germanic mythology

text: The earliest written sources on Germanic mythology include literature by Roman writers. This includes "Commentaries on the Gallic War" by Julius Caesar, "Geographica" by Strabo, and "Germania" by Tacitus. Later Latin-language sources on Germanic mythology include "Getica" by Jordanes, "History of the Lombards" by Paul the Deacon, "Ecclesiastical History of the English People" by Bede, "Vita Ansgari" by Rimbert, "Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum" by Adam of Bremen, and "Gesta Danorum" by Saxo Grammaticus.


title: Germanic mythology

text: Vernacular sources on Germanic mythology include the Merseburg Charms, the Nibelungenlied, and various pieces of Old English literature, particularly "Beowulf". The most important sources on Germanic mythology are however works of Old Norse literature, most of which were written down in the Icelandic Commonwealth during the Middle Ages. Of particular importance is the Poetic Edda.


title: Germanic mythology

text: Archaeological evidence, Runic inscriptions and place-names are also useful sources on Germanic mythology.


title: Germanic mythology

text: The myths of the Germanic peoples feature narratives focused on Germanic deities and a variety of other entities.


title: Germanic mythology

text: The beginning and end of the world is told in Völuspá, the first and best known poem in the Poetic Edda. The seeress in Völuspá tells of how the world began with a great magical nothingness called Ginnungagap, until Odin and his two brothers raised the Earth from the sea. They came across the tree trunks Ask and Embla, whom they created into the first human couple.


title: Germanic mythology

text: The accounts of Völuspá are contrasted with those in Vafþrúðnismál and Grímnismál. These say that Odin created the world from the body of the giant Ymir. Odin and his brothers were in turn descended from Búri, who had been created by the primeval cow Auðumbla. Parallels to Auðumbla are found in Indo-Iranian religion, testifying to the ancient Indo-European origins of Germanic mythology.


title: Germanic mythology

text: A central point in the Germanic cosmos is the tree Yggdrasil. Germanic mythology prophesises the end of the world in a coming Ragnarök.


title: Germanic mythology

text: A number of Germanic gods are mentioned in Old Norse literature and they are divided into the Æsir and the Vanir. The Æsir are primarily gods of war and dominate the latter, who are gods of fertility and wealth.


title: Germanic mythology

text: The chief god of the Æsir is Odin, a god associated with war, seiðr (witchcraft), and wisdom. He was probably worshipped primarily by kings and noblemen rather than the common people. Odin is the lord of Asgard, the abode of the gods, which includes the majestic hall Valhalla, where warriors who died a heroic death in battle (Einherjar) were admitted in order to prepare them to help Odin in the coming Ragnarök.


title: Germanic mythology

text: Odin's wife was Frigg. His popular son, by the jǫtunn Jǫrð, was Thor, the god associated with thunder. Wielding his hammer Mjölnir, Thor engaged in conflict with the jötnar (giants) and the serpent Jörmungandr. Thor has many parallels in Indo-European mythology. He appears to have been worshiped extensively by the Germanic peoples, particularly warriors and the common people. A notable brother of Thor is Baldr. Other significant Æsir include the trickster god Loki; Heimdallr, who is reported in Rígsþula to have fathered the three classes of men; and Týr, a god associated with war and who lost his hand to the wolf Fenrir, who some scholars have proposed on linguistic evidence may have been a central deity in the Germanic pantheon in earlier times.


title: Germanic mythology

text: In Old Norse literature, the Æsir and Vanir are described as being in conflict. Through this conflict, certain Vanir gods, such as Njörðr, Freyja, and Freyr, join the Æsir. Similarities have been pointed out between Njörðr and Nerthus, a Germanic fertility god mentioned by Tacitus in "Germania" in the 1st-century AD. Sources also mention numerous other entities, such as Hel, who oversees an underworld location of the same name.


title: Germanic mythology

text: A number of legendary creatures appear in Germanic mythology, such as the dís, fylgja, draugr, dwarfs, elves, as well as jötnar, trolls and dragons.


title: Germanic mythology

text: During the Middle Ages, Germanic peoples were converted to Christianity. The study of Germanic mythology has remained an important element of Germanic philology since the development of the field and the topic is an integral component of Heathenry, the modern revival of Germanic paganism. Elements of Germanic mythology have survived into modern Germanic folklore.


title: Congruence (geometry)

text: In geometry, two figures or objects are congruent if they have the same shape and size, or if one has the same shape and size as the mirror image of the other.


title: Congruence (geometry)

text: More formally, two sets of points are called congruent if, and only if, one can be transformed into the other by an isometry, i.e., a combination of rigid motions, namely a translation, a rotation, and a reflection. This means that either object can be repositioned and reflected (but not resized) so as to coincide precisely with the other object. Therefore two distinct plane figures on a piece of paper are congruent if they can be cut out and then matched up completely. Turning the paper over is permitted.


title: Congruence (geometry)

text: In elementary geometry the word "congruent" is often used as follows. The word "equal" is often used in place of "congruent" for these objects.


title: Congruence (geometry)

text: In this sense, "two plane figures are congruent" implies that their corresponding characteristics are "congruent" or "equal" including not just their corresponding sides and angles, but also their corresponding diagonals, perimeters, and areas.


title: Congruence (geometry)

text: The related concept of similarity applies if the objects have the same shape but do not necessarily have the same size. (Most definitions consider congruence to be a form of similarity, although a minority require that the objects have different sizes in order to qualify as similar.)


title: Congruence (geometry)

text: For two polygons to be congruent, they must have an equal number of sides (and hence an equal number—the same number—of vertices). Two polygons with "n" sides are congruent if and only if they each have numerically identical sequences (even if clockwise for one polygon and counterclockwise for the other) side-angle-side-angle-... for "n" sides and "n" angles.


title: Congruence (geometry)

text: Two triangles are congruent if their corresponding sides are equal in length, and their corresponding angles are equal in measure.


title: Congruence (geometry)

text: In many cases it is sufficient to establish the equality of three corresponding parts and use one of the following results to deduce the congruence of the two triangles.


title: Congruence (geometry)

text: Sufficient evidence for congruence between two triangles in Euclidean space can be shown through the following comparisons:


title: Congruence (geometry)

text: The ASA postulate was contributed by Thales of Miletus (Greek). In most systems of axioms, the three criteria – SAS, SSS and ASA – are established as theorems. In the School Mathematics Study Group system SAS is taken as one (#15) of 22 postulates.


title: Congruence (geometry)

text: The SSA condition (side-side-angle) which specifies two sides and a non-included angle (also known as ASS, or angle-side-side) does not by itself prove congruence. In order to show congruence, additional information is required such as the measure of the corresponding angles and in some cases the lengths of the two pairs of corresponding sides. There are a few possible cases:


title: Congruence (geometry)

text: If two triangles satisfy the SSA condition and the length of the side opposite the angle is greater than or equal to the length of the adjacent side (SSA, or long side-short side-angle), then the two triangles are congruent. The opposite side is sometimes longer when the corresponding angles are acute, but it is "always" longer when the corresponding angles are right or obtuse. Where the angle is a right angle, also known as the hypotenuse-leg (HL) postulate or the right-angle-hypotenuse-side (RHS) condition, the third side can be calculated using the Pythagorean theorem thus allowing the SSS postulate to be applied.


title: Congruence (geometry)

text: If two triangles satisfy the SSA condition and the corresponding angles are acute and the length of the side opposite the angle is equal to the length of the adjacent side multiplied by the sine of the angle, then the two triangles are congruent.


title: Congruence (geometry)

text: If two triangles satisfy the SSA condition and the corresponding angles are acute and the length of the side opposite the angle is greater than the length of the adjacent side multiplied by the sine of the angle (but less than the length of the adjacent side), then the two triangles cannot be shown to be congruent. This is the ambiguous case and two different triangles can be formed from the given information, but further information distinguishing them can lead to a proof of congruence.


title: Congruence (geometry)

text: In Euclidean geometry, AAA (angle-angle-angle) (or just AA, since in Euclidean geometry the angles of a triangle add up to 180°) does not provide information regarding the size of the two triangles and hence proves only similarity and not congruence in Euclidean space.


title: Congruence (geometry)

text: However, in spherical geometry and hyperbolic geometry (where the sum of the angles of a triangle varies with size) AAA is sufficient for congruence on a given curvature of surface.


title: Congruence (geometry)

text: This acronym stands for "Corresponding Parts of Congruent Triangles are Congruent", which is an abbreviated version of the definition of congruent triangles.


title: Congruence (geometry)

text: with corresponding pairs of angles at vertices and ; and ; and and , and with corresponding pairs of sides and ; and ; and and , then the following statements are true:


title: Congruence (geometry)

text: The statement is often used as a justification in elementary geometry proofs when a conclusion of the congruence of parts of two triangles is needed after the congruence of the triangles has been established. For example, if two triangles have been shown to be congruent by the "SSS" criteria and a statement that corresponding angles are congruent is needed in a proof, then CPCTC may be used as a justification of this statement.


title: Congruence (geometry)

text: A related theorem is CPCFC, in which "triangles" is replaced with "figures" so that the theorem applies to any pair of polygons or polyhedrons that are congruent.


title: Congruence (geometry)

text: In a Euclidean system, congruence is fundamental; it is the counterpart of equality for numbers. In analytic geometry, congruence may be defined intuitively thus: two mappings of figures onto one Cartesian coordinate system are congruent if and only if, for "any" two points in the first mapping, the Euclidean distance between them is equal to the Euclidean distance between the corresponding points in the second mapping.


title: Congruence (geometry)

text: A more formal definition states that two subsets "A" and "B" of Euclidean space R are called congruent if there exists an isometry "f" : R → R (an element of the Euclidean group "E"("n")) with "f"("A") = "B". Congruence is an equivalence relation.


title: Congruence (geometry)

text: Two conic sections are congruent if their eccentricities and one other distinct parameter characterizing them are equal. Their eccentricities establish their shapes, equality of which is sufficient to establish similarity, and the second parameter then establishes size. Since two circles, parabolas, or rectangular hyperbolas always have the same eccentricity (specifically 0 in the case of circles, 1 in the case of parabolas, and formula_10 in the case of rectangular hyperbolas), two circles, parabolas, or rectangular hyperbolas need to have only one other common parameter value, establishing their size, for them to be congruent.


title: Congruence (geometry)

text: number "E" of edges, the same number of faces, and the same number of sides on corresponding faces), there exists a set of "E" measurements that can establish whether or not the polyhedra are congruent.


title: Congruence (geometry)

text: The number is tight, meaning that less than "E" measurements are not enough if the polyhedra are generic among their combinatorial type. But less measurements can work for special cases. For example, cubes have 12 edges, but 9 measurements are enough to decide if a polyhedron of that combinatorial type is congruent to a given regular cube.


title: Congruence (geometry)

text: As with plane triangles, on a sphere two triangles sharing the same sequence of angle-side-angle (ASA) are necessarily congruent (that is, they have three identical sides and three identical angles). This can be seen as follows: One can situate one of the vertices with a given angle at the south pole and run the side with given length up the prime meridian. Knowing both angles at either end of the segment of fixed length ensures that the other two sides emanate with a uniquely determined trajectory, and thus will meet each other at a uniquely determined point; thus ASA is valid.


title: Congruence (geometry)

text: The congruence theorems side-angle-side (SAS) and side-side-side (SSS) also hold on a sphere; in addition, if two spherical triangles have an identical angle-angle-angle (AAA) sequence, they are congruent (unlike for plane triangles).


title: Congruence (geometry)

text: The plane-triangle congruence theorem angle-angle-side (AAS) does not hold for spherical triangles. As in plane geometry, side-side-angle (SSA) does not imply congruence.


title: Congruence (geometry)

text: A symbol commonly used for congruence is an equals symbol with a tilde above it, ≅, corresponding to the Unicode character 'approximately equal to' (U+2245). In the UK, the three-bar equal sign "≡" (U+2261) is sometimes used.


title: Suzuki K engine

text: The Suzuki K engine family is a series of all aluminium inline-three or four cylinder automobile engines from Suzuki, introduced in 1994. The displacement is ranging from 0.7 L to 1.5 L. This is a timing chain head driven DOHC 4-valve per cylinder engine with VVT, using multipoint fuel injection or direct injection fuel system, turbocharged for some variants and also available with hybrid electric technology.


title: Suzuki K engine

text: Since 2013, some of the K engines range has been upgraded with Dualjet technology. The upgrades including new two injectors per cylinder, smaller compression chamber, increasing the compression ratio, improving the thermal efficiency, redesigned water jacket shape, adding piston cooling oil jets, adoption of water-cooled EGR system and several other changes for fuel efficiency. The turbocharged variant with direct injection fuel system is called Boosterjet.


title: Suzuki K engine

text: Furthermore, a mild hybrid technology with 12 or 48-volt Integrated Motor Generator (ISG) dubbed as "Smart Hybrid Vehicle by Suzuki (SHVS)" is also available for markets with stricter emission regulation, such as in Europe, Japan, Singapore and India. This mild hybrid technology is helping to increase fuel mileage, providing optional acceleration and also reduce the emissions. The strong hybrid variant with Motor Generator Unit (MGU) is also available in Europe and Japan.


title: Suzuki K engine

text: This is the first K engine that appeared in 1994 and discontinued in 2018. It is the smallest in the family and also the first K engine with VVT. This engine are available in several version, such as naturally aspirated, turbocharged, lean-burn, CNG and strong hybrid. The hybrid version was also the first hybrid engine in kei car class and only available for Suzuki Twin.


title: Suzuki K engine

text: The three-cylinder 1.0-litre version of K engine, fitted in many Suzuki's city cars since 2008. In 2014, this engine was reworked by increasing the compression ratio from 10.0 to 11.0:1 and known as "K-Next". This changes claimed to increase the petrol mileage over 23km/L, achieved maximum power on lower rev and reduced frictional losses. CNG variant also available for Indian domestic market.


title: Suzuki K engine

text: Reworked version of K10B engine with naturally aspirated Dualjet or turbocharged direct injection Boosterjet technology. The compression ratio was increased from 11.0:1 to 12.0:1 for more thermal efficiency and reduced frictional losses. Suzuki's


title: Suzuki K engine

text: "SHVS" mild hybrid system is available for this engine in European and Japanese market. The CNG version is also available for Indian market.


title: Suzuki K engine

text: Appeared first in 2008 and reworked with Dualjet technology in 2013. In China, this engine was also used by Suzuki's former joint venture partners, Changan Suzuki and its subsidiaries. Known under "E-Power EA12" or "JL473Q" names.


title: Suzuki K engine

text: The Dualjet version of K12B engine and can also combined with 12-volt SHVS mild hybrid technology or a strong hybrid system with Motor Generator Unit (MGU).


title: Suzuki K engine

text: Replacing the previous K12C Dualjet engine for European (and several other markets), as the European emission standard has moved to Euro 6d stage. The displacement is the same as K12M and K12N Dualjet engines. The SHVS mild hybrid system is also standard.


title: Suzuki K engine

text: Destroked version of the K12B, developed by Maruti Suzuki. Mainly for the Indian market as the country imposed higher excise tax for petrol engines larger than 1,200 cc. This engine is also available for markets in South East Asia, South America and Africa.


title: Suzuki K engine

text: VVT technology was added for this engine in 2012. In February 2018, the Dualjet version was introduced first in Thailand with higher 11.5:1 compression ratio.


title: Suzuki K engine

text: Similar as K12B, this engine was also used by Suzuki's former joint venture partner in China. Known under "E-Power EA14" or "JL473Q1" names.


title: Suzuki K engine

text: Boosterjet version of K14B engine with direct injection and turbocharger. This engine is no longer available since mid-2020 for European market and replaced by "K14D Boosterjet" mild hybrid engine.


title: Suzuki K engine

text: Reworked K14C Boosterjet engine for European market. Combined with a 48-volt SHVS mild hybrid technology to pass Euro 6d emission standard.


title: Suzuki K engine

text: The biggest engine in the range. SHVS mild hybrid system also available and claimed over 17% more fuel efficient that the non-SHVS engine.


title: Suzuki K engine

text: This engine is similar as the regular K15B, but designed for commercial use. The differences are including different cylinder head cover made from metal with 7 bolts instead of resin material with 12 bolts on the regular K15B engine, different intake manifold position, shorter camshaft profile, lower compression ratio pistons, different timing chain cover design without engine mount (similar as previous generation Suzuki Carry) and different oil pan shape.


title: Suzuki K engine

text: Dualjet version of K15B engine, it is available in Europe and Japan with 140V strong hybrid combined to a Motor Generator Unit (MGU). Mild hybrid and CNG version is also available, the latter is only available in India.


title: United States Marine Corps rank insignia

text: This is a list of rank insignia of the United States Marine Corps (the maritime land forces of the United States of America). Different styles of rank insignia are worn on different marine uniforms.


text: Commissioned officers, which are distinguished from other officers by their "commission", or formal written authority, have ranks that are subdivided into general officers, field-grade officers, and company-grade officers.


text: Warrant Officers provide leadership and training in specialized fields and skills. A chief warrant officer, CWO2–CWO5, carries a special title, "Marine Gunner," which does not replace his rank. Other warrant officers are sometimes incorrectly referred to as "Gunner".


text: Enlisted Marines with paygrades of E-4 and E-5 are non-commissioned officers (NCOs) while those at E-6 and higher are Staff Noncommissioned Officers (SNCOs). The E-8 and E-9 levels each have two ranks per pay grade, each with different responsibilities. Gunnery Sergeants (E-7) indicate on their annual evaluations (called "fitness reports") their preferred promotional track: Master Sergeant or First Sergeant.


text: Commissioned officers are distinguished from other officers by their "commission", which is the formal written authority, issued in the name of the President of the United States, that confers the rank and authority of a Marine Officer. Commissioned officers carry the "special trust and confidence" of the President of the United States. Commissioned officer ranks are further subdivided into general officers, field-grade officers, and company-grade officers. The highest billets in the Marine Corps, the Commandant of the Marine Corps and the Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps are, by statute, four-star ranks, as the Marine Corps is a separate naval service under the Department of the Navy.


text: Warrant Officers provide leadership and training in specialized fields and skills. Unlike other nations' militaries (which rank warrant officers as Staff NCO equivalents), the United States military confers warrants and commissions on its warrant officers and classifies them into a separate category senior to all enlisted grades of rank (including officer candidates), cadets, and midshipmen. As warrant officers are officer-level technical specialists they generally do not exercise command outside of their specialty. Warrant officers come primarily from the staff non-commissioned officer (SNCO) ranks.


text: A chief warrant officer, CWO2–CWO5, serving in the MOS 0306 "Infantry Weapons Officer" carries a special title, "Marine Gunner," which does not replace his rank. A Marine Gunner replaces the chief warrant officer insignia on the left collar with a bursting bomb insignia. Other warrant officers are sometimes incorrectly referred to as "Gunner".


text: Enlisted Marines with paygrades of E-4 and E-5 are non-commissioned officers (NCOs) while those at E-6 and higher are Staff Noncommissioned Officers (SNCOs). The E-8 and E-9 levels each have two ranks per pay grade, each with different responsibilities. Gunnery Sergeants (E-7) indicate on their annual evaluations (called "fitness reports") their preferred promotional track: Master Sergeant or First Sergeant. The First Sergeant and Sergeant Major ranks are command-oriented Senior Enlisted Advisors, with Marines of these ranks serving as the senior enlisted Marines in a unit, charged to assist the commanding officer in matters of discipline, administration, and the morale and welfare of the unit. Master Sergeants and Master Gunnery Sergeants provide technical leadership as occupational specialists in their specific MOS. First Sergeants typically serve as the senior enlisted Marine in a company, battery, or other unit at similar echelon, while Sergeants Major serve the same role in battalions, squadrons, or larger units.


text: The Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps is a billet and with it carries a special rank insignia, conferred on the senior enlisted Marine of the entire Marine Corps, personally selected by the Commandant of the Marine Corps. It and the Marine Gunner are the only billets which rate modified rank insignia in place of the traditional rank insignia.


text: Gold stripes on a red flash are worn on the Dress Blue uniform coat. Green stripes on a red flash are worn on the Service uniform coat. Rank insignia are worn on the upper sleeve of both coats. Khaki uniform shirts use green stripes on a khaki flash, and are worn on the upper sleeves of both long and short-sleeved shirts. Utility uniform rank insignia are black metal pins and are worn on the collars, or black embroidered insignia sewn into patches of material when wearing armor. Musicians in the United States Marine Band wear insignia with lyre in the center as opposed to the crossed rifles, to denote their lack of a combat mission; full-service Marines who are attached to the 10 field bands of the Operating Forces and Supporting Establishment continue to wear their normal rank insignia. The crossed M1 rifles insignia were added to E-3 through E-8 chevrons in 1959.


title: Fish as food

text: Many species of fish are caught by humans and consumed as food in virtually all regions around the world. Fish has been an important dietary source of protein and other nutrients throughout human history.


title: Fish as food

text: The English language does not have a special culinary name for food prepared from fish like with other animals (as with "pig" vs. "pork"), or as in other languages (such as Spanish "pez" vs. "pescado"). In culinary and fishery contexts, "fish" may include so-called shellfish such as molluscs, crustaceans, and echinoderms; more expansively, seafood covers both fish and other marine life used as food.


title: Fish as food

text: Since 1961, the average annual increase in global apparent food fish consumption (3.2 percent) has outpaced population growth (1.6 percent) and exceeded consumption of meat from all terrestrial animals, combined (2.8 percent) and individually (bovine, ovine, porcine, etc.), except poultry (4.9 percent). In "per capita" terms, food fish consumption has grown from in 1961 to in 2015, at an average rate of about 1.5 percent per year. The expansion in consumption has been driven not only by increased production, but also by a combination of many other factors, including reduced wastage, better utilization, improved distribution channels and growing consumer demand, linked with population growth, rising disposable incomes and urbanization.


title: Fish as food

text: Europe, Japan and the United States of America together accounted for 47 percent of the world's total food fish consumption in 1961, but only about 20 percent in 2015. Of the global total of 149 million tonnes in 2015, Asia consumed more than two-thirds (106 million tonnes at 24.0 kg per capita). Oceania and Africa consumed the lowest share. The shift is the result of structural changes in the sector and in particular the growing role of Asian countries in fish production, as well as a significant gap between the economic growth rates of the world's more mature fish markets and those of many increasingly important emerging markets around the world, particularly in Asia.


title: Fish as food

text: Over 32,000 species of fish have been described, making them the most diverse group of vertebrates. In addition, there are many species of shellfish. However, only a small number of species are commonly eaten by humans.


title: Fish as food

text: Fish can be prepared in a variety of ways. It can be served uncooked (raw food, "e.g.," sashimi); cured by marinating ("e.g.," ceviche), pickling ("e.g.," pickled herring) or smoking ("e.g.," smoked salmon); or cooked by baking, frying ("e.g.," fish and chips), grilling, poaching ("e.g.," court-bouillon) or steaming. Many of the preservation techniques used in different cultures have since become unnecessary but are still performed for their resulting taste and texture when consumed.


title: Fish as food

text: "The Emperor Domitian (Juvenal, IV.) ordered a special sitting of the Senate to deliberate and advise on a matter of such grave State importance as the best method of cooking a turbot."


title: Fish as food

text: Globally, fish and fish products provide an average of only about 34 calories per capita per day. However, more than as an energy source, the dietary contribution of fish is significant in terms of high-quality, easily digested animal proteins and especially in fighting micronutrient deficiencies. A portion of 150g of fish provides about 50 to 60 percent of an adult's daily protein requirement. Fish proteins are essential in the diet of some densely populated countries where the total protein intake is low, and are particularly important in diets in small island developing States (SIDS).


title: Fish as food

text: "Intermediate Technology Publications" wrote in 1992 that "Fish provides a good source of high quality protein and contains many vitamins and minerals. It may be classed as either whitefish, oily fish, or shellfish. Whitefish, such as haddock and seer, contain very little fat (usually less than 1%) whereas oily fish, such as sardines, contain between 10–25%. The latter, as a result of its high fat content, contain a range of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) and essential fatty acids, all of which are vital for the healthy functioning of the body."


title: Fish as food

text: Eating oily fish containing long-chain omega-3 fatty acids may reduce systemic inflammation and lower the risk of cardiovascular disease. Eating about of oily fish rich in omega-3 fatty acids once per week is a recommended consumption amount. Increasing intake of omega-3 fatty acids may slightly reduce the risk of a fatal heart attack, but likely has little effect on the overall number of deaths from cardiovascular disease.


title: Fish as food

text: Fish bone is the most common food-related foreign body to cause airway obstruction. Choking on fish was responsible for about 4,500 reported accidents in the United Kingdom in 1998.


title: Fish as food

text: A seafood allergy is a food allergy to allergens which can be present in fish. This can result in an overreaction of the immune system and lead to severe physical symptoms from urticaria to angioedema and distributive shock. Allergic reactions can result from ingesting seafood, or by breathing in vapours from preparing or cooking seafood. The most severe allergic reaction is anaphylaxis, a medical emergency requiring immediate attention and is treated urgently with epinephrine.


title: Fish as food

text: Some species of fish, notably the "fugu" pufferfish used for sushi, can result in serious food poisoning if not prepared properly. These fish always contain toxins as a natural defense against predators; it is not present due to environmental circumstances. Particularly, "fugu" has a lethal dose of tetrodotoxin in its internal organs and must be prepared by a licensed "fugu" chef who has passed the national examination in Japan. Ciguatera poisoning can occur from eating larger fish from warm tropical waters, such as sea bass, grouper, barracuda and red snapper. Scombroid poisoning can result from eating large oily fish which have sat around for too long before being refrigerated or frozen. This includes scombroids such as tuna and mackerel, but can also include non-scombroids such as mahi-mahi and amberjack. The poison is often odourless and tasteless.


title: Fish as food

text: Many fish eat algae and other organisms that contain biotoxins, which are defensive substances against predators. Biotoxins accumulated in fish/shellfish include brevetoxins, okadaic acid, saxitoxins, ciguatoxin and domoic acid. Except for ciguatoxine, high levels of these toxins are only found in shellfish. Both domoic acid and ciguatoxine can be deadly to humans; the others will only cause diarrhea, dizziness and a (temporary) feeling of claustrophobia.


title: Fish as food

text: Shellfish are filter feeders and, therefore, accumulate toxins produced by microscopic algae, such as dinoflagellates and diatoms, and cyanobacteria. There are four syndromes called shellfish poisoning which can result in humans, sea mammals and seabirds from the ingestion of toxic shellfish. These are primarily associated with bivalve molluscs, such as mussels, clams, oysters and scallops. Fish like anchovies can also concentrate toxins such as domoic acid. If suspected, medical attention should be sought.


title: Fish as food

text: The toxins responsible for most shellfish and fish poisonings, including ciguatera and scombroid poisoning, are heat-resistant to the point where conventional cooking methods do not eliminate them.


title: Fish as food

text: Fish products, especially those from apex and higher-order consumers up the food chain, have been shown to contain varying amounts of heavy or toxic metals due to biomagnification. Toxicity is a function of solubility, and insoluble compounds often exhibit negligible toxicity. Organometallic forms such as dimethyl mercury and tetraethyl lead can be extremely toxic.


title: Fish as food

text: According to the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the risk from mercury by eating fish and shellfish is not a health concern for most people. However, certain seafood contains sufficient mercury to harm an unborn baby or young child's developing nervous system. The FDA makes three recommendations for child-bearing women and young children:


title: Fish as food

text: These recommendations are also advised when feeding fish and shellfish to young children, but in smaller portions.


title: Fish as food

text: When the ocean conservation organization Oceana examined over 1,200 seafood samples of seafood sold in the U.S between 2010 and 2012, they found one-third were mislabelled. The highest rate of mislabelling occurred with snapper at 87 percent, followed by tuna at 57 percent.


title: Fish as food

text: If fish and shellfish inhabit polluted waters, they can accumulate other toxic chemicals, particularly fat-soluble pollutants containing chlorine or bromine, dioxins or PCBs. Fish that is to be eaten should be caught in unpolluted water. Some organisations such as SeafoodWatch, RIKILT, Environmental Defense Fund, IMARES provide information on species that do not accumulate much toxins/metals.


title: Fish as food

text: Parasites in fish are a natural occurrence and common. Though not a health concern in thoroughly cooked fish, parasites are a concern when consumers eat raw or lightly preserved fish such as sashimi, sushi, ceviche and gravlax. The popularity of such raw fish dishes makes it important for consumers to be aware of this risk. Raw fish should be frozen to an internal temperature of for at least 7 days to kill parasites, and home freezers may not be cold enough to kill parasites.


title: Fish as food

text: Traditionally, fish that live all or part of their lives in fresh water were considered unsuitable for sashimi due to the possibility of parasites (see Sashimi article). Parasitic infections from freshwater fish are a serious problem in some parts of the world, particularly Southeast Asia. Fish that spend part of their life cycle in brackish or fresh water, like salmon (which really are anadromous coastal trout), are a particular problem. A study in Seattle, Washington showed that 100% of wild salmon had roundworm larvae capable of infecting people. In the same study farm-raised salmon did not have any roundworm larvae.


title: Fish as food

text: Parasite infection by raw fish is rare in the developed world (fewer than 40 cases per year in the United States), and involves mainly three kinds of parasites: "Clonorchis sinensis" (a trematode/fluke), "Anisakis" (a nematode/roundworm) and "Diphyllobothrium" (a cestode/tapeworm). Infection risk of "Anisakis" is particularly higher in fishes which may have lived in a river or estuary, such as salmon ("sa ke" in Japanese cuisine) or mackerel ("sa ba" in Japanese cuisine). Such parasite infections can generally be avoided by boiling, grilling, preserving in salt or vinegar, or deep-freezing. In Japan, it is common to eat raw salmon and "ikura" (roe), but these foods are frozen overnight prior to eating to prevent infections from parasites, particularly "Anisakis".


title: Fish as food

text: A 1999 metastudy combined data from five studies from western countries. The metastudy reported mortality ratios, where lower numbers indicated fewer deaths, for pescetarians to be 0.82, vegetarians to be 0.84, and occasional meat eaters to be 0.84. Regular meat eaters and vegans shared the highest mortality ratio of 1.00. However, the "lower mortality was due largely to the relatively low prevalence of smoking in these [vegetarian] cohorts".


title: Fish as food

text: Since fish is animal flesh, the Vegetarian Society has stated that vegetarian diets cannot contain fish.


title: Fish as food

text: Religious rites and rituals regarding food also tend to classify the birds of the air and the fish of the sea separately from land-bound mammals. Sea-bound mammals are often treated as fish under religious laws – as in Jewish dietary law, which forbids the eating of cetacean meat, such as whale, dolphin or porpoise, because they are not "fish with fins and scales"; nor, as mammals, do they chew their cud and have cloven hooves, as required by . Jewish(kosher) practice treats fish differently from other animal foods. The distinction between fish and "meat" is codified by the Jewish dietary law of "kashrut", regarding the mixing of milk and meat, which does not forbid the mixing of milk and fish. Modern Jewish legal practice ("halakha") on "kashrut" classifies the flesh of both mammals and birds as "meat"; fish are considered to be "parve", neither meat nor a dairy food. (The preceding portion refers only to the halakha of Ashkenazi Jews; Sephardic Jews do not mix fish with dairy.)


title: Fish as food

text: Ichthys has become a symbol of Christianity since ancient times. In the New Testament Luke 24 – Jesus's eating of a fish and Jesus telling his disciples where to catch fish, before cooking it for them to eat. Seasonal religious prohibitions against eating meat do not usually include fish. For example, non-fish meat was forbidden during Lent and on all Fridays of the year in pre-Vatican II Roman Catholicism, but fish was permitted (as were eggs). (See Fasting in Catholicism.) In Eastern Orthodoxy, fish is permitted on some fast days when other meat is forbidden, but stricter fast days also prohibit fish with spines, while permitting invertebrate seafood such as shrimp and oysters, considering them "fish without blood".


title: Fish as food

text: Some Buddhists and Hindus (Brahmins of West Bengal, Odisha and Saraswat Brahmins of the Konkan) abjure meat that is not fish. Muslim (halal) practice also treats fish differently from other animal foods, as it can be eaten.


title: Fish as food

text: Among the Somali people, most clans have a taboo against the consumption of fish, and do not intermarry with the few occupational clans that do eat it.


title: Fish as food

text: There are taboos on eating fish among many upland pastoralists and agriculturalists (and even some coastal peoples) inhabiting parts of southeastern Egypt, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia, Kenya, and northern Tanzania. This is sometimes referred to as the "Cushitic fish-taboo", as Cushitic speakers are believed to have been responsible for the introduction of fish avoidance to East Africa, though not all Cushitic groups avoid fish. The zone of the fish taboo roughly coincides with the area where Cushitic languages are spoken, and as a general rule, speakers of Nilo-Saharan and Semitic languages do not have this taboo, and indeed many are watermen. The few Bantu and Nilotic groups in East Africa that do practice fish avoidance also reside in areas where Cushites appear to have lived in earlier times. Within East Africa, the fish taboo is found no further than Tanzania. This is attributed to the local presence of the tsetse fly and in areas beyond, which likely acted as a barrier to further southern migrations by wandering pastoralists, the principal fish-avoiders. Zambia and Mozambique's Bantus were therefore spared subjugation by pastoral groups, and they consequently nearly all consume fish.


title: Fish as food

text: There is also another center of fish avoidance in Southern Africa, among mainly Bantu speakers. It is not clear whether this disinclination developed independently or whether it was introduced. It is certain, however, that no avoidance of fish occurs among southern Africa's earliest inhabitants, the Khoisan. Nevertheless, since the Bantu of southern Africa also share various cultural traits with the pastoralists further north in East Africa, it is believed that, at an unknown date, the taboo against the consumption of fish was similarly introduced from East Africa by cattle-herding peoples who somehow managed to get their livestock past the aforementioned tsetse fly endemic regions.


title: Fish as food

text: Certain species of fish are also forbidden in Judaism such as the freshwater eel (Anguillidae) and all species of catfish. Although they live in water, they appear to have no fins or scales (except under a microscope) (see Leviticus 11:10–13). Sunni Muslim laws are more flexible in this and catfish and shark are generally seen as halal as they are special types of fish. Eel is generally considered permissible in the four Sunni "madh'hab", but the Ja'fari jurisprudence followed by most Shia Muslims forbids it.


title: Fish as food

text: Many tribes of the Southwestern United States, including the Navaho, Apache, and Zuñi, have a taboo against fish and other water-related animals, including waterfowl.


title: Futon

text: A complete futon set consists of a and a . Both elements of a futon bedding set are pliable enough to be folded and stored away in a large during the day. This allows a room to serve as a bedroom at night, but serve other purposes during the day.


title: Futon

text: Traditionally, futons are used on tatami, a type of mat used as a flooring material. It also provides a softer base than, say, a floor of wood or stone. Futons must be aired regularly to prevent mold from developing, and to keep the futon free of mites. Throughout Japan, futons can commonly be seen hanging over balconies, airing in the sun. Futon dryers may be used by those unable to hang out their futon.


title: Futon

text: Before recycled cotton cloth was widely available in Japan, commoners used , stitched crinkled paper stuffed with fibers from beaten dry straw, cattails, or silk waste, on straw floor mats. Later, futons were made with patchwork recycled cotton, quilted together and filled with bast fiber. Later they were filled with cotton. Wool and synthetics are now also used.


title: Futon

text: Traditional () are generally firmer than western pillows. They may be filled with beans, buckwheat chaff, bran, or, modernly, plastic beads, all of which mold to the head. Historically, some women used wooden headrests to protect their hairstyles.


title: Futon

text: Futons are traditionally laid on tatami rush mats, which are resilient and can absorb and re-release up to half a liter of moisture each. Tatamis measure 1 by 0.5 ken, just under 1 by 2 meters, the same size as a Western twin bed. A traditional is also about the size of a Western twin bed. , double-bed-sized s were available, but they can be a bit heavy and awkward to stow.


title: Futon

text: The is usually thick, and rarely as much as thick; they need to dry well, or they will become heavy and mouldy. A is thus about as thick as a Western mattress topper. If more thickness is needed, s are layered.


title: Futon

text: s may be wider than s, and they vary in thickness. Depending on the weather, they may be layered with a warm (), or replaced with a lighter ().


title: Futon

text: In the 1980s, futons became fashionable in North America. The construction method was similar to that of contemporary Japanese futons: cotton batting, covered in cotton ticking and held in place with hand-sewn tufting (through-thickness stitches). This was also the structure that had been used in the , designed to use excess cotton production by subsidizing materials for people to make their own cotton mattresses.


title: Futon

text: However, Western-style futons, which typically resemble low, wooden sofa beds, differ considerably from their Japanese counterparts. They often have the dimensions of standard western mattresses, and are too thick to fold double and stow easily in a cupboard. They are often set up and stored on a slatted frame, which avoids having to move them to air regularly, especially in the dry indoor air of a centrally-heated house (most Japanese homes were not traditionally centrally-heated).


title: Futon

text: Traditional European beds resembled Japanese-style futon sets, with thin tick mattresses. These were only sometimes set on a bedframe. The term "bed" did not originally include the bedframe, but only the bedding, the same components included in a Japanese futon set.


title: Futon

text: It was also traditional to air these beds, and duvets are still aired in the window in Europe. In English-speaking cultures, however, airing bedding outdoors came to be seen as a foreign practice, with 19th-century housekeeping manuals giving methods of airing beds inside, and disparaging airing them in the window as "German-style".


title: Josep Borrell

text: Josep Borrell Fontelles (; born 24 April 1947) is a Spanish politician serving as High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy since 1 December 2019. A member of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE), he served as President of the European Parliament from 2004 to 2007 and as Minister of Foreign Affairs, European Union and Cooperation in the Government of Spain from 2018 to 2019.