title: Farrukhsiyar

text: Hussain left Delhi for Ajmer on 6 January 1714, accompanied by Sarbuland Khan and Afrasyab Khan. As his army reached Sarai Sahal, Ajit Singh sent diplomats who failed to negotiate a peace. As Hussain Ali Khan advanced to Ajmer via Jodhpur, Jaiselmer and Mairtha, Ajit Singh retreated to the deserts hoping to dissuade the Mughal general from a battle. As Hussain advanced, Ajit Singh surrendered at Mairtha. As a result, Mughal authority was restored in Rajasthan. Ajit Singh gave his daughter, Indira Kanwar, as a bride to Farrukhsiyar. His son, Abhai Singh, was compelled to accompany him to see the Mughal emperor.


title: Farrukhsiyar

text: Due to Aurangzeb's 25-year campaign on the Deccan plateau, Mughal authority weakened in North India with the rise of local rulers. Taking advantage of the situation, the Jats advanced. In early 1713, Farrukhsiyar unsuccessfully sent "subahdar" of Agra Chabela Ram to defeat Churaman (the Jat leader). His successor, Samsamud Daulah Khan, compelled Churaman to negotiate with the Mughal emperor. Raja Bahadur Rathore accompanied him to the Mughal court, where negotiations with Farrukhsiyar failed.


title: Farrukhsiyar

text: In September 1716 Raja Jai Singh II undertook a campaign against Churaman, who lived in Thun (in present-day Rajasthan, India). By 19 November, Jai Singh II began besieging the Thun fort. In December Churaman's son, Muhkam Singh, marched from the fort and battled Jai Singh II; the Raja claimed victory. With the Mughals running out of ammunition, Syed Muzaffar Khan was ordered to bring gunpowder, rockets and mounds of lead from the arsenal at Agra.


title: Farrukhsiyar

text: By January 1718, the siege had lasted for more than a year. With rain coming late in 1717, prices of commodities increased and Raja Jai Singh II found it difficult to continue the siege. He wrote to Farrukhsiyar for reinforcement, saying that he had overcome "many encounters" with the Jats. This failed to impress Farrukhsiyar, so Jai Singh II (via his agent in Delhi) informed Syed Abdullah that he would give three million rupees to the government and two million rupees to the minister if he championed his cause to the emperor. With negotiations between Syed Abdullah and Farrukhsiyar successful, he accepted his demands and dispatched Syed Khan Jahan to bring Churaman to the Mughal court. He also gave a "farman" (royal decree) to Raja Jai Singh II, thanking him for the siege.


title: Farrukhsiyar

text: On 19 April 1718, Churaman was presented to Farrukhsiyar; they negotiated for peace, with Churaman accepting Mughal authority. Khan Jahan was given the title of "Bahadur" ("brave"). It was decided that Churaman would pay five million rupees in cash and goods to Farrukhsiyar via Syed Abdullah.


title: Farrukhsiyar

text: Banda Singh Bahadur was a Sikh leader who, by early 1700, had captured parts of the Punjab region. Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah I failed to suppress Banda's uprising.


title: Farrukhsiyar

text: In 1714, the Sirhind "faujdar" (garrison commander) Zainuddin Ahmad Khan attacked the Sikhs near Ropar. In 1715, Farrukhisyar sent 20,000 troops under Qamaruddin Khan, Abdus Samad Khan and Zakariya Khan Bahadur to defeat Bahadur. After an eight-month siege at Gurdaspur, Bahadur surrendered after he ran out of ammunition. Bahadur and his 200 companions were arrested and brought to Delhi; he was paraded around the city of Sirhind.


title: Farrukhsiyar

text: Bahadur was put into an iron cage and the remaining Sikhs were chained. They were pressured to give up their faith and become Muslims. Although the emperor promised to spare the Sikhs who converted to Islam, according to William Irvine "not one prisoner proved false to his faith". On their firm refusal all were ordered to be executed. The Sikhs were brought to Delhi in a procession with the 780 Sikh prisoners, 2,000 Sikh heads hung on spears, and 700 cartloads of heads of slaughtered Sikhs used to terrorise the population. When Farrukhsiyar's army reached the Red Fort, the Mughal emperor ordered Banda Bahadur, Baj Singh, Bhai Fateh Singh and his companions to be imprisoned in Tripolia. After three months of confinement, On 19 June 1716 Farrukhsiyar had Bahadur and his followers executed, despite the wealthy Khatris of Delhi offering money for his release. Banda Singh's eyes were gouged out, his limbs were severed, his skin removed, and then he was killed.


title: Farrukhsiyar

text: In 1717, Farrukhsiyar issued a "farman" giving the British East India Company the right to reside and trade in the Mughal Empire. They were allowed to trade freely, except for a yearly payment of 3,000 rupees. This was because William Hamilton, a surgeon associated with the company cured Farrukhsiyar of a disease. The company was given the right to issue "dastak" (passes) for the movement of goods, which was misused by company officials for personal gain.


title: Farrukhsiyar

text: The "farman" allowed the British East-India company to carry out duty-free trade in the province of Bengal. They were given "dastaks" (passes), which were misused by the employees of the Company. They used the dastaks in their own private trade, which angered the Nawab of Bengal, Alivardi Khan. Later on, Mir Qasim (Nawab of Bengal) abolishes the duty for the local Indian traders as well, to place them at an equal footing as the Company.


title: Farrukhsiyar

text: By 1715, Farrukhsiyar had given Mir Jumla III the power to sign documents on his behalf: "The word and seal of Mir Jumla are my word and seal". Mir Jumla III began approving proposals for "jagirs" and "mansabs" without consulting Syed Abdullah, the prime minister. Syed Abdullah's deputy Ratan Chand accepted bribes for him to do work and was involved in revenue farming, which was forbidden by the Mughal emperor. Taking advantage of the situation, Mir Jumla III told Farrukhsiyar that the Sayyids were unfit to hold office and accused them of insubordination. Hoping to depose the brothers, Farrukhsiyar began making military preparations and increased the number of soldiers under Mir Jumla III and Khan Dauran.


title: Farrukhsiyar

text: After Syed Hussain learned about Farrukhsiyar's plans, he felt that their position could be cemented by controlling "important provinces". He asked to be appointed viceroy of the Deccan, instead of Nizam ul Mulk; Farrukhsiyar refused, transferring him to the Deccan instead. Fearing attack by Farrukhsiyar's supporters, the brothers began making military preparations. Although Farrukhsiyar initially considered giving the task of crushing the brothers to Mohammad Amin Khan (who wanted the position of prime minister in return), he decided against it because removing him would be difficult.


title: Farrukhsiyar

text: Arriving at the Deccan, Syed Hussain made a treaty with Maratha ruler Shahu I in February 1718. Shahu was allowed to collect "sardeshmukhi" in Deccan, and received the lands of Berar and Gondwana to govern. In return, Shahu agreed to pay one million rupees annually and maintain an army of 15,000 horses for the Sayyids. This agreement was reached without Farrukhsiyar's approval, and he was angry when he learned about it: "It was not proper for the vile enemy to be overbearing partners in matters of revenue and government."


title: Farrukhsiyar

text: Farrukhsiyar appointed Sayid Abdullah Khan as chief minister and placed Muhammad Baqir Mutamid Khan in charge of the Exchequer. The title of "bakshi" was first conferred on Hussain Ali Khan (with the titles of Umdat-ul-Mulk, Amir-ul-umara and Bahadur Firuz Jung) and then to Chin Qilich Khan and Afrasayab Khan Bahadur.


title: Farrukhsiyar

text: The following were governors of the provinces; the governor of South India was Chin Qilich Khan, who appointed deputy governors:


title: Farrukhsiyar

text: In 1713 the new Mughal emperor Farrukhsiyar appointed Ajit Singh of Marwar as governor of Thatta Subah. Ajit Singh refused to go to the impoverished province and Farrukhsiyar sent Husain Ali Braha to subdue Ajit Singh, but also sent a private letter to Ajit Singh promising him blessings if he defeated Husain. Instead Ajit Singh chose to negotiate with Husain, accepting the governorship of Thatta with a promise for a return to Gujarat in the near future. One of the other conditions of this peace agreement was the marriage of one of the daughters of the Jodhpur Raja with the Mughal emperor.


title: Farrukhsiyar

text: Ajit Singh later took his revenge against Farrukhsiyar on 28 February 1719. Ajit Singh, besieged Farrukhsiyar in the Red Fort and after a night-long battle entered the palace grounds, at first Qutb-Ul-Mulk tried to stop Ajit Singh from entering, upon which the enraged Ajit stabbed him to death and told his Rajput and Pathan soldiers to arrest Farrukhsiyar. The emperor was caught hiding in the harem with his mother, wives and daughters, he tried to resist but was caught and dragged to a small room in Tripoliya gate, where he was tortured and blinded with a needle. The old Mughal officials cried for mercy and Raja Jai singh of Jaipur and Nizam-Ul-Mulk of Hyderabad did send threats but none of them took any action. On 2nd March 1719, Rafi-Ud-Darjat was chosen from the princes and Ajit Singh and the Nawab took his hand and placed him on the peacock throne.


title: Farrukhsiyar

text: Farrukhsiyar's first wife was Fakhr-Un-Nissa Begum, also known as Gauhar-Un-Nissa, the daughter of Mir Muhammad Taqi (known as Hasan Khan and then Sadat Khan). Taqi, from the Persian province of Mazandaran, married the daughter of Masum Khan Safawi; if she was the mother of Fakhr-un-nissa, this would account for her daughter's selection as the prince's wife.


title: Farrukhsiyar

text: His second wife was Bai Indira Kanwar, the daughter of Maharajah Ajit Singh. She married Farrukhsiyar on 27 September 1715, during the fourth year of his reign, and they had no children. After Farrukhsiyar's deposition and death she left the imperial harem on 16 July 1719, she returned to her father with her property and lived her remaining years in Jodhpur.


title: Farrukhsiyar

text: Farrukhsiyar's third wife was Bai Bhup Devi, daughter of Jaya Singh (the raja of Kishtwar, who had converted to Islam and received the name of Bakhtiyar Khan). After Jaya Singh's death he was succeeded by his son, Kirat Singh. In 1717, in response to a message from the Mufti of Delhi, her brother Kirat Singh sent her to Delhi with her brother Mian Muhammad Khan. Farrukhsiyar married her, and she entered the imperial harem on 3 July 1717.


title: Farrukhsiyar

text: On coins issued during Farrukhsiyar's reign, the following phrase was inscribed: ""Sikka zad az fazl-i-Haq bar sim o zar/ Padshah-i-bahr-o-bar Farrukhsiyar"" (By the grace of the true God, struck on silver and gold, the emperor of land and sea, Farrukhsiyar).


title: Farrukhsiyar

text: There are 116 coins from his reign on display at the Lahore Museum and the Indian Museum in Kolkata. The coins were minted in Kabul, Kashmir, Ajmer, Allahabad, Bidar and Berar.


title: Farrukhsiyar

text: The town of Farrukhnagar in Gurgaon district, south of Delhi, was named for him. During his reign, he built a "Sheesh Mahal" (palace) and a Jama Masjid (mosque) there.


title: Self-flagellation

text: Self-flagellation is the disciplinary and devotional practice of flogging oneself with whips or other instruments that inflict pain. In Christianity, self-flagellation is practiced in the context of the doctrine of the mortification of the flesh and is seen as a spiritual discipline. It is often used as a form of penance and is intended to allow the flagellant to share in the sufferings of Jesus, bringing his or her focus to God.


title: Self-flagellation

text: The main religions that practice self-flagellation include Christianity and Judaism. The ritual has also been practiced among members of several Egyptian and Greco-Roman cults.


title: Self-flagellation

text: Historically, Christians have engaged in various forms of mortification of the flesh, ranging from self-denial, wearing hairshirts and chains, fasting, and self-flagellation (often using a type of whip called a discipline). Some Christians use excerpts from the Bible to justify this ritual. For example, some interpreters claim that Paul the Apostle's statement, "I chastise my body" (1 Corinthians 9:27), refers to self-inflicted bodily scourging. Prominent Christians who have practiced self-flagellation include Martin Luther, the Protestant Reformer, and Congregationalist writer Sarah Osborn, who practiced self-flagellation in order "to remind her of her continued sin, depravity, and vileness in the eyes of God". It became "quite common" for members of the Tractarian movement within the Anglican Communion to practice self-flagellation using a discipline.


title: Self-flagellation

text: In the 11th century, Peter Damian, a Benedictine monk in the Roman Catholic tradition, taught that spirituality should manifest itself in physical discipline; he admonished those who sought to follow Christ to practice self-flagellation for the duration of the time it takes one to recite forty Psalms, increasing the number of flagellations on holy days of the Christian calendar. For Damian, only those who shared in the sufferings of Christ could be saved. Throughout Christian history, the mortification of the flesh, wherein one denies oneself physical pleasures, has been commonly followed by members of the clergy, especially in Christian monasteries and convents. Self-flagellation was imposed as a form of punishment as a means of penance for disobedient clergy and laity.


title: Self-flagellation

text: In the 13th century, a group of Roman Catholics, known as the Flagellants, took this practice to extremes. During the Black Death, it was thought of as a way to combat the plague by cleansing one's sins. The Flagellants were condemned by the Roman Catholic Church as a cult in the 14th century.


title: Self-flagellation

text: Self-flagellation rituals were also practiced in 16th-century Japan. Japanese of the time who were converted to Christianity by Jesuit missionaries were reported to have had sympathy for the Passion of the Christ, and they readily practiced self-flagellation to show their devotion. The earliest records of self-flagellation practiced by Japanese converts appeared in the year 1555 in the regions of Bungo and Hirado in Kyushu. These Japanese Christians wore crowns of thorns and bore crosses on their backs during the procession, which led to the place they had designated as the Mount of the Cross.


title: Self-flagellation

text: Christians give various reasons for choosing to self-flagellate. One of the main reasons is to emulate the suffering of Christ during his Passion. As Jesus was whipped before his crucifixion, many see whipping themselves as a way to be closer to Jesus and as a reminder of that whipping. Many early Christians believed that in order to be closer to God, one would need to literally suffer through the pain of Christ. Paul the Apostle also alluded to inflicting bodily harm in order to feel closer to God in his letters to the Romans and to the Colossians.


title: Self-flagellation

text: Self-flagellation was also seen as a form of purification, purifying the soul as repentance for any worldly indulgences. Self-flagellation is also used as a punishment on earth in order to avoid punishment in the next life. Self-flagellation was also seen as a way to control the body in order to focus only on God. By whipping oneself, one would find distraction from the pleasures of the world and be able to fully focus on worshiping God. Self-flagellation is also done to thank God for responding to a prayer or to drive evil spirits from the body (cf. "Exorcism in Christianity"). The popularity of self-flagellation has abated, with some pious Christians choosing to practice the mortification of the flesh with acts like fasting or abstaining from a pleasure (cf. "Lenten sacrifice").


title: Self-flagellation

text: There is a debate within the Christian tradition about whether or not self-flagellation is of spiritual benefit, with various religious leaders and Christians condemning the practice and others, such as Pope John Paul II, having practiced self-flagellation. People who self-flagellate believe that they need to spiritually share in the suffering of Jesus, and continue this practice, both publicly and privately.


title: Self-flagellation

text: Some Jewish men practice a symbolic form of self-flagellation on the day before Yom Kippur as an enactment; it is strictly prohibited in Judaism to cause self-harm. Biblical passages such as "it shall be a holy convocation unto you; and ye shall afflict your souls" (Leviticus 23:27) were used to justify these actions. It was a common practice in the Middle Ages for men to whip themselves on the back 39 times. However, since biblical times Judaism has largely considered Yom Kippur as a day of spiritual atonement achieved through fasting, introspection, and other interpretations of the commandment "afflict your souls" that do not involve bodily self-harm.


title: Self-flagellation

text: Much of the Twelver Shia community tries to emulate Imam Husain through self-flagellation in the same way that Christians try to emulate Jesus Christ. This is exhibited through the public performance of "matam". The Shia counterpart to a Christian flagellant is a "matamdar". This ritual of matam is meant to reaffirm one's faith and relationships by creating a deep bond among the participants through their shared religious devotion. Despite the violent nature of this ritual, the love and vulnerability associated with it makes it a fundamentally positive and affirmational ritual performance. Many Shia communities worldwide march in massive parades every year on the Day of Ashura, during the mourning of Muharram, to commemorate the Battle of Karbala and the martyrdom of Imam Hussein. During these parades, devotees hit themselves on the chest or slash themselves with blades on chains called "zanjerzani". Though it is uncommon, some Shia communities hit themselves on the back with chains and sharp objects such as knives. This happens in many countries including India, Pakistan, Iraq, Afghanistan, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, United States, and Australia.


title: Self-flagellation

text: Self-flagellation is just as controversial in Islam as it is in Christianity. In 2008, a prominent court case involving a resident of the UK town of Eccles, who was accused of encouraging his children to self-flagellate, provoked widespread condemnation of the practice. Shias responded by affirming that children should not be encouraged to self-harm, but defending the importance of the ritual when performed by consenting adults. However, some Shia leaders fear that the practice gives their religion a bad reputation, and recommend donating blood instead.


title: Old Navy

text: Old Navy is an American clothing and accessories retailing company owned by multinational corporation Gap Inc. It has corporate operations in the Mission Bay neighborhood of San Francisco, California. The largest of the Old Navy stores are its flagship stores, located in New York City, Seattle, Chicago, San Francisco, Manila, and Mexico City.


title: Old Navy

text: In the early 1990s, Dayton-Hudson Corporation (then the parent company of Target, Mervyn's, Dayton's, Hudson's, and Marshall Field's) looked to establish a new division branded as a less expensive version of Gap called "Everyday Hero"; Gap's then-CEO Millard Drexler responded by opening Gap Warehouse in existing Gap outlet locations in 1993.


title: Old Navy

text: On March 11, 1994, Gap Warehouse was renamed Old Navy Clothing Co. in order to establish a separate image from its parent company Gap Inc. The name was conceived after the original proposed names, "Monorail" and "Forklift", were disliked by Drexler, and decided upon the new name after seeing a building with the two words on it during a visit to Paris. The new stores were about , compared to less than for Gap Warehouse stores. On March 11, 1994, the first Old Navy locations opened in the northern California towns of Colma, San Leandro and Pittsburg. According to Kevin Lonergan, Gap's director of stores, Old Navy stores were intentionally designed like grocery stores, with flowing aisles, shopping carts, and small impulse items near the checkout counters. The cement floor, metal shelving, and checkout counters built from polished pressed board and galvanized metal gave the stores an industrial warehouse feel, while the colorful arrangements and large number of employees working set it apart from other discount clothing stores. Later that year, 42 other Old Navy stores opened, and most of the 45 Gap Warehouse stores were renamed Old Navy.


title: Old Navy

text: Old Navy had campy television ads featuring Carrie Donovan, Morgan Fairchild, and the mascot Magic, the dog.


title: Old Navy

text: The Old Navy division grew quickly; in 1997, it became the first retailer to pass $1 billion in its first four years in business, and opened 500 stores by 2000. In 2001, Old Navy began its international expansion with the opening of 12 stores in Ontario, Canada.


title: Old Navy

text: The brand also experimented, opening a coffee shop inside one location in San Francisco in December 1995, and opening an Old Navy Kids location in Littleton, Colorado, in April 1997. This in turn did not work out for the company, and was terminated the following September.


title: Old Navy

text: In 2005, Old Navy's then-president Dawn Robertson looked to address the competition she saw in Hollister Co. and American Eagle Outfitters by rebranding the division with a "high fashion feel". In addition to a new logo, several locations were built or remodeled to reflect the "New Old Navy"; one such location in St. Petersburg, Florida cost roughly $5 million to develop. Unlike the traditional industrial warehouse style most Old Navy locations possess, the new stores were boutique in nature, featuring green building materials, rock gardens, large murals, and posters, as well as many mirrored and silver accents. Also, advertisements began to be created in-house, and substituted the original kitschy and humorous feel for a high fashion and feminine directive. These stores proved to be a disappointing investment and Robertson was asked to leave the company.


title: Old Navy

text: In 2011, Old Navy began a second rebranding to emphasize a family-oriented environment, known as Project ONE. It targets Old Navy's target customer (the fictional "Jenny", a married mother of at least one child) and features better lighting, vibrant colors, layouts that make shopping easier, quick-change stations, and a more efficient cash wrap design. By July 12, 2011, one third of the company's North American locations had adopted the redesign.


title: Old Navy

text: In 2012, after several years of Old Navy losing sales to rival retailer H&M, Gap Inc. hired H&M executive Stefan Larsson to run its Old Navy division. Larsson instituted a number of changes, including hiring designers away from Coach, Nike, Reebok, and North Face to design exclusive Old Navy clothing. By 2015, Old Navy's yearly sales had reached $6 billion per year in the United States, almost equaling those of Gap Inc.'s Gap and Banana Republic divisions combined. Larsson left the company to join Ralph Lauren in 2015 and was replaced by current President and CEO, Sonia Syngal.


title: Old Navy

text: On October 26, 2017, Old Navy opened two new flagship stores (one in Times Square). The Times Square flagship caters to New York City crowds with extended store hours and significantly more retail space than the average Old Navy location.


title: Old Navy

text: On April 23, 2018, a customer, Saudia Scott filed a multi-million dollar lawsuit against Old Navy and its parent company Gap Inc. The lawsuit states that on July 25, 2016, Old Navy manager Megan Yost watched and assisted Scott with her purchases at the Old Navy store located in Abingdon, Harford County, Maryland. As Scott walked to her car, two police officers followed, detained and returned Scott to inside the store after Yost falsely accused Ms. Scott of theft and shoplifting. Manager Yost was terminated almost immediately as a result. A jury trial is scheduled for June, 2023.


title: Old Navy

text: On February 28, 2019, Gap Inc., announced that Old Navy and Gap Inc. would split into two companies, making Old Navy an independent company from Gap Inc. The move was designed to enable the consolidation of the company's older brands, like GAP and Banana, with its newer Athleta and Hill City. This decision was reversed on January 16, 2020, when Gap Inc. announced that the separation had been aborted.


title: Old Navy

text: On March 5, 2020, Gap Inc. announced it was temporarily closing its New York City offices until further notice after one of the retailer's employees was confirmed to have tested positive for COVID-19.


title: Fuchsia (operating system)

text: Fuchsia is an open-source capability-based operating system developed by Google. In contrast to Google's Linux-based operating systems such as ChromeOS and Android, Fuchsia is based on a custom kernel named Zircon. It publicly debuted as a self-hosted git repository in August 2016 without any official corporate announcement. After years of development, its official product launch was on the first-generation Google Nest Hub, replacing its original Linux-based Cast OS.


title: Fuchsia (operating system)

text: In August 2016, media outlets reported on a mysterious source code repository published on GitHub, revealing that Google was developing a new operating system named Fuchsia. No official announcement was made, but inspection of the code suggested its capability to run on various devices, including "dash infotainment" systems for cars, embedded devices like traffic lights, digital watches, smartphones, tablets, and PCs. Its architecture differs entirely from the Linux-based Android and ChromeOS due in part to its unique Zircon kernel, formerly named Magenta.


title: Fuchsia (operating system)

text: In May 2017, "Ars Technica" wrote about Fuchsia's new user interface, an upgrade from its command-line interface at its first reveal in August. A developer wrote that Fuchsia "isn't a toy thing, it's not a 20% Project, it's not a dumping ground of a dead thing that we don't care about anymore". Though users could test Fuchsia, nothing "works", because "it's all a bunch of placeholder interfaces that don't do anything". They found multiple similarities between Fuchsia's interface and Android, including a Recent Apps screen, a Settings menu, and a split-screen view for viewing multiple apps at once. Multiple media outlets wrote about the project's seemingly close ties to Android, with some speculating that Fuchsia might be an effort to "re-do" or replace Android in a way that fixes its problems.


title: Fuchsia (operating system)

text: In January 2018, Google published a guide on how to run Fuchsia on Pixelbooks. This was implemented successfully by "Ars Technica", where experts were impressed with the progress, noting that things were then working, and were especially pleased by the hardware support and multiple mouse pointers.


title: Fuchsia (operating system)

text: A Fuchsia device was added to the Android ecosystem in January 2019 via the Android Open Source Project (AOSP). Google talked about Fuchsia at Google I/O 2019. Hiroshi Lockheimer, Senior Vice President of Chrome and Android, described it as one of Google’s experiments around new operating system concepts.


title: Fuchsia (operating system)

text: On July 1, 2019, Google announced the official website of the development project with source code and documentation. Roughly a year and a half later, on December 8, 2020, Google announced that it was "expanding Fuchsia's open-source model" including making mailing lists public, introducing a governance model, publishing a roadmap, and using a public issue tracker.


title: Fuchsia (operating system)

text: In May 2021, Google employees confirmed that it had deployed Fuchsia in the consumer market for the first time, within a software update to the first-generation Google Nest Hub that replaces its existing Chromecast-based software. The update contains no user-facing changes to the device's software or user interface. After the initial wave of updates to preview devices, the update was rolled out to all Nest Hub devices in August 2021.


title: Fuchsia (operating system)

text: Fuchsia is named for the color fuchsia, which is a combination of pink (also the codename of Apple's advanced Pink operating system of the 1990s) and purple (also the codename of the first-generation iPhone). Its user interface and apps are written in Flutter, a software development kit allowing cross-platform development abilities for Fuchsia, Android and iOS. Flutter produces apps from Dart. Escher is the Vulkan-based graphics rendering engine, with specific support for "volumetric soft shadows", an element that "Ars Technica" wrote, "seems custom-built to run Google's shadow-heavy 'Material Design' interface guidelines".


title: Fuchsia (operating system)

text: The Flutter cross-platform software development kit allows users to install parts of Fuchsia on Android devices.


title: Fuchsia (operating system)

text: A special version of Android Runtime for Fuchsia is planned to run from a FAR file, the equivalent of the Android APK.


title: Fuchsia (operating system)

text: Fuchsia is based on a new message passing kernel, named Zircon after the mineral zircon. Its codebase was derived from that of Little Kernel (LK) for embedded devices, aimed for low resource uses for a wide variety of devices. LK was developed by Travis Geiselbrecht, who had also co-authored the NewOS kernel used by Haiku, a free software reimplementation of BeOS.


title: Fuchsia (operating system)

text: Zircon is written mostly in C++, with some parts in assembly language. It is composed of a kernel with a small set of user services, drivers, and libraries which are all necessary for the system to boot, communicate with the hardware, and load the user processes. Its present features include handling threads, virtual memory, processes intercommunication, and waiting for changes in the state of objects.


title: Fuchsia (operating system)

text: It is heavily inspired by Unix kernels but differs greatly. For example, it does not support Unix-like signals but incorporates event-driven programming and the observer pattern. Most system calls do not block the main thread. Resources are represented as objects rather than files, unlike traditional Unix systems.


title: Gyrfalcon

text: The gyrfalcon ( or ) (), the largest of the falcon species, is a bird of prey. The abbreviation gyr is also used. It breeds on Arctic coasts and tundra, and the islands of northern North America and the Eurosiberian region. It is mainly a resident there also, but some gyrfalcons disperse more widely after the breeding season, or in winter. Individual vagrancy can take birds for long distances. Its plumage varies with location, with birds being coloured from all-white to dark brown. These colour variations are called morphs. Like other falcons, it shows sexual dimorphism, with the female much larger than the male. For centuries, the gyrfalcon has been valued as a hunting bird. Typical prey includes the ptarmigan and waterfowl, which it may take in flight; it also takes fish and mammals.


title: Gyrfalcon

text: The gyrfalcon was formally described by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his "Systema Naturae" under its current binomial name "Falco rusticolus". The genus name is the Late Latin term for a falcon, , from a sickle, referencing the talons of the bird. The species name is from the Latin , a countryside-dweller, from , "country" and , "to dwell". The bird's common name comes from French ; in Medieval Latin, it is . The first part of the word may come from Old High German ( modern German ; ultimately from Proto-Germanic ("greed")) for "vulture", referring to its size compared to other falcons; or from the Latin for "circle" or "curved path", in turn from the Ancient Greek , , meaning "circle" – from the species' circling as it searches for prey, distinct from the hunting of other falcons in its range. The male gyrfalcon is called a "gyrkin" in falconry.


title: Gyrfalcon

text: The gyrfalcon is the largest falcon in the world, being about the same size as the largest buteos (buzzards) but probably slightly heavier. Males are long, weigh , with average weights reported as and have a wingspan from . Females are bulkier and larger, at long, wingspan, and of weight, with average weights of . An outsized female from eastern Siberia was found to have scaled . Among standard measurements, the wing chord is , the tail is , the culmen is and the tarsus is . The gyrfalcon is larger, broader-winged and longer-tailed than the peregrine falcon, which it is known to compete with (and occasionally hunt). It differs from the buzzard in general structure, having pointed wings.


title: Gyrfalcon

text: The gyrfalcon is a very polymorphic species, so its plumage varies greatly. The archetypal morphs are called "white", "silver", "brown", and "black", though they can be coloured on a spectrum from all-white to very dark. The brown form of the gyrfalcon is distinguished from the peregrine by the cream streaking on the nape and crown and by the absence of a well-defined malar stripe and cap. The black morph has a strongly black-spotted underside, rather than finely barred as in the peregrine. White form gyrfalcons are the only predominantly white falcons. Silver gyrfalcons resemble a light grey lanner falcon of larger size. The species shows no sex-based colour differences; juveniles are darker and browner than adults.


title: Gyrfalcon

text: The black color seems to be sex-linked and to occur mostly in females; it proved difficult for breeders to get males darker than the dark side of slate grey. A color variety that arose in captive breeding is "black chick".


title: Gyrfalcon

text: The gyrfalcon is a member of the hierofalcon complex. In this group, ample evidence indicates hybridisation and incomplete lineage sorting, which confounds analyses of DNA sequence data to a massive extent. The radiation of the entire living diversity of hierofalcons took place around the Eemian Stage at the start of the Late Pleistocene. It represents lineages that expanded into the Holarctic and adapted to local conditions; this is in contrast to less northerly populations of northeastern Africa (where the radiation probably originated) that evolved into the saker falcon. Gyrfalcons hybridize not infrequently with sakers in the Altai Mountains, and this gene flow seems to be the origin of the Altai falcon.


title: Gyrfalcon

text: Some correlation exists between locality and colour morph. Greenland gyrfalcons are lightest, with white plumage flecked with grey on the back and wings being most common. Other subpopulations have varying amounts of the darker morphs: the Icelandic birds tend towards pale, whereas the Eurasian populations are considerably darker and typically incorporate no white birds. Natural separation into regional subspecies is prevented by gyrfalcons' habit of flying long distances whilst exchanging alleles between subpopulations; thus, the allele distributions for the color polymorphism form clines and in darker birds of unknown origin, theoretically any allele combination might be present. For instance, a mating of a pair of captive gyrfalcons is documented to have produced a clutch of four young: one white, one silver, one brown, and one black. Molecular work suggests plumage color is associated with the melanocortin 1 receptor gene ("MC1R"), where a nonsynonymous point substitution was perfectly associated with the white/melanic polymorphism.


title: Gyrfalcon

text: In general, geographic variation follows Bergmann's rule for size and the demands of crypsis for plumage coloration. Several subspecies have been named according to perceived differences between populations but none of these are consistent and thus no living subspecies are currently accepted. The Icelandic population described as "F. r. islandus" is perhaps the most distinct. The predominantly white Arctic forms are parapatric and seamlessly grade into the subarctic populations. The Icelandic types are presumed to have less gene flow with their neighbors; they show less variation in plumage colors. Comprehensive phylogeographic studies to determine the proper status of the Icelandic population have yet to be performed.


title: Gyrfalcon

text: A population genetic study, however, identified the Iceland population as genetically unique relative to other sampled populations in both eastern and western Greenland, Canada, Alaska, and Norway. Further, within Greenland, differing levels of gene flow between western and eastern sampling locations were identified, with apparent asymmetric dispersal in western Greenland from north to south. This dispersal bias is in agreement with the distribution of plumage colour variants with white gyrfalcons in much higher proportion in north Greenland. Although further work is required to determine the ecological factors contributing to these distributions relative to plumage differences, a study using demographic data suggested that plumage color distribution in Greenland may be influenced by nesting chronology with white individuals and pairs laying eggs earlier in the breeding season and producing more offspring.


title: Gyrfalcon

text: A paleosubspecies, "Falco rusticolus swarthi", existed during the Late Pleistocene (125,000 to 13,000 years ago). Fossils found in Little Box Elder Cave (Converse County, Wyoming), Dark Canyon Cave (Eddy County, New Mexico), and McKittrick, California were initially described as "Falco swarthi" ("Swarth falcon" or more properly "Swarth's gyrfalcon") on account of their distinct size. They have meanwhile proven to be largely inseparable from those of living gyrfalcons, except for being somewhat larger.


title: Gyrfalcon

text: Swarth's gyrfalcon was on the upper end of the present gyrfalcon's size range, with some stronger females even surpassing it. It seems to have had some adaptations to the temperate semiarid climate that predominated in its range during the last ice age. Ecologically more similar to current Siberian populations (which are generally composed of smaller birds) or to the prairie falcon, this temperate steppe population must have preyed on landbirds and mammals rather than the sea and landbirds which make up much of the American gyrfalcon's diet today.


title: Gyrfalcon

text: The gyrfalcon was originally thought to be a bird of tundra and mountains only; however, in June 2011, it was revealed to spend considerable periods during the winter on sea ice far from land. It feeds only on birds and mammals, the latter of which it takes more regularly than many other "Falco" species. Like other hierofalcons, it usually hunts in a horizontal pursuit, rather than with the peregrine's speedy stoop from a height. Most prey is killed on the ground, whether they are captured there, or if the victim is a flying bird, forced to the ground. The diet is to some extent opportunistic, but a majority breed and hunt coinciding with ptarmigan and seabird colonies. Avian prey can range in size from redpolls to geese and can include gulls, corvids, smaller passerines, ducks, sparrows, buntings, doves, grouse, waders, and other raptors (up to the size of "Buteos"). Mammalian prey can range in size from shrews to marmots (sometimes thrice the weight of the assaulting falcon), and often includes lemmings, mice, voles, ground squirrels, hares, rabbits, and rarely also bats. Gyrfalcons also hunt fish. They are rarely observed eating carrion.


title: Gyrfalcon

text: In the early 2000s, it was observed that as climate change began to temper the Arctic summers, peregrine falcons were expanding their range north to parts of Greenland, and competing with gyrfalcons. Although it is specially adapted for high-Arctic life, and larger than the peregrine, the gyrfalcon is less aggressive and more conflict-averse, and so is unable to compete with peregrines, which regularly attack and overwhelm the gyrs.


title: Gyrfalcon

text: The gyrfalcon almost invariably nests on cliff faces. Breeding pairs do not build their own nests, and often use a bare cliff ledge or the abandoned nest of other birds, particularly golden eagles and common ravens. The clutch can range from 1 to 5 eggs, but is usually 2 to 4. The average size of an egg is ; the average weight is . The incubation period averages 35 days, with the chicks hatching at a weight of around . The nestlings are brooded usually for 10 to 15 days and leave the nest at 7 to 8 weeks. At 3 to 4 months of age, the immature gyrfalcons become independent of their parents, though they may associate with their siblings through the following winter.


title: Gyrfalcon

text: The only natural predators of gyrfalcons are golden eagles, and even they rarely engage with these formidable falcons. Gyrfalcons have been recorded as aggressively harassing animals that come near their nests, although common ravens are the only predators known to successfully pick off gyrfalcon eggs and hatchlings. Even brown bears have been reportedly dive-bombed. Humans, whether accidentally (automobile collisions or poisoning of carrion to kill mammalian scavengers) or intentionally (through hunting), are the leading cause of death for gyrfalcons. Gyrfalcons that survive into adulthood can live up to 20 years of age.


title: Gyrfalcon

text: As "F. rusticolus" has such a wide range, it is not considered a threatened species by the IUCN. It is not much affected by habitat destruction, but pollution, for instance by pesticides, depressed its numbers in the mid-20th century, and until 1994 it was considered "Near Threatened". Improving environmental standards in developed countries have allowed the birds to make a comeback.


title: Gyrfalcon

text: The gyrfalcon has long associated with humans, primarily for hunting and in the art of falconry. It is the official bird of Canada's Northwest Territories. The white falcon in the crest of the Icelandic Republic's coat of arms is a variety of gyrfalcon. The white phase gyrfalcon is the official mascot of the United States Air Force Academy.


title: Gyrfalcon

text: In the medieval era, the gyrfalcon was considered a royal bird. The geographer and historian Ibn Sa'id al-Maghribi (d. 1286) described certain northern Atlantic islands west of Ireland where these falcons would be brought from, and how the Egyptian Sultan paid 1,000 dinars for each gyrfalcon (or, if it arrived dead, 500 dinars). Due to its rarity and the difficulties involved in obtaining it, in European falconry the gyrfalcon was reserved for kings and nobles; very rarely was a man of lesser rank seen with a gyrfalcon on his fist.


title: Gyrfalcon

text: In the 12th century AD China, swan-hunting with gyrfalcons (海東青 "hǎidōngqīng" in Chinese) obtained from the Jurchen tribes became fashionable among the Khitan nobility. When demand for gyrfalcons exceeded supply, the Liao Emperor imposed a tax payment-in-kind of gyrfalcons on the Jurchen; under the last Liao emperor, tax collectors were entitled to use force to procure sufficient gyrfalcons. This was one cause of the Jurchen rebellion, whose leader Aguda annihilated the Liao empire in 1125, and established the Jin dynasty in its stead.


title: Gyrfalcon

text: Most historians agree that the coat of arms of Ukraine, the medieval symbol, was not intended to depict a trident, but most likely a stylized falcon. Depictions of a flying falcon with a cross above its head have been found in Old Ladoga, the first seat of Kievan Rurik dynasty, of Scandinavian lineage. For centuries falconry has been a royal sport in Europe. Also known also as the Norwegian falcon, it was considered a royal bird and is mentioned ("uk: кречет") in one of the earliest epics of Ruthenia, the 12th century poem The Tale of Igor's Campaign. The gyrfalcon is related to other falcons. Falcons are known to be very susceptible to avian influenza. Therefore, an experiment was done with hybrid gyr-saker falcons, which found that five falcons vaccinated with a commercial H5N2 influenza vaccine survived infection with a highly pathogenic H5N1 strain, whereas five unvaccinated falcons died. Thus, both wild and captive gyrfalcons can be protected from bird flu by vaccination.


title: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III

text: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III is a 1993 American superhero film written and directed by Stuart Gillard, based on the characters created Kevin Eastman and Peter Laird. It is the sequel to "" (1991), and the final installment in the original trilogy. it stars Elias Koteas, Paige Turco, Vivian Wu, Sab Shimono, and Stuart Wilson with the voices of Brian Tochi, Robbie Rist, Corey Feldman, and Tim Kelleher.


title: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III

text: The creature effects were provided by the All Effects Company, rather than Jim Henson's Creature Shop, which acted as the providers for the previous films.


title: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III

text: The film was released theatrically in the United States on March 19, 1993, by New Line Cinema. It received mostly negative reviews from critics and, despite being a moderate box office success, grossing $54.4 million against a budget of $21 million, is the lowest rated entry in the series.


title: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III

text: In 1603, in feudal Japan, a young man is being chased by four samurai on horseback. As they go into the woods, a mysterious woman emerges from the underbrush and watches closely. However, the samurai eventually capture and take the youth, revealed to be a prince named Kenshin, with them.


title: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III

text: In the present, two years after the events of the previous film with the defeat of The Shredder and The Foot Clan, April O'Neil has been shopping at the flea market in preparation for her upcoming vacation. She brings gifts to her friends, the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, in their underground lair to cheer them up. Michelangelo is given an old lamp (the lampshade of which he wears as an impression of Elvis Presley in "Blue Hawaii"), Donatello is given a broken radio to fix, Leonardo is given a book on swords, and Raphael is to receive a fedora but, having stormed off earlier, he is never formally given it. For Splinter, she brings an ancient Japanese scepter.


title: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III

text: Back in the past, Kenshin is being scolded by his father, Lord Norinaga, for disgracing their family name, but Kenshin argues that his father's desire for war is the true disgrace. Their argument is interrupted by Walker, an English trader who has come to supply Norinaga with added manpower and firearms, and Kenshin leaves his father's presence to brood alone in a temple. There, he finds the same scepter and reads the inscription: "Open Wide the Gates of Time".


title: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III

text: In the present, April is looking at the scepter and it begins to light up, with mysterious winds blowing around her. She is then sent back in time, while Kenshin takes her place; each wears what the other was wearing in their local space/time. Upon arrival, April is accused of being a witch, but Walker deduces she has no power and has April put in prison to suffer. Back in the present, Kenshin is highly distressed upon seeing the turtles and calls them "kappa". After learning from Kenshin of the situation, the turtles decide to go back in time to get April. However, according to Donatello's calculations, they have to do it within 60 hours, otherwise the scepter's power will disappear due to the space-time continuum being out of sync. They bring in Casey Jones to watch over Kenshin and the lair, and use the scepter to warp through time. When doing so, the turtles are replaced by four of Norinaga's Honor Guards, who are confused at their new surroundings.


title: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III

text: Back in time, the turtles awake on horseback and make a poor show of riding their steeds. During the confusion, Mikey (who is carrying the scepter) ends up riding off alone into the forest and gets ambushed by the mysterious woman from earlier and an unseen person takes the scepter. The others go to search for April at Norinaga's castle, where their identity as Honor Guards allows them cover in their search. After following Niles, one of Walker's thugs, into the prison, the turtles rescue April and also free another prisoner named Whit (locked up for trying to start a mutiny against Walker, and who bears a striking resemblance to Casey), but their sloppy escape ends up leaving them all alone in the wilderness and without a clue where to go. Meanwhile, in the present, Kenshin is getting impatient and anticipates a fight from Casey. Casey instead introduces him and the Honor Guards to television hockey, which manages to calm them down for the time being.


title: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III

text: Out in the woods, the turtles, April, and Whit are again attacked, this time by villagers mistaking them for Norinaga's forces. The attack stops when Mitsu, leader of the rebellion against Lord Norinaga, unmasks Raphael and sees that he looks just like one of her prisoners. The turtles realize that she is talking about Mikey and accompany Mitsu to her village. When they arrive, the village is being burned down by Walker's men. As the turtles help the villagers save it, Mikey is let out by a pair of clueless soldiers and joins in the fight. Walker is forced to retreat, but the fire continues to burn and has trapped a young boy named Yoshi inside a house. Michelangelo saves Yoshi from the fire, then Leonardo helps him recover by performing CPR; this earns the turtles the gratitude and respect of the villagers.


title: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III

text: As Walker continues bargaining with Lord Norinaga over buying guns in exchange for gold, the turtles spend some time in the village. Donatello decides to have a replica scepter made so they can get back home, while Michelangelo teaches some of the people about pizza and later tries to console Mitsu about Kenshin, whom she is in love with. Raphael also gets in touch with his sensitive side through the child Yoshi, and teaches Yoshi how to control his temper. Back in the present, the Honor Guards from the past are quickly adjusting to life in the 20th Century, and Casey decides to challenge them to a hockey game. To Casey's dismay, the Honor Guards think hockey is about beating each other up, having watched the same on television. Meanwhile, Kenshin and Splinter fear that the ninja turtles will not return home in time before their sixty hours are up.


title: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III

text: In the past, the replica scepter is completed, but an argument between Michelangelo and Raphael ends up breaking it. To make matters worse, Mitsu informs them that Lord Norinaga has agreed to purchase Walker's guns and will attack the village in the morning. However, when Raphael sneaks off to visit Yoshi, he is surprised to find the original scepter in the child's possession. The turtles are overjoyed to see it but are angry at Mitsu for hiding it and essentially forcing them to fight her war. However, Mitsu's grandfather clarifies that it was "his" idea to have the turtles fight in her place.


title: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III

text: Suddenly, Whit betrays everybody, captures Mitsu and takes the scepter with him, and the turtles return to Norinaga's palace to save her. After rescuing her, they are cornered by Norinaga and are made to fight waves of his soldiers. The turtles respond by freeing the prisoners in the palace, starting an all-out war on the palace grounds. After a while of fighting, Leo defeats Lord Norinaga in a heated sword duel, comedically finishing him by cutting his hair and then trapping him inside of a bell. Deciding to cut his losses, Walker takes the scepter and tries to escape to his boat. When cornered by the turtles at the dock, Walker throws the scepter into the air as a distraction. The turtles catch the scepter, while Whit (who reformed after Walker went back on a deal they had made) launches a fireball from a catapult at Walker and knocks him off the dock to his death.


title: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III

text: The turtles are now ready to return to their own time, but Mikey says he would rather stay with Mitsu. Raphael decides he wants to stay as well because he feels like the Turtles are appreciated in Japan unlike back home. The other turtles and April try to convince them otherwise until Kenshin activates the scepter and makes the decision harder. After a long debate (which included Mitsu telling Mikey to keep his promise about Kenshin returning to the past), Michelangelo reluctantly agrees to go home with his brothers, but just barely misses grabbing the scepter in time. The Honor Guards switch back with the Turtles (all except for Michelangelo). Fortunately, the last remaining Honor Guard Benkei activates the scepter and swaps places with Mikey just before the scepter burns out.


title: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III

text: In the past, Norinaga admits surrender to Mitsu and Kenshin (who hand the scepter to him), and the two lovers share a tender reunion. Meanwhile, Michaelangelo is depressed over the thought of growing up, but Splinter cheers him up by performing the "lampshade Elvis" impression, and the rest of the turtles join in with a final dance number.


title: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III

text: Rist and Tochi (who did the voices of Michelangelo and Leonardo, respectively) are the only 2 voice actors to voice the same character throughout all 3 live-action "TMNT" movies. Corey Feldman returned as the voice of Donatello, after being absent for the second movie.


title: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III

text: As with both of the previous films, the British PG version was censored due to usage of forbidden weapons (Michelangelo's nunchaku). For these scenes, alternate material was used. The cuts were waived for the DVD release.


title: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III

text: "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III" debuted at number 1 at the U.S. box office with a gross of $12.4 million from 2,087 screens. The film grossed $42.2 million in the United States and Canada, and $12.2 internationally, giving a worldwide gross of $54.4 million.


title: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III

text: The film holds a 22% approval rating and has an average rating of 4.20/10 on Rotten Tomatoes based on 32 reviews, with the consensus: "It's a case of one sequel too many for the heroes in a half shell, with a tired time-travel plot gimmick failing to save the franchise from rapidly diminishing returns". On Metacritic it has a score of 40 out of 100 based on reviews from 12 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III

text: Michael Wilmington of "Los Angeles Times" noted that distributors deliberately kept the film away from critics. Despite mild praise for the look of the film, Wilmington called the first film a fluke hit and called this third film "sequel hell". James Berardinelli gave it one out of four stars, citing that "any adults accompanying their kids will have to invent new and interesting ways to stay awake. Not only is this movie aimed at young children, the script could have been written by them". "TV Guide" gave it two out of four stars and said in their review: "If the time-travel gimmick has to be employed twice in a row then it's probably best to banish these characters to a retirement sewer", when commenting about a possible future film invoking time travel.


title: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III

text: While TMNT co-creator Peter Laird mentioned in the 2014's "Turtle Power" documentary that he disliked the film, Kevin Eastman noted the efforts taken to create it.


title: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III

text: There were early plans for a fourth installment. Playmates toy catalogues indicated a fourth film would be released in 1996 but it never materialized. A script entitled "TMNT IV: The Foot Walks Again" was written by Craig Shapiro and John Travis, while Peter Laird has released concept designs for a version which he says would have been titled "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles IV: The Next Mutation". Instead, the TV series "" was produced from 1997 to 1998, sharing little with the prior concept work besides the subtitle.


title: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III

text: The next theatrical release was a 2007 CGI animated film titled simply "TMNT" which makes reference to the prior live-action films.


title: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III

text: After Nickelodeon bought the franchise in 2009, Paramount Pictures created and released a reboot in 2014.


title: Nathan Mayer Rothschild

text: Nathan Mayer Rothschild (16 September 1777 – 28 July 1836) was an English-German banker, businessman and financier. Born in Frankfurt am Main in Germany, he was the third of the five sons of Gutle (Schnapper) and Mayer Amschel Rothschild, and was of the second generation of the Rothschild banking dynasty.


title: Nathan Mayer Rothschild

text: Nathan Mayer Rothschild was born on 16 September 1777 to Mayer Amschel Rothschild and Gutle Schnapper in the Frankfurt Ghetto, Free City of Frankfurt, Holy Roman Empire (what is today Germany). He was born to an Ashkenazi Jewish family. Nathan counted among his brothers; Amschel Mayer Rothschild, Salomon Mayer Rothschild, Carl Mayer Rothschild and James Mayer Rothschild. He was the third oldest son and all five brothers would go on to become close business partners spread out across Europe. Rothschild also had five sisters, this included Henriette Rothschild, who married Abraham Montefiore.


title: Nathan Mayer Rothschild

text: In 1798, at the age of 21, he settled in Manchester, England and established a business in textile trading and finance, later moving to London, England, beginning to deal on the London Stock Exchange from 1804. He made a fortune in trading bills of exchange through a banking enterprise begun in 1805, dealing with financial instruments such as foreign bills and government securities.


title: Nathan Mayer Rothschild

text: Rothschild became a freemason of the Emulation Lodge, No. 12, of the Premier Grand Lodge of England on 24 October 1802, in London. Up until this point, the few Ashkenazi Jews that lived in England tended to belong to the "Antients" on account of their generally lower social class, while the more established Sephardim joined the Moderns.


title: Nathan Mayer Rothschild

text: From 1809 Rothschild began to deal in gold bullion, and developed this as a cornerstone of his business, which was to become N. M. Rothschild & Sons. From 1811 on, in negotiation with Commissary-General John Charles Herries, he undertook to transfer money to pay Wellington's troops, on campaign in Portugal and Spain against Napoleon, and later to make subsidy payments to British allies when these organized new troops after Napoleon's disastrous Russian campaign.


title: Nathan Mayer Rothschild

text: Later, during the 1840s, as early socialists in France such as Alphonse Toussenel and Pierre Leroux attacked the Rothschilds and "Jewish financiers" in general, a French socialist from among their circle, Georges Marie Mathieu-Dairnvaell, authored a work entitled "Histoire édifiante et curieuse de Rothschild Ier, Roi des Juifs" ("Edifying and Curious History of Rothschild the First, King of the Jews"). Within it he made claims about Nathan Mayer Rothschild's early knowledge of the outcome of the Battle of Waterloo, whose couriers delivered information about the victory back to London before the British Cabinet itself knew, claiming that he used the knowledge to speculate on the London Stock Exchange and make a vast fortune by unfair advantage against the other British stock holders, essentially defrauding them.


title: Nathan Mayer Rothschild

text: To the Rothschilds, [England's] chief financial agents, Waterloo brought a many million pound scoop. ... a Rothschild agent ... jumped into a boat at Ostend ... Nathan Rothschild ... let his eye fly over the lead paragraphs. A moment later he was on his way to London (beating Wellington's envoy by many hours) to tell the government that Napoleon had been crushed: but his news was not believed, because the government had just heard of the English defeat at Quatre Bras. Then he proceeded to the Stock Exchange. Another man in his position would have sunk his work into consols [bank annuities], already weak because of Quatre Bras. But this was Nathan Rothschild. He leaned against "his" pillar. He did not invest. He sold. He dumped consols. ... Consols dropped still more. "Rothschild knows," the whisper rippled through the 'Change. "Waterloo is lost." Nathan kept on selling, ... consols plummeted – until, a split second before it was too late, Nathan suddenly bought a giant parcel for a song. Moments afterwards the great news broke, to send consols soaring. We cannot guess the number of hopes and savings wiped out by this engineered panic.


title: Nathan Mayer Rothschild

text: The Rothschild family and others have claimed that this embellished version of events originated in Mathieu-Dairnvaell's 1846 writing, was further embellished by John Reeves in 1887 in "The Rothschilds: the Financial Rulers of Nations", and then repeated in other popular accounts like that of Morton and the 1934 American film directed by Alfred L. Werker, "The House of Rothschild".


title: Nathan Mayer Rothschild

text: Historian Niall Ferguson agrees that the Rothschilds' couriers did get to London first and alerted the family to Napoleon's defeat, but argues that since the family had been banking on a protracted military campaign, the losses arising from the disruption to their business more than offset any short-term gains in bonds after Waterloo. Rothschild capital did soar, but over a much longer period: Nathan's breakthrough had been prior to Waterloo when he negotiated a deal to supply cash to Wellington's army. The family made huge profits over a number of years from this governmental financing by adopting a high-risk strategy involving exchange-rate transactions, bond-price speculations, and commissions.


title: Nathan Mayer Rothschild

text: The Rothschild family archives confirm that, although "it is virtually part of English history that Nathan Mayer Rothschild made 'a million' or 'millions' out of his early information about the Battle of Waterloo, the evidence is slender". It notes the presence in the archives of a contemporary letter from a Rothschild courier, John Roworth, who wrote to Nathan: "I am informed by Commissary White that you have done well by the early information which you had of the Victory gained at Waterloo." The archivists suggest that this comment – the only hard evidence of Rothschild making a fortune going long on UK gilts – may, in fact, have been a reference to business dealings between Rothschild and the British Government, as suggested by Ferguson. (The contract for supplying cash to Wellington's army had been offered precisely because of Rothschild's international network. "The Government had already failed to establish a similar network of its own and had been let down by other more established London firms, and the Rothschild courier and communications network had gained a justifiable reputation for speed and reliability.") It confirms that the Rothschild couriers brought news of victory at Waterloo "a full 48 hours before the government’s own riders brought the news to Downing Street", but the archive has no records to estimate the size of any gain Rothschild made. "But knowing the structure of the market we can conclude that however much Nathan made out of Waterloo, it must have been very considerably less than a million pounds, let alone 'millions'."


title: Nathan Mayer Rothschild

text: It is also very commonly reported that the Rothschilds' advanced information was caused by the speed of prized racing pigeons, held by the family. However, this is widely disputed and the Rothschild archive states that, although pigeon post "was one of the tools of success in the Rothschild business strategy during the period c. 1820–1850... it is likely that a series of couriers on horseback brought the news" of Waterloo to Rothschild.


title: Nathan Mayer Rothschild

text: More recently, Brian Cathcart has refuted the claim that Rothschild was the first man in London to know of the victory at Waterloo. He traces the earliest news to a dispatch Wellington sent via his messenger to Lord Bathurst, the Secretary of War, which was received on the evening of 21 June.


title: Nathan Mayer Rothschild

text: In 1816, his four brothers were raised to the nobility ("Adelung") by the Emperor of Austria. They were now permitted to prefix the Rothschild name with the particle "von", although outside the German-speaking world it was common practice across Europe to use the language of diplomacy, rendering names and titles in French, in this case: "de".


title: Nathan Mayer Rothschild

text: In 1818 he arranged a £5 million loan to the Prussian government and the issuing of bonds for government loans formed a mainstay of his bank's business. He gained a position of such power in the City of London that by 1825–1826 he was able to supply enough coin to the Bank of England to enable it to avert a liquidity crisis.


title: Nathan Mayer Rothschild

text: It appears that Nathan Mayer was the originator of the family device of the 'Five Arrows'. The origin is said to be a Persian tale told to the Patriarch, Mayer Amschel, as the family gathered around his death-bed, when he is said to have observed that the tale was applicable to his own family: individually an arrow may be easily broken, but when held as a bundle they would be unbreakable. In 1818, Nathan Meyer applied for a grant of arms, on learning that gentry status would suffice, and had the Five Arrows confirmed for himself and his wider family.


title: Nathan Mayer Rothschild

text: In 1822, all five brothers were granted the title of Baron, or raised to the "Freiherrnstand", by the Emperor. From 1822, both Nathan Mayer himself, and any legitimate male descendant, could call himself: "Freiherr von Rothschild", or in the language of diplomacy whether in France or not, "Baron de Rothschild". In practice, having accepted the aristocratic title for the benefit of his family, he chose not to use it himself and so did not request official recognition of the title. In 1838, two years after his death, Queen Victoria did authorise the use of this Austrian title in the United Kingdom.


title: Nathan Mayer Rothschild

text: In 1824, together with Moses Montefiore, he founded the Alliance Assurance Company, which later merged with Sun Insurance to form Sun Alliance.


title: Nathan Mayer Rothschild

text: In the aftermath of the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 with the Slave Compensation Act 1837, Rothschild and his business partner Moses Montefiore loaned the British Government £15 million (worth £ in 2022) with interest which was subsequently paid off by the British taxpayers (ending in 2015). This money was used to compensate the slave owners in the British Empire after the trade had been abolished. According to the "Legacies of British Slave-Ownership" at the University College London, Rothschild himself was a successful claimant under the scheme.


title: Nathan Mayer Rothschild

text: He was a beneficiary as mortgage holder to a plantation in the colony of Antigua (present day Antigua and Barbuda) which included 158 enslaved Black people. He received a £2,571 compensation payment, at the time (worth £ in 2022).


title: Nathan Mayer Rothschild

text: In 1835 he secured a contract with the Spanish Government giving him the rights to the Almadén mines in southern Spain, effectively gaining a European mercury monopoly. He died from an infected abscess in 1836. His body was brought to London for burial, with the funeral procession on 8 August from his house on in the City of London to the Brady Street Ashkenazi Cemetery in Whitechapel accompanied by three police Superintendents (those of the London City Police and of H and K Divisions of the new Metropolitan Police), William Taylor Copeland (Lord Mayor of London) and contingents from the Jews' Orphan Asylum and the Jews' Free School, and the graveside address given by Chief Rabbi Solomon Hirschell. Nathan's wife Hannah was later buried alongside him.


title: Nathan Mayer Rothschild

text: By the time of his death, his personal net worth amounted to 0.62% of British national income. He had also secured the position of the Rothschilds as the preeminent investment bankers in Britain and Europe. His son, Lionel Nathan Rothschild (1808–1879), continued the family business in England. During his life, Nathan Mayer Rothschild, as the most accomplished of his brothers, solidified the Rothschild family as a major power in European and thus world affairs. Their great rivals, the Baring family, said of Nathan Mayer and his family; "They are generally well planned, with great cleverness and adroitness in execution -- but he is in money and funds what Bonaparte was in war."


title: Nathan Mayer Rothschild

text: The German poet Heinrich Heine, a Jewish convert to Lutheranism, declared "money is the God of our time and Rothschild is his prophet", he described Nathan Mayer Rothschild as one of "three terroristic names that spell the gradual annihilation of the old aristocracy", alongside Cardinal Richelieu and Maximilien Robespierre. For Heine, Richelieu had destroyed the power of the old feudal aristocracy, Robespierre had "decapitated" its weakened remnant and now Rothschild signified the creation of a new social elite, as new lords of finance. The financial system which the Rothschilds created during this period was viewed as a revolutionary development, with a cosmopolitan emphasis, due to the high liquidity of assets in the new system based in bonds, instead of being based in land.


title: Nathan Mayer Rothschild

text: On 22 October 1806 in London, he married Hannah Barent-Cohen (1783–1850), daughter of Levy Barent Cohen (1747–1808) and wife Lydia Diamantschleifer. Hannah Barent-Cohen was the aunt of Benjamin Frederik David Philips, the founder of Philips, and Karl Heinrich Marx. Their children were:


title: Nathan Mayer Rothschild

text: An anonymous contemporary described Nathan Rothschild at the London Stock Exchange as "he leaned against the 'Rothschild Pillar' ... hung his heavy hands into his pockets, and began to release silent, motionless, implacable cunning":


title: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

text: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, PC, FRS (13 November 1718 – 30 April 1792) was a British statesman who succeeded his grandfather Edward Montagu, 3rd Earl of Sandwich as the Earl of Sandwich in 1729, at the age of ten. During his life, he held various military and political offices, including Postmaster General, First Lord of the Admiralty, and Secretary of State for the Northern Department. He is also known for the claim that he was the eponymous inventor of the sandwich.


title: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

text: John Montagu was born in 1718, the son of Edward Montagu, Viscount Hinchingbrooke. His father died when John was four, leaving him as his heir. His mother soon remarried and he had little further contact with her. He succeeded his grandfather as Earl of Sandwich in 1729, at the age of ten. He was educated at Eton and at Trinity College, Cambridge, and spent some time travelling, initially going on the Grand Tour around Continental Europe before visiting the more unusual destinations of Greece, Turkey, and Egypt which were then part of the Ottoman Empire. This led him later to found a number of Orientalist societies. On his return to England in 1739, he took his seat in the House of Lords as a follower of the Duke of Bedford, one of the wealthiest and most powerful politicians of the era. He became a Patriot Whig and one of the sharpest critics of the Walpole government, attacking the government's strategy in the War of the Austrian Succession. Like many Patriot Whigs, Lord Sandwich was opposed to Britain's support of Hanover and strongly opposed the deployment of British troops on the European Continent to protect it, instead arguing that Britain should make greater use of its naval power. He gained attention for his speeches in parliament. His oratory earned him a reputation for clearly setting out his argument even if he lacked natural eloquence.


title: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

text: In 1744, the Duke of Bedford was invited to join the government, now headed by Henry Pelham, taking the post of First Lord of the Admiralty. Sandwich joined him as one of the commissioners of the Admiralty, in effect serving as deputy under Bedford. The experienced Admiral Lord Anson also joined the Admiralty board and was an influential figure. Bedford spent much of his time at his country estate, and much of the day-to-day running of the Admiralty fell to Sandwich and Anson. Anson had control of the training and discipline of the navy, while Sandwich focused on the administration. Following a proposal by Admiral Edward Vernon, the concept of a Western Squadron was pioneered, which proved very successful. This marked a radical shift in British naval strategy, and led to British success at the Battles of Cape Finisterre.


title: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

text: The following year, Sandwich took a commission as a colonel in the British Army as part of the response to the Jacobite rising and the prospect of a French invasion. In order to boost the relatively small British army, a number of units were raised by prominent figures, and Sandwich served in the regiment formed by Bedford. While serving in The Midlands, he fell seriously ill with fever and nearly died. After his recovery, he returned to his duties at the admiralty. He remained an army officer for the rest of his life, remaining on the half-pay list and eventually rising to the rank of general, even though he took no further active part in the army.


title: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

text: In 1746 he was sent as a plenipotentiary to the Congress of Breda, and he continued to take part in the negotiations for peace until the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was concluded in 1748. Sandwich was also made ambassador to the Dutch Republic during the talks. Using the resources of the British secret service, Sandwich was able to outmanoeuvre his French counterpart by intercepting the latter's secret correspondence. His service at Breda drew him to the attention of the influential Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle, who lobbied for him to be given high office when he returned home.


title: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

text: It is possible that during his time at Breda, he played a role in the 1747 Dutch Revolution which brought William IV, Prince of Orange wider powers, something supported by Britain as they hoped the Prince would improve the Dutch Republic's military performance in the ongoing war in the Low Countries. However, there is no firm evidence of this.


title: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

text: In February 1748 he became First Lord of the Admiralty, retaining this post until June 1751. By 1751 Newcastle, who had previously admired Sandwich for his forthright and hardline views, had increasingly begun to distrust him and his relationship with The Duke of Bedford whom Newcastle regarded as a rival. Newcastle engineered the dismissal of both of them, by sacking Sandwich. Bedford resigned in protest, as Newcastle had calculated, allowing him to replace them with men he considered more loyal personally to him.


title: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

text: For the next few years Sandwich spent time at his country estate, largely avoiding politics, though he kept in close contact with both Bedford and Anson and Britain's participation in the Seven Years' War. Partly thanks to naval reforms pioneered by Anson and Sandwich, the Royal Navy enjoyed a series of successes and was able to blockade much of the French fleet in port.


title: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

text: In 1763 he returned to the Admiralty in the government of John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute, and encouraged a major rebuilding programme for the Royal Navy. Bute was a Tory who wished to bring the war to an end, which he did with the Treaty of Paris. It was during this time that Sandwich first met Martha Ray who became his long-standing mistress. He was soon dismissed from the office, but was offered the influential position of Ambassador to Madrid.


title: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

text: In August 1763 Sandwich became Secretary of State for the Northern Department, in the government of George Grenville who had replaced Bute. While filling this office he took a leading part in the successful prosecution of the radical MP John Wilkes for obscene libel. Although he had been allegedly associated with Wilkes in the notorious Hellfire Club (also known as the Monks of Medmenham), recent scholarship has suggested that the two had a more distant but cordial relationship than the friendship which was popularly portrayed at the time. John Gay's "The Beggar's Opera" was played in Covent Garden shortly thereafter, and the similarity of Sandwich's conduct to that of Jemmy Twitcher, betrayer of Macheath in that play, permanently attached to him that appellation. Wilkes was eventually expelled from the House of Commons.


title: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

text: He held the post of Northern Secretary until July 1765. His departure from the post coincided with the end of George Grenville's term as prime minister. He hoped to return to office swiftly, provided a united opposition could be formed.


title: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

text: Sandwich was postmaster general from 1768 to 1771 and briefly secretary of state again from December 1770 to January 1771.


title: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

text: Sandwich served again as First Lord of the Admiralty in Lord North's administration from 1771 to 1782. He replaced the distinguished Admiral Sir Edward Hawke in the post. His appointment to the post followed the Falklands Crisis which had nearly seen Britain go to war with Spain over the Falkland Islands in the South Atlantic Ocean after the Capture of Port Egmont by Spanish forces. War had only been averted when Louis XVI of France refused to back the Spanish over the dispute. Both France and Spain resented what they considered British hegemony following the Seven Years' War, and desired to overturn the imbalance of power; war was widely expected to break out between the nations in the near future.


title: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

text: In 1774, only three years into his third term, Sandwich commissioned a series of ship models and a model of Chatham Dockyard as a gift to George III in an attempt to interest his king in naval matters. However, Sandwich's overall administration of the navy in the lead up to and during the American War of Independence was traditionally portrayed as being incompetent, with insufficient ships being ready for the outbreak of war with France in 1778. In 1775, Sandwich spoke vociferously in opposition to a plan for British America put forth by Benjamin Franklin and the Earl of Chatham. When Britain and France went to war, Sandwich advocated a strategy of concentrating the British fleet in European waters to deter invasion in opposition to his colleague, Lord Germain, who pushed for more ships to be sent to North America. The cabinet largely followed Sandwich's policy, retaining footholds on the American coast which could be used as naval bases, while retaining the bulk of the fleet at home. Sandwich's problems increased when Spain entered the war on France's side in 1779 giving the Bourbon fleets a numerical advantage over the Royal Navy.


title: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

text: Prior to 1778 Keppel failed to persuade Sandwich to ignore technical difficulties and "copper sheath only a few ships"; he was later possibly unfairly to make political capital out of this in "The London Magazine", March 1781. He had remarked that coppering "gave additional strength to the navy" and he reproached Lord Sandwich with having "refused to sheath only a few ships with copper" at his request, when he had since ordered the whole navy to be sheathed. The lack of coppering the navy was one of the key reasons leading to Britain losing the Thirteen Colonies.


title: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

text: In 1778 the new Navy Board Controller Charles Middleton, who had the major problem at the time with supplying over 100 ships for the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), compounded that year by French opportunism in declaring war on Britain to support the American rebels, effectively turned what was a local civil war into a global conflict. Others followed: Spain in 1779 and the Netherlands in 1780. Middleton took the view that Britain was "outnumbered at every station", and the navy was required to "extricate us from present danger". He understood that coppering allowed the navy to stay at sea for much longer without the need for cleaning and repairs to the underwater hull, making it a very attractive, if expensive, proposition. On 21 January 1779 he wrote to the Admiralty, and petitioned King George directly. The King backed him for what was an expensive process for an untested technology, and in May 1779 he placed orders at the Portsmouth Docks for coppering a total 51 ships within a year.


title: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

text: During 1779 a combined Franco-Spanish fleet was able to sail into the English Channel to threaten the coast of Cornwall in the initial stage of a Franco-Spanish invasion of Britain. Sandwich was criticised for the failure of the smaller British Channel Fleet to prevent this, although the invasion never materialised.


title: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

text: After 1778, the primary objective in the war was maintaining control over the sugar-rich West Indian archipelago The lucrative sugar trade in the Caribbean was reckoned at the time as being of more importance to British interests than the 13 colonies. The sugar trade was paying for the costs of the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) and the Anglo-French War (1778–1783). The Royal Navy's newly coppered ships as yet untested were used successfully by Rodney in defeating the French at the Battle of the Saintes off Dominica in February 1782.


title: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

text: By the time Sandwich's administration ended, he would take full credit for coppering the fleet as one of his great achievements when defending his record in office in January 1782.


title: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

text: For several years Sandwich had as a mistress Fanny Murray, the subject of John Wilkes' "An Essay on Woman" (1763), but he eventually married Dorothy Fane, daughter of the 1st Viscount Fane, by whom he had a son, John, Viscount Hinchingbrooke (1743–1814), who later succeeded as 5th Earl. Sandwich's first personal tragedy was his wife's deteriorating health and eventual insanity. During his wife's decline, Sandwich started an affair with a singer named Martha Ray. During their relationship, Ray bore him at least five, and perhaps as many as nine, children, including Basil Montagu (1770–1851), writer, jurist and philanthropist. According to several sources, Sandwich was unable to provide adequately and permanently for his mistress and their children; she therefore encouraged the suit of Captain James Hackman, who later exchanged the army for the clergy. In April 1779, Ray was killed in the foyer of the Royal Opera House (Covent Garden) at the hands of Hackman, Rector of Wiveton.


title: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

text: Sandwich never recovered from his grief. The events surrounding Ray's murder were depicted in the popular novel "Love and Madness" (1780) by Herbert Croft.


title: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

text: In a famous exchange with the actor Samuel Foote, Sandwich declared, "Foote, I have often wondered what catastrophe would bring you to your end; but I think, that you must either die of the pox, or the halter." "My lord", replied Foote instantaneously, "that will depend upon one of two contingencies; – whether I embrace your lordship's mistress, or your lordship's principles." This retort is often misattributed to John Wilkes.


title: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

text: Sandwich retired from public duty in 1782, and lived another ten years in retirement at what was then the family seat, Hinchingbrooke House, Huntingdonshire, dying on 30 April 1792. His title of Earl of Sandwich passed to his eldest son, John Montagu, 5th Earl of Sandwich, who was 48 years old at the time.


title: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

text: Sandwich was buried in All Saints' Church in Barnwell, Northamptonshire, of which only the chancel survives, kept to preserve the Montagu tombs.


title: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

text: Sandwich retired in 1782. Despite holding a number of important posts during his career, Sandwich's incompetence and corruption were legendary, inspiring the saying: "Seldom has any man held so many offices and accomplished so little."


title: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

text: Recently, some historians have begun to suggest that Lord Sandwich was not perhaps as incompetent as suggested, but that previous historians have placed too much emphasis on sources from his political enemies.


title: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

text: The modern sandwich is named after Lord Sandwich, but the exact circumstances of its invention and original use are still the subject of debate. A rumour in a contemporaneous travel book called "Tour to London" by Pierre-Jean Grosley formed the popular myth that bread and meat sustained Lord Sandwich at the gambling table but Sandwich had many bad habits, including the Hellfire Club, and any story may be a creation after the fact. Lord Sandwich was a very conversant gambler, the story goes, and he did not take the time to have a meal during his long hours playing at the card table. Consequently, he would ask his servants to bring him slices of meat between two slices of bread, a habit well known among his gambling friends. Other people, according to this account, began to order "the same as Sandwich!", and thus the "sandwich" was born. The sober alternative to this account is provided by Sandwich's biographer N. A. M. Rodger, who suggests that Sandwich's commitments to the navy, to politics, and to the arts mean that the first sandwich was more likely to have been consumed at his work desk.


title: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

text: Lord Sandwich was a great supporter of Captain James Cook. As First Lord of the Admiralty, Sandwich approved Admiralty funds for the purchase and fit-out of the "Resolution", "Adventure" and "Discovery" for Cook's second and third expeditions of exploration in the Pacific Ocean. He also arranged an audience with the King, which was an unusual privilege for a lower ranking officer. In honour of Sandwich, Cook named the Sandwich Islands (Hawaii) after him, as well as Montague Island off the south east coast of Australia, the South Sandwich Islands in the Southern Atlantic Ocean and Montague Island in the Gulf of Alaska. Hinchinbrook Island was named for the House owned by the Montagu family. Lord Sandwich donated the various items given him by Cook to Trinity College at the University of Cambridge. He also met the young Ra'iatean Omai, whom Cook had brought to Europe, and took him to his country estate for a week, presenting him with a suit of armour.


title: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

text: Like his friends John Russell, 4th Duke of Bedford and George Montagu-Dunk, 2nd Earl of Halifax, Sandwich was keen on cricket. The earliest surviving record of his involvement in the sport comes from 1741 when, as the patron and captain of the Huntingdonshire county team, Sandwich and Halifax formed the Northamptonshire & Huntingdonshire team which twice defeated Bedfordshire, first at Woburn Park and then at Cow Meadow, Northampton.


title: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

text: After his naval career, Sandwich turned his energy toward music. He became a great proponent of "ancient music" (defined by him as music more than two decades old). He was the patron of the Italian violinist Felice Giardini, and created a "Catch Club", where professional singers would sing "ancient" and modern catches, glees, and madrigals. He also put on performances of George Frideric Handel's oratorios, masques, and odes at his estate. Sandwich was instrumental in putting together the Concert of Ancient Music, the first public concert to showcase a canonic repertory of old works.


title: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

text: A plate of Sir Peter Lely's 1666 portrait of the 1st Earl appeared in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1837, together with a facsimile signature and a poetical illustration by Letitia Elizabeth Landon, which actually relates to the 4th Earl (the islands being so-called in his honour).


title: Open-mid front unrounded vowel

text: The open-mid front unrounded vowel, or low-mid front unrounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is a Latinised variant of the Greek lowercase epsilon, .


title: Zero Escape

text: Zero Escape, formerly released in Japan as , is a series of adventure games directed and written by Kotaro Uchikoshi. The first two entries in the series, "Nine Hours, Nine Persons, Nine Doors" (2009) and "" (2012), were developed by Spike Chunsoft (formerly Chunsoft), while the third entry, "Zero Time Dilemma" (2016), was developed by Chime. "Zero Escape" is published by Spike Chunsoft in Japan, while Aksys Games and Rising Star Games have published the games for North America and Europe respectively.


title: Zero Escape

text: Each game in the series follows a group of nine individuals, who are kidnapped and held captive by a person code-named "Zero", and are forced to play a game of life and death to escape. The gameplay is divided into two types of sections: Novel sections, where the story is presented, and Escape sections, where the player solves escape-the-room puzzles. In the first two games, the Novel sections are presented in a visual novel format, whereas the third uses animated cutscenes. The stories branch based on player choices, and include multiple endings.


title: Zero Escape

text: In addition to Uchikoshi, the development team includes character designers Kinu Nishimura and Rui Tomono, and music composer Shinji Hosoe. The series was originally conceived when Chunsoft wanted Uchikoshi to write visual novels for a wider audience; he came up with the idea of combining the story with story-integrated puzzles. While "Nine Hours, Nine Persons, Nine Doors" was initially planned as a stand-alone title, its success in the international market led to the development of two sequels, intended to be paired as a set; however, as both "Nine Hours, Nine Persons, Nine Doors" and "Virtue's Last Reward" were commercial failures in Japan, the third game was put on hold in 2014, only to resume the development for "Zero Time Dilemma" the following year, due to fan demand and the hiatus becoming big news. Critics have been positive to the series, praising its narrative for being experimental and for pushing boundaries for what can be done with video game narratives.


title: Zero Escape

text: The series consists of three video games. The first two games were released in English by Aksys Games in North America, and the second game was released in English in Europe by Rising Star Games. The third game was released by Aksys Games in both North America and Europe for consoles, and by Spike Chunsoft worldwide for Windows.


title: Zero Escape

text: A bundle containing the first two games, titled "Zero Escape: The Nonary Games", was released for Windows, PlayStation 4, and PlayStation Vita in the West on March 24, 2017. In Japan, the Windows version launched on March 25 and the console versions on April 13 the same year. The European PlayStation Vita version was released on December 15. "The Nonary Games" was also released for Xbox One on March 22, 2022.


title: Zero Escape

text: The updated version of "Nine Hours, Nine Persons, Nine Doors" has separate Adventure and Novel modes; the Adventure mode presents the character interactions similar to the top screen of the original game, while Novel mode uses the additional narration from the bottom screen. Both modes have animated characters and voice acting. The updated version also includes a story flowchart, similar to the other two games in the series, to help players with getting to the game's true ending. However, it does not include the additional story content that was part of the iOS version. The final puzzle, however, is different. The new version of "Virtue's Last Reward" is primarily based on the original PlayStation Vita version, but corrects some typographic errors.


title: Zero Escape

text: A novelization of the first game, titled "Kyokugen Dasshutsu 9 Jikan 9 Nin 9 no Tobira Alterna", was written by Kenji Kuroda and published by Kodansha in Japan in two volumes in 2010. An original video animation based on the beginning of the second game was made by Gonzo; it has been dubbed and released in English by Aksys Games. An untitled Flash game was made for "Virtue's Last Reward" and made available on the official Japanese developer website. An artbook featuring art from the first two games was published by SB Creative in 2012 in Japan; an artbook for the third game was released as a pre-order bonus in Japan, and is sold separately in the West. Music albums with the soundtracks of the first two games were released by Super Sweep on December 23, 2009 and April 19, 2012. Aksys is also considering releasing merchandise based on the third game.


title: Zero Escape

text: Aksys and Spike Chunsoft worked with the Japanese puzzle event studio SCRAP to create "Real Zero Escape: Trust on Trial", a real-life room escape game based on the "Zero Escape" universe, which was held at SCRAP's studio in Little Tokyo in Los Angeles for several months, starting in April 2016. Players had to solve real-life escape-the-room puzzles in the spirit of the "Zero Escape" series within a limited amount of time.


title: Zero Escape

text: The gameplay of the series is divided into two types of segments: Novel sections – presented in a visual novel format in the first two games, and as computer animated cutscenes in the third – and Escape sections, which are escape-the-room scenarios. During the Novel sections, the player reads dialogue, occasionally inputting choices that change the course of the story. During the Escape sections, the player aims to find a way out of rooms by exploring the room and solving puzzles. The player can move around during these sections, and can pick up and combine items in order to open locks or get access to new items. Each room also includes more complex puzzles, such as sliding puzzles and mini-games, which can not be solved without finding clues in the room.


title: Zero Escape

text: The games are non-linear: the first two games' stories branch depending on player choices, and lead to several different endings, with a final true ending that the player can only reach by playing through various different branches; the third game divides the story into chapters called "fragments", each representing a 90-minute period, which can be chosen from a "Floating Fragment" menu and played out of order. In the first game, the player has to start over from the beginning after completing each branch, replaying Escape sections; in the second game, the branches are represented by an interactive flowchart, allowing the player to jump to any point in the game that they have reached, and try different outcomes. This flowchart was also implemented in the iOS and "The Nonary Games" versions of the first game. In the third game, fragments are placed in a flowchart upon completion, indicating where they take place in the story.


title: Zero Escape

text: The three "Zero Escape" games are narratively linked, with events of "Zero Time Dilemma" occurring between "999" and "Virtue's Last Reward". Each game in the series follows a group of nine people who get kidnapped by masked individuals who call themselves "Zero", and are locked inside a facility where they are forced to play a death game where the participants are locked inside rooms and have to solve puzzles in order to get out. In the first two games, the death game is referred to as the Nonary Game, while the one in the third game is called the Decision Game. The characters do not at first appear to have anything in common, but throughout the course of the games, it is revealed that each was chosen for a specific purpose, including connections to previous narrative elements from the other games in the series. The characters attempt to escape from the facility, to identify Zero, and to learn of Zero's goal.


title: Zero Escape

text: The series has science fiction and horror elements, and philosophical and supernatural themes. A recurring theme is the concept of morphogenetic fields, which is explored in different ways in each game, and is the main theme of the first game. The second game focuses on game theory, specifically on the prisoner's dilemma. The third game's main theme is morality, and it is the game in the series with the largest focus on philosophy.


title: Zero Escape

text: The first two "Zero Escape" titles were developed by Chunsoft, while the third was developed by Chime. The series is directed and written by Kotaro Uchikoshi, with music by Shinji Hosoe. Character design was handled by Kinu Nishimura in the first two games, and by Rui Tomono in the third. The series was originally conceived when Chunsoft contacted Uchikoshi and asked him to write visual novels for them; they had found success in the genre, but wanted to create a new type of visual novels which could be received by a wider audience. Uchikoshi's idea for this was to combine puzzles with a story, in a way where puzzles are integrated into the story and includes clues, and need to be solved in order for the player to make progress. The inspiration for the first game was the question "where do mankind's inspirations come from?"; while researching it, Uchikoshi came across the theories of the English biochemist Rupert Sheldrake, and used them as the main theme. The game's setting was meant as a depiction of two of humanity's instinctive desires: the unconscious desire to return to one's mother's womb and shut oneself away, and the desire to escape and overcome one's current condition.