title: Dana Barron

text: In 1983, Barron starred in the Chevy Chase comedy "National Lampoon's Vacation", originating the role of Audrey Griswold. The film became a classic, and Barron would reprise the role 20 years later in the NBC TV movie spinoff, "".


title: Dana Barron

text: Barron received a Daytime Emmy Award in 1989 for her appearance in the CBS after-school special "No Means No". Barron appeared on the soap opera "One Life to Live" from 1984 to 1985 as Michelle Boudin. She starred in the 1998 "The Magnificent Seven" as Casey.


title: Dana Barron

text: She had a recurring role as Nikki Witt on the Fox series "Beverly Hills, 90210", during which she was able to make her character's clothes and modify her lines.


title: Dana Barron

text: In 1992, she starred with JoBeth Williams and Chris Burke in the NBC movie "". Barron has made guest appearances on TV shows including "The Equalizer", "In the Heat of the Night", "Murder, She Wrote", and "Babylon 5" as a telepath named Lauren Ashley in the Season 5 episode "The Corps Is Mother, the Corps Is Father".


title: Bhupendrabhai Patel

text: Bhupendra Rajnikant Patel (born 15 July 1962) is an Indian politician and the current Chief Minister of Gujarat since September 2021. He is a member of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). He started his political career in municipal bodies of Ahmedabad before being elected the member of Gujarat Legislative Assembly representing Ghatlodia constituency in 2017.


title: Bhupendrabhai Patel

text: Bhupendrabhai Patel was born on 15 July 1962 to a Gujarati in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India. Bhupendrabhai Patel has received Diploma in Civil Engineering from the Government Polytechnic, Ahmedabad in April 1982. He has been associated with Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh.


title: Bhupendrabhai Patel

text: He is a builder by profession. He is a trustee of Sardardham Vishwa Patidar Kendra and a chairman of the standing committee of Vishwa Umiya Foundation. He is a follower of Akram Vignan Movement founded by Dada Bhagwan. He is interested in cricket and badminton.


title: Bhupendrabhai Patel

text: Patel was the member of Memnagar Nagarpalika in 1995–1996, 1999-2000 and 2004–2006. He was the President of Memnagar Nagarpalika in 1999–2000. He was a Vice Chairman of school board of Amdavad Municipal Corporation (AMC) from 2008 to 2010. He was a councillor from Thaltej Ward from 2010 to 2015. He was a chairman of the Ahmedabad Urban Development Authority (AUDA) from 2015 to 2017. He also served as a chairman of the Standing Committee of AMC.


title: Bhupendrabhai Patel

text: Patel became a member of Gujarat Legislative Assembly for the Ghatlodia constituency after winning the 2017 Gujarat Legislative Assembly elections, running against Shashikant Patel of the Indian National Congress. He won by a record margin of 1,17,000 votes.


title: Bhupendrabhai Patel

text: He was elected again from Ghotlodia constituency in 2022 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election as a BJP candidate defeating his nearest rival and Indian National Congress candidate Amiben Yagnik.


title: Bhupendrabhai Patel

text: On 11 September 2021, Vijay Rupani resigned from the post of Chief Minister of Gujarat. Patel was unanimously elected as the BJP legislative party leader and Chief Minister elect of Gujarat on 12 September 2021 in the party legislature meeting at Gandhinagar. He was sworn in as the Chief Minister of Gujarat on 13 September 2021.


title: Bhupendrabhai Patel

text: On 8 February 2022, he launched a new Gujarat IT/ITeS policy 2022-2027. His government also became the first state to set up a committee to study modalities and implementation of Uniform Civil Code in the state, applying the same to the citizens of the state.


title: Bhupendrabhai Patel

text: In the 2022 Gujarat Legislative Assembly Elections, the Bharatiya Janata Party won a record-breaking 156 of the total 182 seats, with the party forming the state government for the 7th consecutive time. On 12 December 2022, Patel took oath as the Chief Minister of Gujarat, for the second time with this massive win.


title: Supergirl (1984 film)

text: Supergirl is a 1984 British superhero film directed by Jeannot Szwarc from a screenplay by David Odell based on the DC Comics character of the same name. It is the fourth film in the "Superman" film series, set after the events of "Superman III" (1983) and serving as a spin-off of the series. The film stars Helen Slater as Supergirl, along with Faye Dunaway, Hart Bochner, Peter Cook, Mia Farrow, Brenda Vaccaro, and Peter O'Toole, with Marc McClure reprising his role as Jimmy Olsen from the "Superman" films.


title: Supergirl (1984 film)

text: The film was released in the United Kingdom on 19 July 1984 and in the United States on 21 November 1984, but failed to impress critics and audiences alike, while also underperforming at the box-office. Dunaway and O'Toole earned Golden Raspberry Award nominations for Worst Actress and Worst Actor, respectively. However, Slater was nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Actress. The film's failure ultimately led producers Alexander and Ilya Salkind to sell the Superman film rights to The Cannon Group, Inc. in 1986.


title: Supergirl (1984 film)

text: Its first DVD release was by the independent home video company Anchor Bay Entertainment in 2000, under license from then-rights holder StudioCanal. Warner Bros. Pictures acquired the rights to the film and reissued it on DVD late in 2006 to coincide with the release of "Superman Returns". Although it is canon with the Christopher Reeve "Superman" films, it is not included in any of the "Superman" DVD or Blu-ray box sets by Warner Bros.


title: Supergirl (1984 film)

text: Kara Zor-El, cousin of Kal-El/Superman and Jor-El's niece, lives in Argo City, an isolated Kryptonian community that survived the planet's destruction by being transported into a pocket of trans-dimensional space, the Survival Zone. A man named Zaltar allows Kara to see a unique and immensely powerful item known as the Omegahedron, which he has borrowed without the knowledge of the city government, and which powers the city. However, a mishap leads to the Omegahedron being rocketed into space. Taking a ship, Kara follows it to Earth (undergoing a transformation into "Supergirl" in the process) to recover it and save the city.


title: Supergirl (1984 film)

text: On Earth, the Omegahedron is recovered by Selena, a power-hungry would-be witch assisted by the feckless Bianca, seeking to free herself from a relationship with warlock Nigel. Whilst not knowing exactly what it is, Selena quickly realizes the Omegahedron is powerful and can give her true magic. Supergirl arrives on Earth and is granted new powers by its environment and the radiation of its sun. While seeking the Omegahedron, she creates the cover identity Linda Lee, cousin of Clark Kent, and enrolls at an all-girls school where she befriends Lucy Lane, the younger sister of Lois Lane who happens to be studying there. Supergirl also meets and becomes enamored with Ethan, a school groundskeeper.


title: Supergirl (1984 film)

text: Ethan also catches the eye of Selena, who drugs him with a love potion which will make him fall in love with the first person he sees for a day. Ethan regains consciousness in Selena's absence and wanders out into the streets. An angry Selena uses her new-found powers to animate a construction vehicle to retrieve Ethan, causing chaos as it does so. Supergirl, in the guise of Linda, rescues Ethan, and he falls in love with her instead.


title: Supergirl (1984 film)

text: Supergirl and Selena proceed to battle. Selena captures Ethan, then traps Supergirl and sends her to the Phantom Zone, a prison dimension. Now powerless, Supergirl wanders the bleak landscape and nearly drowns in an oily bog. Eventually, she encounters Zaltar...who has exiled himself to the Phantom Zone as a punishment for losing the Omegahedron. Zaltar helps Kara to escape, sacrificing his life to do so. Back on Earth, Selena uses the Omegahedron to make herself a "princess of Earth" with Ethan as her lover and consort.


title: Supergirl (1984 film)

text: Emerging from the Phantom Zone through a mirror, Supergirl regains her powers and confronts Selena, who uses the Omegahedron to summon a gigantic shadow demon. The demon is on the verge of defeating Supergirl when she hears Zaltar's voice urging her to fight on. Supergirl breaks free and Nigel tells her the only way to defeat Selena is to turn the demon against her. Supergirl complies and creates a focused whirlwind that traps Selena, who is then attacked and incapacitated by the demon as the whirlwind pulls in Bianca as well. The three are sucked through the mirror portal, which promptly reforms, trapping them all forever. Free from Selena's spell, Ethan admits his love for Linda, knowing she and Supergirl are one and the same. He also understands she must save Argo City and that he may not see her again. The final scene shows Kara returning the Omegahedron to a darkened Argo City, which then lights up again.


title: Supergirl (1984 film)

text: Christopher Reeve was slated to have a cameo as Superman but bowed out early on. His non-appearance in the film is explained via a news broadcast (overheard by Selena) stating that Superman has left Earth on a "peace-seeking mission" to a distant galaxy. In the Superman documentary "You Will Believe...," Director Jeannot Szwarc said Reeve's involvement in this film would have given the feature higher credibility, and admitted he wished Reeve had made a contribution to the film's production. A publicity photo of him as Superman does appear as a poster in Lucy and Linda's shared dorm room.


title: Supergirl (1984 film)

text: Marc McClure makes his fourth of five appearances in the "Superman"-related films; he is the only actor to appear in all four films featuring Superman and this spin-off film. Demi Moore auditioned for and was cast as character Lucy Lane but bowed out to make the film "Blame It on Rio". Maureen Teefy was signed instead.


title: Supergirl (1984 film)

text: Upon gaining the film rights for "Superman: The Movie" in 1978, Alexander Salkind and his son, Ilya, also purchased the rights to the character of Supergirl, should any sequel or spin-off occur. Supergirl was originally slated to debut in "Superman III" in a plot line intended to set up a standalone film, but her character was ultimately removed. The Salkinds announced the Supergirl film in April 1982, before production began on "Superman III". After the critical disappointment of that film, the Salkinds opted to use the Supergirl movie to freshen the franchise. Ilya later recounted, "[It was] something different, to an extent. I thought it was a very different area to explore." Originally the plot was to center around Supergirl rescuing Superman, who would be portrayed as her cousin and mentor, but the film was heavily rewritten after Reeve chose not to be involved.


title: Supergirl (1984 film)

text: The producers attempted, and failed, to get the services of Richard Lester, who had directed "Superman III" and had completed the second film after their dismissal of original director Richard Donner. Robert Wise also turned down the director's chair. But French filmmaker Jeannot Szwarc, who was best known at that time for his work in television and for directing "Jaws 2", was ultimately chosen after a meeting with Christopher Reeve, who had complimented the "Somewhere in Time" director. Szwarc sought advice from Donner over some technical aspects of the production.


title: Supergirl (1984 film)

text: Hundreds of actresses tested for the role of Supergirl/Linda, among them Demi Moore and Brooke Shields. Shields and Moore were both ultimately rejected by both Ilya and Szwarc, who had both wanted an unknown actress, and they instead signed Helen Slater, who was paid $75,000 in a three-picture deal. Slater had four months of physical training to prepare for the role. Additionally, Dolly Parton reportedly turned down the role of Selena before it was offered to Dunaway.


title: Supergirl (1984 film)

text: Principal photography began at Pinewoods Studios in London on April 18, 1983, and wrapped on August 11, 1983. Although the Salkinds financed the film completely on their own budget, Warner Bros. was still involved in the production since the studio owned the distribution rights to the film, and its parent company, Warner Communications, was also the parent company of DC Comics, owners of all "Superman and Superman family" copyrights. The entire film was shot, edited and overseen under the supervision of Warner Bros. and originally scheduled to be released in July 1984. However, the relationship between the studio and the partnership was strained after the critical and commercial underperformance of "Superman III" in June 1983, during the production of the film. The Salkinds insisted on moving the opening date from the summer to the holiday season in order to avoid competition with other major films and the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. The studio claimed it could not provide a holiday slot and relinquished its distribution rights of "Supergirl" to the Salkinds, who gave the distribution rights to Tri-Star Pictures. The film proceeded to be released overseas, however, and received a Royal Film Premiere in the United Kingdom in July 1.


title: Supergirl (1984 film)

text: The film score for "Supergirl" was composed and conducted by veteran composer Jerry Goldsmith, who had been the initial interest of director Richard Donner to compose for the first "Superman" film. Goldsmith used a number of techniques to identify the music to the film, such as synthesizers simulating the sounds of take-off during the main theme. The soundtrack has been released twice, through Varèse Sarabande in 1985 and an extended version through Silva Screen in 1993. It has also been referred by critics as one of the only redeeming qualities of the movie.


title: Supergirl (1984 film)

text: International Video Entertainment paid $3.2 million for North American home video rights, one of the largest deals at the time, and released the Tri-Star-edited 105-min. U.S. version in 1985. The film has since been released several times on home video, laserdisc, and DVD. In 1990, the same 105 minute U.S. cut was re-released on VHS by Avid Home Entertainment. By the mid-1990s, the rights to the film were acquired by Pueblo Film Licensing (successor-in-interest to the Salkind production company) and French production company StudioCanal. By this time Anchor Bay Entertainment had assumed the video rights, where it was re-issued on VHS in 1998 as the "114-minute cut" under the "Anchor Bay Entertainment Family Movies" label. For their DVD release on August 8, 2000, two versions were issued. The first of these was a 2-disc "Limited Edition" set (limited to 50,000 copies only) featuring the 124-minute "International Version" (never seen in the United States, which was digitally mastered by THX for this DVD release), along with a 138-minute "director's cut", which had been discovered in StudioCanal's archives. The second version was a single-disc version featuring the 124-minute "International Version", with many bonus features: a 16-page full color booklet; Audio Commentary with Director Jeannot Szwarc and Special Project Consultant Scott Michael Bosco; "The Making of Supergirl" Featurette; U.S. & Foreign Theatrical Trailers; U.S. TV Spots; Original Storyboards; Still & Poster Galleries; and Talent Bios (these extra features were also available on the 2-disc "Limited Edition" set). Anchor Bay re-issued a new VHS release once again, this time the 124-minute "International Version" coinciding with the DVD release, both a separate fullscreen and widescreen editions (widescreen version labeled as the "Collector's Edition") under different packaging artwork and digitally mastered by THX. The "Director's Cut" DVD was made from the last print known to exist of the cut, which was apparently prepared for possible television broadcast before the film was edited into its various versions. This longer version was never broadcast on network television in the United States, though it is believed to have been distributed in syndication worldwide.


title: Supergirl (1984 film)

text: In 2002, Anchor Bay re-issued the 138 minute "Director's Cut" separately. In November 2006, coinciding with the home video release of "Superman Returns", Warner Home Video, now owning the rights to the film through their parent company Warner Bros., released a single-disc DVD featuring the 124-minute "International Version" cut of the film, with only some extra material being carried over from the former out-of-print Anchor Bay releases, a commentary by director Jeannot Szwarc and Special Project Consultant Scott Bosco, and the theatrical trailer. This Warner Bros. release includes an edited version of the audio commentary from the Anchor Bay release. All comments about Anchor Bay are edited out.


title: Supergirl (1984 film)

text: It was reissued on 17 July 2018, under the Warner Archive Collection label as a two–disc set, with the International Cut on Blu-ray (in a new 1080p HD remaster), and the "Director's Cut" on DVD, mastered in SD as the only surviving element of the longer version is from the same StudioCanal print used for the previous Anchor Bay release. The commentary from the 2000 video release, "The Making of Supergirl" Featurette, and a theatrical trailer were carried over to WAC's latest issue.


title: Supergirl (1984 film)

text: Material that was cut for the 105-minute version of the film included the Argo City opening, which was originally longer.


title: Supergirl (1984 film)

text: Another cut scene from the US release is known as the "flying ballet", though included in the International Cut. As Supergirl arrives on Earth, she is surprised to find herself capable of almost anything, especially flying. She can use her super-strength to crack rocks into dust, and use her heat-ray vision to help flowers grow.


title: Supergirl (1984 film)

text: Scenes concerning Selena, Bianca, and Nigel were also trimmed. In the U.S. version, Selena's introduction was merely a few lines long when the Omegahedron lands on Earth, and Selena takes it for use of its magic. The full introduction establishes Selena as an impatient witch, who is sick of her mentor and lover, Nigel, who is himself, a warlock. Later scenes not seen before the 2000 DVD release from Anchor Bay Entertainment, include Selena using the Omegahedron for the first time, and realizing that she has no control of herself when under its influence, namely the "Roast Chicken" sequence. Selena later throws a party for all her followers, and deleted material shows Nigel insulting Selena after being dismissed. Nigel then gets friendly with another party member, on whom Selena pulls a vicious magical prank.


title: Supergirl (1984 film)

text: Other scenes involve Linda Lee making a temporary home in the city of Midvale, Illinois, and an extended version of the tractor sequence in which the possessed machine runs amok on the Midvale streets and kills a civilian. This alleged death scene does not appear in either the International or the 2000 Director's Cut. Another cut scene shows Supergirl unable to find the Omegahedron because Selena keeps it in a lead box, demonstrating that Supergirl's limitations are similar to those of her cousin. The Phantom Zone scenes are also longer.


title: Supergirl (1984 film)

text: The 2006 DVD release and current Blu-Ray reissue by Warner Home Video, whose parent company, Warner Bros., is the current rights holder to the Superman movies, contains the International Edition, also called the "European Theatrical Edition". The latter release also features the aforementioned "director's cut".


title: Supergirl (1984 film)

text: Much of the deleted material appeared in DC Comics's one-shot comic book adaptation of the film, primarily the scenes that fleshed out Selena's character.


title: Supergirl (1984 film)

text: The American theatrical cut for "Supergirl" ran at 105 minutes. "Supergirl" originally ran at 124 minutes in its European version. When it aired on network television in 1987, ABC added numerous scenes from the International theatrical version as well as sequences not contained in any other edit. Shown in a two-hour slot, this 92-minute version was essentially a cut-down version of the "Director's Cut", otherwise resembling the U.S. edit, with "offensive" dialogue dubbed over for TV. This same 92-minute version was also seen in syndication on most stations (as well as superstations such as TBS and WGN) by Viacom.


title: Supergirl (1984 film)

text: Some broadcast television versions have a scene not seen in either laserdisc edition: After Selena's defeat, Nigel is standing on the street. He bends over to pick up the Coffer of Shadows, now restored to its original, small size and decides to keep it as a memento. In another broadcast-only scene, after Supergirl flies off to return to Argo City, Ethan gets into his truck. He then stops to say goodbye to Lucy and Jimmy. Both scenes can be found in the director's cut.


title: Supergirl (1984 film)

text: In the United States, "Supergirl" was picked up by Tri-Star Pictures for release on 21 November 1984. Test audiences found the film overlong and the film was edited from 135 minutes to 105 minutes for its North American release. Critical reviews in the United States were poor, and although the film took the #1 slot at the North American box-office during its opening weekend, it is widely considered to be a box office bomb after making only $14.3 million in North America.


title: Supergirl (1984 film)

text: "Supergirl" holds approval rating and has an average rating of on Rotten Tomatoes based on reviews. Many of the reviews were harshly negative, with Dunaway's exceedingly campy performance especially reviled. The consensus reads: "The effects are cheesy and "Supergirl's" wide-eyed, cheery heroine simply isn't interesting to watch for an hour and a half." The film has a Metacritic rating of 42, indicating "mixed or average reviews" from 12 professional reviewers. "Variety" referred to the film as "intermittently enjoyable spectacle" and described "some well-staged effects highlights, notably a violent storm that threatens the school and the climax which Supergirl and Selena confront each other in the latter's mountain-top castle."


title: Supergirl (1984 film)

text: Both Rita Kempley and Paul Attanasio of "The Washington Post" gave it positive marks. John Grant, writing in "The Encyclopedia of Fantasy", was more positive about the film, describing Slater as "an exceptionally charming Supergirl" and wrote that "Supergirl" had some "excellent—and excellently realised—flights of imagination." Grant criticised the "inconsistent" characterization of Slater and Dunaway's characters. Summing up, he stated while "Supergirl" "was less than the sum of its parts, not all of those parts are insignificant."


title: Supergirl (1984 film)

text: Colin Greenland reviewed "Supergirl" for "Imagine" magazine, and stated that "I may be old-fashioned, but I can't help Wishing today's film-makers thought it worthwhile including a little logic In their fantasies, instead of having characters whose motivations, abilities and weaknesses change all the time, with no explanation whatever. A fun film, in a vacuous sort of way."


title: Supergirl (1984 film)

text: The film was nominated for two Razzie Awards, including Worst Actor for Peter O'Toole and Worst Actress for Faye Dunaway. Helen Slater was nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Actress.


title: Supergirl (1984 film)

text: Years after her single appearance as Supergirl, Helen Slater took on the recurring role of Lara, biological mother of Clark Kent, on the TV series "Smallville" (2001-2011), and later played the recurring character of Eliza Danvers, the adopted mother of the titular character in the TV series "Supergirl" (2015-2021).


title: Kings Island

text: Kings Island is a amusement park located northeast of Cincinnati in Mason, Ohio, United States. Owned and operated by Cedar Fair, the park first opened in 1972 by the Taft Broadcasting Company. It was part of a larger effort to move and expand Coney Island, a popular resort destination along the banks of the Ohio River that was prone to frequent flooding. After more than $300 million in capital investments, the park features over 100 attractions including fourteen roller coasters and a water park.


title: Kings Island

text: Early in its history, Kings Island appeared in popular sitcoms and received widespread recognition for its record-breaking attractions and events. One of the park's most well-known attractions, The Racer, is often credited with reviving worldwide interest in roller coasters during the 1970s. The Beast and Banshee are among other attractions that have set world records, some of which are still held today. Kings Island's largest single investment is Orion, a giga coaster that opened in 2020 at a cost of $30 million. The park has also suffered through times of negative publicity, particularly surrounding the early demise of roller coasters The Bat and Son of Beast.


title: Kings Island

text: Kings Island is divided into several themed sections and operates seasonally from early spring through the fall, partially reopening for Winterfest during the holiday season. In 2021, Kings Island had an estimated 3.18 million guests, ranking third in attendance among seasonal amusement parks in North America behind sister parks Canada's Wonderland and Cedar Point. In addition, Kings Island has won Golden Ticket Awards from "Amusement Today" for having the "Best Kids' Area" in the world for eighteen consecutive years (2001–2018) as well as "Best New Ride" in 2017 for Mystic Timbers.


title: Kings Island

text: Kings Island was conceived as early as 1964 when Coney Island, a popular amusement park east of downtown Cincinnati on the banks of the Ohio River, suffered from a major flood that submerged the area in over of water. Although occasional flooding was common at the successful park, the flood in 1964 was the fourth highest on record and caused considerable damage. Faced with already-limited space for expansion and parking, the event triggered discussions within the organization about relocating the park.


title: Kings Island

text: Leading the way was Gary Wachs, son of Coney Island president Ralph Wachs, who with friends and family owned a majority of stock. He decided it was time to relocate the park to stay competitive. After years of research and traveling abroad, he presented ideas for a new theme park to the company's board of directors. Some board members opposed relocating, including significant stockholder Charles Sawyer. It wasn't taken seriously until 1968 when actor Fess Parker announced plans to build a theme park in Northern Kentucky – well within Coney Island's primary market that extended as far south as Louisville. The announcement highlighted the need for change and gave Wachs' proposal credibility within the organization.


title: Kings Island

text: Gary and Ralph met with Dudley S. Taft, the president of Taft Broadcasting Company, a business interested in promoting its recently acquired Hanna-Barbera division, to discuss a possible merger. In July 1969, Taft Broadcasting Company purchased Coney Island for $6.5 million and soon after purchased in Warren County, Ohio, for $3.2 million. Kings Island still owned of that purchase . The site is located between I-71 and the Little Miami River in what was then a part of Deerfield Township. Following the purchase, Fess Parker's efforts to secure financing fell apart along with his plans to build a competing theme park.


title: Kings Island

text: Construction began on June 15, 1970. Later that year, a public contest was held to name the new park. "Kings Island" emerged the most popular for its recognition of the Kings Mills area as well as its predecessor Coney Island. Most of the former park's rides were relocated, and much of what remained was demolished. Coney Island's popular Sunlite Pool attraction continued to operate, however, and the park was partially restored years later.


title: Kings Island

text: Less than two years after breaking ground, Kings Island opened its gates to the public on April 29, 1972. It was the first of several preview events. The grand opening was held the following month on May 27, 1972.


title: Kings Island

text: One of the first major attractions featured at the park was The Racer, a wooden roller coaster consisting of two trains that race side by side on identical tracks. Designed by legendary designer John C. Allen, who was convinced to come out of retirement, The Racer was the first of its kind in 35 years and played an integral part of the roller coaster renaissance of the 1970s. Decades later, it was distinguished as a Roller Coaster Landmark by American Coaster Enthusiasts (ACE) in recognition for its historical significance. Other roller coasters present on opening day in 1972 were the Bavarian Beetle, a small steel coaster brought over from Coney Island, and a new junior wooden coaster in the Happy Land of Hanna-Barbera originally named Scooby Doo. The most expensive ride to open with the park was Enchanted Voyage, a $2-million dark ride attraction that featured over 100 animatronic Hanna-Barbera characters.


title: Kings Island

text: Kings Island was nationally promoted in two well-known sitcoms on ABC. Each filmed an episode on location at the park: "The Partridge Family" in 1972 and "The Brady Bunch" in 1973. The Brady Bunch was produced by Paramount Television, a large Taft Broadcasting shareholder. The park also held several world-record-breaking events. In 1974, 69-year-old Karl Wallenda set a world record for the longest tightrope skywalk at a distance of , which was performed off the ground. The following year, Evel Knievel successfully jumped fourteen Greyhound buses on his Harley Davidson at Kings Island, clearing a distance of – a record that wasn't broken until 1999. The longest successful jump of his career was also his last major stunt, and the nationally televised event was broadcast live on ABC landing 52 percent of the TV audience for that hour with an estimated 55 million viewers. Park executives favored the national exposure and additional revenue being generated by record-breaking, newsworthy events that kept the park at the forefront of the industry. To keep momentum going, Kings Island spent years researching and designing a mammoth roller coaster, The Beast, which opened in 1979 as the tallest, fastest, and longest wooden roller coaster in the world. It was designed and manufactured internally by the park.


title: Kings Island

text: On the heels of early success came turbulent times beginning in the 1980s. Kings Island partnered with Arrow Development, an amusement ride company well known for its work at Disneyland and Disney World, to develop a unique roller coaster concept. The Bat opened to the public in 1981 as the first modern-day, suspended roller coaster featuring an overhead track with train cars that swung freely from side to side, meant to simulate the feeling of flight. Although it was well received by those who rode it, it was plagued with design flaws and constant maintenance that resulted in frequent closures over its short, three-year history. In order to appease frustrated guests, the south track of The Racer began running its trains backward in 1982, which became so popular that the change remained until 2008. The park also pushed forward with its next major addition, King Cobra, which opened in 1984 as the first of its kind to be designed from inception as a stand-up roller coaster.


title: Kings Island

text: Kings Island also went through a series of ownership changes over the next decade. Taft sold its theme park division in 1984 for $167.5 million to Kings Entertainment Company (KECO), a company formed by senior executives and general managers of Taft Attractions Group. Three parks – Kings Island, Kings Dominion and Carowinds – were involved in the sale. Taft invested in KECO to retain one-third interest. Three years later in 1987, Kings Island was sold individually to American Financial Corporation, led by Carl Lindner. The deal included a contract with KECO to continue managing park operations. KECO, which retained ownership of the other two parks, also added Great America to its portfolio after purchasing it in 1989 from the city of Santa Clara, California.


title: Kings Island

text: In 1992, Paramount Communications Inc. (formerly Gulf+Western) purchased KECO along with Kings Island from American Financial in a deal worth $400 million. Paramount formed a new division known as Paramount Parks. They bought out the remaining 80% stake in Canada's Wonderland in 1993, raising the number of parks to five. That same year, Paramount Parks began incorporating themes from its movies into the park. Viacom entered the picture after acquiring Paramount in 1994, paving the way for the appearance of Nickelodeon themes. First was Nickelodeon Splat City, followed by Nickelodeon Central and eventually Nickelodeon Universe.


title: Kings Island

text: In 1997, a year after leaving Deerfield Township, the city of Mason annexed most of Kings Island. A temporary measure allowed for some land to remain in Deerfield in an attempt to appease park officials and reduce the impact on the township. The rest would be annexed in 1999. On June 14, 2005, Viacom announced intentions to split into two companies (Viacom and CBS Corporation) with CBS inheriting Paramount Parks. Seven months later in January 2006, CBS announced intentions to sell its theme park division. CBS CEO Leslie Moonves said that despite the health and profitability of its Paramount Parks business, it was "one that just doesn't fit our core strategy".


title: Kings Island

text: After receiving interest from a variety of potential suitors, CBS announced the sale of Paramount Parks to Cedar Fair on June 30, 2006, for approximately $1.24 billion. The acquisition of Kings Island gave Cedar Fair ownership of the last of three major amusement parks in Ohio, alongside Cedar Point and Geauga Lake – the latter was purchased from Six Flags in 2004. Part of the agreement allowed Kings Island to continue using Nickelodeon themes and characters for four years and other Paramount-related branding for ten years, with the option to extend the license on both. Cedar Fair opted for a buyout option within an agreement clause to remove Paramount branding after one season. Beginning in 2008, "Face/Off" became Invertigo, "The Italian Job Stunt Track" became Backlot Stunt Coaster, "Tomb Raider: The Ride" became The Crypt and "Top Gun" became Flight Deck. Nickelodeon's presence remained until the 2010 season, when Cedar Fair began incorporating its Peanuts theme throughout the park, primarily in the children's area.


title: Kings Island

text: In late 2009, the Mason City Council added a measure on its 2010 ballot that would mandate a 3-percent ticket tax and a 5-percent parking tax at both Kings Island and The Beach Waterpark. Council member Tony Bradburn argued that it was necessary for the city to help pay for infrastructure improvements, as well as cover police and fire expenses. The proposed tax hike was the center of debate for several months, as Kings Island actively encouraged the public to write, email, and call Mason City Council representatives to express opposition. On February 8, 2010, Mason City Council voted 5–1 against the measure.


title: Kings Island

text: In 2021, Cedar Fair added an outdoor resort and RV campground near the park named Camp Cedar. The year-round campground features 73 cottages, 164 RV lots, and a waterpark. For 2023, Kings Island plans to add a new themed area called Adventure Port, replacing the area once known as Oktoberfest and adding two new family rides – Sol Spin and Cargo Loco. Adventure Port will also include enhancements to Adventure Express, the restaurant Hank’s Mexican Grill will transform into the quick service restaurant Enrique’s, as well as the Bier Garten will be renamed the Mercado.


title: Kings Island

text: Action Zone opened in 1974 as Lion Country Safari, a section of the park featuring a monorail ride that took guests on a safari-style tour through an animal preservation. This was part of a network of other safari-style zoos also called Lion Country Safari. It was later renamed Wild Animal Safari in 1977. In 1983, the area became known as Wild Animal Habitat and included Adventure Village, a new area within the rebranded section. Over the years, it featured rides such as Screamin' Demon (1977–1987), the first steel looping roller coaster to run both forward and backward in the United States, and King Cobra (1984–2001), a stand-up looping roller coaster that was the first of its kind in the world.


title: Kings Island

text: Early in its tenure after purchasing Kings Island, Paramount unveiled Top Gun, a suspended roller coaster from Arrow Dynamics, in 1993. Located next to the habitat attraction, it was titled after a film of the same name and was the first ride to be added to the park with a Paramount theme. The following year, the entire area was renamed Adventure Village coinciding with the removal of the animal habitat and monorail ride. In 1999, a two-year expansion initiative began with the area's renaming to Action Zone and the addition of two new attractions – and Face/Off. When it debuted, Action Zone resembled a movie stunt set featuring a water tower as the centerpiece. The water tower was originally part of a skit with stunts and special effects that imitated a live movie set with a director and stunt performers.


title: Kings Island

text: Son of Beast opened in 2000, the second year of the area's two-year expansion. It was the tallest and fastest wooden roller coaster in the world and the first of its kind to feature a vertical loop. As a result of a number of structural issues and two accidents, the ride closed permanently in 2009 and was eventually demolished in 2012. Other notable rides include Delirium, which opened in 2003 as the largest Giant Frisbee ride in the world, and Banshee, the world's longest inverted roller coaster which opened in 2014 at the former location of Son of Beast.


title: Kings Island

text: Area 72, formerly known as X-Base, is a themed area of Kings Island that debuted in July 2020 with the opening of Orion, a giga coaster that features a drop. It is described as a "secret research facility that has been studying the effects of flight on man". The area first opened as a small sub-section of Coney Mall when Flight of Fear was introduced in 1996. Following the addition of Firehawk in 2007, the area took on its own theme centered around flight and propulsion, and it was labeled X-Base. The name was only designated by a sign and not labeled on the annual park map.


title: Kings Island

text: Firehawk closed in 2018 and was removed prior to the 2019 season. The park leaked clues implying a new ride would take its place, and in August 2019 with park guests and press in attendance, the park unveiled its plans to build Orion. In addition to the new coaster, the park updated the area's theme for the 2020 season, renaming it from X-Base to Area 72 and adding the area to the park map for the first time.


title: Kings Island

text: When Kings Island first opened in 1972, a section of the park was dedicated to its predecessor, Coney Island. The area was constructed to resemble the former park's carnival-style layout and featured many of its flat rides which were relocated, including Monster, Scrambler, and Dodgem. One of the new flagship attractions during the park's inaugural year, The Racer, is located in this section. In addition to rides, some of Coney Island's famous Ginkgo trees were transplanted, lining the middle of the walkway. Originally called Coney Island, the area was renamed Old Coney in 1980 and Coney Mall in 1986. The area also features game booths, arcades, and concession stands in the style of state fairs and traveling carnivals from the early twentieth century.


title: Kings Island

text: Zodiac, described as a "spinning, climbing double ferris wheel", debuted in 1975 as one of only two of its kind in the United States. Brokered by Intamin and manufactured by Waagner-Biro, the three-minute ride featured twelve gondolas on each of the two wheels, which were mounted to a long, hydraulic arm. It was removed following the 1986 season and relocated to Wonderland Sydney, where it reopened in 1989. In the 1980s, flat rides Skylab (1986-1997) and Zephyr were added, along with a looping roller coaster named Vortex (1987-2019), which was the first in the world to feature six inversions.


title: Kings Island

text: Following Paramount's acquisition of the park in 1992, Coney Mall was further expanded in 1994 with the addition of Days of Thunder, a NASCAR-themed motion simulator ride based on the 1990 film of the same name. The ride was housed within Action Theater located near The Racer's turnaround, and it was later updated with different shows based on James Bond, SpongeBob, and other themes before its closure in 2013. A , three-minute swing ride called WindSeeker was added in 2011, which features two-person swing carriages that rotate around a central tower at a maximum speed of . For the 2019 season, an antique car ride called Kings Mill Antique Autos, designed to resemble the retired Les Taxis (1972–2004), returned to Coney Mall as a new attraction.


title: Kings Island

text: At the heart of the amusement park, visitors are greeted by International Street which lies just beyond the main entrance. As one of the park's original staples when it opened in 1972, International Street was designed by Bruce Bushman, a former Walt Disney Imagineering layout design artist. The area's architecture and cultural themes represent Italy, Spain, Germany and Switzerland. To save on the cost of construction, the second story of each building was designed on a three-quarters scale, borrowing from a practice used by Disney throughout its theme parks.


title: Kings Island

text: The area's main attractions include the Royal Fountain, a capable of shooting of water into the air each minute, and the signature Eiffel Tower, a one-third scale replica of the original which offers a view of the entire park to its guests. Grand Carousel, a classic carousel built in 1926 and originally located at Coney Island, is another International Street attraction. Also located here is the Kings Island Theater and a variety of restaurants and souvenir shops.


title: Kings Island

text: Oktoberfest, relating to the eponymous German festival, opened with the park in 1972. The area resembles a German town with timber-framed, German-style architecture. The Festhaus building is its central attraction, featuring live shows with several indoor eateries. Nearby is an outdoor bar that serves alcoholic beverages, with a portion of its seating area located above water bordering Oktoberfest lake. Rides within Oktoberfest include a mine train roller coaster called Adventure Express, which opened in 1991, and a swinging pirate ship ride called Viking Fury, which opened in 1982.


title: Kings Island

text: For 2023, Kings Island plans to replace Oktoberfest with Adventure Port, a newly-themed area expanded to add two new family rides, Sol Spin and Cargo Loco. Adventure Express will receive theming enhancements, and food venues will be renovated and renamed.


title: Kings Island

text: The area initially opened with the park in 1972 as "The Happy Land of Hanna-Barbera" and was later shortened to "Hanna-Barbera Land". One of the area's flagship attractions was a junior wooden roller coaster named "Scooby Doo", which like The Racer was designed by John C. Allen but intended for younger riders. "Enchanted Voyage", an Old Mill dark ride that ferried guests in unaccompanied boats along water-filled guideways, was also a primary attraction that opened with the park. Shaped like a large TV set, the building housed separately-themed areas that made heavy use of animatronic Hanna-Barbera characters. The ride was overhauled for the 1984 season when it became "Smurf's Enchanted Voyage". In 1992, the building was transformed once more into Phantom Theater, replacing the ride's waterways with an Omnimover-style system of transport. It was themed as a behind-the-scenes tour of a haunted theater. The theme and ride vehicles would see additional changes over the years – "Scooby Doo and the Haunted Castle" in 2003 and "Boo Blasters on Boo Hill" in 2010 – but the same underlying transportation system was retained each time.


title: Kings Island

text: The portion of the area that borders Rivertown was revamped in 1995 with the addition of a kids' play area, stage and water attraction, and the new sub-section was named "Nickelodeon Splat City". In 2001, the log ride Kings Mills Log Flume was updated with a children's theme and renamed The Wild Thornberrys River Adventure. The Rugrats Runaway Reptar inverted roller coaster was introduced the same year. This expansion into an area that was originally part of Rivertown became known as "Nickelodeon Central". Hanna-Barbera Land was gradually converted over the next several years and eventually renamed "Nickelodeon Universe" in 2006.


title: Kings Island

text: Following Cedar Fair's purchase of the park from Paramount in 2006, Nickelodeon-themed elements were eventually removed and replaced with "Peanuts" comic strip themes in 2010 – the children's brand marketed at other Cedar Fair parks. Nickelodeon Universe became known as Planet Snoopy. The area features many rides intended for smaller children, as well as three family-oriented roller coasters and a skater coaster. "Amusement Today" awarded Kings Island with the Golden Ticket Award for "Best Kids' Area in the World" for eighteen consecutive years (2001–2018). Kings Island's Planet Snoopy was also the largest in the Cedar Fair chain until 2013, when Kings Dominion doubled the size of its Planet Snoopy section.


title: Kings Island

text: Rivertown is an area within the park that features a western theme depicting a town with ranch-style buildings, old wooden signs, and one of the park's most iconic attractions, the Kings Island & Miami Valley Railroad. Originally intended to be named "Frontier Land", the area was eventually named Rivertown when it debuted with the park in 1972. The area included attractions such as Kings Mill Log Flume and Shawnee Landing, a canoe ride in a part of Rivertown known as Kenton's Cove.


title: Kings Island

text: Throughout the 1970s, Rivertown saw the addition of several attractions including Kenton's Cove Keelboat Canal in 1973, which was an elevated log flume ride that operated through the 2000 season, and The Beast roller coaster in 1979. Designed internally by Kings Island, The Beast opened as the tallest, fastest, and longest roller coaster in the world, and in addition to retaining its record length, it remains one of the most popular wooden roller coasters in the annual Golden Ticket Awards from "Amusement Today". Other rides added over the years include a river rafting ride called White Water Canyon, which opened in 1985, and a heavily themed, indoor flat ride called Tomb Raider: The Ride (later renamed The Crypt), which opened in place of Kenton's Cove Keelboat Canal in 2002. The Crypt closed permanently in 2011.


title: Kings Island

text: In 2005, one of the last Paramount-themed attractions to open at the park, The Italian Job: Stunt Track (now known as Backlot Stunt Coaster), was unveiled. The roller coaster replaced the antique car ride Les Taxis and Ohio Overland Auto Livery.


title: Kings Island

text: In 2009, the park's first roller coaster from Bolliger & Mabillard, called Diamondback, opened in Rivertown. The hypercoaster reaches a top speed of and features a splashdown water effect finale. In August 2016, Kings Island revealed plans to build Mystic Timbers, a wooden roller coaster that opened in 2017. The new ride added of track bringing the park's wooden coaster total to , making it the most of any amusement park in the world.


title: Kings Island

text: Included with park admission, Soak City is a water park featuring two wave pools, several children's areas and a variety of water slides. It originally opened in 1989 as "WaterWorks" and has since been expanded several times. It was renamed in 2004 to "Crocodile Dundee's Boomerang Bay", based on the titular character from the film ""Crocodile" Dundee", played by Paul Hogan who was also hired to promote the revamped water park. Following Cedar Fair's acquisition of Kings Island, it was later renamed "Boomerang Bay", and all references to the film character were removed. On September 2, 2011, Kings Island announced a $10-million expansion of the water park for the 2012 season, as well as a plan to rename it "Soak City". Tropical Plunge, a seven-story water slide complex, was added for the 2016 season.


title: Kings Island

text: Halloween Haunt is a Halloween-themed event at Kings Island that operates on weekends from September through October. It features haunted houses, mazes, live shows, and most of the park's regular season attractions. Special lighting and fog effects are utilized throughout the park, and actors in costume engage with guests. The event originally debuted as FearFest in 2000, and the name was later changed to Halloween Haunt in 2007.


title: Kings Island

text: Winterfest is an annual Christmas-themed holiday festival that operates from mid-November through late December, featuring ice skating on the Royal Fountain as well as the special lighting throughout the park. Some rides and attractions are in operation, and International Street is transformed into a winter village filled with Christmas carolers, homemade crafts, and holiday-themed refreshments and snacks. The event debuted in 1982 and returned annually through 1992, followed by a brief return in 2005. Under Cedar Fair's ownership, the park listened to guest feedback and brought Winterfest back in 2017. They planned several years in advance to increase the scale of the event, which showcases over 5 million color-changing lights and dozens of live performances each night.


title: Kings Island

text: Fast Lane, introduced at Kings Island in July 2011, is a secondary queue system that offers shorter wait times on the park's most popular rides. In addition to the standard admission charge, visitors can bypass the standard wait line by purchasing a wrist band that grants access to the Fast Lane queue. A limited number of wrist bands are sold each day. The two options available for purchase are Fast Lane and Fast Lane Plus, the latter of which adds The Beast, Mystic Timbers, Kings Mills Antique Autos, Flight of Fear, Orion, and the Soak City attractions. Kings Island offers Fright Lane passes that operate the same way as Fast Lane but are for Halloween Haunt attractions only.


title: Kings Island

text: The following is a list of former employees at Kings Island that later became well known in another industry:


title: Kings Island

text: Dogstreet Cemetery is located at the north end of the Kings Island parking lot and is maintained by Deerfield Township. The historic cemetery dates back to 1803. The Warren County Genealogical Society documented nearly 70 grave sites in the cemetery, though , only 52 headstones remained.


title: Kings Island

text: On January 11, 2012, the amusement park and cemetery were featured on season 8, episode 1 of Ghost Hunters entitled "Roller Ghoster". The show investigated claims of haunted occurrences inside the park and around the cemetery, particularly of a ghost reportedly known as "Missouri Jane." Warren County Genealogical Society records document a grave for a Missouri Jane Galeenor, who died in 1846 at age five.


title: Kings Island

text: As part of the Kings Island resort, in 1972 Taft Broadcasting Company built a golf course, hotel and campground.


title: Kings Island

text: The park has its own greenhouse just off of Columbia Road. It can be seen from the top of The Bat's lift hill. It produces the flowers and topiary for the park. Some of their notable work is the "Living Liberty Bell" topiary and working "Flower Clock" near the Eiffel Tower.


title: Jack Sock

text: Jack Sock (born September 24, 1992) is an American professional tennis player. He has won four career ATP singles titles and 17 doubles titles, and has career-high rankings of world No. 8 in singles (on 20 November 2017) and world No. 2 in doubles (on 10 September 2018).


title: Jack Sock

text: Sock has won four major doubles titles: one in mixed doubles at the 2011 US Open partnering Melanie Oudin, and three men's doubles titles at the 2014 Wimbledon Championships partnering Vasek Pospisil, and the 2018 Wimbledon Championships and 2018 US Open partnering Mike Bryan. Sock also won the 2018 ATP Finals men's doubles title partnering Mike Bryan. At the 2016 Rio Olympics, Sock won both a gold medal in mixed doubles partnering Bethanie Mattek-Sands, and a bronze medal in men's doubles partnering Steve Johnson.


title: Jack Sock

text: In singles, Sock is a former junior US Open champion, victor at the 2017 Paris Masters, and semifinalist at the 2017 ATP Finals.


title: Jack Sock

text: Sock moved from Nebraska to Kansas at the age of 12 with his mother and older brother Eric to train at the Mike Wolf Tennis Academy, while his father stayed in Lincoln to continue working as a financial advisor.


title: Jack Sock

text: He graduated from Blue Valley North High School in Overland Park, Kansas, and finished his KSHSAA 6A high school tennis career with an 80–0 record and four consecutive state championships in singles. In high school, he also played doubles with his brother Eric, and they won the team state championship together in Jack's sophomore year. Jack went on to win two more team state championships after Eric graduated and began playing college tennis at the University of Nebraska. Jack and Eric also played doubles once at the ATP Tour level as a wild card entry in the 2017 BB&T Atlanta Open.


title: Jack Sock

text: Sock previously dated tennis player Sloane Stephens, and was also previously linked to tennis player Katie Boulter. He married Laura Little, Miss North Carolina 2019, on December 12, 2020.


title: Jack Sock

text: Sock appeared at the Match for Africa 5 alongside Roger Federer, Bill Gates and Savannah Guthrie on March 5, 2018 at the SAP Center in San Jose, California. The friendly, best-of-three sets, charity exhibition match raised $2.5 million to benefit children's education in Africa, with net proceeds going to the Roger Federer Foundation. Federer won the singles match 7–6, 6–4 and the doubles match 6–3.


title: Jack Sock

text: As a junior, Sock reached No. 22 in the world combined rankings in October 2010. He played his first ITF junior tournament in October 2008, at age 16, at the Pan American Championships. At the 2009 US Open, his third junior tournament, he reached the semifinals of the junior doubles with Matthew Kandath, and the third round of the junior singles.


title: Jack Sock

text: Sock played relatively infrequently on the junior circuit, however, entering just two further tournaments: the Dunlop Orange Bowl in 2009 and the junior singles at the 2010 U.S. Open. At this tournament, he received a wildcard entry, but proceeded to the final. There, he defeated fellow American Denis Kudla in three sets, to become the first American winner of the junior championships since Andy Roddick in 2000. He won the Boy's Junior National Tennis Championship in 2010 and 2011, earning a wildcard in both years for the main draw of the US Open.


title: Jack Sock

text: Sock began playing in Futures tournaments in 2009, winning his first senior tournament on that circuit in November 2009. He entered his first qualifying draw for an ATP tournament at the 2010 Miami Masters. His first main-draw match as a professional came at the 2010 US Open, where he lost to Marco Chiudinelli. Sock finished the 2010 season ranked 878th in the world.


title: Jack Sock

text: In 2011, he reached the final of the USA F3 tournament. He also began to play in a few tournaments at Challenger level, with his biggest success being a quarterfinal at the Dallas Challenger. He also competed in the main draw of the 2011 Miami Masters. As 2010 US Junior champion, he received a wildcard into the 2011 US Open, winning his first ATP match against Marc Gicquel in four sets. He advanced to play his idol Andy Roddick, a fellow Nebraskan in the second round; however, he lost in straight sets. Sock's real breakthrough came in the mixed doubles, however, where he advanced to the final alongside Melanie Oudin, defeating the defending champions Bob Bryan and Liezel Huber in the second round. In the final, Sock and Oudin defeated Gisela Dulko and Eduardo Schwank in three sets to win their first Grand Slam title, both individually and together.


title: Jack Sock

text: After winning his first Grand Slam title, Sock returned to competing on the Challenger Tour. His most successful tournament was the Sacramento Challenger, in which he reached the quarterfinals of the singles tournament and, partnering Nicholas Monroe, the final of the doubles tournament. Sock finished 2011 ranked No. 381 in singles and No. 370 in the doubles.


title: Jack Sock

text: In 2012, Sock won the Futures tournament at Plantation, as well as losing in the doubles final. Stepping back up to the Challenger level, he competed at the Honolulu Challenger, making the quarterfinals of the singles tournament and, alongside Nick Monroe, once again made the final of the doubles tournament.


title: Jack Sock

text: Sock played in the 2012 Campbell's Hall of Fame Tennis Championships, and lost in the second round to Izak van der Merwe. Sock's next tournament was the 2012 BB&T Atlanta Open. He upset the seventh seed, Alex Bogomolov, Jr. He made it to the quarterfinals, where he lost to John Isner. At the US Open, Sock defeated the 22nd seed, Florian Mayer, in the first round when Mayer retired. He then went on to defeat world No. 85 Flavio Cipolla of Italy in straight sets, setting up his first ever Grand Slam third round match against 11th seed Nicolás Almagro, but was defeated in four sets. In the final two months of the 2012 season, Sock reached his first two Challenger Tour finals, winning at Tiburon in October and finishing as runner-up in the November Champaign-Urbana Challenger. These finals helped him rise to the top 150 for the first time.


title: Jack Sock

text: Sock had a slow start to 2013, losing in qualifying at the Brisbane International and the 2013 Australian Open. However, he received a wildcard entry into the U.S. National Indoor Tennis Championships, in which he gained his first wins of the season, reaching the quarterfinals for the second time in his career. In the doubles competition at the same tournament, Sock teamed up with James Blake, also a wildcard entry, reaching the final, where the pair lost to the Bryan brothers. Sock made it through three rounds of qualifying without dropping a set to enter the main draw of the 2013 French Open. In the first round, he defeated the accomplished player Guillermo García López in only 1 hour and 59 minutes. He then lost to 35-year-old veteran Tommy Haas in straight sets.


title: Jack Sock

text: He tried to qualify for Wimbledon for the first time, but although seeded second, lost to Mischa Zverev. He returned to the US to win his second career Challenger level title in Winnetka, Illinois on July 6, allowing him to break into the top 100 for the first time in his career. At the US Open, he defeated Philipp Petzschner in the first round, going 5 games to 2 up in the third set before Petzschner retired. Sock then went on to beat Maximo Gonzalez, However, he lost to 18th seed Janko Tipsarević in the third round. Following the US Open, his ranking rose to No. 86.


title: Jack Sock

text: Sock began his 2014 campaign in Auckland against Frenchman Adrian Mannarino. His aggressive playing style was too much for his opponent, and he won in straight sets to set up a match with German second seed Tommy Haas. In a considerable upset, Sock defeated the world No. 12 in straight sets to advance to the quarterfinals. There he faced Spaniard Roberto Bautista Agut, but lost in straight sets. He then gained his first direct entry into the Australian Open main draw, after having failed to qualify the previous year. He started strongly, defeating German Tobias Kamke in four sets in his opening match, before losing to former world No. 7 Gaël Monfils in the second round.


title: Jack Sock

text: At Wimbledon, Sock at the last moment teamed up with Canadian Vasek Pospisil, and they won the men's doubles title in a five-set final against the top seeds, Bob and Mike Bryan.


title: Jack Sock

text: Sock beat Bernard Tomic and world No. 6 Kei Nishikori to reach the third round of the 2014 Shanghai Rolex Masters.


title: Jack Sock

text: After missing the first two months of 2015 ATP season, Sock made his return at 2015 BNP Paribas Open. He won his first three matches, including victories over seeded players Gilles Müller and Roberto Bautista Agut. He lost in the fourth round to second seed Roger Federer in straight sets. In doubles, he resumed his partnership with Pospisil to win their first Masters level tournament.


title: Jack Sock

text: His second tournament was the 2015 Miami Open, in which he won his first two matches, including beating 21st seed Fabio Fognini, before losing to Dominic Thiem in the third round. He made the doubles final, again partnering with Pospisil, but lost in a third-set tiebreaker to the Bryan brothers.


title: Jack Sock

text: Sock continued his successful start to the year by winning his first ATP tournament, the 2015 U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships. En route to the title, he knocked off second seed Roberto Bautista Agut, fifth seed Santiago Giraldo, third seed Kevin Anderson, and eighth seed Sam Querrey in the final. He then competed in the 2015 Mutua Madrid Open in Spain, advancing to the second round by beating wildcard Pablo Andújar in straight sets, before losing to 12th seed Jo-Wilfried Tsonga.


title: Jack Sock

text: At the French Open, Sock upset 10th seeded Grigor Dimitrov in the first round in straight sets. He continued his run by beating Pablo Carreño Busta in four sets and teenager Borna Ćorić in straight sets. At age 22, he became the youngest American to reach the round of 16 at the French Open since Pete Sampras in 1993. In the fourth round, he lost in four sets to defending champion Rafael Nadal.


title: Jack Sock

text: Sock collapsed at the US Open, and was forced to retire against Ruben Bemelmans despite being ahead in the match.


title: Jack Sock

text: On November 2, Sock reached the top 25 for the first time in his career. For the second straight year, he and Pospisil finished 9th in the ATP Doubles Race to London rankings, just barely failing to qualify for the year-end championship tournament.


title: Jack Sock

text: Sock began his season at the 2016 Hopman Cup, representing the USA alongside Serena Williams, who was ultimately replaced by Victoria Duval due to injury. In the round-robin stage, Sock's only singles win was over Jiří Veselý. Sock and Duval recorded wins in the mixed doubles over Ukraine and the Czech Republic. They did not proceed to the final.


title: Jack Sock

text: At the Auckland Open, Sock reached his third career ATP final by beating a top-10 player David Ferrer for the second time in his career, despite losing the first set and battling flu-like symptoms. He ended up retiring in the final due to that illness. Sock began the clay-court season by reaching his second consecutive final in Houston, but was unable to defend his title after struggling with an injury in the last set of the final.


title: Jack Sock

text: Sock played in all three tennis competitions at the Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro. Despite losing in the first round in singles, he earned a bronze medal in doubles with Steve Johnson and a gold medal in mixed doubles with Bethanie Mattek-Sands.


title: Jack Sock

text: At the Shanghai Masters, Sock defeated Milos Raonic for the first time in their last nine matches to reach his first career Masters quarterfinal. With this run, he became the top-ranked American for the first time in his career.


title: Jack Sock

text: Once again, Sock opened up the season with the Hopman Cup and the Auckland Open. He reached the final at the Hopman Cup with Coco Vandeweghe while dropping just one set in the three round-robin matches, but lost in the final to the French team of Richard Gasquet and Kristina Mladenovic. Sock then followed this performance with an even better result at the Auckland Open by reaching the final for the second year in a row, this time winning the title against João Sousa. With the win, he moved into the top 20 for the first time. Sock finished his stretch down under by making his first appearance in the third round of the Australian Open, where he lost to Jo-Wilfried Tsonga.


title: Jack Sock

text: In February, Sock returned home to the United States where he helped the Davis Cup team sweep their 1st-round rubber against Switzerland. At the end of the month, he played at the Delray Beach Open and won his second title in two months after Milos Raonic withdrew from the final with a hamstring injury. This title took Sock to a career high of 18 in the ATP rankings. Sock continued his impressive streak of deep runs in Masters events by reaching his first career Masters semi-final at the BNP Paribas Open in Indian Wells. Along the way, he upset No. 13 Grigor Dimitrov and No. 5 Kei Nishikori, the latter of which was his first career victory over a Top 5 opponent.


title: Jack Sock

text: After a relatively quiet middle of the season, Sock finished the year strong by winning the biggest tournament of his career at the Paris Masters, defeating Filip Krajinović in the final. He became the first American to win a Masters event since Andy Roddick won the Miami Masters in 2010, and the first to win the Paris Masters since Andre Agassi in 1999. This result was particularly impressive because Sock was a game away from going out in his first match, when he was down 5–1 to Kyle Edmund in the third set. With the win, Sock also made his debut in the Top 10, finished the year as the top-ranked American, and qualified for the 2017 ATP Finals. He was the first American to qualify for the year-end championships in singles since Mardy Fish in 2011.


title: Jack Sock

text: In the final tournament of the year, Sock rebounded from an opening match loss to Roger Federer to finish second in the Boris Becker group. In the round robin, he won matches against World No. 5 Marin Čilić and then World No. 3 Alexander Zverev, the latter of which was the first Top 3 opponent he ever defeated. Although Sock would lose to eventual champion Grigor Dimitrov in the semifinals, the two wins solidified his year-end ranking in the top 10 at No. 8 in the world.


title: Jack Sock

text: Sock was unable to match his success at the Hopman Cup and the Auckland Open from the previous year. Struggling with fitness issues, he won just one match between those two tournaments and the Australian Open, where he lost in the first round to Yūichi Sugita for the third time in the last six months. In particular, the tournament organizers in Auckland criticized Sock for showing a lack of effort in his match against Peter Gojowczyk and considered withholding the $100,000 appearance fee they promised him for playing in the event.


title: Jack Sock

text: Sock's poor start to the season continued at the 2018 Delray Beach Open, where as the top seed and defending champion he lost in the second round to Reilly Opelka ranked number 228. However, he did win the doubles title, partnering with Jackson Withrow.


title: Jack Sock

text: Sock's singles struggles continued into Indian Wells and Miami. In singles at the BNP Paribas Open, Sock recorded a 6–2, 7–5 win over Thomas Fabbiano in the round of 64, but then fell 6–7, 6–4, 4–6 to Feliciano López. However, Sock won the doubles title with his partner, John Isner, after recording impressive victories over Ivan Dodig and Rajeev Ram, Oliver Marach and Mate Pavić, and Bob and Mike Bryan. In singles at the Miami Open, Sock recorded a 6–3, 7–6 win over Yuki Bhambri the round of 64, but then fell 7–5, 6–7, 3–6 to rising star, Borna Ćorić. Sock and his partner, Nicholas Monroe, failed to record a win in doubles with a 1–6, 6–7 loss to Jean-Julien Rojer and Horia Tecău in the round 32.


title: Jack Sock

text: Sock's struggles in singles continued at the French Open and Wimbledon where he recorded first round losses at both events including a loss from two sets up against the Italian Matteo Berrettini at the latter event. Both losses were marked by profane outbursts and constant complaining from Sock. For this, Sock was fined $5,000.


title: Jack Sock

text: During the American Summer, Jack Sock once again lost in the first round at both the Roger's Cup and Western and Southern Open. This was followed by a second-round exit to Nikoloz Basilashvili at the U.S. Open in singles. Continuing his partnership with Mike Bryan, he achieved his first US Open Men's Doubles trophy, defeating Łukasz Kubot and Marcelo Melo in straight sets.


title: Jack Sock

text: As with last year, Sock was invited to the 2018 Laver Cup as part of Team World. He was defeated by Kyle Edmund by 6–4, 5–7, 10–6 in the afternoon session of the first day. His partnership with Kevin Anderson was more successful, winning 6–7(5), 6–3, 10–6 against Roger Federer and Novak Djokovic. The second evening doubles session saw him partner up with Nick Kyrgios, scoring a straight-sets victory over Grigor Dimitrov and David Goffin. The final doubles match of the Laver Cup saw him and countryman John Isner triumph over Roger Federer and Alexander Zverev over two sets and a tight super-tiebreak. Sock's efforts propelled Team World to a first-ever lead over Team Europe by 8–7, though Team Europe claimed the Cup at (13-8) after winning its next two singles matches.


title: Jack Sock

text: The fall Asian swing started poorly for Sock. He was defeated in his first match of the China Open by Nikoloz Basilashvili. Competing in doubles with countryman Nicholas Monroe, he lost in straight sets to Denys Molchanov and Igor Zelenay in the first round. At the Shanghai Masters, Sock was seeded 12th in singles but lost to Peter Gojowczyk in the first round. Sock and Mike Bryan were the top seeds in doubles, but lost in the first round to Horacio Zeballos and Julio Peralta.


title: Jack Sock

text: Sock's best singles results in 2018 came at his title defense at the Paris Masters. Seeded sixteenth, he defeated Richard Gasquet and Malek Jaziri in straight sets to reach the quarterfinals. There, he was defeated by sixth seed Dominic Thiem. This loss saw him fall 82 ranking places in a single week, to No. 105.


title: Jack Sock

text: Being the only team to win two Grand Slams during the year, Sock and Mike Bryan qualified on 14 October 2018 as the 5th seeds in doubles for the 2018 ATP Finals, where they defeated Pierre-Hugues Herbert and Nicolas Mahut to win the title.


title: Jack Sock

text: Sock did not participate in any tournaments during the lead up to the Australian Open, an event in which he entered as a wild card and lost in the first round to Australian wild card Alex Bolt, 6–4, 3–6, 2–6, 2–6. Following the tournament, he suffered an injury during a practice to two ligaments in his thumb, which required operation and left him struggling to complete tasks such as opening bottles or brushing his teeth.


title: Jack Sock

text: After various setbacks in his return to the tour, Sock made his return to competitive tennis in July at the Atlanta Open, where he lost to Miomir Kecmanović 6–7(9), 6–7(5). He partnered with Jackson Withrow in the doubles draw, reaching the semifinal before falling to the pairing of Dominic Inglot and Austin Krajicek. He continued his efforts at the Western & Southern Open in Cincinnati, losing as a wild card in the first round of qualifying to Mikhail Kukushkin.


title: Jack Sock

text: He received a wild card from the USTA into the men's singles main draw at the 2019 U.S. Open, extending his streak of participating in the draw to a decade, but lost in the first round. In doubles, partnering Jackson Withrow, he reached the quarterfinals defeating the Bryan Brothers en route but lost to 15th seed Jamie Murray/Neal Skupski.


title: Jack Sock

text: Sock received a wildcard into the Delray Beach Open. There, he defeated 8th seed and defending champion Radu Albot which would be his first ATP match win since the 2019 Laver Cup and before that the 2018 Rolex Paris Masters. He lost in the next round to Steve Johnson in three sets. Because of the win, he re-entered the ATP rankings with a ranking of 767.


title: Jack Sock

text: At the Indian Wells Challenger, Sock reached his first singles final of any kind in close to three years. He lost to Steve Johnson in straight sets. As a result, his ranking improved from No. 768 to No. 384.


title: Jack Sock

text: Sock was forced out of tennis for five months due to the COVID-19 pandemic suspending competition in March. When competition resumed in August, he returned at the US Open using a protected ranking, where he defeated Pablo Cuevas in the first round in five sets. He lost in the next round to 32nd seed Adrian Mannarino in straight sets. His ranking would improve to No. 303 due to the result. One month later at the French Open, he entered the qualifying draw as a protected ranking where he defeated Mikael Torpegaard, Facundo Bagnis and Andrey Kuznetsov to qualify for the main draw. There, he defeated Reilly Opelka in the first round in straight sets but lost in the next round to 3rd seed Dominic Thiem in straight sets. His ranking would improve to No. 249 because of the result.


title: Jack Sock

text: Despite not even being ranked at the beginning of the year, Sock finished the year with a ranking of World No. 253.


title: Jack Sock

text: Sock started off the year by playing in challenger events from March to June which resulted in a doubles title at the Orlando Open partnering Mitchell Krueger. At the Little Rock Challenger, Sock won his first singles title of any kind in close to four years defeating 3rd seed Emilio Gómez in the final.


title: Jack Sock

text: Having been given a wildcard into his first ATP tournament of the year at the Hall of Fame Open in Newport, Sock made his first ATP tour level quarterfinal since the 2018 Paris Masters. He beat Alex Bolt and third seed Yoshihito Nishioka before being defeated by eighth seed and eventual champion Kevin Anderson in three sets. At the same tournament he partnered as a wildcard pair with William Blumberg. The unseeded pair reached the finals by defeating fellow Americans Tennys Sandgren and Denis Kudla, third seeds John-Patrick Smith and Harri Heliövaara, and second seeds Jonathan Erlich and Santiago González. In the final they defeated Austin Krajicek and Vasek Pospisil. He also received a wildcard into the Citi Open where once again defeated Yoshihito Nishioka in the first round to play world No. 3 Rafael Nadal in the second round. The match went to three sets and the third set was decided in a tiebreak but he fell short.


title: Jack Sock

text: Sock received a wildcard into the US Open Singles main draw. He defeated Yoshihito Nishioka in the first round in four sets and followed his victory up with a five-set victory over 31st seed Alexander Bublik in the second round, marking the first time he made the third round of a grand slam since the 2017 Australian Open. In the third round, he played 4th seed Alexander Zverev and won the first set but lost the next two sets and retired early in the fourth set due to an upper right leg injury.


title: Jack Sock

text: Sock partnered with John Isner in doubles at Indian Wells as a wildcard pair, and they won the doubles title, beating Santiago González and Édouard Roger-Vasselin in the final.


title: Jack Sock

text: He reached the ATP Challenger final at the 2022 Ilkley Trophy where he lost to qualifier Zizou Bergs.


title: Jack Sock

text: He qualified for the 2022 Wimbledon Championships in singles after a three year absence and reached the third round. At the same tournament he reached the doubles quarterfinals with Denis Kudla and the mixed doubles semifinals with Coco Gauff. He returned to the top 100 in singles and to the top 50 in doubles at world No. 48 on 11 July 2022.


title: Jack Sock

text: At the US Open, Sock retired in the fourth set of his first round match against Diego Schwartzman due to back injury.


title: Jack Sock

text: Sock has played three seasons with World TeamTennis starting in 2017 when he debuted in the league with the Springfield Lasers, where he also played the following year. Sock was a member of the 2020 New York Empire during the 2020 WTT season at The Greenbrier. The Empire claimed the 2020 WTT Championship with a riveting super-tiebreaker win over the Chicago Smash, and Sock was named the 2020 WTT Finals Male MVP.


title: Jack Sock

text: One particular instance of this sportsmanship came at the 2016 Hopman Cup. During the match against Lleyton Hewitt, Hewitt was serving to stay in the first set when his first serve at 30–0 was called out by the chair umpire. Prior to Hewitt hitting his second serve, Sock said: "That was in if you want to challenge it." The review showed the serve to be in, giving Hewitt the point.


title: Jack Sock

text: Later in the year, Sock awarded a point to Richard Gasquet at the Paris Masters on an ace that was called out, saving Gasquet the need to use a challenge. The review confirmed that the serve did land in the box on the line.


title: Jack Sock

text: Sock is primarily an aggressive baseliner. He can be considered a complete baseliner with both offensive and defensive abilities. The topspin on his forehand which is generated by his unorthodox take-back and severe Western grip, helps him move his opponents far back behind the baseline to control points. His forehand and serve are his biggest weapons, and he also boasts an impressive second serve. He uses his groundstrokes either to overpower opponents from the baseline or to move them around the court and look for a winner. He can also flatten out both his forehand and his backhand to devastating effect, but Sock prefers to hit with controlled spin instead. He often hits "whiplash" forehands, where he uses his body-rotation and elbow to generate tremendous pace and topspin with a minimal take back. The average topspin rpm (revolutions per minute) on Sock's forehand was once measured to be at 3800 during his 2015 season, more so than that of Rafael Nadal's peak average (3200 rpm), and peaked at 5000rpm. Although the bounce height resulting from this amount of spin is, comparatively speaking, lesser than that of Nadal, the large amount of pace on the ball he imparts nullifies any chances of the ball dropping short into his opponent's strike zone, making his forehand a dangerous offensive and defensive weapon for him.


title: Jack Sock

text: Retired American tennis player Andy Roddick has remarked that he and young Sock have similar playing styles, saying, "[Sock] kind of has the half take up with the serve. He's got the flailing elbow on the forehand and the backhand." Sock feels that he and Spaniard Rafael Nadal actually have a more similar playing style, stating in an interview in 2012 that "Nadal prefers the forehand to the backhand and hits with incredible spin. I also like to hit with more spin than pace and prefer my forehand."


title: Jack Sock

text: Sock has a very strong service game, being able to hit serves at speeds of up to 227 km/h (141 mph). He is able to also hit very powerful and consistent kick serves.


title: Jack Sock

text: Furthermore, Sock is fast around the court, and is particularly good at running around his backhand to hit powerful inside-in or inside-out forehands. His great court speed allows him to retrieve many shots and use his forehand, his main weapon from the baseline, more frequently. Sock aggressively slides his left foot on the ground when running to his forehand, which wore a hole in his sock and shoe, and drew blood, at the 2015 BNP Paribas Open.


title: Jack Sock

text: Some commentators have remarked that his technique on the forehand, while quite effective, actually hinders his ability to hit returns well. If Sock has a successful singles career, it will be in spite of, not because of, his technique, according to retired American tennis champion and now commentator Jim Courier.


title: Jack Sock

text: At the net, Sock is very effective thanks to extremely fast reflexes, making him very high-rated also as doubles player.


title: The Bad Guys (book series)

text: The Bad Guys is an illustrated children's graphic novel series by Australian author Aaron Blabey. The book series centers around a gang of anthropomorphic animals known as the Bad Guys who attempt to perform good deeds to change society's perception of them as criminals, despite their efforts usually going wrong.


title: The Bad Guys (book series)

text: DreamWorks Animation acquired the rights to the series to make an animated feature film adaptation, which was released in America on April 22, 2022. It received positive reviews from critics.


title: The Bad Guys (book series)

text: On July 22, 2017, Australia's "The Daily Telegraph" reported that several studios had expressed interest in adapting the series into a film. In March 2018, "Variety" reported that DreamWorks Animation would develop a film based on the book series, with Etan Cohen writing the screenplay. The following year, in October, it was reported that the film would be directed by Pierre Perifel in his feature directorial debut. The film was described as having "a similar twist on the heist genre that "Shrek" did on fairy tales, and what "Kung Fu Panda" did for the kung fu genre". The crew worked remotely during the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: The Bad Guys (book series)

text: On July 28, 2021, the cast was announced with Etan Cohen, Patrick Hughes, and author Aaron Blabey set to serve as executive producers for the film.


title: The Bad Guys (book series)

text: On October 7, 2019, it was reported that the film would be theatrically released on September 17, 2021, taking over the release date of "Spooky Jack". In December 2020, the film was delayed with "" taking its original slot, though it was confirmed that it would get a new date "within the coming weeks" due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In March 2021, the release date was scheduled to April 15, 2022. In October 2021, it was pushed back again by one week to April 22. The film is slated to stream in the United States on the Peacock streaming service 45 days after its theatrical release, followed by its Netflix debut after Peacock's 4-month exclusive window. On March 1, 2022, Universal pulled the release in Russia in response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine.


title: The Bad Guys (book series)

text: A CG sequel short based on the film, "The Bad Guys in Maraschino Ruby", was announced in the Blu-ray and Digital release with a story made and directed by head of story Nelson Yokota and produced by Angie Howard while executive produced by Pierre Perifel, Damon Ross, Rebecca Huntley and Michael Vollman.


title: The Bad Guys (book series)

text: A holiday special inspired by the characters from the film is being produced by DreamWorks Animation Television and will be directed by Bret Haaland from "Fast & Furious Spy Racers" and executive produced by Haaland and Katherina Nolfi from "Abominable and the Invisible City" and "Spirit Riding Free". The holiday special will be aired in 2023 on Netflix.


title: Magic (Nas album)

text: Magic is the fifteenth studio album by American rapper Nas. It was released on December 24, 2021, through Mass Appeal Records. It serves as the third consecutive Nas album that is produced by Hit-Boy, following "King's Disease" and "King's Disease II". The album features guest appearances from ASAP Rocky and DJ Premier.


title: Magic (Nas album)

text: On December 23, 2021, Nas announced the album, revealing the title, artwork, and tracklist. On the song "Ugly", Nas confirmed the third installment of "King's Disease", saying "KD3 on the way, this just to feed the buzz."


title: Magic (Nas album)

text: At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from professional publications, the album received an average score of 78, based on eight reviews, indicating widespread acclaim.


title: Magic (Nas album)

text: In the review for AllMusic, Fred Thomas felt that "The nine-track album Magic is cut from a similar cloth as the King's Disease installments that preceded it, but works as more of a stopgap release to tide over listeners as King's Disease III is being finalized. Hit-Boy's thick, straightforward, and somewhat retro-stylized production again offers as much of a voice here as Nas' fluid rhyming and wizened lyricism." Concluding the review for "HipHopDX", Riley Wallace wrote, "despite how direct the lyricism is, it plays like two friends riffing in the studio and building off each other's energy; listeners can hear how much Nas loves what he's doing. The fact Hip Hop fans are getting appetizers of this caliber to hold us over until an inevitable third entry in the series is, in itself, Magic." Reviewing the album for "Clash", Niall Smith declared that, "On 'Magic', Nas seems as tuned into the culture as ever before, fulfilling his prophecy as rap leading lyricist, almost as if he's ushering in a new prime of his career. In the years to come, the 'King's Disease' era ('Magic' in particular) will likely be ranked among the upper echelons of Nas' discography. With a solid foundation of beats, introspective lyricism and a sharp pen at his disposal, Nas might be the only rapper to have two releases in the best albums of the 2021 conversation. Magic.


title: Magic (Nas album)

text: Pete Tosiello was more critical in their review for "Pitchfork", claiming that "You could knock Magic for being backward-facing, but then again, all of Nas's music is backward-facing. It's charming when he revisits his own gospels, but the nostalgia act would be easier to swallow if it weren't so resentful."


title: Magic (Nas album)

text: All tracks written by Nasir Jones and Chauncey Hollis (Hit-Boy) and produced by Hit-Boy, except as noted.


title: Charles Sanders Peirce

text: Charles Sanders Peirce ( ; September 10, 1839 – April 19, 1914) was an American philosopher, logician, mathematician and scientist who is sometimes known as "the father of pragmatism".


title: Charles Sanders Peirce

text: Educated as a chemist and employed as a scientist for thirty years, Peirce made major contributions to logic, a subject that, for him, encompassed much of what is now called epistemology and the philosophy of science. He saw logic as the formal branch of semiotics, of which he is a founder, which foreshadowed the debate among logical positivists and proponents of philosophy of language that dominated 20th-century Western philosophy. Additionally, he defined the concept of abductive reasoning, as well as rigorously formulated mathematical induction and deductive reasoning. As early as 1886, he saw that logical operations could be carried out by electrical switching circuits. The same idea was used decades later to produce digital computers.


title: Charles Sanders Peirce

text: In 1934, the philosopher Paul Weiss called Peirce "the most original and versatile of American philosophers and America's greatest logician".


title: Charles Sanders Peirce

text: Peirce was born at 3 Phillips Place in Cambridge, Massachusetts. He was the son of Sarah Hunt Mills and Benjamin Peirce, himself a professor of astronomy and mathematics at Harvard University. At age 12, Charles read his older brother's copy of Richard Whately's "Elements of Logic", then the leading English-language text on the subject. So began his lifelong fascination with logic and reasoning. He went on to earn a Bachelor of Arts degree and a Master of Arts degree (1862) from Harvard. In 1863 the Lawrence Scientific School awarded him a Bachelor of Science degree, Harvard's first "summa cum laude" chemistry degree. His academic record was otherwise undistinguished. At Harvard, he began lifelong friendships with Francis Ellingwood Abbot, Chauncey Wright, and William James. One of his Harvard instructors, Charles William Eliot, formed an unfavorable opinion of Peirce. This proved fateful, because Eliot, while President of Harvard (1869–1909—a period encompassing nearly all of Peirce's working life), repeatedly vetoed Peirce's employment at the university.


title: Charles Sanders Peirce

text: Peirce suffered from his late teens onward from a nervous condition then known as "facial neuralgia", which would today be diagnosed as trigeminal neuralgia. His biographer, Joseph Brent, says that when in the throes of its pain "he was, at first, almost stupefied, and then aloof, cold, depressed, extremely suspicious, impatient of the slightest crossing, and subject to violent outbursts of temper". Its consequences may have led to the social isolation of his later life.


title: Charles Sanders Peirce

text: Between 1859 and 1891, Peirce was intermittently employed in various scientific capacities by the United States Coast Survey and its successor, the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, where he enjoyed his highly influential father's protection until the latter's death in 1880. That employment exempted Peirce from having to take part in the American Civil War; it would have been very awkward for him to do so, as the Boston Brahmin Peirces sympathized with the Confederacy. At the Survey, he worked mainly in geodesy and gravimetry, refining the use of pendulums to determine small local variations in the Earth's gravity. He was elected a resident fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in January 1867. The Survey sent him to Europe five times, first in 1871 as part of a group sent to observe a solar eclipse. There, he sought out Augustus De Morgan, William Stanley Jevons, and William Kingdon Clifford, British mathematicians and logicians whose turn of mind resembled his own. From 1869 to 1872, he was employed as an assistant in Harvard's astronomical observatory, doing important work on determining the brightness of stars and the shape of the Milky Way. On April 20, 1877, he was elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences. Also in 1877, he proposed measuring the meter as so many wavelengths of light of a certain frequency, the kind of definition employed from 1960 to 1983.


title: Charles Sanders Peirce

text: During the 1880s, Peirce's indifference to bureaucratic detail waxed while his Survey work's quality and timeliness waned. Peirce took years to write reports that he should have completed in months. Meanwhile, he wrote entries, ultimately thousands, during 1883–1909 on philosophy, logic, science, and other subjects for the encyclopedic "Century Dictionary". In 1885, an investigation by the Allison Commission exonerated Peirce, but led to the dismissal of Superintendent Julius Hilgard and several other Coast Survey employees for misuse of public funds. In 1891, Peirce resigned from the Coast Survey at Superintendent Thomas Corwin Mendenhall's request.


title: Charles Sanders Peirce

text: In 1879, Peirce was appointed lecturer in logic at Johns Hopkins University, which had strong departments in areas that interested him, such as philosophy (Royce and Dewey completed their Ph.D.s at Hopkins), psychology (taught by G. Stanley Hall and studied by Joseph Jastrow, who coauthored a landmark empirical study with Peirce), and mathematics (taught by J. J. Sylvester, who came to admire Peirce's work on mathematics and logic). His "Studies in Logic by Members of the Johns Hopkins University" (1883) contained works by himself and Allan Marquand, Christine Ladd, Benjamin Ives Gilman, and Oscar Howard Mitchell, several of whom were his graduate students. Peirce's nontenured position at Hopkins was the only academic appointment he ever held.


title: Charles Sanders Peirce

text: Brent documents something Peirce never suspected, namely that his efforts to obtain academic employment, grants, and scientific respectability were repeatedly frustrated by the covert opposition of a major Canadian-American scientist of the day, Simon Newcomb. Peirce's efforts may also have been hampered by what Brent characterizes as "his difficult personality". In contrast, Keith Devlin believes that Peirce's work was too far ahead of his time to be appreciated by the academic establishment of the day and that this played a large role in his inability to obtain a tenured position.


title: Charles Sanders Peirce

text: Peirce's personal life undoubtedly worked against his professional success. After his first wife, Harriet Melusina Fay ("Zina"), left him in 1875, Peirce, while still legally married, became involved with Juliette, whose last name, given variously as Froissy and Pourtalai, and nationality (she spoke French) remains uncertain. When his divorce from Zina became final in 1883, he married Juliette. That year, Newcomb pointed out to a Johns Hopkins trustee that Peirce, while a Hopkins employee, had lived and traveled with a woman to whom he was not married; the ensuing scandal led to his dismissal in January 1884. Over the years Peirce sought academic employment at various universities without success. He had no children by either marriage.


title: Charles Sanders Peirce

text: In 1887, Peirce spent part of his inheritance from his parents to buy of rural land near Milford, Pennsylvania, which never yielded an economic return. There he had an 1854 farmhouse remodeled to his design. The Peirces named the property "Arisbe". There they lived with few interruptions for the rest of their lives, Charles writing prolifically, much of it unpublished to this day (see Works). Living beyond their means soon led to grave financial and legal difficulties. He spent much of his last two decades unable to afford heat in winter and subsisting on old bread donated by the local baker. Unable to afford new stationery, he wrote on the verso side of old manuscripts. An outstanding warrant for assault and unpaid debts led to his being a fugitive in New York City for a while. Several people, including his brother James Mills Peirce and his neighbors, relatives of Gifford Pinchot, settled his debts and paid his property taxes and mortgage.


title: Charles Sanders Peirce

text: Peirce did some scientific and engineering consulting and wrote much for meager pay, mainly encyclopedic dictionary entries, and reviews for "The Nation" (with whose editor, Wendell Phillips Garrison, he became friendly). He did translations for the Smithsonian Institution, at its director Samuel Langley's instigation. Peirce also did substantial mathematical calculations for Langley's research on powered flight. Hoping to make money, Peirce tried inventing. He began but did not complete several books. In 1888, President Grover Cleveland appointed him to the Assay Commission.


title: Charles Sanders Peirce

text: From 1890 on, he had a friend and admirer in Judge Francis C. Russell of Chicago, who introduced Peirce to editor Paul Carus and owner Edward C. Hegeler of the pioneering American philosophy journal "The Monist", which eventually published at least 14 articles by Peirce. He wrote many texts in James Mark Baldwin's "Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology" (1901–1905); half of those credited to him appear to have been written actually by Christine Ladd-Franklin under his supervision. He applied in 1902 to the newly formed Carnegie Institution for a grant to write a systematic book describing his life's work. The application was doomed; his nemesis, Newcomb, served on the Carnegie Institution executive committee, and its president had been president of Johns Hopkins at the time of Peirce's dismissal.


title: Charles Sanders Peirce

text: The one who did the most to help Peirce in these desperate times was his old friend William James, dedicating his "Will to Believe" (1897) to Peirce, and arranging for Peirce to be paid to give two series of lectures at or near Harvard (1898 and 1903). Most important, each year from 1907 until James's death in 1910, James wrote to his friends in the Boston intelligentsia to request financial aid for Peirce; the fund continued even after James died. Peirce reciprocated by designating James's eldest son as his heir should Juliette predecease him. It has been believed that this was also why Peirce used "Santiago" ("St. James" in English) as a middle name, but he appeared in print as early as 1890 as Charles Santiago Peirce. (See Charles Santiago Sanders Peirce for discussion and references).


title: Charles Sanders Peirce

text: Peirce died destitute in Milford, Pennsylvania, twenty years before his widow. Juliette Peirce kept the urn with Peirce's ashes at Arisbe. In 1934, Pennsylvania Governor Gifford Pinchot arranged for Juliette's burial in Milford Cemetery. The urn with Peirce's ashes was interred with Juliette.


title: Charles Sanders Peirce

text: Peirce grew up in a home where white supremacy was taken for granted, and Southern slavery was considered natural.


title: Charles Sanders Peirce

text: Until the outbreak of the Civil War, his father described himself as a secessionist, but after the outbreak of the war, this stopped and he became a Union partisan, providing donations to the Sanitary Commission, the leading Northern war charity. No members of the Peirce family volunteered or enlisted. Peirce shared his father's views and liked to use the following syllogism to illustrate the unreliability of traditional forms of logic, if one doesn't keep the meaning of the words, phrases, and sentences consistent throughout an argument:


title: Charles Sanders Peirce

text: Bertrand Russell (1959) wrote "Beyond doubt [...] he was one of the most original minds of the later nineteenth century and certainly the greatest American thinker ever". Russell and Whitehead's "Principia Mathematica", published from 1910 to 1913, does not mention Peirce (Peirce's work was not widely known until later). A. N. Whitehead, while reading some of Peirce's unpublished manuscripts soon after arriving at Harvard in 1924, was struck by how Peirce had anticipated his own "process" thinking. (On Peirce and process metaphysics, see Lowe 1964.) Karl Popper viewed Peirce as "one of the greatest philosophers of all times". Yet Peirce's achievements were not immediately recognized. His imposing contemporaries William James and Josiah Royce admired him and Cassius Jackson Keyser, at Columbia and C. K. Ogden, wrote about Peirce with respect but to no immediate effect.