title: Fred DeLuca

text: In 1965, 17-year-old DeLuca borrowed $1,000 from family friend Dr. Peter Buck. This was after Buck suggested the idea to help DeLuca make money for college to study medicine. DeLuca's plan was to begin a "fast-food venture that provided a healthful, less fattening bill of fare". On the radio advertisement they had promoted the name as "Pete's Submarines," which sounded like "Pizza Marines", so they changed the name to "Pete's Subway." Eventually in 1968, it was shortened to simply "Subway" as it is known today.


title: Fred DeLuca

text: With the help of his mother Carmela and Dr. Buck, the first shop opened on August 28, 1965, in Bridgeport, Connecticut. The first year of business was a learning experience and a challenge. A year later they opened their second location, having realized that visibility and marketing were key factors to success. DeLuca believed that the biggest mistake he made was where he set up his very first shop as it was a "crummy location." The third outlet was in a highly visible location and that location is still there today.


title: Fred DeLuca

text: Fred DeLuca ran Subway as a family business, with his mother running the first shop, his sister working as a "sandwich artist" and even his wife Elisabeth worked in the corporate office. Every Monday, Dr. Buck would visit the DeLuca household and visit Carmela and Fred to discuss the Subway business. As time went on, they eventually turned to a franchising model which is when they saw their growth explode.


title: Fred DeLuca

text: In 1978, Subway's 100th store opened, and reached the 1,000 store mark in 1987. Explosive growth continued with Subway opening 1,100 units in 1993.


title: Fred DeLuca

text: After reading an article about an Indiana man who lost 245 pounds eating Subway Sandwiches, Fred DeLuca met Jared Fogle, bought him a new Mitsubishi Galant, and made him Subway's featured spokesman by 2000. After Fogle became Subway's spokesman, sales and store openings started to skyrocket.


title: Fred DeLuca

text: A Subway Franchisee whistleblower named Cindy Mills came forward and alerted several high ranking Subway executives about Fogle's pedophilia and illicit sexual activity. In a statement, Subway denied any knowledge of Fogle's pedophilia and that executives including DeLuca and others were previously unaware of Fogle engaging in underage prostitution both in the United States and in Thailand.


title: Fred DeLuca

text: DeLuca and Peter Buck also partnered to create Franchise Brands in an effort to assist other entrepreneurs in replicating their success in the franchise industry.


title: Fred DeLuca

text: During DeLuca's tenure, Subway grew to be the largest franchise in the world. DeLuca aggressively pursued store growth, requiring franchisees open stores nearby their existing ones, in some cases across the street from their existing locations, or else Subway would recruit a competitor that would put them out of business. From 2015 to 2020, Subway had a net loss of thousands US stores, and remains the largest sandwich chain in the world.


title: Fred DeLuca

text: DeLuca had homes in Milford, Connecticut, and Fort Lauderdale, Florida, and lived with his wife Elisabeth. His son, Jonathan, lives in Boca Raton, Florida. DeLuca adopted a child of Cindy Mattson, named Luca.


title: Fred DeLuca

text: On July 15, 2013, DeLuca announced that he was being treated for leukemia. DeLuca died on September 14, 2015, at Lauderdale Lakes, Florida.


title: Fred DeLuca

text: At the graduation commencement in 2002, DeLuca received an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters (L.H.D.) from his alma mater, the University of Bridgeport. He also was awarded the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Connecticut Restaurant Association


title: Union government ministries of India

text: The Government of India exercises its executive authority through a number of government ministries or departments of state. A ministry is composed of employed officials, known as civil servants, and is politically accountable through a minister. Most major ministries are headed by a Cabinet Minister, who sits in the Union Council of Ministers, and is typically supported by a team of junior ministers called the Ministers of State.


title: Union government ministries of India

text: Some ministries have subdivisions called departments. For example, the Ministry of Communications has two departments - the Department of Telecommunications and Department of Posts.


title: Union government ministries of India

text: The following ministries once functioned, but have since become defunct, generally because of a merger with another ministry or division into new ministries.


title: Charles Bridge

text: Charles Bridge ( ) is a medieval stone arch bridge that crosses the Vltava river in Prague, Czech Republic. Its construction started in 1357 under the auspices of King Charles IV, and finished in the early 15th century. The bridge replaced the old Judith Bridge built 1158–1172 that had been badly damaged by a flood in 1342. This new bridge was originally called Stone Bridge ("Kamenný most") or Prague Bridge ("Pražský most"), but has been referred to as "Charles Bridge" since 1870.


title: Charles Bridge

text: As the only means of crossing the river Vltava until 1841, Charles Bridge was the most important connection between Prague Castle and the city's Old Town and adjacent areas. This land connection made Prague important as a trade route between Eastern and Western Europe.


title: Charles Bridge

text: The bridge is long and nearly wide. Following the example of the Stone Bridge in Regensburg, it was built as a bow bridge with 16 arches shielded by ice guards. It is protected by three bridge towers, two on the Lesser Quarter side (including the Malá Strana Bridge Tower) and one on the Old Town side, the Old Town Bridge Tower. The bridge is decorated by a continuous alley of 30 statues and statuaries, most of them baroque-style, originally erected around 1700, but now all have been replaced by replicas.


title: Charles Bridge

text: The bridge is currently undergoing a twenty-year process of structural inspections, restoration, and repairs. The process started in late 2019, and is expected to cost 45–60 million CZK (USD 1.9–2.6 million).


title: Charles Bridge

text: Throughout its history, Charles Bridge has suffered several disasters and witnessed many historic events. Czech legend has it that construction began on Charles Bridge at 5:31am on 9 July 1357 with the first stone being laid by Charles IV himself. This exact time was very important to the Holy Roman Emperor because he was a strong believer in numerology and felt that this specific time, which formed a palindrome (1357 9/7 5:31), was a numerical bridge, and would imbue Charles Bridge with additional strength. The bridge was completed 45 years later in 1402. A flood in 1432 damaged three pillars. In 1496 the third arch (counting from the Old Town side) broke down after one of the pillars lowered, being undermined by the water (repairs were finished in 1503). A year after the Battle of White Mountain, when the 27 leaders of the anti-Habsburg revolt were executed on 21 June 1621, the Old Town Bridge Tower served as a deterrent display of the severed heads of the victims to stop Czechs from further resistance. During the end of the Thirty Years' War in 1648, the Swedes occupied the west bank of the Vltava, and as they tried to advance into the Old Town the heaviest fighting took place right on the bridge. During the fighting, they severely damaged one side of the Old Town bridge tower (the side facing the river) and the remnants of almost all gothic decorations had to be removed from it afterward. During the late 17th century and early 18th century the bridge gained its typical appearance when an alley of baroque statues was installed on the pillars. During a great flood in 1784, five pillars were severely damaged and, although the arches did not break down, the traffic on the bridge had to be greatly restricted for some time.


title: Charles Bridge

text: The original stairway to Kampa Island was replaced by a new one in 1844. The next year, another great flood threatened the bridge, but the bridge escaped major damage. In 1848, during the revolutionary days, the bridge escaped unharmed from the cannonade, but some of the statues were damaged. In 1866, pseudo-gothic gas lights were erected on the balustrade; they were later replaced with electric lighting. In the 1870s, the first regular public-transport (omnibus) line went over the bridge (officially called "Charles Bridge" after 1870) later replaced by a horse tram. The bridge towers underwent a thorough reconstruction between 1874 and 1883.


title: Charles Bridge

text: On 2–5 September 1890, another disastrous flood struck Prague and severely damaged Charles Bridge. Thousands of rafts, logs and other floating materials that escaped from places upstream gradually formed a huge barrier leaning against the bridge. Three arches were torn down by the great pressure and two pillars collapsed from being undermined by the water, while others were partly damaged. With the fifth pillar, two statues – St. Ignatius of Loyola and St. Xavier, both by Ferdinand Brokoff – also fell into the river. The former statue was replaced by a statuary of Saints Cyril and Methodius by Karel Dvořák; the latter was replaced by a replica of the original. Repair works lasted for two years (the bridge was reopened on 19 November 1892) and cost 665,000 crowns.


title: Charles Bridge

text: In the beginning of the 20th century, Charles Bridge saw a steep rise of heavy traffic. The last day of the horse line on the bridge was 15 May 1905, when it was replaced with an electric tram and later, in 1908, with buses. At the end of World War II, a barricade was built in the Old Town bridge tower gateway. A capital repair of the bridge took place between 1965 and 1978, based on a collaboration among various scientific and cultural institutes. The stability of the pillars was reassured, all broken stone blocks were replaced, and the asphalt top was removed. All vehicular traffic has been excluded from Charles Bridge since then, making it accessible by pedestrians only. The repair cost 50 million crowns.


title: Charles Bridge

text: During the 1990s, some people started criticizing the previous reconstruction of the bridge and proposing further work. As of the beginning of the new millennium, most of the experts appeared to agree that the previous reconstruction had not been flawless but disputed the need for further interference with the bridge. However, after the disastrous floods of 2002 (which themselves caused only minor harm to the bridge), support for an overall bridge reconstruction grew. It was decided that repair and stabilization of the two pillars (numbers 8 and 9) on the Malá Strana side of the bridge would be done. These are the only river pillars that were not repaired after the 1890 floods. The reconstruction was a gradual process that closed off parts of the bridge without closing the span entirely.


title: Charles Bridge

text: Performed from 2008 to 2010, the work included bolstering the pillars and building a new hydroisolation system protecting the bridge. It also encompassed a re-pavimentation of the bridge's pavement and the replacement of many of the stones in the bridge walls, a matter which was controversial due to a heavy-handed approach adopted by the restoration team, which had no previous experience in restoration of cultural heritage monuments. The result has been criticised by conservation professionals all over Europe (see photos on external links), as dozens of new replacement stones do not match the historical ones they are next to, the amount of replaced stones is considered excessive, some stones have been inappropriately positioned, original stones have been chipped and joining materials employed are considered not appropriate for the structure. In 2010 UNESCO's World Heritage Committee adopted a decision stating that "the restoration of Charles Bridge was carried out without adequate conservation advice on materials and techniques".


title: Charles Bridge

text: The avenue of 30 mostly Baroque statues and statuaries situated on the balustrade forms a unique connection of artistic styles with the underlying Gothic bridge. Most sculptures were erected between 1683 and 1714. They depict various saints and patron saints venerated at that time. The most prominent Bohemian sculptors of the time took part in decorating the bridge, such as Matthias Braun, Jan Brokoff, and his sons Michael Joseph and Ferdinand Maxmilian.


title: Charles Bridge

text: Among the most notable sculptures, one can find the statuaries of St. Luthgard, the Holy Crucifix and Calvary, and John of Nepomuk. Well known also is the statue of the knight Bruncvík, although it was erected some 200 years later and does not belong to the main avenue.


title: Charles Bridge

text: Beginning in 1965, all of the statues have been systematically replaced by replicas, and the originals have been exhibited in the Lapidarium of the National Museum.


title: Civic nationalism

text: Civic nationalism, also known as liberal nationalism, is a form of nationalism identified by political philosophers who believe in an inclusive form of nationalism that adheres to traditional liberal values of freedom, tolerance, equality, individual rights and has no ethnocentrism.


title: Civic nationalism

text: Civic nationalists often defend the value of national identity as an upper identity by saying that individuals need a national identity in order to lead meaningful, autonomous lives and that democratic polities need national identity in order to function properly. Civic nationalism is frequently contrasted with ethnic nationalism.


title: Civic nationalism

text: Civic nationhood is a political identity built around shared citizenship within the state. Thus, a "civic nation" is defined not by culture but by political institutions and liberal principles, which its citizens pledge to uphold. Membership in the civic nation is open to every citizen by citizenship, regardless of culture or ethnicity; those who share these values are considered members of the nation. For example, those who receive Turkish citizenship are considered as a "Turk" even if their ethnicity is not Turkish.


title: Civic nationalism

text: In theory, a civic nation or state does not aim to promote one culture over another. German philosopher Jürgen Habermas argued that immigrants to a liberal-democratic state need not assimilate into the host culture but only accept the principles of the country's constitution (constitutional patriotism).


title: Civic nationalism

text: Civic nationalism lies within the traditions of rationalism and liberalism, but as a form of nationalism it is contrasted with ethnic nationalism. Ernest Renan is often thought to be an early civic nationalist. Philosopher Hans Kohn was one of the first to differentiate civic nationalism from ethnic nationalism in his 1944 publication "". Membership of the civic nation is considered voluntary, as in Renan's classical definition in "Qu'est-ce qu'une nation?" of the nation as a "daily referendum" characterized by the "will to live together". Civic-national ideals influenced the development of representative democracy in countries such as the United States and France (see the United States Declaration of Independence of 1776, and the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen" of 1789).


title: Civic nationalism

text: The Corsican nationalist movement organized around the FLNC is giving a civic definition of the Corsican nation ("destiny community") in the continuity of Pasquale Paoli and the ideas of the Lumières.


title: Civic nationalism

text: The Scottish National Party and Plaid Cymru, which advocate independence of their respective nations from the United Kingdom, proclaim themselves to be civic nationalist parties, in which they advocate the independence and popular sovereignty of the people living in their nation's society, not individual ethnic groups.


title: Civic nationalism

text: The Republican Left of Catalonia supports a civic Catalan independentism and defends a Catalan Republic based on republicanism and civic values within a diverse society.


title: Civic nationalism

text: The Union of Cypriots define its ideology as Cypriot nationalism, a civic nationalism that focuses on the shared identity of Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots. It highlights both communities' common culture, heritage and traditions as well as economic, political, and social rights. It also supports the reunification of Cyprus and the end of foreign interference by Greece, Turkey, and the United Kingdom.


title: Civic nationalism

text: Outside Europe, it has also been used to describe the Republican Party in the United States during the Civil War Era.


title: Civic nationalism

text: Civic nationalism shares elements of the Swiss concept of "Willensnation", which is German for "nation by will", coined by Carl Hilty, understood as shared experience and dedication by citizens.


title: Civic nationalism

text: The main criticism to civic nationalism comes from ethnic nationalism, which considers that the former was invented solely to act against the latter.


title: Chinese checkers

text: Sternhalma, commonly known as Chinese checkers (U.S. and Canadian spelling) or Chinese chequers (UK spelling), is a strategy board game of German origin that can be played by two, three, four, or six people, playing individually or with partners. The game is a modern and simplified variation of the game Halma.


title: Chinese checkers

text: The objective is to be first to race all of one's pieces across the hexagram-shaped board into "home"—the corner of the star opposite one's starting corner—using single-step moves or moves that over other pieces. The remaining players continue the game to establish second-, third-, fourth-, fifth-, and last-place finishers. The rules are simple, so even young children can play.


title: Chinese checkers

text: The game was invented in Germany in 1892 under the name "Stern-Halma" as a variation of the older American game Halma. The (German for "star") refers to the board's star shape (in contrast to the square board used in Halma).


title: Chinese checkers

text: The name "Chinese checkers" originated in the United States as a marketing scheme by Bill and Jack Pressman in 1928. The Pressman company's game was originally called "Hop Ching checkers". The game is neither a variation of checkers, nor did it originate in China or any part of Asia.


title: Chinese checkers

text: The game is known as () in Chinese. In Japan, the game has a variation called with slightly different rules.


title: Chinese checkers

text: The aim is to race all one's pieces into the star corner on the opposite side of the board before the opponents do the same. The destination corner is called "home". Each player has 10 pieces, except in games between two players when 15 pieces are used. (On bigger star boards, 15 or 21 pieces are used.)


title: Chinese checkers

text: In "hop across", the most popular variation, each player starts with their colored pieces on one of the six points or corners of the star and attempts to race them all home into the opposite corner. Players take turns moving a single piece, either by moving one step in any direction to an adjacent empty space, or by jumping in one or any number of available consecutive hops over other single pieces. A player may not combine hopping with a single-step move – a move consists of one or the other. There is no capturing in Sternhalma, so pieces that are hopped over remain active and in play. Turns proceed clockwise around the board.


title: Chinese checkers

text: In the diagram, Green might move the topmost piece one space diagonally forward as shown. A "hop" consists of jumping over a single adjacent piece, either one's own or an opponent's, to the empty space directly beyond it in the same line of direction. Red might advance the indicated piece by a chain of three hops in a single move. It is not mandatory to make the most hops possible. (In some instances a player may choose to stop the jumping sequence part way in order to impede the opponent's progress, or to align pieces for planned future moves.)


title: Chinese checkers

text: Can be played "all versus all", or three teams of two. When playing teams, teammates usually sit at opposite corners of the star, with each team member controlling their own colored set of pieces. The first team to advance both sets to their home destination corners is the winner. The remaining players usually continue play to determine second- and third-place finishers, etc.


title: Chinese checkers

text: The four-player game is the same as the game for six players, except that two opposite corners will be unused.


title: Chinese checkers

text: In a three-player game, all players control either one or two sets of pieces each. If one set is used, pieces race across the board into empty, opposite corners. If two sets are used, each player controls two differently colored sets of pieces at opposite corners of the star.


title: Chinese checkers

text: In a two-player game, each player plays one, two, or three sets of pieces. If one set is played, the pieces usually go into the opponent's starting corner, and the number of pieces per side is increased to 15 (instead of the usual 10). If two sets are played, the pieces can either go into the opponent's starting corners, or one of the players' two sets can go into an opposite empty corner. If three sets are played, the pieces usually go into the opponent's starting corners.


title: Chinese checkers

text: A basic strategy is to create or find the longest hopping path that leads closest to home, or immediately into it. (Multiple-jump moves are obviously faster to advance pieces than step-by-step moves.) Since either player can make use of any hopping 'ladder' or 'chain' created, a more advanced strategy involves hindering an opposing player in addition to helping oneself make jumps across the board. Of equal importance are the players' strategies for emptying and filling their starting and home corners. Games between top players are rarely decided by more than a couple of moves.


title: Chinese checkers

text: Differing numbers of players result in different starting layouts, in turn imposing different best-game strategies. For example, if a player's home destination corner starts empty (i.e. is not an opponent's starting corner), the player can freely build a 'ladder' or 'bridge' with their pieces between the two opposite ends. But if a player's opponent occupies the home corner, the player may need to wait for opponent pieces to clear before filling the home vacancies.


title: Chinese checkers

text: While the standard rules allow hopping over only a single adjacent occupied position at a time (as in checkers), this version of the game allows pieces to catapult over multiple adjacent occupied positions in a line when hopping.


title: Chinese checkers

text: In the "fast-paced" or "Super Chinese Checkers" variant popular in France, a piece may hop over a "non-adjacent" piece. A hop consists of jumping over a distant piece (friend or enemy) to a symmetrical position on the opposite side, in the same line of direction. (For example, if there are two empty positions between the jumping piece and the piece being jumped, the jumping piece lands leaving exactly two empty positions immediately beyond the jumped piece.) As in the standard rules, a jumping move may consist of any number of a chain of hops. (When making a chain of hops, a piece is usually allowed to enter an empty corner, as long as it hops out again before the move is completed.)


title: Chinese checkers

text: Jumping over two or more pieces in a hop is not allowed. Therefore, in this variant even more than in the standard version, it is sometimes strategically important to keep one's pieces bunched in order to prevent a long opposing hop.


title: Chinese checkers

text: An alternative variant allows hops over "any" symmetrical arrangement, including pairs of pieces, pieces separated by empty positions, and so on.


title: Chinese checkers

text: In the "capture" variant, all sixty game pieces start out in the hexagonal field in the center of the gameboard. The center position is left unoccupied, so pieces form a symmetric hexagonal pattern. Color is irrelevant in this variant, so players take turns hopping any game piece over any other eligible game piece(s) on the board. The hopped-over pieces are captured (retired from the game, as in English draughts) and collected in the capturing player's bin. Only jumping moves are allowed; the game ends when no further jumps are possible. The player with the most captured pieces is the winner.


title: Chinese checkers

text: The board is tightly packed at the start of the game; as more pieces are captured, the board frees up, often allowing multiple captures to take place in a single move.


title: Chinese checkers

text: Two or more players can compete in this variant, but if there are more than six players, not everyone will get a fair turn.


title: Chinese checkers

text: This variant resembles the game Leap Frog. The main difference being that in Leap Frog the board is a square board.


title: Chinese checkers

text: Diamond game () is a variant of Sternhalma played in South Korea and Japan. It uses the same jump rule as in Sternhalma. The aim of the game is to enter all one's pieces into the star corner on the opposite side of the board, before opponents do the same. Each player has ten or fifteen pieces. Ten-piece diamond uses a smaller gameboard than Sternhalma, with 73 spaces. Fifteen-piece diamond uses the same board as in Sternhalma, with 121 spaces. To play diamond each player selects one color and places their 10 or 15 pieces on a triangle. Two or three players can compete.


title: Chinese checkers

text: Usually there are one "king piece" () and 14 common pieces () on each side. The king piece is the piece at the apex of each area and can jump over the common pieces but the common pieces cannot jump over the king piece.


title: Chinese checkers

text: In Yin and Yang, only two players compete and as in Chess, Go and Othello, only the black and the white marbles are used. For more interesting play, at the start of the game, the triangle placement of the opponents' marbles does not have to be 180 degrees in opposition.


title: Chinese checkers

text: Two or more players select their coloured marbles and then those marbles are randomly placed in the centre of the board. The object of the game is then for the players to move their marbles out of the chaos to their home corners creating order; the reverse of half a traditional game.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: Transatlantic telegraph cables were undersea cables running under the Atlantic Ocean for telegraph communications. Telegraphy is now an obsolete form of communication, and the cables have long since been decommissioned, but telephone and data are still carried on other transatlantic telecommunications cables. The first cable was laid in the 1850s from Valentia Island off the west coast of Ireland to Bay of Bulls, Trinity Bay, Newfoundland. The first communications occurred on 16 August 1858, but the line speed was poor, and efforts to improve it caused the cable to fail after three weeks.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: The Atlantic Telegraph Company led by Cyrus West Field constructed the first transatlantic telegraph cable. The project began in 1854 and was completed in 1858. The cable functioned for only three weeks, but was the first such project to yield practical results. The first official telegram to pass between two continents was a letter of congratulations from Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom to President of the United States James Buchanan on 16 August. Signal quality declined rapidly, slowing transmission to an almost unusable speed. The cable was destroyed the following month when Wildman Whitehouse applied excessive voltage to it while trying to achieve faster operation. It has been argued that the cable's faulty manufacture, storage and handling would have caused its premature failure in any case. Its short life undermined public and investor confidence and delayed efforts to restore a connection.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: The second cable was laid in 1865 with much improved material. It was laid from the ship SS "Great Eastern", built by John Scott Russell and Isambard Kingdom Brunel and skippered by Sir James Anderson. More than halfway across, the cable broke, and after many rescue attempts, it was abandoned. In July 1866 a third cable was laid from The Anglo-American Cable house on the Telegraph Field, Foilhomurrum. On 13 July, "Great Eastern" steamed westward to Heart's Content, Newfoundland, and on 27 July the successful connection was put into service. The 1865 cable was also retrieved and spliced, so two cables were in service. These cables proved more durable. Line speed was very good, and the slogan "Two weeks to two minutes" was coined to emphasize the great improvement over ship-borne dispatches. The cable altered for all time personal, commercial and political relations between people across the Atlantic. Since 1866 there has been a permanent cable connection between the continents.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: In the 1870s duplex and quadruplex transmission and receiving systems were set up that could relay multiple messages over the cable. Before the first transatlantic cable, communications between Europe and the Americas took place only by ship and could be delayed for weeks by severe winter storms. By contrast, the transatlantic cable allowed a message and a response in the same day.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: In the 1840s and 1850s several people proposed or advocated construction of a telegraph cable across the Atlantic, including Edward Thornton and Alonzo Jackman.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: As early as 1840 Samuel F. B. Morse proclaimed his faith in the idea of a submarine line across the Atlantic Ocean. By 1850 a cable was run between England and France. That year, Bishop John T. Mullock, head of the Catholic Church in Newfoundland, proposed a telegraph line through the forest from St. John's to Cape Ray and cables across the Gulf of St. Lawrence from Cape Ray to Nova Scotia across the Cabot Strait.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: Around the same time, a similar plan occurred to Frederic Newton Gisborne, a telegraph engineer in Nova Scotia. In the spring of 1851 he procured a grant from the Newfoundland legislature and, having formed a company, began building the landline. In 1853 his company collapsed, he was arrested for debt and lost everything.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: In 1854, businessman and financier Cyrus West Field invited Gisborne to his house to discuss the project. From his visitor, Field considered the idea that the cable to Newfoundland might be extended across the Atlantic Ocean.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: Field was ignorant of submarine cables and the deep sea. He consulted Morse and Lieutenant Matthew Maury, an authority on oceanography. The charts Maury constructed from soundings in the logs of multiple ships indicated that there was a feasible route across the Atlantic. It seemed so ideal for cable laying that Maury named it Telegraph Plateau. Maury's charts also indicated that a route directly to the US was too rugged to be tenable and considerably longer. Field adopted Gisborne's scheme as a preliminary step to the bigger undertaking and promoted the New York, Newfoundland and London Telegraph Company to establish a telegraph line between America and Europe.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: The first step was to finish the line between St. John's and Nova Scotia, which was undertaken by Gisborne and Field's brother, Matthew. In 1855 an attempt was made to lay a cable across the Cabot Strait in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. It was laid out from a barque in tow of a steamer. When half the cable was laid, a gale rose, and the line was cut to keep the barque from sinking. In 1856 a steamboat was fitted out for the purpose, and the link from Cape Ray, Newfoundland to Aspy Bay, Nova Scotia was successfully laid. The project's final cost exceeded $1 million, and the transatlantic segment would cost much more.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: In 1855, Field crossed the Atlantic, the first of 56 crossings in the course of the project, to consult with John Watkins Brett, the greatest authority on submarine cables at the time. Brett's Submarine Telegraph Company laid the first ocean cable in 1850 across the English Channel, and his English and Irish Magnetic Telegraph Company had laid a cable to Ireland in 1853, the deepest cable to that date. Further reasons for the trip were that all the commercial manufacturers of submarine cable were in Britain, and Field had failed to raise significant funds for the project in New York.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: Field pushed the project ahead with tremendous energy and speed. Even before forming a company to carry it out, he ordered of cable from the Gutta Percha Company. The Atlantic Telegraph Company was formed in October 1856, with Brett as president and Field as vice president. Charles Tilston Bright, who already worked for Brett, was made chief engineer, and Wildman Whitehouse, a medical doctor self-educated in electrical engineering, was appointed chief electrician. Field provided a quarter of the capital himself. After the remaining shares were sold, largely to existing investors in Brett's company, an unpaid board of directors was formed, which included William Thomson (the future Lord Kelvin), a respected scientist. Thomson also acted as a scientific advisor. Morse, a shareholder in the Nova Scotia project and acting as the electrical advisor, was also on the board.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: The cable consisted of 7 copper wires, each weighing 26 kg/km (107 pounds per nautical mile), covered with three coats of gutta-percha (as suggested by Jonathan Nash Hearder), weighing 64 kg/km (261 pounds per nautical mile), and wound with tarred hemp, over which a sheath of 18 strands, each of 7 iron wires, was laid in a close helix. It weighed nearly 550 kg/km (1.1 tons per nautical mile), was relatively flexible, and could withstand tension of several tens of kilonewtons (several tons).


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: The cable from the Gutta Percha Company was armoured separately by wire-rope manufacturers, the standard practice at the time. In the rush to proceed, only four months were allowed for the cable's completion. As no wire-rope maker had the capacity to make so much cable in such a short period, the task was shared by two English firms: Glass, Elliot & Co. of Greenwich and R.S. Newall and Company of Birkenhead. Late in manufacturing, it was discovered that the two batches had been made with strands twisted in opposite directions. This meant that they could not be directly spliced wire-to-wire, as the iron wire on both cables would unwind when it was put under tension during laying. The problem was solved by splicing through an improvised wooden bracket to hold the wires in place, but the mistake created negative publicity for the project.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: The British government gave Field a subsidy of £1,400 a year (£ today) and loaned ships for cable laying and support. Field also solicited aid from the U.S. government, and a bill authorizing a subsidy was submitted in Congress. It passed the Senate by only a single vote, due to opposition from protectionist senators. It passed in the House of Representatives despite similar resistance and was signed by President Franklin Pierce.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: The first attempt, in 1857, was a failure. The cable-laying vessels were the converted warships HMS "Agamemnon" and USS "Niagara", borrowed from their respective governments. Both were needed as neither could hold 2,500 nautical miles of cable alone. The cable was started at the white strand near Ballycarbery Castle in County Kerry, on the southwest coast of Ireland, on August 5, 1857. It broke on the first day, but was grappled and repaired. It broke again over Telegraph Plateau, nearly deep, and the operation was abandoned for the year. 300 miles of cable were lost, but the remaining 1,800 miles were sufficient to complete the task. During this period, Morse clashed with Field, was removed from the board, and took no further part in the enterprise.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: The problems with breakage were due largely to difficulty controlling the cable tensions with the braking mechanism as the cable was payed out. A new mechanism was designed and successfully tested in the Bay of Biscay with "Agamemnon" in May 1858. On 10 June, "Agamemnon" and "Niagara" set sail to try again. Ten days out they encountered a severe storm, and the enterprise was nearly brought to a premature end. The ships were top-heavy with cable, which could not all fit in the holds, and the ships struggled to stay upright. Ten sailors were hurt, and Thomson's electrical cabin was flooded. The vessels arrived at the middle of the Atlantic on June 25 and spliced cable from the two ships together. "Agamemnon" payed out eastwards towards Valentia Island, and "Niagara" westward towards Newfoundland. The cable broke after less than , again after about , and for a third time when about had been run out of each vessel.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: The expedition returned to Queenstown, County Cork, Ireland. Some directors were in favour of abandoning the project and selling off the cable, but Field persuaded them to keep going. The ships set out again on 17 July, and the middle splice was finished on 29 July 1858. The cable ran easily this time. "Niagara" arrived in Trinity Bay, Newfoundland on 4 August, and the next morning the shore end was landed. "Agamemnon" arrived at Valentia Island on 5 August; the shore end was landed at Knightstown and laid to the nearby cable house.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: Test messages were sent from Newfoundland beginning 10 August 1858. The first was successfully read at Valentia on 12 August and in Newfoundland on 13 August. Further test and configuration messages followed until 16 August, when the first official message was sent via the cable:


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: Next was the text of a congratulatory telegram from Queen Victoria to President James Buchanan at his summer residence in the Bedford Springs Hotel in Pennsylvania, expressing hope that the cable would prove "an additional link between the nations whose friendship is founded on their common interest and reciprocal esteem". The President responded: "It is a triumph more glorious, because far more useful to mankind, than was ever won by conqueror on the field of battle. May the Atlantic telegraph, under the blessing of Heaven, prove to be a bond of perpetual peace and friendship between the kindred nations, and an instrument destined by Divine Providence to diffuse religion, civilization, liberty, and law throughout the world."


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: The messages were hard to decipher; Queen Victoria's message of 98 words took 16 hours to send. Nonetheless, they engendered an outburst of enthusiasm. The next morning a grand salute of 100 guns resounded in New York City, streets were hung with flags, bells of the churches were rung, and at night the city was illuminated. On 1 September there was a parade, followed by an evening torchlight procession and a fireworks display that caused a fire in the Town Hall. Bright was knighted for his part, the first such honour to the telegraph industry.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: Operation of the 1858 cable was plagued by conflict between two of the project's senior members Thomson and Whitehouse. Whitehouse was a medical doctor by training, but had taken an enthusiastic interest in the new electrical technology and given up his medical practice to follow a new career. He had no formal training in physics; all his knowledge was gained through practical experience. The two clashed even before the project began, when Whitehouse disputed Thomson's law of squares when the latter presented it to a British Association meeting in 1855. Thomson's law predicted that transmission speed on the cable would be very slow due to an effect called retardation. To test the theory, Bright gave Whitehouse overnight access to the Magnetic Telegraph Company's long underground lines. Whitehouse joined several lines together to a distance similar to the transatlantic route and declared that there would be no problem. Morse was also present at this test and supported Whitehouse. Thomson believed that Whitehouse's measurements were flawed and that underground and underwater cables were not fully comparable. Thomson believed that a larger cable was needed to mitigate the retardation problem. In mid-1857, on his own initiative, he examined samples of copper core of allegedly identical specification and found variations in resistance up to a factor of two. But cable manufacture was already underway, and Whitehouse supported use of a thinner cable, so Field went with the cheaper option.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: Another point of contention was the itinerary for deployment. Thomson favoured starting mid-Atlantic and the two ships heading in opposite directions, which would halve the time required. Whitehouse wanted both ships to travel together from Ireland so that progress could be reported back to the base in Valentia through the cable. Whitehouse overruled Thomson's suggestion on the 1857 voyage, but Bright convinced the directors to approve a mid-ocean start on the subsequent 1858 voyage. Whitehouse, as chief electrician, was supposed to be on board the cable-laying vessel, but repeatedly found excuses for the 1857 attempt, the trials in the Bay of Biscay, and the two attempts in 1858. In 1857, Thomson was sent in his place, and in 1858 Field diplomatically assigned the two to different ships to avoid conflict—but as Whitehouse continued to evade the voyage, Thomson went alone.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: After his experience on the 1857 voyage, Thomson realised that a better method of detecting the telegraph signal was required. While waiting for the next voyage, he developed his mirror galvanometer, an extremely sensitive instrument, much better than any till then. He requested £2,000 from the board to build several, but was given only £500 for a prototype and permission to try it on the next voyage. It was extremely good at detecting the positive and negative edges of telegraph pulses that represented a Morse "dash" and "dot" respectively (the standard system on submarine cables—as, unlike overland telegraphy, both pulses were of the same length). Thomson believed that he could use the instrument with the low voltages from regular telegraph equipment even over the vast length of the Atlantic cable. He successfully tested it on of cable in underwater storage at Plymouth.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: The mirror galvanometer proved yet another point of contention. Whitehouse wanted to work the cable with a very different scheme, driving it with a massive high-voltage induction coil producing several thousand volts, so enough current would be available to drive standard electromechanical printing telegraphs used on inland telegraphs. Thomson's instrument had to be read by eye and was not capable of printing. Nine years later, he invented the syphon recorder for the second transatlantic attempt in 1866. The decision to start mid-Atlantic, combined with Whitehouse dropping out of another voyage, left Thomson on board "Agamemnon" sailing towards Ireland, with a free hand to use his equipment without Whitehouse's interference. Although Thomson had the status of a mere advisor to engineer C. W. de Sauty, it was not long before all electrical decisions were deferred to him. Whitehouse, staying behind in Valentia, remained out of contact until the ship reached Ireland and landed the cable.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: Around this time, the board started having doubts over Whitehouse's generally negative attitude. Not only did he repeatedly clash with Thomson, but was also critical of Field, and his repeated refusals to carry out his primary duty as chief electrician onboard ship made a very bad impression. With the removal of Morse, Whitehouse had lost his only ally on the board, but at this time no action was taken.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: When "Agamemnon" reached Valentia on 5 August, Thomson handed over to Whitehouse, and the project was declared a success to the press. Thomson received clear signals throughout the voyage using the mirror galvanometer, but Whitehouse immediately connected his own equipment. The effects of the cable's poor handling and design, and Whitehouse's repeated attempts to drive up to 2,000 volts through the cable, compromised the cable's insulation. Whitehouse attempted to hide the poor performance and was vague in his communications. The expected inaugural message from Queen Victoria had been widely publicised, and when it was not forthcoming, the press speculated that there were problems. Whitehouse announced that five or six weeks would be required for "adjustments". The Queen's message had been received in Newfoundland, but Whitehouse was unable to read the confirmation copy sent back the other way. Finally, on 17 August, he announced receipt. What he did not announce was that the message had been received on the mirror galvanometer when he finally gave up trying with his own equipment. Whitehouse had the message reentered into his printing telegraph locally so he could send on the printed tape and pretend that it had been received that way.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: In September 1858, after several days of progressive deterioration of the insulation, the cable failed altogether. The reaction to the news was tremendous. Some writers even hinted that the line was a mere hoax; others pronounced it a stock-exchange speculation. Whitehouse was recalled for the board's investigation, and Thomson took over in Valentia, tasked with reconstructing the events that Whitehouse had obfuscated. Whitehouse was held responsible for the failure and dismissed. The cable might have failed eventually anyway, but Whitehouse certainly brought it about much sooner. The cable was particularly vulnerable in the first hundred miles from Ireland, consisting of the old 1857 cable that was spliced into the new lay and known to be poorly manufactured. Samples showed that in places the conductor was badly off-centre and could easily break through the insulation due to mechanical strains during laying. Tests were conducted on samples of cable submerged in seawater. When perfectly insulated, there was no problem applying thousands of volts. However, a sample with a pinprick hole "lit up like a lantern" when tested, and a large hole was burned in the insulation.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: Although the cable was never put in service for public use and never worked well, there was time for a few messages to be passed that went beyond testing. The collision between the Cunard Line ships "Europa" and "Arabia" was reported on 17 August. The British Government used the cable to countermand an order for two regiments in Canada to embark for England, saving £50,000. A total of 732 messages were passed before the cable failed.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: Field was undaunted by the failure. He was eager to renew the work, but the public had lost confidence in the scheme, and his efforts to revive the company were futile. It was not until 1864 that, with the assistance of Thomas Brassey and John Pender, he succeeded in raising the necessary capital. The Glass, Elliot, and Gutta-Percha Companies were united to form the Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Company (Telcon, later part of BICC), which undertook to manufacture and lay the new cable. C. F. Varley replaced Whitehouse as chief electrician.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: In the meantime, long cables had been submerged in the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. With this experience, an improved cable was designed. The core consisted of seven twisted strands of very pure copper weighing 300 pounds per nautical mile (73 kg/km), coated with Chatterton's compound, then covered with four layers of gutta-percha, alternating with four thin layers of the compound cementing the whole, and bringing the weight of the insulator to 400 lb/nmi (98 kg/km). This core was covered with hemp saturated in a preservative solution, and on the hemp were helically wound eighteen single strands of high tensile steel wire produced by Webster & Horsfall Ltd of Hay Mills Birmingham, each covered with fine strands of manila yarn steeped in the preservative. The weight of the new cable was 35.75 long hundredweight (4000 lb) per nautical mile (980 kg/km), or nearly twice the weight of the old. The Haymills site successfully manufactured of wire (1,600 tons), made by 250 workers over eleven months.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: The new cable was laid by the ship SS "Great Eastern" captained by Sir James Anderson. Her immense hull was fitted with three iron tanks for the reception of of cable, and her decks furnished with the paying-out gear. At noon on 15 July 1865, "Great Eastern" left the Nore for Foilhommerum Bay, Valentia Island, where the shore end was laid by "Caroline". This attempt failed on 2 August when, after 1,062 miles (1968 km) had been payed out, the cable snapped near the stern of the ship, and the end was lost.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: "Great Eastern" steamed back to England, where Field issued another prospectus and formed the Anglo-American Telegraph Company, to lay a new cable and complete the broken one. On 13 July 1866, "Great Eastern" started paying out once more. Despite problems with the weather on the evening of Friday, 27 July, the expedition reached the port of Heart's Content in a thick fog. The next morning at 9 a.m. a message from England cited these words from the leader in "The Times": "It is a great work, a glory to our age and nation, and the men who have achieved it deserve to be honoured among the benefactors of their race." The shore end was landed at Heart's Content Cable Station during the day by "Medway". Congratulations poured in, and friendly telegrams were again exchanged between Queen Victoria and the United States.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: In August 1866, several ships, including "Great Eastern", put to sea again in order to grapple the lost cable of 1865. Their goal was to find the end of the lost cable, splice it to new cable, and complete the run to Newfoundland. They were determined to find it, and their search was based solely upon positions recorded "principally by Captain Moriarty, R. N.", who placed the end of the lost cable at longitude


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: There were some who thought it hopeless to try, declaring that to locate a cable down would be like looking for a small needle in a large haystack. However, Robert Halpin, first officer of "Great Eastern", navigated HMS "Terrible" and grappling ship "Albany" to the correct location. "Albany" moved slowly here and there, "fishing" for the lost cable with a five-pronged grappling hook at the end of a stout rope. Suddenly, on 10 August, "Albany" "caught" the cable and brought it to the surface. It seemed to be an unrealistically easy success. During the night, the cable slipped from the buoy to which it had been secured, and the process had to start all over again. This happened several more times, with the cable slipping after being secured in a frustrating battle against rough seas. One time, a sailor even was flung across the deck when the grapnel rope snapped and recoiled around him. "Great Eastern" and another grappling ship, "Medway", arrived to join the search on 12 August. It was not until over a fortnight later, in early September 1866, that the cable was finally retrieved so that it could be worked on; it took 26 hours to get it safely on board "Great Eastern". The cable was carried to the electrician's room, where it was determined that the cable was connected. All on the ship cheered or wept as rockets were sent up into the sky to light the sea. The recovered cable was then spliced to a fresh cable in her hold and payed out to Heart's Content, Newfoundland, where she arrived on Saturday, 7 September. There were now two working telegraph lines.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: Broken cables required an elaborate repair procedure. The approximate distance to the break was determined by measuring the resistance of the broken cable. The repair ship navigated to the location. The cable was hooked with a grapple and brought on board to test for electrical continuity. Buoys were deployed to mark the ends of good cable, and a splice was made between the two ends.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: Initially messages were sent by an operator using Morse code. The reception was very bad on the 1858 cable, and it took two minutes to transmit just one character (a single letter or a single number), a rate of about 0.1 words per minute. This was despite the use of the highly sensitive mirror galvanometer. The inaugural message from Queen Victoria took 67 minutes to transmit to Newfoundland, but it took 16 hours for the confirmation copy to be transmitted back to Whitehouse in Valentia.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: For the 1866 cable, the methods of cable manufacture, as well as sending messages, had been vastly improved. The 1866 cable could transmit 8 words a minute80 times faster than the 1858 cable. Oliver Heaviside and Mihajlo Idvorski Pupin in later decades understood that the bandwidth of a cable is hindered by an imbalance between capacitive and inductive reactance, which causes a severe dispersion and hence a signal distortion; see telegrapher's equations. This has to be solved by iron tape or by load coils. It was not until the 20th century that message transmission speeds over transatlantic cables would reach even 120 words per minute. London became the world centre in telecommunications. Eventually, no fewer than eleven cables radiated from Porthcurno Cable Station near Land's End and formed with their Commonwealth links a "live" girdle around the world; the All Red Line.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: Additional cables were laid between Foilhommerum and Heart's Content in 1873, 1874, 1880, and 1894. By the end of the 19th century, British-, French-, German-, and American-owned cables linked Europe and North America in a sophisticated web of telegraphic communications.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: The original cables were not fitted with repeaters, which potentially could completely solve the retardation problem and consequently speed up operation. Repeaters amplify the signal periodically along the line. On telegraph lines this is done with relays, but there was no practical way to power them in a submarine cable. The first transatlantic cable with repeaters was TAT-1 in 1956. This was a telephone cable and used a different technology for its repeaters.


title: Transatlantic telegraph cable

text: A 2018 study in the "American Economic Review" found that the transatlantic telegraph substantially increased trade over the Atlantic and reduced prices. The study estimates that "the efficiency gains of the telegraph to be equivalent to 8 percent of export value".


title: Spinning jenny

text: The spinning jenny is a multi-spindle spinning frame, and was one of the key developments in the industrialization of textile manufacturing during the early Industrial Revolution. It was invented in 1764 or 1765 by James Hargreaves in Stanhill, Oswaldtwistle, Lancashire in England.


title: Spinning jenny

text: The device reduced the amount of work needed to produce cloth, with a worker able to work eight or more spools at once. This grew to 120 as technology advanced. The yarn produced by the jenny was not very strong until Richard Arkwright invented the water-powered water frame. The spinning jenny helped to start the factory system of cotton manufacturing.


title: Spinning jenny

text: The spinning jenny was invented by James Hargreaves. He was born in Oswaldtwistle, near Blackburn, around 1720. Blackburn was a town with a population of about 5,000, known for the production of "Blackburn greys," cloths of linen warp and cotton weft initially imported from India. They were usually sent to London to be printed.


title: Spinning jenny

text: At the time, cotton production could not keep up with demand of the textile industry, and Hargreaves spent some time considering how to improve the process. The flying shuttle (John Kay 1733) had increased yarn demand by the weavers by doubling their productivity, and now the spinning jenny could supply that demand by increasing the spinners' productivity even more. The machine produced coarse thread.


title: Spinning jenny

text: The idea was developed by Hargreaves as a metal frame with eight wooden spindles at one end. A set of eight rovings was attached to a beam on that frame. The rovings when extended passed through two horizontal bars of wood that could be clasped together. These bars could be drawn along the top of the frame by the spinner's left hand thus extending the thread. The spinner used his right hand to rapidly turn a wheel which caused all the spindles to revolve, and the thread to be spun. When the bars were returned, the thread wound onto the spindle. A pressing wire (faller) was used to guide the threads onto the right place on the spindle.


title: Spinning jenny

text: In the 17th century, England was famous for its woollen and worsted cloth. That industry was centred in the east and south in towns such as Norwich which jealously protected their product. Cotton processing was tiny: in 1701 only of cotton-wool was imported into England, and by 1730 this had fallen to . This was due to commercial legislation (Calico Acts) to protect the woollen industry. Cheap calico prints, imported by the East India Company from "Hindustan", became popular. In 1700 an Act of Parliament was passed to prevent the importation of dyed or printed calicoes from India, China or Persia. This caused grey cloth (calico that hadn't been finished - dyed or printed) to be imported instead, and these were printed in southern England with popular patterns. Lancashire businessmen produced grey cloth with linen warp and cotton weft, which they sent to London to be finished. Cotton-wool imports recovered and by 1720 were almost back to 1701 levels. Again the woollen manufacturers claimed this was taking jobs from workers in Coventry. Another law was passed, to fine anyone caught wearing printed or stained calico; muslins, neckcloths and fustians were exempted. It was this exemption that the Lancashire manufacturers exploited.


title: Spinning jenny

text: The use of coloured cotton weft, with linen warp was permitted in the 1736 Manchester Act. There now was an artificial demand for woven cloth. In 1764, of cotton-wool was imported.


title: Spinning jenny

text: In England, before canals, railways, and before the turnpikes, the only way to transport goods such as calicos, broadcloth or cotton-wool was by packhorse. Strings of packhorses travelled along a network of bridle paths. A merchant would be away from home most of the year, carrying his takings in cash in his saddlebag. Later a series of chapmen would work for the merchant, taking wares to wholesalers and clients in other towns, and with them would go sample books.


title: Spinning jenny

text: Before 1720, the handloom weaver spent part of each day visiting neighbours buying any weft they had. Carding and spinning might be the only income for that household, or part of it. The family might farm a few acres and card, spin and weave wool and cotton. It took three carders to provide the roving for one spinner, and up to three spinners to provide the yarn for one weaver. The process was continuous, and done by both sexes, from the youngest to the oldest. The weaver would go once a week to the market with his wares and offer them for sale.


title: Spinning jenny

text: A change came about 1740 when fustian masters gave out raw cotton and warps to the weavers and returned to collect the finished cloth (Putting-out system). The weaver organised the carding, spinning and weaving to the master's specification. The master then dyed or printed the grey cloth, and took it to shopkeepers. Ten years later this had changed and the fustian masters were middle men, who collected the grey cloth and took it to market in Manchester where it was sold to merchants who organised the finishing.


title: Spinning jenny

text: To hand weave a piece of eighteenpenny weft took 14 days and paid 36 shillings in all. Of this nine shillings was paid for spinning, and nine for carding. So by 1750, a rudimentary manufacturing system feeding into a marketing system emerged.


title: Spinning jenny

text: In 1738 John Kay started to improve the loom. He improved the reed, and invented the raceboard, the shuttleboxes and the picker which together allowed one weaver to double his output. This invention is commonly called the flying shuttle. It met with violent opposition and he fled from Lancashire to Leeds. Though the workers thought this was a threat to their jobs, it was adopted and the pressure was on to speed up carding and spinning.


title: Spinning jenny

text: The shortage of spinning capacity to feed the more efficient looms provided the motivation to develop more productive spinning techniques such as the spinning jenny, and triggered the start of the Industrial Revolution.


title: Spinning jenny

text: Hargreaves kept the machine secret for some time, but produced a number for his own growing industry. The price of yarn fell, angering the large spinning community in Blackburn. Eventually they broke into his house and smashed his machines, forcing him to flee to Nottingham in 1768. This was a centre for the hosiery industry, and knitted silks, cottons and wool. There he set up shop producing jennies in secret for one Mr Shipley, with the assistance of a joiner named Thomas James. He and James set up a textile business in Mill Street. On 12 July 1770, he took out a patent (no. 962) on his invention, the Spinning Jenny—a machine for spinning, drawing and twisting cotton.


title: Spinning jenny

text: By this time a number of spinners in Lancashire were using copies of the machine, and Hargreaves sent notice that he was taking legal action against them. The manufacturers met, and offered Hargreaves £3,000. He at first demanded £7,000, and stood out for £4,000, but the case eventually fell apart when it was learned he had sold several in the past.


title: Spinning jenny

text: The spinning jenny succeeded because it held more than one ball of yarn, making more yarn in a shorter time and reducing the overall cost. The spinning jenny would not have been such a success if the flying shuttle had not been invented and installed in textile factories. Its success was limited in that it required the rovings to be prepared on a wheel, and this was limited by the need to card by hand. It continued in common use in the cotton and fustian industry until about 1810. The spinning jenny was superseded by the spinning mule. The jenny was adapted for the process of slubbing, being the basis of the Slubbing Billy.


title: Spinning jenny

text: The most common story told about the invention of the device and the origin of the "jenny" in the machine's name is that a daughter (or his wife) named Jenny knocked over one of their own spinning wheels. The device kept working as normal, with the spindle now pointed upright. Hargreaves realized there was no particular reason the spindles had to be horizontal, as they always had been, and he could place them vertically in a row.


title: Spinning jenny

text: The name is variously said to derive from this tale. The Registers of Church Kirk show that Hargreaves had several daughters, but none named Jenny (neither was his wife). A more likely explanation of the name is that "jenny" was an abbreviation of "engine".


title: Spinning jenny

text: Thomas Highs of Leigh has claimed to be the inventor and the story is repeated using his wife's name.


title: Spinning jenny

text: Another myth has Thomas Earnshaw inventing a spinning device of a similar description – but destroying it after fearing he might be taking bread out of the mouths of the poor.


title: Thomas Culpeper

text: Thomas Culpeper ( – 10 December 1541) was an English courtier and close friend of Henry VIII, and related to two of his queens, Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard. He is known to have had many private meetings with Catherine after her marriage, though these may have involved political intrigue rather than sex. A letter to him was found, written by Queen Catherine and signed, "Yours as long as life endures." Accused of adultery with Henry's young consort, Culpeper denied it and blamed the queen for the situation, saying that he had tried to end his friendship with her, but that she was "dying of love for him". Eventually, Culpeper admitted to intending to sleep with the queen, though he never admitted to having actually done so.


title: Thomas Culpeper

text: Thomas Culpeper was the second of the three sons of Alexander Culpeper (d. 1541) of Bedgebury in Kent, and his second wife, Constance Harper. His elder brother, also named Thomas, was a client of Thomas Cromwell. The brothers were known for collecting valuable items for the royal family during their time at court. He was distantly related to the Howard family, who were immensely powerful at the time, being a distant cousin of Joyce Culpeper, Catherine Howard's mother. They were particularly influential after the fall of Cardinal Wolsey in 1529, and for a brief time under the reign of Anne Boleyn, who was one of their cousins.


title: Thomas Culpeper

text: Having bought the Higham Park estate at Bridge in Kent in 1534, by 1535 Culpeper was acting as courtier for the Viscount Lisle and his wife, Honor, during which time he collected a number of items for them. In 1538, Honor presented Culpeper with a hawk and during that same year, Culpeper worked with Richard Cromwell to gain a hawk for King Henry VIII.


title: Thomas Culpeper

text: Culpeper was described as "a beautiful youth" and he was a great favourite of Henry. It was because of this favouritism that Culpeper had major influence with the King and was often bribed to use his influence on others' behalf. In 1539, a Thomas Culpeper was accused of raping a park-keeper's wife and then murdering a villager. However, there is a possibility that the rapist was Culpeper's elder brother, also called Thomas. Due to similar names, some confusion between the brothers is possible. However, his elder brother, Thomas (born around 1501), may have received a knighthood, as referenced on the Culpeper Family Tree. Whoever was the guilty party, through influence on the King, a pardon was given. Culpeper was given the honour of being keeper of the armoury and Henry eventually made Culpeper a Gentleman of the Privy Chamber, giving him intimate access to the King, as the role involved dressing and undressing Henry and often sleeping in his bedchamber. He was part of the group of privileged courtiers who greeted Henry's fourth wife Anne of Cleves when she arrived in England for her marriage.


title: Thomas Culpeper

text: From 1537–1541, Culpeper was given several gifts, including keeper of the manor at Penshurst Palace and property in Kent, Essex, Gloucestershire and Wiltshire.


title: Thomas Culpeper

text: In 1540, Culpeper caught the attention of Henry's new young bride, Catherine Howard, and by 1541 they were spending time together, often alone and late at night, aided and abetted by Catherine's lady-in-waiting, Lady Rochford, the widowed sister-in-law of Anne Boleyn. The affair caused the downfall of all involved.


title: Thomas Culpeper

text: Culpeper had close access to the Queen's apartments and often came into contact with the Queen and her attendants. Thomas Culpeper was first introduced into Catherine Howard's personal life in March 1541, Henry went on a trip to Dover and left Catherine behind at Greenwich. At this time Culpeper began asking favours of Catherine. The private meetings between them are thought to have begun sometime around May of that same year. Lady Rochford, arranged the meetings between Culpeper and Catherine. On these occasions only she and another lady-in-waiting, Katherine Tilney, were allowed entrance to the Queen's chamber.


title: Thomas Culpeper

text: On 30 June, Catherine and Henry travelled north to York in the hope of meeting James V of Scotland. They arrived at Lincoln on 9 August, where Culpeper met Catherine for another secret meeting in her bedchamber. These meetings continued in Pontefract Castle, after the court arrived on 23 August. It is believed that the letter Catherine sent to Culpeper was sent during these proceedings. In this letter she wishes to know how he is and is troubled that he is ill. Catherine also writes: "I never longed so muche for [a] thynge as I do to se you and to speke wyth you, the wyche I trust shal be shortely now," and "my trust ys allway in you that you wolbe as you have promysed me..."


title: Thomas Culpeper

text: These statements cause some audiences to believe that their affair was not only one of passion, but also centred on Culpeper's political agenda. With Henry in poor health and only his very young son Edward to succeed him, being Catherine's favourite would undoubtedly have put Culpeper in a very strong political position. As a well-liked member of the King's Privy Chamber he enjoyed a close relationship with Henry. If the promise Catherine mentioned was in reference to his possible knowledge about her previous sexual relationships, Culpeper could have used this as leverage to gain power and control over the Queen herself. In this specific letter Catherine states that she longs to talk with Culpeper but does not mention any desire to be intimate with him, although she does sign off with the dedication, "Yours as long as life endures".


title: Thomas Culpeper

text: Accounts of the Queen's premarital indiscretions had meanwhile come to the attention of Thomas Cranmer, then Archbishop of Canterbury. During Cranmer's investigations, he came across rumours of an affair between the Queen and Culpeper; Culpeper was soon arrested for questioning. Both he and the Queen denied the allegations, but the letter from Catherine to Culpeper, found during a search of Culpeper's quarters, provided the evidence for which Cranmer was looking. Whether the association between Culpeper and the Queen was ever consummated is still debated by historians, but the letter seems to give evidence of Catherine's feelings for Culpeper. Also in the letter was a reference to Lady Rochford.


title: Thomas Culpeper

text: Culpeper was arrested on orders from King Henry and, in December 1541, was tried for adultery alongside Francis Dereham, who was separately accused of adultery with the Queen before her marriage to Henry. Catherine had not hidden the affair with Culpeper from members of her household, who now testified against her to protect themselves, although many historians believe the affair to be an untrue allegation.


title: Thomas Culpeper

text: The Queen was portrayed as having seduced Culpeper at Chenies Palace in Buckinghamshire. With testimony given of private meetings at Hatfield House in Hertfordshire, and during the royal progress to the north of England in the summer of 1541, his fate was sealed.


title: Thomas Culpeper

text: Under interrogation, Culpeper admitted to intending to have sexual relations with Catherine and that she intended to sleep with him. Lady Rochford, however, stated in her interrogation that she believed that Culpeper had "known the Queen carnally."


title: Thomas Culpeper

text: Both Culpeper and Dereham were found guilty and sentenced to death. They were both to be hanged, drawn and quartered. Both men pleaded for mercy; Culpeper, presumably because of his former closeness to the King, received a commuted sentence of simple beheading. Dereham received no such mercy.


title: Thomas Culpeper

text: Culpeper was executed along with Dereham at Tyburn on 10 December 1541, and their heads were put on display on London Bridge. Culpeper was buried at St Sepulchre-without-Newgate church in London. Queen Catherine Howard and Lady Rochford were both executed on 13 February 1542, and were buried in the Church of St Peter ad Vincula, within the Tower of London.


title: Thomas Culpeper

text: Culpepper is referenced in nearly all biographies of Henry VIII and Catherine Howard. He is less well-represented in popular fiction, where he is often unrepresented except for his relationship with Catherine. He is portrayed in several plays and several writings, always closely associated with Catherine.


title: Thomas Culpeper

text: In the book "A Tudor Tragedy; The Life and Times of Catherine Howard", by Lacey Baldwin Smith, the author writes that there were rumours during the time period that Thomas Culpeper and Catherine Howard intended to be married before Henry VIII set his sights on her. The book describes Thomas Culpeper as a young man in his 20s, hence his appeal to Catherine, who, during the time of her marriage to Henry VIII, witnessed his steadily declining physical state and overall health. This was in conjunction with his steadily declining sanity; during his last year with Catherine Howard, Henry VIII was seen as more and more emotionally erratic.


title: Thomas Culpeper

text: The affair seems to have always attracted the attention of authors who are looking to write about scandal. One such particular writer was a Spanish chronicler who may have been at King Henry VIII's court, who wrote his very romantic – and for the greater part inaccurate – interpretation of Catherine's career. In his version of the story, he portrays King Henry VIII as the cruel, selfish husband, who bullied the unwilling Catherine into marrying him against her will, despite her previous involvement with Thomas Culpeper, who is portrayed as the devoted and heartbroken hero who resisted his love for Catherine for as long as he possibly could, until one day he secretly slipped her a note declaring his love for her. When their love was discovered by the King, Thomas was arrested but, according to the writings, he stated: “Gentlemen, do not seek to know more than that the King deprived me of the thing I loved best in the world, and, though you may hang me for it, I can assure you that she loves me as well as I love her, although up to this hour no wrong has ever passed between us. Before the King married her, I thought to make her my wife, and when I saw her irremediably lost to me I was like to die.” According to the story, the Duke of Somerset retorted to this monologue with, "You have said quite enough, Culpeper, to lose your head."


title: Thomas Culpeper

text: In Ford Madox Ford's trilogy on Catherine Howard, entitled "The Fifth Queen", Culpeper is portrayed as an intimate of Catherine's who, early on in the novel, arrives with her in tow on a mule as the wedding with Anne of Cleves is about to take place. In dragging the mule forward as a riot is starting outside the King's garden, he is described as "a man in green at the mule's head, [who] ... sprang like a wild cat under the beast's neck. His face blazed white, his teeth shone like a dog's, he screamed and struck his dagger through the butcher's throat [someone trying to block his and Catherine's way]. His motions were those of a wild beast". His introduction to Court is brought about through Catherine. He is sent to Calais to keep him from getting in trouble at Court for his brawling. He is often mentioned as having sold property to buy his impoverished cousin Catherine a proper dress and is not at all consistent with the historical record.


title: Thomas Culpeper

text: In the 1933 film "The Private Life of Henry VIII", Culpeper was played by Robert Donat. In the 1970 BBC series "The Six Wives of Henry VIII", he was played by Ralph Bates, though Robin Sachs assumed the role in the subsequent 1972 film, "Henry VIII and His Six Wives". In the 2003 TV film Henry VIII, Thomas Culpeper is portrayed by Joseph Morgan. In the Showtime television series "The Tudors", Thomas Culpeper is portrayed by Torrance Coombs; in this series, he is characterized as a cruel, arrogant man whose interest in Catherine is purely sexual, his relationship with her is an outgrowth of a preexisting affair with Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford (a detail that has no basis in history).


title: Meera Chopra

text: Meera Chopra, is an Indian actress and model who appears in Tamil, Telugu, and Hindi-language films. In Tamil films, she is credited as Nila.


title: Meera Chopra

text: Meera's Tamil debut was with the 2005 film "Anbe Aaruyire", in which she starred with S. J. Surya. Her second film was a Telugu-language film in a supporting role with "Pawan Kalyan", followed by her critically acclaimed performance in M. S. Raju's "Vaana". Much later she made her Bollywood debut in Vikram Bhatt's "", with Sharman Joshi. She's also worked in Satish Kaushik's "Gang of Ghosts", produced by Venus. Meera is set to work in Nastik (upcoming film) opposite Arjun Rampal, which is set to release in late 2021. She played Anjali Dangle in a 2019 film "Section 375", with Akshaye Khanna and Richa Chaddha.


title: James Broderick

text: James Joseph Broderick III (March 7, 1927November 1, 1982) was an American actor. He is known for his role as Doug Lawrence in the television series "Family", which ran from 1976 to 1980, and he played a pivotal role in the 1975 film "Dog Day Afternoon".


title: James Broderick

text: Broderick was born in Charlestown, New Hampshire, the son of Mary Elizabeth (née Martindale) (1896–1986) and James Joseph Broderick II (or Jr.) (1895–1959). He was raised Catholic. His father, a highly decorated World War I combatant, was of Irish descent, and his mother was of English and Irish ancestry.


title: James Broderick

text: Broderick attended Manchester Central High School and then took pre-medical courses at the University of New Hampshire for two years. He joined the Navy in 1945, becoming a pharmacist mate.


title: James Broderick

text: In 1947, Broderick returned to his studies. He auditioned for a part in the University production of George Bernard Shaw's "Arms and the Man". Director J. Donald Batcheller, faculty advisor to the student drama club (Mask and Dagger), was impressed and gave him the role of Bluntschli, an anti-romantic Swiss soldier. Batcheller said, "You could tell from the beginning that he was an exceptional individual. He displayed an unusual ability to get along with people. He was kind, sensitive, imaginative, and had a good sense of humor. He also had an Irish mug if I ever saw one."


title: James Broderick

text: Although Batcheller did not often encourage the students to pursue acting as a career, he was so sure of Broderick's talent that he suggested a trip to New York to meet Batcheller's friend Arthur Kennedy. Broderick took his advice and Kennedy subsequently directed him to the Neighborhood Playhouse, where he gained the necessary experience and training for a successful acting career in both films and television.


title: James Broderick

text: Broderick co-starred in the CBS television series "Brenner", portraying Officer Ernie Brenner. He played Doug Lawrence on the television show "Family" from 1976 to 1980. Broderick also served as a director for the series. He received an Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series in 1978. Other notable television appearances included the "Twilight Zone" episode "On Thursday We Leave for Home" and the Public Television productions of Jean Shepherd's "The Phantom of the Open Hearth" and "The Great American Fourth of July and Other Disasters", in which he played Ralph Parker's father, "the Old Man". The role later was played by Darren McGavin in "A Christmas Story". Broderick also appeared in the “My Sister’s Keeper" episode of "Gunsmoke" in 1963 as a widower unable to deal with loss, and in the 1964 episode "Doctor's Wife" as a doctor saddled with an overbearing wife.


title: James Broderick

text: His notable film roles include Ray Brock, the complex father figure of a New England commune in "Alice's Restaurant" (1969), the subway motorman in "The Taking of Pelham One Two Three" (1974), FBI agent Sheldon in "Dog Day Afternoon" (1975), and Joe in "The Shadow Box" (1980) directed by Paul Newman.


title: James Broderick

text: Broderick was married until his death to playwright and painter Patricia Broderick. The couple had one son, actor Matthew Broderick, and two daughters.


title: Dina Pathak

text: Dina Pathak (née Gandhi; 4 March 1922 – 11 October 2002) was an Indian actress and director of Gujarati theatre and also a film actor. She was an activist and President of the National Federation of Indian Women (NFIW).


title: Dina Pathak

text: A doyenne of Hindi and Gujarati films as well as theatre, Dina Pathak acted in over 120 films in a career spanning over six decades. Her production "Mena Gurjari" in Bhavai folk theatre style, ran successfully for many years, and is now a part of its repertoire.


title: Dina Pathak

text: She is best known for her memorable roles in the Hindi films "Gol Maal" and "Khubsoorat". She was a favourite of the Art Cinema in India where she played powerful roles in films like "Koshish", "Umrao Jaan", "Mirch Masala" and "Mohan Joshi Hazir Ho!".


title: Dina Pathak

text: Her notable Gujarati films were "Moti Ba", "Malela Jeev" and "Bhavni Bhavai", while her well-known plays include "Dinglegar", "Doll's House", "Vijan Sheni" and Girish Karnad's "Hayavadana", directed by Satyadev Dubey.


title: Dina Pathak

text: Dina Pathak was born in Amreli, Gujarat on 4 March 1922. She was enamoured of fashion and films, and while a teenager, started acting in plays and won acclaim from critics. She attended and graduated from a college affiliated to the University of Bombay (Mumbai). Rasiklal Parikh trained her in acting while Shanti Bardhan taught her dancing.


title: Dina Pathak

text: At a young age, she joined the Indian National Theatre as an actress. She became known for her student activism, where Bhavai theatre, a folk theatre form from Gujarat, was used extensively to create awareness about the British rule, in the pre-independence era; this led to her close association with Indian People's Theatre Association (IPTA), along with her elder sister Shanta Gandhi and younger sister Tarla Mehta; while in Mumbai, she had an important hand in reviving the Gujarati theatre there, along with fellow Gujarati actors like Kailash Pandya and Damini Mehta.


title: Dina Pathak

text: She created quite a stir with her plays in Gujarat in the 1940s. The audience queued up to watch her play the lead in "Maina Gurjari", which is still one of the most popular Bhavai's along with sister Shanta Gandhi's "Jasma Odhan". In 1957, when she performed "Mena Gurjari" in front of then-President, Dr. Rajendra Prasad at the Rashtrapati Bhawan in Delhi, it became the first and the only Gujarati play to have achieved the feat so far.


title: Dina Pathak

text: Although she made her film debut with a Gujarati film, "Kariyawar" (1948), she retreated back into theatre after acting in just one film. She continued playing to packed audience in plays by Indian People's Theatre Association (IPTA) and Shanti Bardhan's Ballet troupe. Later she formed her own theatre group in Ahmedabad called "Natmandal", even today, she is remembered as a stalwart performer and a theatre activist at IPTA.


title: Dina Pathak

text: In her mid-40's, she made a comeback into films, two decades after her debut, with Basu Bhattacharya's "Uski Kahani" (1966), for which she won the Bengal Journalists Association Award. She made four films in the 1960s, including Hrishikesh Mukherjee's classic "Satyakam" (1969), "Saat Hindustani" (1969), starring Amitabh Bachchan in his debut role and the Merchant Ivory Productions, "The Guru" (1969). By the 1970s, she had become a favourite of art and commercial films alike, playing powerful motherly and grandmotherly roles. It was in these films that she became recognised as the Grand-Old-Mother of Hindi films.


title: Dina Pathak

text: Films that stand out in this era are Gulzar's "Mausam" (1975), "Kinara" (1977) and "Kitaab" (1977), and sweet comedies like Basu Chatterjee's "Chitchor" (1976), "Gharaonda" (1977) and also in an art cinema classic, Shyam Benegal's "Bhumika" (1977), which saw her standing tall alongside another acting legend, Smita Patil, in her career's best performance.


title: Dina Pathak

text: Just as the 1970s ended, she was seen in the comedy classic, Hrishikesh Mukherjee's "Gol Maal" (1979), where she essayed the role of Kamala Shrivastava, a middle-aged woman who sportingly plays mother to Amol Palekar, who went on to direct her in his 1985 film, "Ankahee". The next decade began with another career-best, as a stern disciplinarian matriarch in Hrishikesh Mukherjee's "Khoobsurat" in (1980), closely followed by "Bhavni Bhavai" (1980). In 1980, she was also awarded the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award. During the 80s, she also appeared on the popular TV series, "Malgudi Days". In 1984, she appeared in "A Passage to India". Though she had far from given her career's best, she gave another powerful performance in Ketan Mehta's "Mirch Masala" (1985), Govind Nihalani's "Tamas" (1986) and once again she worked with Gulzar in "Ijaazat" (1987).


title: Dina Pathak

text: Perhaps her career's best came in another comedy when in 2002 she appeared in Deepa Mehta's "Bollywood/Hollywood" for which she was nominated for Best Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role at the 23rd Genie Awards. She was also portraying the role of Badi Maa in the cult show "Khichadi" (2002).


title: Dina Pathak

text: She married Baldev Pathak and had two daughters, actresses Ratna Pathak (b. 1957), and Supriya Pathak (b. 1961).


title: Dina Pathak

text: She completed her last film, "Pinjar" (2003), but died before its release, of heart attack, following a prolonged illness, on 11 October 2002 in Bandra, Bombay.


title: Coffee Prince (2007 TV series)

text: Coffee Prince () is a 2007 South Korean television series starring Yoon Eun-hye, Gong Yoo, Lee Sun-kyun, and Chae Jung-an. Based on the novel of the same name written by Lee Sun-mi, it was aired on MBC's Mondays and Tuesdays at the 21:55 (KST) time slot from July 2 and August 28, 2007 consisting of 17 episodes.


title: Coffee Prince (2007 TV series)

text: The drama portrays the story of an unlikely romance between a tomboyish woman, who dresses like a man in order to get work, and a young food empire mogul. It contains homoerotic elements, as the man does not initially know of the tomboy's true sex. Hailed as a hit for its high ratings, the drama received positive reviews from critics and won multiple awards.


title: Coffee Prince (2007 TV series)

text: Choi Han-gyeol (Gong Yoo) is the grandson of chairwoman Bang (Kim Young-ok) of Dong-in Foods, a company that has a thriving coffee business. He has never had a job and does not care for responsibility. Han-gyeol is hung up on his first love, Han Yoo-joo (Chae Jung-an), who only sees him as a friend. Go Eun-chan (Yoon Eun-hye) is a 24-year-old tomboy who is often mistaken for a guy. Her father died when she was 16 years old and since then she has taken over as the breadwinner in her family. When Han-gyeol and Eun-chan meet, he, not knowing that she is a girl, decides to hire her to pretend to be his gay lover so that he can escape the blind dates arranged by his grandmother.


title: Coffee Prince (2007 TV series)

text: After getting an ultimatum from his grandmother, Han-gyeol takes over a rundown old coffee shop, later renamed "Coffee Prince," to prove that he's capable, both to his grandmother and to Yoo-joo. In order to attract female customers, he only hires good-looking male employees. Eun-chan, desperate for money, continues to hide her gender to get a job at Coffee Prince.


title: Coffee Prince (2007 TV series)

text: Soon, feelings start to develop between Eun-chan and Han-gyeol. As Han-gyeol is unaware that Eun-chan is a woman, he starts to question his sexuality and is thrown into turmoil.


title: Coffee Prince (2007 TV series)

text: In 2011, the Hongdae area and the coffee shop were featured in a National Geographic Channel-produced documentary on the Korean Wave titled "Seoul's Got Soul".


title: Coffee Prince (2007 TV series)

text: It aired in Japan on Fuji TV beginning August 11, 2010 as part of the network's "Hallyu Alpha Summer Festival."


title: Coffee Prince (2007 TV series)

text: It aired in the Philippines on GMA Network from January 1 to March 19, 2008, and received high ratings during its run. The series was re-aired with English subtitles on Animax Asia in 2010, and on GMA News TV from September 19 to October 14, 2016 at 11:00pm.


title: Coffee Prince (2007 TV series)

text: In 2016, a Chinese remake of the series titled "Prince Coffee Lab" was announced, directed by Kang Shin-hyo of "The Heirs".


title: Coffee Prince (2007 TV series)

text: In 2017, the Malaysian remake of "Coffee Prince" directed by Michael Ang began airing on Astro Ria starting November 28.


title: Roxann Dawson

text: Roxann Dawson (née Caballero, born September 11, 1958), also credited as Roxann Biggs and Roxann Biggs-Dawson, is an American actress and director. She is best known for her role as B'Elanna Torres on the television series "" (1995–2001). In the 2000s, she transitioned to a career primarily as a director, and has directed numerous episodes of television series including "", "Crossing Jordan", "Cold Case", "Heroes", "The Closer", "The Mentalist", "The Good Wife", "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D"., "Mercy Street", and "The Deuce".


title: Roxann Dawson

text: Roxann Dawson Caballero was born September 11, 1958 in Los Angeles, California. She graduated from University of California, Berkeley in 1980.


title: Roxann Dawson

text: In 1989 Dawson worked on the NBC drama "Nightingales". During the course of her work on that show, she met casting director Eric Dawson, who would later become her second husband. After the show was canceled, Eric's company cast her in guest roles on "Matlock" and "Jake and the Fat Man".


title: Roxann Dawson

text: In 1994, Dawson was cast as the half Human/half-Klingon engineer B'Elanna Torres on "". She was a main cast member for all seven seasons of the show.


title: Roxann Dawson

text: Her other television credits include appearances on "The Hat Squad", "Baywatch", "The Closer", "Matlock", "The Untouchables", "Any Day Now", "Without a Trace", "The Lyon's Den", "The Division", the U.S. version of "Coupling" and the science fiction television series "Seven Days".


title: Roxann Dawson

text: While working on "Voyager", Dawson made her directorial debut on the episode "", which aired in September 1999. She later directed the second part of the two-part episode "" and directed 10 episodes of "". In 2002, she provided the voice of the repair station computer in one of the "Star Trek: Enterprise" episodes she directed.


title: Roxann Dawson

text: Dawson has also directed episodes of "Charmed, The O.C., Close to Home", "Lost, Heroes, Hawthorne, The Closer, Cold Case, Caprica", "The Mentalist" and "Treme". In 2010, she directed the season two episode "" of "Lie to Me" and the season two episode "On Tap" of "The Good Wife". In 2013, she directed the March 22 episode "Reunions" of "Touch", and the October 15 episode "Eye-Spy" of "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.".


title: Roxann Dawson

text: In 2014 she directed the March 5 episode "Dreamcatcher" of "Revolution" and the October 22 episode "Phobia" of "Stalker". For the 2015 season of the Amazon Video series "Bosch", she directed "Chapter Six: Donkey's Years"). She directed early episodes of "Mercy Street", a series released on PBS in January 2016. In 2016, she also directed the season one episodes "Broussard" and "Zero Day" of the TV series "Colony". She's also directed the episode "Crossbreed" of season five of "The Americans". She also directed episode 8 ("Chapter 60") of the fifth season of "House of Cards".


title: Roxann Dawson

text: Dawson's first play "Desire to Fall" was produced by the Circle Repertory Company workshop in 1986. Dawson's second play, "Passage Through the Heart" debuted in 1997 at the University of Minnesota Duluth. From 2000 to 2001, Dawson co-wrote with Daniel Graham a trilogy of science fiction novels, "Entering Tenebrea" (), "Tenebrea's Hope" () and "Tenebrea Rising" ().


title: Roxann Dawson

text: Dawson was married to actor Casey Biggs, but they eventually divorced. He later became a recurring cast member on the sister series "", playing the Cardassian Damar.


title: Roxann Dawson

text: In May 1994 Dawson married casting director Eric Dawson, whom she met while working on the series "Nightingales". They have two daughters, Emma and Mia; Mia was adopted from China. Dawson joined the Catholic Church at the time of her second marriage in 1994, despite having been raised in "an atheist household". This eventually inspired her to direct the 2019 Christian film "Breakthrough".


title: Admiral of the Fleet (Royal Navy)

text: Admiral of the Fleet is a five-star naval officer rank and the highest rank of the Royal Navy formally established in 1688. The five-star NATO rank code is OF-10, equivalent to a field marshal in the British Army or a Marshal of the Royal Air Force. Other than honorary appointments no new admirals of the fleet have been named since 1995.


title: Admiral of the Fleet (Royal Navy)

text: The origins of the rank can be traced back to John de Beauchamp, 1st Baron Beauchamp de Warwick, who was appointed 'Admiral of the King's Southern, Northern and Western Fleets' on 18 July 1360. The appointment gave the command of the English navy to one person for the first time; this evolved into the post of Admiral of the Fleet. In the days of sailing ships the admiral distinctions then used by the Royal Navy included distinctions related to the fleet being divided into three divisions – red, white, or blue. Each division was assigned at least one admiral, who in turn commanded a number of vice-admirals and rear admirals. While the full admirals were nominally equals, tradition gave precedence to the Admiral of the White who held the fleet rank in addition to his substantive role.


title: Admiral of the Fleet (Royal Navy)

text: The Restoration era brought a general reorganisation of naval ranks and structure, including formalisation of the admiral of the fleet role. In a break with tradition the rank was awarded to the most senior Admiral of the Red, who retained this substantive rank while also serving as Admiral of the Fleet. Appointments were for life, remunerated via a £5 daily stipend and an annual allowance of £1,014 for the hiring and maintenance of servants. It was intended that only one officer would hold the rank at any time, with their presence aboard any naval vessel to be denoted by the flying of the Royal Standard from the main mast.


title: Admiral of the Fleet (Royal Navy)

text: The ranks of Admiral of the Fleet and Admiral of the Red were formally separated from 1805, with an announcement in the "London Gazette" that "His Majesty [has] been pleased to order the Rank of Admirals of the Red to be restored" in His Majesty's Navy..." as a separate role. The same "Gazette" promoted 22 men to that rank. From the nineteenth century onward there were also occasional variations to the previous requirement that only one Admiral of Fleet could serve at one time. In 1821 George IV appointed Sir John Jervis as a second admiral of the fleet, to balance the Duke of Wellingtons promotion as a second Field Marshal in the British Army. In 1830 King William IV increased the number of admirals of the fleet to three, though these additional lifetime postings subsequently lapsed. Between 1854 and 1857 there was no admiral of the fleet at all as the most senior naval officer of the time Admiral of the Red Thomas Le Marchant Gosselin was mentally ill and had not served at sea for forty-five years. In deference to Gosselin's seniority the position was instead left vacant until his death in 1857, whereupon it was filled by Admiral Charles Ogle.


title: Admiral of the Fleet (Royal Navy)

text: In practice the rank had lost its formal authority from 1828, when the professional head of the Royal Navy was given the title of First Naval Lord (renamed First Sea Lord in 1904). Thereafter it was periodically granted to retiring First Naval Lords as an honorary promotion, only passing to the most senior Admiral if there was no other candidate. On occasion even this seniority principle was abandoned, as on the death of Provo Wallis in 1892 when the promotion went to John Edmund Commerell rather than the senior Algernon Frederick Rous de Horsey.


title: Admiral of the Fleet (Royal Navy)

text: The organisation of the British fleet into coloured squadrons was abandoned in 1864, though the rank of admiral of the fleet was maintained. During the two World Wars a number of serving officers held active commissions as admirals of the fleet, as well as the First Sea Lord. e.g. Sir John Tovey.


title: Admiral of the Fleet (Royal Navy)

text: Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was created an Admiral of the Fleet in the Royal New Zealand Navy in 1954, following the coronation of his wife Elizabeth II as Queen. This promotion was to a New Zealand rank, separate from the Royal Navy rank.