title: Jewish Bolshevism

text: Historian Richard J. Evans wrote that Wehrmacht officers regarded the Russians as "sub-human", and were from the time of the invasion of Poland in 1939 telling their troops the war was caused by "Jewish vermin", explaining to the troops that the war against the Soviet Union was a war to wipe out what were variously described as "Jewish Bolshevik subhumans", the "Mongol hordes", the "Asiatic flood" and the "red beast", language clearly intended to produce war crimes by reducing the enemy to something less than human.


title: Jewish Bolshevism

text: Joseph Goebbels published an article in 1942 called "the so-called Russian soul" in which he claimed that Bolshevism was exploiting the Slavs and that the battle of the Soviet Union determined whether Europe would become under complete control by international Jewry.


title: Jewish Bolshevism

text: Nazi propaganda presented Barbarossa as an ideological-racial war between German Nazism and "Judeo-Bolshevism", dehumanising the Soviet enemy as a force of Slavic "Untermensch" (sub-humans) and "Asiatic" savages engaging in "barbaric Asiatic fighting methods" commanded by evil Jewish commissars whom German troops were to grant no mercy. The vast majority of the Wehrmacht officers and soldiers tended to regard the war in Nazi terms, seeing their Soviet opponents as sub-human.


title: Jewish Bolshevism

text: In the early 1920s, a leading British antisemite, Henry Hamilton Beamish, stated that Bolshevism was the same thing as Judaism. In the same decade, future wartime Prime Minister Winston Churchill penned an editorial entitled "Zionism versus Bolshevism", which was published in the "Illustrated Sunday Herald". In the article, which asserted that Zionism and Bolshevism were engaged in a "struggle for the soul of the Jewish people", he called on Jews to repudiate "the Bolshevik conspiracy" and make clear that "the Bolshevik movement is not a Jewish movement" but stated that:


title: Jewish Bolshevism

text: [Bolshevism] among the Jews is nothing new. From the days of Spartacus-Weishaupt to those of Karl Marx, and down to Trotsky (Russia), Bela Kun (Hungary), Rosa Luxemburg (Germany), and Emma Goldman (United States), this world-wide conspiracy for the overthrow of civilisation and for the reconstitution of society on the basis of arrested development, of envious malevolence, and impossible equality, has been steadily growing.


title: Jewish Bolshevism

text: Author Gisela C. Lebzelter noted that Churchill's analysis failed to analyze the role that Russian oppression of Jews had played in their joining various revolutionary movements, but instead "to inherent inclinations rooted in Jewish character and religion".


title: Jewish Bolshevism

text: "The Octopus" is a 256-page book self-published in 1940 by Elizabeth Dilling under the pseudonym "Rev. Frank Woodruff Johnson". In it she describes her theories of Jewish Bolshevism.


title: Jewish Bolshevism

text: Frank L. Britton, editor of "The American Nationalist" published a book, "Behind Communism", in 1952 which disseminated the myth that Communism was a Jewish conspiracy originating in Palestine.


title: Jewish Bolshevism

text: Researchers in the field, such as Polish philosopher Stanisław Krajewski or André Gerrits, denounce the concept of Jewish Bolshevism as a prejudice. Law professor Ilya Somin agrees, and compares Jewish involvement in other communist countries: "Overrepresentation of a group in a political movement does not prove either that the movement was 'dominated' by that group or that it primarily serves that group's interests. The idea that communist oppression was somehow Jewish in nature is belied by the record of communist regimes in countries like China, North Korea, and Cambodia, where the Jewish presence was and is minuscule."Several scholars have observed that Jewish involvement in Communist movements was primarily a response to antisemitism and rejection by established politics. Others note that this involvement was greatly exaggerated to accord with existing antisemitic narratives.


title: PL-15

text: The PL-15 (, NATO reporting name: CH-AA-10A) is an active radar-guided long-range air-to-air missile developed by the People's Republic of China.


title: PL-15

text: The PL-15 is developed by Luoyang-based CAMA. The missile was test fired in 2011 and referenced by Chinese state media in 2015. It was spotted in 2013 mounted on a prototype of Chengdu J-20.


title: PL-15

text: The PL-15 entered People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF) military service around 2015 to 2017. The carrying platforms include the Chengdu J-10C, the Shenyang J-16 and the Chengdu J-20. It has also been spotted on the Shenyang J-11B. The PL-15 has begun to replace the earlier PL-12 as the standard beyond-visual-range missile for both PLAAF and People's Liberation Army Naval Air Force (PLANAF) fighters.


title: PL-15

text: In 2017, the United States began developing the AIM-260 Joint Advanced Tactical Missile (JATM) to replace the currently in-service AIM-120 Advanced Medium-Range Air-to-Air Missile (AMRAAM) in order to better counter the PL-15. The AIM-260 JATM is planned to enter service in late 2022, with advanced variants of the AIM-120 AMRAAM serving as a stop-gap until the 260 can be fielded.


title: PL-15

text: The missile is measured between , longer and wider than other contemporary radar missiles. The cropped control fins are designed for internal carriage by stealth aircraft. It incorporates a dual-pulsed solid-fuel rocket motor, capable of a speed of Mach 4+ and a range of more than – comparable to that of the Anglo-French MBDA Meteor missile. Compared to ramjet-powered Meteor, which advantages in sustained flight profile with a fly-out speed between Mach 3 and 3.5, the dual-pulsed solid propellant rocket motor of PL-15 potentially offers higher burn-out speed excess of Mach 5, then gradually loses its velocity at the terminal phase.


title: PL-15

text: The missile is guided by a miniature active electronically scanned array radar seeker, sporting both active and passive modes for different mission set. It also features improved resistance to countermeasures. The hybrid guidance system supports a mid-course two-way datalink led by AEW&C aircraft and autonomous terminal radar homing.


title: PL-15

text: At the 2021 Zhuhai Airshow, China unveiled an export variant of PL-15 named PL-15E with a maximum range of . The export version has less range than the domestic version, possibly due to changes in propellant or rocket motor. This is similar to the situation between SD-10 and its domestic counterpart PL-12.


title: Flank steak

text: Flank steak is a cut of beef steak taken from the abdominal muscles of the cow, located just behind the plate and in front of the rear quarter. It is a long, flat cut with a significant grain, and is known for its bold flavor and chewiness.


title: Flank steak

text: French butchers call the cut "bavette", which means "bib". In Brazil, it is called "fraldinha" ("little diaper"). The cut is common in Colombia, where they call it "sobrebarriga" ("over the belly"); "sobrebarriga a la brasa" is a Colombian recipe for braised flank steak. Argentina, Uruguay, Spain, and Rio Grande do Sul call flank steak "vacío" ("empty").


title: Flank steak

text: Flank steak is used in a variety of dishes including London broil and as an alternative to the traditional skirt steak in "fajitas". It can be grilled, pan-fried, broiled, or braised for increased tenderness. Grain (meat fibre) is very apparent in flank steaks, as it comes from a well-exercised part of the cow, and many chefs cut across the grain to make the meat more tender. It is frequently used in Asian cuisine, often sold in Chinese markets as "stir-fry beef", and is served in French cuisine as an at most medium-rare steak. Flank also serves as a common cut for steak jerky.


title: Tacoma FD

text: Tacoma FD is an American comedy television series that takes place in a firehouse in Tacoma, Washington. The series premiered on March 28, 2019, on truTV. The third season premiered on September 16, 2021. In November 2021, the series was renewed for a fourth season.


title: Tacoma FD

text: "Tacoma FD" takes place in a firehouse in Tacoma, Washington. Without many fires to extinguish (due to Tacoma being one of America's wettest cities), the firefighters are always ready to fight fires… but they end up tackling the less-glamorous elements of the job. Leading the firehouse crew are Chief Terry McConky and Captain Eddie Penisi."


title: Tacoma FD

text: On January 10, 2018, it was announced that truTV had given the production a pilot order. The series was created by Broken Lizard comedy troupe members Kevin Heffernan and Steve Lemme, who also executive produce alongside David Miner, Greg Walter, and Kyle Clark. Production companies involved with the series include 3 Arts Entertainment and Silverscreen Pictures. On May 9, 2018, it was announced that truTV had given the production a series order for a first season consisting of ten episodes. On February 11, 2019, it was announced that the series would premiere on March 28, 2019. truTV renewed the series for a second season on June 18, 2019, which premiered on March 26, 2020. On August 5, 2020, truTV renewed the series for a third season, which premiered on September 16, 2021. On November 3, 2021, truTV renewed the series for a fourth season.


title: Tacoma FD

text: Alongside the pilot order announcement, it was confirmed that Kevin Heffernan and Steve Lemme had been cast in the series' lead roles. On February 5, 2018, it was announced that Kirby Bliss Blanton, Marcus Henderson, Eugene Cordero, and Gabriel Hogan had joined the main cast of the pilot. On September 19, 2018, it was reported that Blanton's role had been recast with Hassie Harrison assuming the part of Lucy McConky.


title: Tacoma FD

text: Principal photography for the series' pilot was expected to begin in February 2018. Filming for the rest of season one began in late 2018.


title: Singapore in Malaysia

text: Singapore (), officially the State of Singapore (), was one of the 14 states of Malaysia from 1963 to 1965. Malaysia was formed on 16 September 1963 by the merger of the Federation of Malaya with the former British colonies of North Borneo, Sarawak and Singapore. This marked the end of the 144-year British rule in Singapore which began with the founding of modern Singapore by Sir Stamford Raffles in 1819. At the time of merger, it was the smallest state in the country by land area, and was the country's largest city behind the capital, Kuala Lumpur.


title: Singapore in Malaysia

text: The union was unstable due to distrust and ideological differences between the leaders of Singapore and of the federal government of Malaysia. They often disagreed about finance, politics and racial policies. Singapore continued to face significant trade restrictions despite promises of a common market in return for a large proportion of its tax revenues, and retaliated by withholding loans to Sabah and Sarawak. In the political arena, the Malaysia-based United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) and Singapore-based People's Action Party (PAP), entered each other's political arenas, despite previous agreements not to do so. These resulted in major race riots in Singapore in 1964, which were attributed (at least in part) to instigation by UMNO and its Malay-language newspaper "Utusan Melayu" for affirmative action for Malays in Singapore.


title: Singapore in Malaysia

text: These culminated in the decision by Malaysian Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman to expel Singapore from the Federation, and on 9 August 1965, Singapore became independent.


title: Singapore in Malaysia

text: Singapore politicians, beginning with David Marshall in 1955, repeatedly courted the Tunku Abdul Rahman about merger with the Federation, but were rebuffed repeatedly. Tunku's chief consideration was the need to maintain the racial balance in the Federation, UMNO's position in the Alliance Party, and Malay political dominance. Including Singapore with its large Chinese population would result in the Chinese (at 3.6 million) outnumbering the 3.4 million Malays in the new union, and put it "at-risk".


title: Singapore in Malaysia

text: Balanced against this risk was his even greater fear of an independent Singapore outside the federation, particularly if it fell under the control of an unfriendly government. As part of decolonisation and increasing British disengagement from Malaya, constitutional talks on self-government for Singapore between the British Colonial Office in London and the Singapore Legislative Assembly had already resulted in the 1958 State of Singapore Constitution, and a fully elected and self-governing 51-seat Legislative Assembly in 1959. Tunku worried that the next round of constitutional talks would grant Singapore even more independence and put the island beyond his or Britain's reach; as British officials put it, a 'batik curtain' would descend across the Straits of Johor, beyond which political elements and possibly even a 'communist Cuba' would gather strength. This fear became increasingly real to Tunku after 29 April 1961 when Ong Eng Guan of the left-wing United Peoples' Party trounced the PAP candidate at the Hong Lim by-election.


title: Singapore in Malaysia

text: Tunku was also worried about Indonesia, the other regional Malay behemoth, which under Sukarno's Guided Democracy was becoming increasingly nationalistic and expansionist, undertaking regional actions such as the liberation of West New Guinea and Konfrontasi (also known as the Borneo confrontation).


title: Singapore in Malaysia

text: With these considerations in mind, and although it was not apparent at the time, Tunku had already been considering merger as early as June 1960. At a meeting of Commonwealth Prime Ministers, he mentioned to Lord Perth of the Colonial Office that he was open to a merger if a 'Grand Design' including not just Singapore but also British Borneo could be offered as some sort of package deal. Not only would it greatly benefit the territory, resources and population under his control, but the combination of indigenous Bornean peoples and Peninsular Malays (collectively termed Bumiputera) would counterbalance the increased numbers of Singaporean Chinese.


title: Singapore in Malaysia

text: On 27 May 1961 at the Foreign Correspondents Association of Southeast Asia, Tunku announced that a closer association between Malaya, Singapore and the Borneo territories was a distinct possibility. Furthermore, he was calling not just for a customs union but a full union into a single political entity, the Federation of Malaysia.


title: Singapore in Malaysia

text: Merger was originally scheduled for 31 August 1963 to coincide with the official independence day of Malaysia. However it was postponed by Tunku Abdul Rahman to 16 September 1963, to accommodate a United Nations mission to North Borneo and Sarawak to ensure that they really wanted a merger, which was prompted by Indonesian objections to the formation of Malaysia.


title: Singapore in Malaysia

text: Nonetheless, on 31 August 1963 (the original Malaysia Day), Lee Kuan Yew stood in front of a crowd at the Padang in Singapore and unilaterally declared Singapore's independence. On 16 September 1963, coincidentally Lee's fortieth birthday, he once again stood in front of a crowd at the Padang and this time proclaimed Singapore as part of Malaysia. Pledging his loyalty to the Central Government, Tunku and his colleagues, Lee asked for ‘an honourable relationship between the states and the Central Government, a relationship between brothers, and not a relationship between masters and servants'.


title: Singapore in Malaysia

text: Singapore merged with Malaya to achieve independence from the British colonial government. The British treatment of the locals since the British colonisation of Singapore in 1819 and the British failure to defend Singapore against Japanese invasion in February 1942 led to animosity and disdain against the British colonial rule in the post-war years. These sentiments culminated in strikes and riots in Singapore, such as the Hock Lee Bus Riots and the Anti-National Service riots in the 1950s. By merging with Malaya, the British would not have a reason to continue to rule over Singapore and use the communist threat as an excuse to rule over Singapore. Only a merger with Malaya would release Singapore from the clutches of British colonial rule and grant it absolute independence from the British.


title: Singapore in Malaysia

text: Singapore also wanted to merge with Malaya for economic reasons. Singapore was facing serious unemployment problems in the early 1960s. By merging with Malaya, Singapore believed to be able to overcome the unemployment crisis. Unemployment became the most serious issue for the PAP government when it assumed power to govern Singapore in 1959. The lack of natural resources, the low level of literacy rate among the local population, and the lack of hinterland caused the unemployment situation in Singapore to soar during the early 1960s.


title: Singapore in Malaysia

text: Malaya was a large country blessed with natural resources. Singapore wished to leverage Malaya's economic advantages by proposing a common market strategy that would mutually benefit both nations. The PAP administration believed that a merger would also provide the locals an opportunity to find jobs in Malaya and thus alleviate the chronic unemployment problem in Singapore. This policy eventually allowed the party to continue their rule in Singapore.


title: Singapore in Malaysia

text: The merger was also proposed to attain security from the acute internal and external threat posed by communism in both Singapore and Malaya. The State of Emergency imposed by the British in Singapore and Malaya from 1948 to 1960 is a reflection of the threat posed by the communists who were striving to replace British rule of Singapore and Malaya with a communist government.


title: Singapore in Malaysia

text: The Emergency Rule was lifted in 1960. But still the countries in Southeast Asia faced a threat from the communists. Malaya was a strong anti-communist country and would be able to provide Singapore with security and protection from the communist threat. While Singapore benefitted by the protection of the larger country, Malaya was also able to allay fears about its southern neighbour falling into the hands of the communists and acting as a launch pad for communist infiltration.


title: Singapore in Malaysia

text: The Singapore and federal governments disagreed over economic issues. As part of the Malaysia Agreement, Singapore agreed to contribute 40% of its total revenue to the federal government and provide largely interest-free loans to Sabah and Sarawak, in exchange for establishment of a common market. However in July 1965, Malaysian Finance Minister Tan Siew Sin proposed raising the contribution to 60% and hinted 'that unless Singapore agrees to pay more, the common market would be slow in coming about'. This was refused by Singapore's Finance Minister, Goh Keng Swee, who accused Kuala Lumpur of imposing tariffs on Singapore-made products. Both sides also disagreed over the issuance of the loan, but agreed to refer this issue to the World Bank for arbitration.


title: Singapore in Malaysia

text: The Federal Government of Malaysia, dominated by the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO), was concerned that as long as Singapore remained in the Federation, the "bumiputera" policy of affirmative action in favor of Malays and the indigenous population would be undermined and therefore run counter to its agenda of addressing economic disparities between racial groups. This stance clashed with the PAP's repeated pledges for a "Malaysian Malaysia" – the equal treatment of all races in Malaysia by the government which should serve Malaysian "citizens" without any regard for the economic conditions of any particular "race". Another contributing factor was fear that the economic dominance of Singapore's port would inevitably shift economical and political power away from Kuala Lumpur in time, should Singapore remain in the Federation.


title: Singapore in Malaysia

text: Racial tensions increased dramatically within a year. Despite the Malaysian government conceding citizenship to the many Chinese immigrants after independence, the Chinese in Singapore disdained the Federal policies of affirmative action, which granted special privileges to the Malays in Article 153 of the Constitution of Malaysia. Financial and economic benefits were given to Malays and Islam was recognised as the sole official religion, although non-Muslims maintained freedom of worship. Malays and Muslims in Singapore were being increasingly incited by the Federal Government's accusations that the PAP was mistreating the Malays.


title: Singapore in Malaysia

text: Numerous racial riots resulted, and curfews were frequently imposed to restore order. These were collectively termed the 1964 race riots, the largest and deadliest of which occurred on 21 July 1964. The immediate antecedent event was a speech by Syed Jaafar Albar, backed by Federation Deputy Prime Minister Abdul Razak Hussein, at the New Star Cinema in Pasir Panjang on 12 July 1964, where he accused Lee Kuan Yew of being an oppressor and alleged that the fate of the Malays was even worse than it was during the Japanese occupation. He declared to an excited audience of several thousand Malays that 'if there is unity, no force in this world can trample us down... Not one Lee Kuan Yew, a thousand Lee Kuan Yew... we finish them off...' The crowd responded enthusiastically with cries to arrest Lee and Othman Wok, and crush and kill them. Events escalated over the following week, culminating in an article in the Utusan Melayu on 20 July 1964 titled 'Challenge to all Malays to all Malays – UMNO Youths; Lee Kuan Yew Condemned; Teacher forced student to smell pork – Protest'. The day after on 21 July 1964, Racial riots broke out during the celebratory procession of Muhammad's birthday near Kallang Gasworks, resulting in 4 deaths and 178 injured at the end of that first day, and 23 deaths and 454 injuries by the time the riot was quelled. More riots had broken out in September 1964. The prices for food skyrocketed when the transportation system was disrupted during the unrest, causing further hardship.


title: Singapore in Malaysia

text: The external political situation was also tense at the time, with Indonesia actively against the establishment of the Federation of Malaysia. President Sukarno of Indonesia declared a state of "Konfrontasi" (Confrontation) against Malaysia, and initiated military and other actions against the new nation, including the bombing of MacDonald House in Singapore in March 1965 by Indonesian commandos which killed three people. Indonesia also conducted seditious activities to provoke the Malays against the Chinese.


title: Singapore in Malaysia

text: On 7 August 1965, Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman, seeing no alternative to avoid further bloodshed, advised the Parliament of Malaysia that it should vote to expel Singapore from Malaysia. Despite last-ditch attempts by PAP leaders, including Lee Kuan Yew, to keep Singapore as a state in the union, the Parliament on 9 August 1965 voted 126–0 in favour of the expulsion of Singapore, with Members of Parliament from Singapore not present. On that day, a tearful Lee announced that Singapore was a sovereign, independent nation and assumed the role of Prime Minister of the new nation. His speech included these words: "I mean for me it is a moment of anguish because all my life… you see the whole of my adult life… I have believed in merger and the unity of these two territories. You know it's a people connected by geography, economics, and ties of kinship…"


title: Singapore in Malaysia

text: While it has previously been taken as historical common knowledge that Singapore had been expelled from Malaysia unilaterally by the Kuala Lumpur Government, recently declassified documents from the Albatross File (taken from a 1980s interview where Goh referred to Merger with Malaysia as an "Albatross around [their] necks"), revealed that as early as July 1964, negotiations had begun between the PAP and the Alliance. In a handwritten letter, Lee Kuan Yew formally authorised Goh Keng Swee to negotiate with Alliance leadership in order to negotiate and plan the eventual exit of Singapore from the Federation, and over the next year, the two parties coordinated to arrange matters such that when the Tunku announced Singapore's expulsion and the PAP were "forced" to establish an independent government, it would be presented as a "fait accompli" that could not be jeopardised by popular uproar or opposition, which was still in favour of Merger. Having already reaped the political benefits of Operation Coldstore, the crippling of the Singaporean Left, the detention of key Barisan Sosialis leaders like Lim Chin Siong, Lee and Goh both believed that this move would afford Singapore with the "best of both worlds", both isolated from the communal turmoil which they believed would inevitably engulf Malaysia while retaining the economic benefits of access to the Malaysian markets.


title: Singapore in Malaysia

text: Under constitutional amendments passed in December that year, the new state became the Republic of Singapore, with the vice-regal representative or Yang di-Pertuan Negara, Yusof Ishak, becoming the first President, and the Legislative Assembly becoming the Parliament of Singapore. These changes were made retroactive to the date of Singapore's separation from Malaysia. The Malaya and British Borneo dollar remained legal tender until the introduction of the Singapore dollar in 1967. Before the currency split, there were discussions about a common currency between the Malaysian and Singaporean governments.


title: Reichsadler

text: The ("Imperial Eagle") is the heraldic eagle, derived from the Roman eagle standard, used by the Holy Roman Emperors and in modern coats of arms of Germany, including those of the Second German Empire (1871–1918), the Weimar Republic (1919–1933) and Nazi Germany (1933–1945).


title: Reichsadler

text: The same design has remained in use by the Federal Republic of Germany since 1945, albeit under the name ("Federal Eagle").


title: Reichsadler

text: The "Reichsadler", i. e. the German Imperial Eagle, originated from a proto-heraldic emblem that was believed to have been used by Charlemagne, the first Frankish ruler whom the Pope crowned as Holy Roman Emperor in AD 800, and derived ultimately from the "Aquila", i. e. eagle standard, of the ancient Roman army.


title: Reichsadler

text: An eagle statue was erected on the roof of the Carolingian palace, and an eagle was placed on the orb of Emperor Otto III. Emperor Frederick Barbarossa popularised use of the eagle as the Imperial emblem by using it in all his banners, coats of arms, coins, and insignia.


title: Reichsadler

text: The Ottonian and Salian Emperors had themselves depicted with the Roman "eagle sceptre", and Emperor Frederick II depicted the Imperial Eagle on his coins. Before the mid-13th century, however, the Imperial Eagle was an Imperial symbol in its own right, and not used yet as a heraldic charge in a coat of arms.


title: Reichsadler

text: An early depiction of a double-headed Imperial Eagle in a heraldic shield, attributed to Frederick II of Hohenstaufen, is found in the "Chronica Majora" by Matthew Paris (circa 1250). "Segar's Roll" (circa 1280) likewise depicts the double-headed Imperial Eagle as the coat of arms of the King of Germany.


title: Reichsadler

text: The Imperial Eagle also is depicted in the seals of free Imperial cities, including that of Kaiserswerth in the 13th century, Lübeck in the 14th century, Besançon, Cheb, and others.


title: Reichsadler

text: Use of the Imperial Eagle in the Imperial coat of arms of a reigning emperor dates to after the interregnum. Sigismund of Luxembourg used a black double-headed Imperial Eagle after he was crowned as Holy Roman Emperor in 1433; thereafter the single-headed Imperial Eagle represented the title of "King of the Romans" and the double-headed one the title of "Emperor". During the following century, Albert II of Germany was the final "King-Elect of Germany" who did not progress to coronation as Emperor. After the German Reformation, beginning with Ferdinand I (1558), the Holy Roman Emperors ceased to be crowned by the Pope.


title: Reichsadler

text: The Teutonic Order under Hermann von Salza had the privilege of displaying the Imperial Eagle in its coat of arms, which privilege Emperor Frederick II granted it. The black Imperial Eagle was later adopted when the Teutonic State was transformed into the Duchy of Prussia in 1525, and a modified version was used in the arms of Royal Prussia (1466–1772).


title: Reichsadler

text: In 1804, Holy Roman Emperor Francis II established the Austrian Empire from the lands of the Habsburg monarchy, and adopted the double-headed eagle, aggrandized by an inescutcheon emblem of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine and the Order of the Golden Fleece, as its coat of arms; the Holy Roman Empire was subsequently dissolved in 1806. Since 1919 the coat of arms of Austria has depicted a single-headed eagle. Although not a national symbol in the modern sense, the ' evoked sentiments of loyalty to the empire.


title: Reichsadler

text: Following the revolutions of 1848 in the German states, the ' was restored as a symbol of national unity: it became the coat of arms of the short-lived German Empire and subsequently the German Confederation from its restoration in 1850 until its dissolution in 1866. It was once again restored in 1871 when a single-headed eagle with a Prussian inescutcheon became the insignia of the German Empire; the single head was used to represent the so-called ', i.e. it excluded Austria. After World War I the Weimar Republic under President Friedrich Ebert assumed a plain version of the ", which remained in use until 1935.


title: Reichsadler

text: During Nazi rule, a stylised eagle combined with the Nazi swastika was made the national emblem (') by order of Adolf Hitler in 1935. Despite its medieval origin, the term "'" in common English understanding is mostly associated with this specific Nazi-era version. The Nazi Party had used a very similar symbol for itself, called the ' ("Party's eagle"). These two insignia can be distinguished as the ' looks to its right shoulder whereas the " looks to its left shoulder.


title: Reichsadler

text: After World War II the Federal Republic of Germany re-implemented the eagle used by the Weimar Republic by enactment of President Theodor Heuss in 1950.


title: Mac Tonight

text: Mac Tonight is a fictional character used in the marketing for McDonald's restaurants during the late 1980s. Known for his crescent moon head, sunglasses and piano-playing, the character used the song "Mack the Knife" which was made famous in the United States by Bobby Darin. Throughout the campaign, Mac was performed by actor Doug Jones in his fourth Hollywood job and voiced by Roger Behr.


title: Mac Tonight

text: Originally conceived as a promotion to increase dinner sales by Southern California licensees, Mac Tonight's popularity led McDonald's to take it nationwide in 1987. Although McDonald's ceased airing the commercials and retired the character after settling a lawsuit brought by Darin's estate in 1989, the company reintroduced the character nineteen years later throughout Southeast Asia in 2007.


title: Mac Tonight

text: The campaign was created locally for California McDonald's franchisees by Los Angeles advertising firm Davis, Johnson, Mogul & Colombatto. Looking to increase the after-4 p.m. dinner business, the agency was inspired by the song "Mack the Knife" by Kurt Weill and Bertolt Brecht, which was made famous in the United States by Bobby Darin in 1959 and listened to different versions of it before opting to create an original version with new lyrics. After deciding not to feature real people or celebrities, the designers settled on an anthropomorphic crooner moon on a man's body with 1950s-style sunglasses; the song and style were designed to appeal to baby boomers and a revival of 1950s-style music in popular culture. The character, who played a grand piano atop either a floating cloud or a giant Big Mac (hence the name), was intended to garner a "cult-like" following, e.g. Max Headroom.


title: Mac Tonight

text: From 1986 to 1987, the campaign expanded to other cities on the American West Coast. McDonald's said that the campaign had "great success" while trade magazine "Nation's Restaurant News" announced that it had contributed to increases of over 10% in dinnertime business at some Californian restaurants. A crowd of 1,500 attended the visit of a costumed character to a Los Angeles McDonald's. Despite concerns that he was too typical of the West Coast, in February 1987 it was decided that the character would feature on national advertisements which went to air that September and he attracted a crowd of 1,000 in Boca Raton, Florida. During this period, Happy Meal toys modeled after the character were also released at participating McDonald's restaurants. A September 1987 survey by Ad Watch found that the number of consumers who recalled McDonald's advertising before any other doubled from the previous month, and was higher than any company since the New Coke launch in 1985.


title: Mac Tonight

text: Doug Jones performed Mac Tonight for over 27 commercials for three years. Years later in 2013, he recalled "[T]hat's when my career took a turn that I was not expecting. I didn't know that was a career option." Mac Tonight's voice was provided by Roger Behr. Director Peter Coutroulis, who won a Clio Award for a previous campaign for Borax, pitched several commercials which did not air, including an "E.T."-like one in which two astronomers watch Mac Tonight drive his Cadillac through the sky.


title: Mac Tonight

text: In 1989, Bobby Darin's son Dodd Mitchell Darin claimed that the song infringed upon his father's trademark without prior permission and filed a lawsuit as well as an injunction for the song to be removed from both TV and radio ads. As a response to the lawsuit, McDonald's stopped airing the commercials and retired Mac Tonight after nearly four years of usage (though the character would make a brief return in McDonald's ads between 1996 and 1997).


title: Mac Tonight

text: In 2007, McDonald's brought back the character in territories throughout Southeast Asia such as in Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines. The new Asian-exclusive campaign featured a CGI-animated Mac Tonight dancing atop a McDonald's restaurant while singing and playing a saxophone rather than a grand piano as he played in the original advertising campaign in the United States.


title: Mac Tonight

text: In addition to the advertising campaign, a number of McDonald's restaurants during the early 1990s were also fitted with Mac Tonight animatronic figures which featured the character seated in front of a piano and playing it. The most and only prominent McDonald's restaurant to still feature one of the animatronics is the World's Largest Entertainment McDonald's in Orlando, Florida. Other known locations include a Greenfield, Wisconsin McDonald's known as the Solid Gold McDonald's, prior to undergoing major renovations in 2011.


title: Mac Tonight

text: Between 1997 and 1998, McDonald's sponsored NASCAR Hall of Famer Bill Elliott with Mac Tonight featured on his car. In 2016, the Mac Tonight theme was McDonald's driver Jamie McMurray's Chip Ganassi Racing No. 1 Chevrolet SS throwback scheme for Darlington Raceway's Southern 500.


title: Mac Tonight

text: Mac Tonight has appeared on the cover of Saint Pepsi's album "Late Night Delight" (with Luxury Elite), and "The Simpsons" episodes "Kiss Kiss, Bang Bangalore" as a cardboard cutout and in "Burger Kings" via Homer's imagination.


title: Mac Tonight

text: Moon Man is an unofficial parody of Mac Tonight in which the character is depicted as advocating for racism, ethnic nationalism, racial nationalism, white supremacy, white nationalism, antisemitism, neo-Nazism, neo-fascism, hate crimes, right-wing terrorism, race war, ethnic cleansing, and genocide. The character originated in 2007 when Internet user "farkle" created a site on the Internet community YTMND, which shown a video loop of Mac Tonight with the reggaeton song "Chacarron Macarron" by El Chombo in the background. Using a text-to-speech program by AT&T, more Moon Man pages were created some of which included the program uttering "KKK" (a nod to the Ku Klux Klan) repeatedly in the background audio. Other users made Moon Man sing and rap. The first such video had him performing "Money in the Bank" by Lil Scrappy with few lyrical changes apart from Moon Man's name being inserted into the song and a chorus chanting for the Ku Klux Klan ("KKK, KKK, KKK"). Further videos were made portraying Moon Man as a racist.


title: Mac Tonight

text: In 2008, the YTMND Moon Man group was created to make and spread Moon Man content on YTMND. On October 2, 2008, a racist parody of "Hypnotize" by the Notorious B.I.G., commonly known as "Notorious KKK", was created by YTMND user MluMluxMlan. It gained over 119,000 views over the next seven years. In 2015, the character spread to websites such as 4chan and 8chan, as part of the alt-right movement. New songs were made supporting police brutality and celebrating the Orlando nightclub shooting. On June 1, 2015, an album of Moon Man songs was released under the title "WhiteTopia" with the YouTube version accumulating 130,000 views.


title: Mac Tonight

text: "Salon" compared Moon Man to Pepe the Frog, another meme labeled as a hate symbol. Moon Man also appeared in the background of a billboard in support of the Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign for which far-right activist Charles C. Johnson raised funds to place in the swing state of Pennsylvania, depicting Pepe the Frog as Donald Trump guarding the wall on the Mexico–United States border.


title: Mac Tonight

text: YouTube consistently removes Moon Man videos for violating its community guidelines on hate speech, and AT&T has edited its text-to-speech software to filter out the character's name and obscenities. On September 26, 2019, the Anti-Defamation League added Moon Man to their database of hate symbols.


title: Mac Tonight

text: In 2019, the perpetrator of the Halle synagogue shooting used the meme before his attack, posting a selfie on the date of August 8 showing him in uniform and with a button depicting Moon Man.


title: Roberrt

text: Roberrt is a 2021 Indian Kannada-language action thriller film written and directed by Tharun Sudhir and produced by Umapathy Srinivasa Gowda under the banner of Umapathy Films. The film stars Darshan, Vinod Prabhakar, Jagapathi Babu, Ravi Kishan, debutante Asha Bhat, Devaraj and P. Ravi Shankar.


title: Roberrt

text: V. Harikrishna and Arjun Janya composed the soundtrack. Cinematography and editing are performed by Sudhakar S. Raj and K. M. Prakash respectively. The film was theatrically released on 11 March 2021 and received mixed to positive reviews from critics and went on to become the sixth highest-grossing Kannada film.


title: Roberrt

text: Raghava lives in Lucknow with his son Arjun and is the head cook in a Brahmin caterer where he helps his caterer's daughter Amrutha in a catering job, who soon falls for him for his honesty. Meanwhile, Balaram Tripathi, an ex-minister vows vengeance on Raghava: Balaram had planned an assassination attempt on ministerial candidate Omkar Shukla after he was humiliated in a wrestling betting, but was saved by Raghava. Tripathi had arranged his son Kishan's marriage with the Central minister's daughter for political gain but was ruined by Raghava and Arjun.


title: Roberrt

text: Tripathi kidnaps Raghava and tells his henchman to finish him off and Arjun (who was asleep in his home), who is held at gunpoint, but Raghava violently finishes all of them and Tripathi. Kishan seeks the help of crime boss, Sarkar, to kill Raghava and dispatches men to finish him. Raghava kills them without anyone's knowledge, where Sarkar is astonished to see Raghava and reveals that Raghava is Roberrt and Arjun is not his son. When confronted by Amrutha to reveal his past.


title: Roberrt

text: Past: Roberrt and Raghava are friends/brothers, who works for Sarkar's elder brother Nanabhai in Mangalore. Sarkar and Nanabhai were separated from each other due to jealousy. Later, Roberrt helps Raghava and Thanu express their love for each other to their parents, who declines, but later accepts their relationship. They get married and also bear a son named Arjun. Meanwhile, Roberrt and Raghava discovers Nana's son Cherry indulging in human trafficking and they kill him despite Nana's requests. While celebrating Arjun's birthday, Nana's gang are attacked by unknown forces and Thanu gets killed in the crossfire.


title: Roberrt

text: Depressed about Thanu's death and worried about Arjun's future, Raghava becomes approver to the cops by divulging Nana's crimes to police commissioner Sathyadev. Raghava finds that Nana has planned to kill him in an encounter and arrives at Roberrt's den where he believes Roberrt to be involved in Nana's plan, the two indulge in a fight. However, Nana arrives along with Sarkar and shoots Raghava and knocks Roberrt. Nana and Sarkar reveals that it was all their plan and also divulges that Nana is the main mastermind behind the human traffickling and Cherry was following his orders.


title: Roberrt

text: Nana kills Thanu's parents and throws a dead Raghava, Roberrt and an infant Arjun into a ship container where they drown it in the sea. Roberrt and Arjun survive and escapes from the drowned container. Before dying, Roberrt promises Raghava that he will raise Arjun in a non-violent manner.


title: Roberrt

text: Present: Roberrt/Raghava requests Amrutha to keep his past as a secret from Arjun. Meanwhile, Nana and Sarkar arrive in Lucknow where he traps Amrutha's father Vishwanath Bhat in a food poisoning case and also frames Roberrt/Raghava in Tripathi's murder case. He calls Roberrt/Raghava and divulges that they kidnapped Arjun and tells him to finish the matter once and for all. Roberrt/Raghava arrives and finishes Nana, Kishan, and Sarkar without Arjun's knowledge where they have killed in Ram Navami event.


title: Roberrt

text: Production of the film began with the working title D53. Producers of "Hebbuli" and "Ondalla Eradalla", Umapathy Films, announced that they would collaborate with Darshan under the direction of Tharun Kishore Sudhir, in whose debut movie "Chowka" (2017), Darshan had made a special appearance as "Robert". Principal photography began in June 2019. The first theme poster was released by the production house on 6 November 2018, while the title of the movie was announced as "Roberrt" on 25 December 2018 on Christmas. The second theme poster of the movie was released on 5 June 2019 on the eve of Ramzan festival.


title: Roberrt

text: Coinciding with the announcement of the title, a theme poster was also released on 25 December 2018. The poster saw Darshan as the incarnation of Hanuman with Rama on his shoulder. Mehreen Pirzada was initially selected as the heroine of the movie but opted out due to dates issue. The shooting of the movie had been undergoing confidentially with mobile phones reportedly banned at the shoot locations. Director Tharun Sudhir had revealed that Darshan would be portraying in the movie.


title: Roberrt

text: The film's songs are composed by Arjun Janya. This marks the fourth collaboration of Janya and Darshan after "Chakravarthy", "Tarak" and "Odeya". The rerecording of the movie is by V. Harikrishna.


title: Roberrt

text: "Roberrt" was released on 11 March 2021 along with Telugu dubbed version by the same name, on an eve of Maha Shivaratri in 1200 theatres worldwide. It was originally scheduled for a release in April 2020, The film was delayed for several months due to the COVID-19 pandemic in India. The film was released on about 1600 screens, including 650 in Karnataka and about 350 in Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, 300 in rest of India and 300 in overseas. It was also dubbed in Hindi under the same title by RKD Studios.


title: Roberrt

text: The digital rights of the film was bagged by Amazon Prime Video. It was released for streaming on Amazon Prime Video on April 25, in five languages - Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, Malayalam and Hindi. The satellite rights of the Kannada and Hindi versions of the film, were taken by Udaya TV and Colors Cineplex. For the first time ever, the Kannada version was telecasted on November 4, at 6:30 P.M.


title: Roberrt

text: Sunayana Suresh, in her review for The Times of India, rated 4/5 and stated, "Darshan and Tharun Kishore Sudhir teaming up for the first time together for a full fledged film. The film, which releases almost a year after its original release date, manages to live up to that and ends up being more than just a mass action entertainer and has enough to cater to the family audience too."


title: Roberrt

text: Y Maheswara Reddy of Bangalore Mirror rated 4/5 and stated, "Roberrt bilingual (Kannada and Telugu) movie has all the ingredients required to entertain mass audiences, especially the hard-core fans of Challenging Star Darshan. Though this movie was scheduled to be released in April 2020, it got postponed due to the pandemic. However, it has succeeded in meeting the expectation of movie buffs." A Sharadhaa of The New Indian Express rated 4/5 and stated, "Darshan-starrer 'Roberrt' is anything but a typical action fare from the Challenging Star. The actor, who is known for his mass appeal, also delivers an all-round performance that establishes his class credentials too."


title: Roberrt

text: "Roberrt" on the first day of its release collected 17.24 crore in Karnataka and 3.12 crore in Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. However, it was reported that there were speculations that the makers were spreading inflated numbers to create hype around the movie. The movie was reported to have collected Rs. 78.36 crore in 8 days. It completed 25 days at theatres until they were shut due to the second wave of COVID-19.


title: Sauropsida

text: Sauropsida ("lizard faces") is a clade of amniotes, broadly equivalent to the class Reptilia. Sauropsida is the sister taxon to Synapsida, the other clade of amniotes which includes mammals as its only modern representatives. Although early synapsids have historically been referred to as "mammal-like reptiles", all synapsids are more closely related to mammals than to any modern reptile. Sauropsids, on the other hand, include all amniotes more closely related to modern reptiles than to mammals. This includes Aves (birds), which are now recognized as a subgroup of archosaurian reptiles despite originally being named as a separate class in Linnaean taxonomy.


title: Sauropsida

text: The base of Sauropsida forks into two main groups of "reptiles": Eureptilia ("true reptiles") and Parareptilia ("next to reptiles"). Eureptilia encompasses all living reptiles (including birds), as well as various extinct groups. Parareptilia is typically considered to be an entirely extinct group, though a few hypotheses for the origin of turtles have suggested that they belong to the parareptiles. The clades Recumbirostra and Varanopidae, traditionally thought to be lepospondyls and synapsids respectively, may also be basal sauropsids. The term "Sauropsida" originated in 1864 with Thomas Henry Huxley, who grouped birds with reptiles based on fossil evidence.


title: Sauropsida

text: The term "Sauropsida" ("lizard faces") has a long history, and hails back to Thomas Henry Huxley, and his opinion that birds had risen from the dinosaurs. He based this chiefly on the fossils of "Hesperornis" and "Archaeopteryx", that were starting to become known at the time. In the Hunterian lectures delivered at the Royal College of Surgeons in 1863, Huxley grouped the vertebrate classes informally into mammals, sauroids, and ichthyoids (the latter containing the anamniotes), based on the gaps in physiological traits and lack of transitional fossils that seemed to exist between the three groups. Early in the following year he proposed the names Sauropsida and Ichthyopsida for the two latter. Huxley did however include groups on the mammalian line (synapsids) like "Dicynodon" among the sauropsids. Thus, under the original definition, Sauropsida contained not only the groups usually associated with it today, but also several groups that today are known to be in the mammalian side of the tree.


title: Sauropsida

text: By the early 20th century, the fossils of Permian synapsids from South Africa had become well known, allowing palaeontologists to trace synapsid evolution in much greater detail. The term Sauropsida was taken up by E.S. Goodrich in 1916 much like Huxley's, to include lizards, birds and their relatives. He distinguished them from mammals and their extinct relatives, which he included in the sister group Theropsida (now usually replaced with the name Synapsida). Goodrich's classification thus differs somewhat from Huxley's, in which the non-mammalian synapsids (or at least the dicynodontians) fell under the sauropsids. Goodrich supported this division by the nature of the hearts and blood vessels in each group, and other features such as the structure of the forebrain. According to Goodrich, both lineages evolved from an earlier stem group, the Protosauria ("first lizards"), which included some Paleozoic amphibians as well as early reptiles predating the sauropsid/synapsid split (and thus not true sauropsids).


title: Sauropsida

text: In 1956, D.M.S. Watson observed that sauropsids and synapsids diverged very early in the reptilian evolutionary history, and so he divided Goodrich's Protosauria between the two groups. He also reinterpreted the Sauropsida and Theropsida to exclude birds and mammals respectively, making them paraphyletic, unlike Goodrich's definition. Thus his Sauropsida included Procolophonia, Eosuchia, Millerosauria, Chelonia (turtles), Squamata (lizards and snakes), Rhynchocephalia, Crocodilia, "thecodonts" (paraphyletic basal Archosauria), non-avian dinosaurs, pterosaurs, ichthyosaurs, and sauropyterygians.


title: Sauropsida

text: This classification supplemented, but was never as popular as, the classification of the reptiles (according to Romer's classic "Vertebrate Paleontology") into four subclasses according to the positioning of "temporal fenestrae", openings in the sides of the skull behind the eyes. Since the advent of phylogenetic nomenclature, the term Reptilia has fallen out of favor with many taxonomists, who have used Sauropsida in its place to include a monophyletic group containing the traditional reptiles and the birds.


title: Sauropsida

text: The class Reptilia has been known to be an evolutionary grade rather than a clade for as long as evolution has been recognised. Reclassifying reptiles has been among the key aims of phylogenetic nomenclature. The term Sauropsida had from the mid 20th century been used to denote all species not on the synapsid side after the synapsid/sauropsid split, a branch-based clade. This group encompasses all now-living reptiles as well as birds, and as such is comparable to Goodrich's classification, the difference being that better resolution of the early amniote tree has split up most of Goodrich's "Protosauria", though definitions of Sauropsida essentially identical to Huxley's (i.e. including the mammal-like reptiles) are also forwarded. Some later cladistic work has used Sauropsida more restrictively, to signify the crown group, i.e. all descendants of the last common ancestor of extant reptiles and birds. A number of phylogenetic stem, node and crown definitions have been published, anchored in a variety of fossil and extant organisms, thus there is currently no consensus of the actual definition (and thus content) of Sauropsida as a phylogenetic unit.


title: Sauropsida

text: Some taxonomists, such as Benton (2004), have co-opted the term to fit into traditional rank-based classifications, making Sauropsida and Synapsida class-level taxa to replace the traditional Class Reptilia, while Modesto and Anderson (2004), using the PhyloCode standard, have suggested replacing the name Sauropsida with their redefinition of Reptilia, arguing that the latter is by far better known and should have priority.


title: Sauropsida

text: Sauropsids evolved from basal amniotes stock approximately 320 million years ago in the Paleozoic Era. In the Mesozoic Era (from about 250 million years ago to about 66 million years ago), sauropsids were the largest animals on land, in the water, and in the air. The Mesozoic is sometimes called the Age of Reptiles. Sixty-six million years ago, the large-bodied sauropsids died out in the global extinction event at the end of the Mesozoic era. With the exception of a few species of birds, the entire dinosaur lineage became extinct; in the following era, the Cenozoic, the remaining birds diversified so extensively that, today, nearly one out of every three species of land vertebrate is a bird species.


title: Sauropsida

text: The cladogram presented here illustrates the "family tree" of sauropsids, and follows a simplified version of the relationships found by M.S. Lee, in 2013. All genetic studies have supported the hypothesis that turtles (formerly categorized together with ancient "anapsids") are diapsid reptiles, despite lacking any skull openings behind their eye sockets; some studies have even placed turtles among the archosaurs, though a few have recovered turtles as lepidosauromorphs instead. The cladogram below used a combination of genetic (molecular) and fossil (morphological) data to obtain its results.


title: Sauropsida

text: Laurin & Piñeiro (2017) and Modesto (2019) proposed an alternate phylogeny of basal sauropsids. In this tree, parareptiles include turtles and are closely related to non-araeoscelidian diapsids. The family Varanopidae, otherwise included in Synapsida, is considered by Modesto a sauropsid group.


title: Sauropsida

text: In recent studies, the "microsaur" clade Recumbirostra, historically considered lepospondyl reptiliomorphs, have been recovered as early sauropsids.


title: Ride of the Valkyries

text: The "Ride of the Valkyries" () refers to the beginning of act 3 of "Die Walküre", the second of the four operas constituting Richard Wagner's "Der Ring des Nibelungen".


title: Ride of the Valkyries

text: As a separate piece, the "Ride" is often heard in a purely instrumental version, which may be as short as three minutes. Together with the "Bridal Chorus" from "Lohengrin", the "Ride of the Valkyries" is one of Wagner's best-known pieces.


title: Ride of the Valkyries

text: The main theme of the "Ride", the leitmotif labelled , was first written down by the composer on 23 July 1851. The preliminary draft for the "Ride" was composed in 1854 as part of the composition of the entire opera, which was fully orchestrated by the end of March 1856.


title: Ride of the Valkyries

text: In the "Walküre" opera, the "Ride", which takes around eight minutes, begins in the prelude to the third act, building up successive layers of accompaniment until the curtain rises to reveal a mountain peak where four of the eight Valkyrie sisters of Brünnhilde have gathered in preparation for the transportation of fallen heroes to Valhalla. As they are joined by the other four, the familiar tune is carried by the orchestra, while, above it, the Valkyries greet each other and sing their battle-cry. Apart from the song of the Rhinemaidens in "Das Rheingold", it is the only ensemble piece in the first three operas of Wagner's "Ring" cycle.


title: Ride of the Valkyries

text: The complete opera "Die Walküre" was first performed on 26 June 1870 in the National Theatre Munich against the composer's intent. By January of the next year, Wagner was receiving requests for the "Ride" to be performed separately, but wrote that such a performance should be considered "an utter indiscretion" and forbade "any such thing". However, the piece was still printed and sold in Leipzig, and Wagner wrote a complaint to the publisher Schott. In the period up to the first performance of the complete "Ring" cycle, Wagner continued to receive requests for separate performances, his second wife Cosima noting "Unsavoury letters arrive for R. – requests for the Ride of the Valkyries and I don't know what else." Once the "Ring" had been performed in Bayreuth in 1876, Wagner lifted the embargo. He himself conducted it in London on 12 May 1877, repeating it as an encore.


title: Ride of the Valkyries

text: Uses in film include the original score for "The Birth of a Nation" (1915), and "What's Opera, Doc?" (1957).


title: Ride of the Valkyries

text: The "Ride" features in "Apocalypse Now" (1979), where the 1/9 Air Cavalry squadron plays it on helicopter-mounted loudspeakers during their assault on a Viet Cong-controlled village as psychological warfare and to motivate their own troops.


title: Debi Derryberry

text: Debi Derryberry is an American voice actress who has provided voices for a number of animations and video games.


title: Debi Derryberry

text: Derryberry was born in Indio, California to a family of Hungarian Jewish descent. Her grandparents were Holocaust survivors. She attended Indio High School and the University of California, Los Angeles, where she majored in kinesiology.


title: Debi Derryberry

text: Her voice roles include the title character from the first CGI film "" and its CGI TV series "The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron, Boy Genius", Nergal Jr. from "The Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy", Jay Jay, Herky, Savannah, and Revvin' Evan from "Jay Jay the Jet Plane" (Following the death of Mary Kay Bergman), Tad on various LeapFrog animated videos and DVD's from 2003 to 2005, Coco Bandicoot in the "Crash Bandicoot" series, Wednesday in "The Addams Family" cartoon, Jackie in "Bobby's World", Draculaura in "Monster High," and Maureen Murphy in "F is for Family".


title: Debi Derryberry

text: She is the voice of Clay in the Playhouse Disney segments presented in the early 2000s. In English language dubs of anime, she provided the voice of Ryo-Ohki in the "Tenchi Muyo" series. She received a Best Actress in a Comedy award at the American Anime Awards for her work as Zatch in "Zatch Bell!" and for Chica's Magic Rainbow in "FNAF World Update 2".


title: Debi Derryberry

text: Aside from her work as a voice actress, she worked on the 1993 film "Free Willy" as the stunt double for Jesse in some shots that showed Keiko who played Willy. Derryberry has provided the voices of a series of characters, mostly those of young boys and tomboyish girls. In addition, Derryberry has also provided voice-over for "", as the voice of Wednesday Addams in the 1990s animated version of "The Addams Family", Weenie and Catrina on "Oswald", Taz's little brother Jake on "Taz-Mania", Coco Bandicoot in the "Crash Bandicoot" video game series, and Clay in some Playhouse Disney segments.


title: Debi Derryberry

text: She has also done voice work for comedic English language adaptations of anime titles such as "Zatch Bell!" in which she plays the titular character, his evil twin Zeno, Ryo-Ohki, Yugi, and various other characters from several versions of the anime series "Tenchi Muyo!". She also played as the voice of Playhouse Disney's mascot, Clay. Derryberry was the founder and lead singer for the indie country band Honey Pig, writing and producing most of the songs on their two CDs. Currently, she is focusing on a children's music career with her CDs "What a Way to Play" and "Very Derryberry", having won a number of industry awards.


title: Debi Derryberry

text: She is an advocate for animals and has hosted at her North Hollywood home a fundraiser for the benefit of orangutans as an endangered species, under the Orang Utan Republik charitable foundation.


title: National Eligibility Test

text: UGC NET or NTA-UGC-NET, is the examination for determining the eligibility for the post of assistant professor and/or Junior Research Fellowship award in Indian universities and colleges. The examination is conducted by National Testing Agency on behalf of University Grants Commission. Until July 2018, the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) conducted the UGC NET exam, which the NTA has been conducting since December 2018. Currently, the exam is being conducted twice a year in the months of June and December in online mode.


title: National Eligibility Test

text: University Grants Commission (UGC) announced in 2013 that the candidates who clear the NET successfully would be eligible for lucrative also for private college lectureship jobs in public sector undertakings (PSUs). PSUs can use UGC-NET scores for the recruitment process of the posts of executives in their organization in disciplines like science (R&D), management, corporate communications, human resources, and finance. This step taken by the UGC would also increase the number of students taking the UGC-NET examination which has witnessed a gradual decline in recent years.


title: National Eligibility Test

text: Candidates clearing JRF exams are also eligible for the National Eligibility Test. UGC follows the Government of India's reservation policy in UGC-NET, as per which a minimum of 27%, 10%, 15%, 7.5% for OBC, EWS, SC, ST respectively and 5% for PWD (Earlier the reservation for Higher Education is 3% , now it is 5 percentage for PWD as per RPWD Act 2016 irrespective of the caste which they belong, Reservation for PWD is for benchmark disability)


title: National Eligibility Test

text: The reservation is applicable for UGC-NET Examination being University Grants Commission comes under Central Education Institution Act under Sec. 2(d)(ii) and National Testing Agency (NTS) comes under Central Education Institution Act under Sec. 2(d)(v).


title: National Eligibility Test

text: Now as per Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 National Testing Agency (NTA) & University Grants Commission (UGC) is obliged to provide 5% reservation to PWD as per Sec. 32(1) of RPWD Act, 2016 to those who are having above 40% disability being NTA is an Educational Agency registered under Societies Registration Act, 1860 and as per Central Educational Institution (Reservation in Admission) Act, 2006 Sec. 2.(d)(v) an educational institution set up by the Central Government under the Societies Registration Act, 1860.


title: National Eligibility Test

text: Thereby as per Sec. 32(1) of the RPWD Act, 2016 Differentially abled persons (those who are above 40% disability) are eligible for 5% reservation in higher education. As per Central Education Institution (Reservation in Admission) Act, 2006 UGC & NTA is providing the reservation to SC/ST, OBC, General-Economically Weaker Section etc.


title: National Eligibility Test

text: 32. (1) All Government institutions of higher education and other higher education institutions receiving aid from the Government shall reserve not less than five per cent. seats for persons with benchmark disabilities.


title: National Eligibility Test

text: JRF: Candidate should not be more than 31 years as on 1 June 2022. There are a few relaxations as well.


title: National Eligibility Test

text: Assistant Professor: There is no upper age limit for candidates to apply for UGC NET (Assistant Professor).


title: Sewage

text: Sewage (or domestic sewage, domestic wastewater, municipal wastewater) is a type of wastewater that is produced by a community of people. It is typically transported through a sewer system. Sewage consists of wastewater discharged from residences and from commercial, institutional and public facilities that exist in the locality. Sub-types of sewage are greywater (from sinks, bathtubs, showers, dishwashers, and clothes washers) and blackwater (the water used to flush toilets, combined with the human waste that it flushes away). Sewage also contains soaps and detergents. Food waste may be present from dishwashing, and food quantities may be increased where garbage disposal units are used. In regions where toilet paper is used rather than bidets, that paper is also added to the sewage. Sewage contains macro-pollutants and micro-pollutants, and may also incorporate some municipal solid waste and pollutants from industrial wastewater.


title: Sewage

text: Sewage usually travels from a building's plumbing either into a sewer, which will carry it elsewhere, or into an onsite sewage facility. Collection of sewage of several households together usually takes places in either sanitary sewers or combined sewers. The former is designed to exclude stormwater flows whereas the latter is designed to also take stormwater. The production of sewage generally corresponds to the water consumption. A range of factors influence water consumption and hence the sewage flowrates per person. These include: Water availability (the opposite of water scarcity), water supply options, climate (warmer climates may lead to greater water consumption), community size, economic level of the community, level of industrialization, metering of household consumption, water cost and water pressure.


title: Sewage

text: The main parameters in sewage that are measured to assess the sewage strength or quality as well as treatment options include: solids, indicators of organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus, and indicators of fecal contamination. These can be considered to be the main macro-pollutants in sewage. Sewage contains pathogens which stem from fecal matter. The following four types of pathogens are found in sewage: pathogenic bacteria, viruses, protozoa (in the form of cysts or oocysts) and helminths (in the form of eggs). In order to quantify the organic matter, indirect methods are commonly used: mainly the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and the Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD).


title: Sewage

text: Management of sewage includes collection and transport for release into the environment, after a treatment level that is compatible with the local requirements for discharge into water bodies, onto soil or for reuse applications. Disposal options include dilution (self-purification of water bodies, making use of their assimilative capacity if possible), marine outfalls, land disposal and sewage farms. All disposal options may run risks of causing water pollution.


title: Sewage

text: Sewage (or domestic wastewater) consists of wastewater discharged from residences and from commercial, institutional and public facilities that exist in the locality. Sewage is a mixture of water (from the community's water supply), human excreta (feces and urine), used water from bathrooms, food preparation wastes, laundry wastewater, and other waste products of normal living.


title: Sewage

text: Sewage from municipalities contains wastewater from commercial activities and institutions, e.g. wastewater discharged from restaurants, laundries, hospitals, schools, prisons, offices, stores and establishments serving the local area of larger communities.


title: Sewage

text: Sewage can be distinguished into "untreated sewage" (also called "raw sewage") and "treated sewage" (also called "effluent" from a sewage treatment plant).


title: Sewage

text: The term "sewage" is nowadays often used interchangeably with "wastewater" – implying "municipal wastewater" – in many textbooks, policy documents and the literature. To be precise, wastewater is a broader term, because it refers to any water after it has been used in a variety of applications. Thus it may also refer to “industrial wastewater”, agricultural wastewater and other flows that are not related to household activities.


title: Sewage

text: The overall appearance of sewage is as follows: The temperature tends to be slightly higher than in drinking water but is more stable than the ambient temperature. The color of fresh sewage is slightly grey, whereas older sewage (also called "septic sewage") is dark grey or black. The odor of fresh sewage is "oily" and relatively unpleasant, whereas older sewage has an unpleasant foul odor due to hydrogen sulfide gas and other decomposition by-products. Sewage can have high turbidity from suspended solids.


title: Sewage

text: Sewage consists primarily of water and usually contains less than one part of solid matter per thousand parts of water. In other words, one can say that sewage is composed of around 99.9% pure water, and the remaining 0.1% are solids, which can be in the form of either dissolved solids or suspended solids. The thousand-to-one ratio is an order of magnitude estimate rather than an exact percentage because, aside from variation caused by dilution, solids may be defined differently depending upon the mechanism used to separate those solids from the liquid fraction. Sludges of settleable solids removed by settling or suspended solids removed by filtration may contain significant amounts of entrained water, while dried solid material remaining after evaporation eliminates most of that water but includes dissolved minerals not captured by filtration or gravitational separation. The suspended and dissolved solids include organic and inorganic matter plus microorganisms.


title: Sewage

text: About one-third of this solid matter is suspended by turbulence, while the remainder is dissolved or colloidal. For the situation in the United States in the 1950s it was estimated that the waste contained in domestic sewage is about half organic and half inorganic.


title: Sewage

text: The organic matter in sewage can be classified in terms of form and size: Suspended (particulate) or dissolved (soluble). Secondly, it can be classified in terms of biodegradability: either inert or biodegradable. The organic matter in sewage consists of protein compounds (about 40%), carbohydrates (about 25–50%), oils and grease (about 10%) and urea, surfactants, phenols, pesticides and others (lower quantity). In order to quantify the organic matter content, it is common to use "indirect methods" which are based on the consumption of oxygen to oxidize the organic matter: mainly the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and the Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD). These indirect methods are associated with the major impact of the discharge of organic matter into water bodies: the organic matter will be food for microorganisms, whose population will grow, and lead to the consumption of oxygen, which may then affect aquatic living organisms.


title: Sewage

text: The mass load of organic content is calculated as the sewage flowrate multiplied with the concentration of the organic matter in the sewage.


title: Sewage

text: Apart from organic matter, sewage also contains nutrients. The major nutrients of interest are nitrogen and phosphorus. If sewage is discharged untreated, its nitrogen and phosphorus content can lead to pollution of lakes and reservoirs via a process called eutrophication.


title: Sewage

text: In raw sewage, nitrogen exists in the two forms of organic nitrogen or ammonia. The ammonia stems from the urea in urine. Urea is rapidly hydrolyzed and therefore not usually found in raw sewage.


title: Sewage

text: Total phosphorus is mostly present in sewage in the form of phosphates.They are either inorganic (polyphosphates and orthophosphates) and their main source is from detergents and other household chemical products. The other form is organic phosphorus, where the source is organic compounds to which the organic phosphorus is bound.


title: Sewage

text: Human feces in sewage may contain pathogens capable of transmitting diseases. The following four types of pathogens are found in sewage:


title: Sewage

text: In most practical cases, pathogenic organisms are not directly investigated in laboratory analyses. An easier way to assess the presence of fecal contamination is by assessing the most probable numbers of fecal coliforms (called thermotolerant coliforms), especially "Escherichia coli". "Escherichia coli" are intestinal bacteria excreted by all warm blooded animals, including human beings, and thus tracking their presence in sewage is easy, because of their substantially high concentrations (around 10 to 100 million per 100 mL).


title: Sewage

text: The ability of a flush toilet to make things "disappear" is soon recognized by young children who may experiment with virtually anything they can carry to the toilet. Adults may be tempted to dispose of toilet paper, wet wipes, diapers, sanitary napkins, tampons, tampon applicators, condoms, and expired medications, even at the risk of causing blockages. The privacy of a toilet offers a clandestine means of removing embarrassing evidence by flushing such things as drug paraphernalia, pregnancy test kits, combined oral contraceptive pill dispensers, and the packaging for those devices. There may be reluctance to retrieve items like children's toys or toothbrushes which accidentally fall into toilets, and items of clothing may be found in sewage from prisons or other locations where occupants may be careless. Trash and garbage in streets may be carried to combined sewers by stormwater runoff.


title: Sewage

text: Sewage contains environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants. Trihalomethanes can also be present as a result of past disinfection. Sewage may contain microplastics such as polyethylene and polypropylene beads, or polyester and polyamide fragments from synthetic clothing and bedding fabrics abraded by wear and laundering, or from plastic packaging and plastic-coated paper products disintegrated by lift station pumps. Pharmaceuticals, endocrine disrupting compounds, and hormones may be excreted in urine or feces if not catabolized within the human body.


title: Sewage

text: Some residential users tend to pour unwanted liquids like used cooking oil, lubricants, adhesives, paint, solvents, detergents, and disinfectants into their sewer connections. This behavior can result in problems for the treatment plant operation and is thus discouraged.


title: Sewage

text: The composition of sewage varies with climate, social and economic situation and population habits. In regions where water use is low, the strength of the sewage (or pollutant concentrations) is much higher than that in the United States where water use per person is high. Household income and diet also plays a role: For example, for the case of Brazil, it has been found that the higher the household income, the higher is the BOD load per person and the lower is the BOD concentration.


title: Sewage

text: Typical values for physical–chemical characteristics of raw sewage in developing countries have been published as follows: 180 g/person/d for total solids (or 1100 mg/L when expressed as a concentration), 50 g/person/d for BOD (300 mg/L), 100 g/person/d for COD (600 mg/L), 8 g/person/d for total nitrogen (45 mg/L), 4.5 g/person/d for ammonia-N (25 mg/L) and 1.0 g/person/d for total phosphorus (7 mg/L). The typical ranges for these values are: 120–220 g/person/d for total solids (or 700–1350 mg/L when expressed as a concentration), 40–60 g/person/d for BOD (250–400 mg/L), 80–120 g/person/d for COD (450–800 mg/L), 6–10 g/person/d for total nitrogen (35–60 mg/L), 3.5–6 g/person/d for ammonia-N (20–35 mg/L) and 0.7–2.5 g/person/d for total phosphorus (4–15 mg/L).


title: Sewage

text: For high income countries, the "per person organic matter load" has been found to be approximately 60 gram of BOD per person per day. This is called the population equivalent (PE) and is also used as a comparison parameter to express the strength of industrial wastewater compared to sewage.


title: Sewage

text: Values for households in the United States have been published as follows, whereby the estimates are based on the assumption that 25% of the homes have kitchen waste-food grinders (sewage from such households contain more waste): 95 g/person/d for total suspended solids (503 mg/L concentration), 85 g/person/d for BOD (450 mg/L), 198 g/person/d for COD (1050 mg/L), 13.3 g/person/d for the sum of organic nitrogen and ammonia nitrogen (70.4 mg/L), 7.8 g/person/d for ammonia-N (41.2 mg/L) and 3.28 g/person/d for total phosphorus (17.3 mg/L). The concentration values given here are based on a flowrate of 190 L per person per day.


title: Sewage

text: A United States source published in 1972 estimated that the daily dry weight of solid wastes per capita in sewage is estimated as in feces, of dissolved solids in urine, of toilet paper, of greywater solids, of food solids (if garbage disposal units are used), and varying amounts of dissolved minerals depending upon salinity of local water supplies, volume of water use per capita, and extent of water softener use.


title: Sewage

text: Sewage contains urine and feces. The mass of feces varies with dietary fiber intake. An average person produces 128 grams of wet feces per day, or a median dry mass of 29 g/person/day. The median urine generation rate is about 1.42 L/person/day, as was determined by a global literature review.


title: Sewage

text: The volume of domestic sewage produced per person (or "per capita", abbreviated as "cap") varies with the water consumption in the respective locality. A range of factors influence water consumption and hence the sewage flowrates per person. These include: Water availability (the opposite of water scarcity), water supply options, climate (warmer climates may lead to greater water consumption), community size, economic level of the community, level of industrialization, metering of household consumption, water cost and water pressure.


title: Sewage

text: The production of sewage generally corresponds to the water consumption. However water used for landscape irrigation will not enter the sewer system, while groundwater and stormwater may enter the sewer system in addition to sewage. There are usually two peak flowrates of sewage arriving at a treatment plant per day: One peak is at the beginning of the morning and another peak is at the beginning of the evening.


title: Sewage

text: With regards to water consumption, a design figure that can be regarded as "world average" is 35–90 L per person per day (data from 1992). The same publication listed the water consumption in China as 80 L per person per day, Africa as 15–35 L per person per day, Eastern Mediterranean in Europe as 40–85 L per person per day and Latin America and Caribbean as 70–190 L per person per day. Even inside a country, there may be large variations from one region to another due to the various factors that determine the water consumption as listed above.


title: Sewage

text: A flowrate value of 200 liters of sewage per person per day is often used as an estimate in high income countries, and is used for example in the design of sewage treatment plants.


title: Sewage

text: For comparison, typical sewage flowrates from urban residential sources in the United States are estimated as follows: 365 L/person/day (for one person households), 288 L/person/day (two person households), 200 L/person/day (four person households), 189 L/person/day (six person households). This means the overall range for this example would be .


title: Sewage

text: Sewage can be monitored for both disease-causing and benign organisms with a variety of techniques. Traditional techniques involve filtering, staining, and examining samples under a microscope. Much more sensitive and specific testing can be accomplished with DNA sequencing, such as when looking for rare organisms, attempting eradication, testing specifically for drug-resistant strains, or discovering new species. Sequencing DNA from an environmental sample is known as metagenomics.


title: Sewage

text: Sewage has also been analyzed to determine relative rates of use of prescription and illegal drugs among municipal populations. General socioeconomic demographics may be inferred as well.


title: Sewage

text: Sewage is commonly collected and transported in gravity sewers, either in a sanitary sewer or in a combined sewer. The latter also conveys urban runoff (stormwater) which means the sewage gets diluted during rain events.


title: Sewage

text: Infiltration is groundwater entering sewer pipes through defective pipes, connections, joints or manholes. Contaminated or saline groundwater may introduce additional pollutants to the sewage. The amount of such infiltrated water depends on several parameters, such as the length of the collection network, pipeline diameters, drainage area, soil type, water table depth, topography and number of connections per unit area. Infiltration is increased by poor construction procedures, and tends to increase with the age of the sewer. The amount of infiltration varies with the depth of the sewer in comparison to the local groundwater table. Older sewer systems that are in need of rehabilitation may also exfiltrate sewage into groundwater from the leaking sewer joints and service connections. This can lead to groundwater pollution.


title: Sewage

text: Combined sewers are designed to transport sewage and stormwater together, and therefore sewage becomes diluted during rainfall events. Inflow similarly dilutes sewage with water discharged from cellar and foundation drains, cooling-water discharges, and any direct stormwater runoff connections to the sanitary collection system. The "direct inflows" can result in peak sewage flowrates similar to combined sewers during wet weather events.


title: Sewage

text: Sewage from communities with industrial facilities may include some industrial wastewater, generated by industrial processes such as the production or manufacture of goods. Volumes of industrial wastewater vary widely with the type of industry. Industrial wastewater may contain very different pollutants at much higher concentrations than what is typically found in sewage. Pollutants may be toxic or non-biodegradable waste including pharmaceuticals, biocides, heavy metals, radionuclides, or thermal pollution.


title: Sewage

text: An industry may treat its wastewater and discharge it into the environment (or even use the treated wastewater for specific applications), or, in case it is located in the urban area, it may discharge the wastewater into the public sewerage system. In the latter case, industrial wastewater may receive pre-treatment at the factories to reduce the pollutant load. Mixing industrial wastewater with sewage does nothing to reduce the mass of pollutants to be treated, but the volume of sewage lowers the concentration of pollutants unique to industrial wastewater, and the volume of industrial wastewater lowers the concentration of pollutants unique to sewage.


title: Sewage

text: When wastewater is discharged into a water body (river, lakes, sea) or land, its relative impact will depend on the assimilative capacity of the water body or ecosystem. Water bodies have a self-purification capacity, so that the concentration of a pollutant may decrease along the distance from the discharge point. Furthermore, water bodies provide a dilution to the pollutants concentrations discharged, although it does not decrease their mass. In principle, the higher the dilution capacity (ratio of volume or flow of the receiving water and volume or flow of sewage discharged), the lower will be the concentration of pollutants in the receiving water, and probably the lower will be the negative impacts. But if the water body already arrives very polluted at the point of discharge, the dilution will be of limited value.


title: Sewage

text: In several cases, a community may treat partially its sewage, and still count on the assimilative capacity of the water body. However, this needs to be analyzed very carefully, taking into account the quality of the water in the receiving body before it receives the discharge of sewage, the resulting water quality after the discharge and the impact on the intended water uses after discharge. There are also specific legal requirements in each country. Different countries have different regulations regarding the specifications of the quality of the sewage being discharged and the quality to be maintained in the receiving water body.The combination of treatment and disposal must comply with existing local regulations.


title: Sewage

text: The assimilative capacity depends – among several factors – on the ability of the receiving water to sustain dissolved oxygen concentrations necessary to support organisms catabolizing organic waste. For example, fish may die if dissolved oxygen levels are depressed below 5 mg/L.


title: Sewage

text: Application of sewage to land can be considered as a form of final disposal or of treatment, or both. Land disposal alternatives require consideration of land availability, groundwater quality, and possible soil deterioration.


title: Sewage

text: Sewage may be discharged to an evaporation or infiltration basin.. Groundwater recharge is used to reduce saltwater intrusion, or replenish aquifers used for agricultural irrigation. Treatment is usually required to sustain percolation capacity of infiltration basins, and more extensive treatment may be required for aquifers used as drinking water supplies.


title: Sewage

text: Sewage treatment is beneficial in reducing environmental pollution. Bar screens can remove large solid debris from sewage, and primary treatment can remove floating and settleable matter. Primary treated sewage usually contains less than half of the original solids content and approximately two-thirds of the BOD in the form of colloids and dissolved organic compounds. Secondary treatment can reduce the BOD of organic waste in undiluted sewage, but is less effective for dilute sewage. Water disinfection may be attempted to kill pathogens prior to disposal, and is increasingly effective after more elements of the foregoing treatment sequence have been completed.


title: Sewage

text: An alternative to discharge into the environment is to reuse the sewage in a productive way (for agricultural, urban or industrial uses), in compliance with local regulations and requirements for each specific reuse application. Public health risks of sewage reuse in agriculture can be minimized by following a "multiple barrier approach" according to guidelines by the World Health Organization.


title: Sewage

text: There is also the possibility of resource recovery which could make agriculture more sustainable by using carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, water and energy recovered from sewage.


title: Sewage

text: Management of sewage includes collection and transport for release into the environment, after a treatment level that is compatible with the local requirements for discharge into water bodies, onto soil or for reuse applications. In most countries, uncontrolled discharges of wastewater to the environment are not permitted under law, and strict water quality requirements are to be met. For requirements in the United States, "see Clean Water Act."


title: Sewage

text: Sewage management regulations are often part of broader sanitation policies of a country. These may also include the management of human excreta (from non-sewered collection systems), solid waste and stormwater.


title: Balalaika

text: The balalaika (, ) is a Russian stringed musical instrument with a characteristic triangular wooden, hollow body, fretted neck and three strings. Two strings are usually tuned to the same note and the third string is a perfect fourth higher. The higher-pitched balalaikas are used to play melodies and chords. The instrument generally has a short sustain, necessitating rapid strumming or plucking when it is used to play melodies. Balalaikas are often used for Russian folk music and dancing.


title: Balalaika

text: The balalaika "family of instruments" includes instruments of various sizes, from the highest-pitched to the lowest: the piccolo balalaika, prima balalaika, secunda balalaika, alto balalaika, bass balalaika, and contrabass balalaika. There are balalaika orchestras which consist solely of different balalaikas; these ensembles typically play Classical music that has been arranged for balalaikas. The prima balalaika is the most common; the piccolo is rare. There have also been "descant" and "tenor" balalaikas, but these are considered obsolete. All have three-sided bodies; spruce, evergreen, or fir tops; and backs made of three to nine wooden sections (usually maple).


title: Balalaika

text: The prima balalaika, secunda and alto are played either with the fingers or a plectrum (pick), depending on the music being played, and the bass and contrabass (equipped with extension legs that rest on the floor) are played with leather plectra. The rare piccolo instrument is usually played with a pick.


title: Balalaika

text: The earliest mention of the term "balalaika" dates back to a 1688 Russian document. Another appearance of the word is registered in a document from the Verkhotursky district of Russia, dated October 1700. It is also mentioned in a document dated 1714 and signed by Peter the Great regarding the wedding celebrations of N.M. Zotov in Saint Petersburg. In the Ukrainian language the word was first documented in the 18th century as "balabaika"; this form is also present in South Russian dialects and the Belarusian language, as well as in Siberian Russia. It made its way into literature and first appeared in "Elysei", a 1771 poem by V. Maykov. "Balalaika" also appears in Nikolai Gogol's "Dead Souls", written between 1837 and 1842.


title: Balalaika

text: The most common solo instrument is the prima, which is tuned E–E–A (thus the two lower strings are tuned to the same pitch). Sometimes the balalaika is tuned "guitar style" by folk musicians to G–B–D (mimicking the three highest strings of the Russian guitar), whereby it is easier to play for Russian guitar players, although classically trained balalaika purists avoid this tuning. It can also be tuned to E–A–D, like its cousin, the domra, to make it easier for those trained on the domra to play the instrument, and still have a balalaika sound. The folk (pre-Andreev) tunings D–F–A and C–E–G were very popular, as this makes it easier to play certain riffs.


title: Balalaika

text: Factory-made six-string prima balalaikas with three sets of double courses are also common. These have three double courses similar to the stringing of the mandolin and often use a "guitar" tuning.


title: Balalaika

text: Four-string alto balalaikas are also encountered and are used in the orchestra of the Piatnistky Folk Choir.


title: Balalaika

text: The piccolo, prima, and secunda balalaikas were originally strung with gut with the thinnest melody string made of stainless steel. Today, nylon strings are commonly used in place of gut.


title: Balalaika

text: Amateur and/or souvenir-style prima balalaikas usually have a total of 16 frets, while in professional orchestra-like ones that number raises to 24.


title: Balalaika

text: An important part of balalaika technique is the use of the left thumb to fret notes on the lower string, particularly on the prima, where it is used to form chords. Traditionally, the side of the index finger of the right hand is used to sound notes on the prima, while a plectrum is used on the larger sizes.


title: Balalaika

text: Because of the large size of the contrabass's strings, it is not uncommon to see players using plectra made from a leather shoe or boot heel. The bass balalaika and contrabass balalaika rest on the ground, on a wooden or metal pin that is drilled into one of its corners.


title: Balalaika

text: It is possible that the emergence and evolution of the balalaika was a product of interaction with Asian-Oriental cultures. In addition to European culture, early Russian states, also called Rus' or Rusi, were also influenced by Oriental-Asian cultures. Some theories say that the instrument is descended from the domra, an instrument from the East Slavs. In the Caucasus, similar instruments such as the Mongolian topshur, used in Kalmykia, and the Panduri used in Georgia are played. It is also similar to the Kazakh dombra, which has two strings. Variants of the dombra played by the Bashkirs often have 3 strings and may represent an instrument related to both the dombra and the balalaika.


title: Balalaika

text: Early representations of the balalaika show it with anywhere from two to six strings. Similarly, frets on earlier balalaikas were made of animal gut and tied to the neck so that they could be moved around by the player at will (as is the case with the modern saz, which allows for the playing distinctive to Turkish and Central Asian music).


title: Balalaika

text: The first known document mentioning the instrument dates back to 1688. A guard's logbook from the Moscow Kremlin records that two commoners were stopped from playing the Balalaika whilst drunk. Further documents from 1700 and 1714 also mention the instrument. In the early 18th century the term appeared in Ukrainian documents, where it sounded like "Balabaika". Balalaika appeared in "Elysei", a 1771 poem by V. Maikov. In the 19th century, the balalaika evolved into a triangular instrument with a neck that was substantially shorter than that of its Asian counterparts. It was popular as a village instrument for centuries, particularly with the "skomorokhs", sort of free-lance musical jesters whose tunes ridiculed the Tsar, the Russian Orthodox Church, and Russian society in general.


title: Balalaika

text: In the 1880s, Vasily Vasilievich Andreyev, who was then a professional violinist in the music salons of St Petersburg, developed what became the standardized balalaika, with the assistance of violin maker V. Ivanov. The instrument began to be used in his concert performances. A few years later, St. Petersburg craftsman Paserbsky further refined the instruments by adding a fully chromatic set of frets and also a number of balalaikas in orchestral sizes with the tunings now found in modern instruments. One of the reasons why the instruments were not standardised, was because people in the outlying areas built their own instruments because there was so little communication for them. There were no roads and weather conditions were generally bad. Andreyev patented the design and arranged numerous traditional Russian folk melodies for the orchestra. He also composed a body of concert pieces for the instrument.


title: Balalaika

text: The end result of Andreyev's labours was the establishment of an orchestral folk tradition in Tsarist Russia, which later grew into a movement within the Soviet Union. The balalaika orchestra in its full form consists of balalaikas, domras, gusli, bayan, Vladimir Shepherd's Horns, garmoshkas and several types of percussion instruments.


title: Balalaika

text: With the establishment of the Soviet system and the entrenchment of a proletarian cultural direction, the culture of the working classes (which included that of village labourers) was actively supported by the Soviet establishment. The concept of the balalaika orchestra was adopted wholeheartedly by the Soviet government as something distinctively proletarian (that is, from the working classes) and was also deemed progressive. Significant amounts of energy and time were devoted to support and foster the formal study of the balalaika, from which highly skilled ensemble groups such as the Osipov State Russian Folk Orchestra emerged. Balalaika virtuosi such as Boris Feoktistov and Pavel Necheporenko became stars both inside and outside the Soviet Union. The movement was so powerful that even the renowned Red Army Choir, which initially used a normal symphonic orchestra, changed its instrumentation, replacing violins, violas, and violoncellos with orchestral balalaikas and domras.


title: Balalaika

text: Often musicians perform solo on the balalaika. In particular, Alexey Arkhipovsky is well known for his solo performances. In particular, he was invited to play at the opening ceremony of the second semi final of the Eurovision Song Contest 2009 in Moscow because the organizers wanted to give a "more Russian appearance" to the contest.


title: Balalaika

text: See Category: Russian balalaika players (English Wikipedia) and a larger one in Russian Категория:Балалаечники России


title: Balalaika

text: Through the 20th century, interest in Russian folk instruments grew outside of Russia, likely as a result of western tours by Andreyev and other balalaika virtuosi early in the century. Significant balalaika associations are found in Washington, D.C., Los Angeles, New York, Atlanta and Seattle.


title: Good on Paper

text: Good on Paper is a 2021 American romantic comedy film, directed by Kimmy Gatewood in her directorial debut, from a screenplay by Iliza Shlesinger. It stars Shlesinger, Ryan Hansen, Margaret Cho, and Rebecca Rittenhouse. The film was released on June 23, 2021, by Netflix.


title: Good on Paper

text: Andrea Singer is a stand-up comedian and a struggling aspiring actress. At the airport on the way home from an audition, Andrea meets Dennis Kelley when he returns her missing boarding pass.


title: Good on Paper

text: On the flight, Andrea finds herself sitting next to Dennis, who tells her that he’s a Yale graduate who works in hedge funds. They hit it off and begin hanging out together in Los Angeles. Dennis helps Andrea prepare for auditions and they become good friends. Dennis grows attached to Andrea and asks her for a relationship, but she rejects him. One night, Dennis gets Andrea to spend time with him under false pretenses. They get high and go out, hooking up at the end of the night. In the morning, Andrea agrees to be his girlfriend.


title: Good on Paper

text: As Andrea and Dennis get closer, she and her friend Margot start to question if he is all that he claims. Andrea learns Dennis has lied about his house, his sick mother, his job, and his college education. In an attempt to get even, Margot gets Dennis drunk and he passes out. Margot and Andrea accidentally injure Dennis, and Andrea confronts him for his lying. Andrea later learns that Dennis has taken her to court for kidnapping him. After confronting him again, she is given a restraining order and more fodder for her stand-up routine.