title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On October 11 2021, New South Wales ended the lockdown and became the first jurisdiction in Australia to begin Phase B of the national plan and endemic management of COVID-19. A week later on October 18 restrictions were again relaxed. Victoria and the Australian Capital Territory began a similar staggered easing of restrictions from mid-October ultimately culminating with all three juristictions ending international travel quarantine, density restrictions along with COVID-19 close contact and isolation rules being reduced throughout November.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: South Australia, Tasmania, Queensland and the Northern Territory managed to remain in a state of COVID-19 elimination (albeit the later two suffering minor controlled outbreaks in the week before opening) prior to their transition to 'living with COVID' and thus voluntarily introduced COVID-19 into the community to allow for resumption of domestic and international travel.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: In December the arrival of the Omicron variant prompted states to return to low-level restrictions such as mask wearing and hospitality density limits with even COVID-free Western Australia introducing restrictions to fight small scale outbreaks. However, due to the shear number of people being infected with COVID-19, the rules for people exposed to COVID-19 was significantly reduced to alleviate worker shortages. Queensland's Chief Health Officer John Gerrard stated that spreading COVID-19 was "necessary" in order to transition from the "pandemic stage to an endemic stage", noting that measures in place were intended to reduce strain on hospitals and buy time for booster shots.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: Western Australia delayed its transition from COVID-zero on January 20 2022 citing the risk from the Omicron variant. However a significant COVID outbreak in February made the government re-open the border after modelling showed that it would have little impact on the cases of COVID-19 due to the outbreak being uncontrolled.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On January 1, former Australian Deputy Chief Medical Officer Nick Coatsworth who served in the first year of the pandemic, declared that 2022 would be the year the pandemic ended in Australia as restrictions eased and immunity built up throughout the year.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: Restrictions began slowly easing all across Australia throughout 2022 with Victoria and New South Wales returning to pre-omicron restrictions from February 2022. Other jurisdictions followed suit shortly after in easing rules such as mask mandates. South Australia dropped its overtly harsh close contact 14 day isolation requirement in March following the election of Peter Malinauskas. The definition of close contact was changed from 15 minutes with a COVID-19 case to the nationally defined 4 hours On 25 March 2022, the Minister for Health Greg Hunt announced that the Biosecurity Emergency Determination, as well as pre-flight COVID-19 tests for international arrivals would end on 17 April. Close contact 7-day isolation was dropped in most states from mid April with the rule replaced with 7 days of mask wearing and testing throughout the week. In late April Western Australia brought COVID-19 restrictions in line with the rest of the country with close contacts only required to wear a mask for 7 days, while mask mandates were dropped in all settings except public/private transport and healthcare settings. In June Australian health officials agreed to end the mask mandate in airport terminals but not on aircraft.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On July 2 as COVID-19 cases began increasing due to the colder months, it was revealed that Australian health officials were discussing the return of the indoor mask mandate. This ultimately never came to fruition. In mid-July New South Wales Premier Dominic Perrottet pushed for COVID-19 isolation requirements to be dropped all together or at least reduced to 5 days. This was rejected due to the ongoing winter wave. On September 9 restrictions again began relaxing. The mask mandate on aircraft was scrapped nationwide and Western Australia ended the mask mandate on passenger transport. At the same time the isolation time for COVID-19 cases was reduced to 5 days. September 9 was also the last day cases were reported daily in Australia as the country transitioned to weekly reporting instead. On September 14, COVID-19 disaster payment for people who had to isolate due to COVID-19 was extended so long as isolating was mandated by the government. South Australia, New South Wales, Queensland all ended the mask mandate on passenger transport on September 21. Victoria ended the mandate on September 22 after it had been in place since June 2020.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On September 30, all Australian leaders declared the emergency response finished and announced the end of the requirement for people to isolate from October 14 if they have COVID-19 due in part due to high levels of 'hybrid immunity' and very low case numbers. For all legal intents and purposes, the pandemic was declared over. Victoria ended its pandemic declaration on October 13 and testing was as a result also scaled back as Rapid Antigen Tests would no longer need to be reported in Victoria and also New South Wales.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On November 1 Queensland's state of emergency was left to expire and the last restrictions were removed, however a recommendation 'traffic light' system was introduced to advise Queenslanders on when it was recommended to isolate for COVID-19 or when they were advised to wear a mask. Western Australia let its state of emergency expire on November 4 and also ended the last restrictions. The Northern Territory ended the last post-emergency directions on November 11. South Australia allowed the remaining public health directions to expire on November 23. New South Wales ended its state public health emergency on November 30. This left the Australian Capital Territory as the only jurisdiction with any active COVID-19 response legislation such as a pandemic deceleration, public health emergency or post-emergency framework. The current Public Health management deceleration in the ACT is used only to mandate reporting Rapid Antigen Tests to the government.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: Before the crisis, 600,000 Australians were employed in the arts, an industry which added around 3.2 billion to export revenues. The rate of employment in the sector grew at a faster rate than the rest of the economy. According to government figures, "cultural and creative activity contributed to 112 billion (6.4% of GDP) to Australia's economy in 2016–17".


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: Beginning in the second week of March 2020, Australian institutions began announcing reduced services, and then complete closures. One of the first casualties was the Melbourne International Comedy Festival, with organisers announcing on 13 March 2020 that the 2020 festival had been cancelled entirely. Opera Australia announced it would close on 15 March. The national closure of all cultural institutions was mandated on 24 March, with subsequent restrictions on public gatherings. Consequently, many cultural events were also cancelled, including the Sydney Writers' Festival. According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, by the beginning of April, "Arts and Recreation services" was the sector of the national economy with the smallest proportion of its business still in operation—at 47%. A graph in "Guardian Australia" showing businesses by sector that had ceased trading between June 2019 and 30 March 2020 shows over 50% of arts and recreation services, the hardest hit of any sector (information media and telecommunications is next, at about 34%). Adrian Collette, CEO of the Australia Council for the Arts, the government's arts funding and advisory body, described the impact on the cultural and creative sectors as "catastrophic".


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: The Australian film industry has been severely impacted, with at least 60 shoots being halted and about 20,000 people out of work. On Monday 23 March, all productions funded by Screen Australia were postponed. , after some improvement in COVID-19 statistics in Australia, Screen Australia continues to fund work and process applications, intending to use all of its 2019–20 budget. Film industry organisations such as Screen Producers Australia (SPA) and the Media, Entertainment and Arts Alliance (MEAA) have been lobbying the government for a support package specific to the screen industry, and to expand the JobKeeper requirements so that those in the screen industry are better covered. Many in the film industry are employed by Special-purpose entitys—temporary companies that cease trading once production has finished—which cannot easily prove that their turnover has fallen by 30% or more. SPA said that the industry shutdown had cost more than 500 million, with about 20 million of lost export revenue.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: One hundred and nineteen films and TV shows have been halted, with only a few shows (such as "MasterChef Australia" and "Shaun Micallef's Mad as Hell") continuing production through the pandemic. The TV soap "Neighbours" was the first English-language TV drama series in the world to announce that resumption of production would begin soon after 20 April 2020.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: Like other governments around the world, the Australian government has acknowledged the economic, cultural and social value of the arts industry. The Australia Council has redirected about 5 million to "new programs designed to provide immediate relief to Australian artists, arts workers and arts organisations to support their livelihoods, practice and operations during the COVID-19 pandemic" (the "Resilience Fund"), and is also hosting weekly meetings to address the concerns of specific sections of the industry, such as Indigenous creatives and organisations, live performance and public gatherings, and various peak bodies. Several state governments have also provided relief packages.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: In early April, the federal government announced a package of 27 million in specific arts funding: 7 million for the Indigenous Visual Arts Industry Support program, 10 million for Regional Arts Australia's regional arts fund, and 10 million for Support Act, a charity founded in 1997 that provides financial support and counselling to people in the music industry in Australia. However, the "JobKeeper" scheme specifically excluded "freelancers and casuals on short-term contracts, or who have worked for a series of employers in the last year", thus excluding a large proportion of arts and cultural sector professionals, who rely on short-term contracts.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: However, most of the arts sector's more than 193,000 workers were still unable to access the JobKeeper payments, despite being defined as sole traders, and an estimated 330 million worth of paid performances cancelled. The Australia Institute recommended a 750 million rescue package for the industry, while Arts Minister Paul Fletcher said that arts workers should utilise existing support measures.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On 4 May 2020, the company operating the Carriageworks multi-arts venue in Sydney declared it would be entering voluntary administration and closing, citing an "irreparable loss of income" due to government bans on events during the COVID-19 pandemic and the consequent negative impact on the arts sector. Carriageworks was the first major arts venue in the country to collapse suddenly after the hit to income caused by the strict social distancing rules enforced by state and federal governments, but others feared the same fate, after being forced to shut their doors in late March.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On 24 June 2020, the federal government announced a $250 million rescue package for the arts, comprising grants and loans. The package includes $75m for a grants program for new festivals, concerts, tours and events; $90m in loans to help fund new productions; $50m to help film and television producers unable to access insurance due to the pandemic, to enable them to restart production; and $35 million in direct financial assistance for struggling Commonwealth-funded organisations, including theatre, dance, music and circus. The Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) welcomed the boost, but critics said that it was not nearly enough, especially with so many workers in the industry still ineligible for JobKeeper payments.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On 3 March 2020, the Reserve Bank of Australia became the first central bank to cut interest rates in response to the outbreak. Official interest rates were cut by 0.25% to a record low of 0.5%.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On 12 March, the federal government announced a planned 17.6 billion stimulus package. The package consists of multiple parts: a one-off payment to pensioners, social security recipients, veteran and other income support recipients and eligible concession card holders, payments of 2,000–25,000 to affected small businesses, an increase to the threshold for the Instant Asset Write-off Program, tax concessions for investments, a small business 50% wage subsidy for 120,000 trainees and apprentices, and 1 billion in subsidies for heavily affected industries.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On 17 March, the New South Wales government announced a A$2.3 billion stimulus package, including A$700 million for health services. A$450 million was allocated to waive payroll tax for 3 months, and $250 million was allocated so state-owned buildings and public schools could employ more cleaners. Seven hundred and fifty million dollars was allocated for capital works and public asset maintenance.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On 18 March, the Northern Territory government announced an economic stimulus package of A$60 million.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On 19 March, the Reserve Bank again cut interest rates by a further 0.25%, from 0.5% to 0.25%, the lowest in Australian history.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: In March 2020, the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) began releasing a number of additional statistical products to assess the economic impacts on the outbreak on the Australian economy. Data on retail trade turnover indicated a 0.4% rise in turnover in February 2020. Negative effects on some areas of the retail sector (particularly tourism-dependent businesses) were offset by a rise in food retail turnover, with supermarkets showing a large rise in sales, mainly arising from panic buying.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On 22 March, the Federal government announced a second stimulus package of A$66 billion, increasing the amount of total financial package offered to A$89 billion. This included several new measures like an extra 550 'Coronavirus Supplement' payment to those on income support, paid from 27 April to 24 September 2020, and relaxed eligibility criteria for individuals on JobSeeker Payment, granting A$100,000 to small and medium-sized businesses and A$715 million to Australian airports and airlines. It also allowed individuals affected by the outbreak to access up to A$10,000 of their superannuation during 2019–2020 and also being able to take an additional same amount for the next year.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On 30 March, the Australian Government announced a six-month, A$130 billion JobKeeper payment. The JobKeeper payment provides businesses with up to A$1,500 a fortnight per full-time or part-time employee, or casual employee that has worked for that business for over a year. To be eligible, a business with an annual revenue of under 1 billion must have lost 30% turnover since 1 March, or 50% for businesses over 1 billion. The entire payment made to businesses for an employee must then, by law, be paid to that employee in lieu of normal pay. This response came after the enormous job losses seen just a week prior when an estimated 1 million Australians lost their jobs. The program was backdated to 1 March with the aim of re-employing many people who had lost their jobs in the weeks before. In the first hour of the scheme, over 8,000 businesses registered to receive the payments. The program is one of the largest economic packages ever implemented in modern Australian history. JobKeeper ended on 28 March 2021.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On 11 April, the South Australian state government announced its own A$350 million economic stimulus measures.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: In late April, the Federal government announced A$94.6 million of support was available for zoos, wildlife parks and aquariums forced to close by coronavirus restrictions. This was part of previously announced economic stimulus measures.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: The 2020 Federal Budget, normally delivered in May, was delayed until 6 October because of the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On 22 May 2020, the Treasury and Australian Taxation Office announced there had been a miscalculation of 60 billion in the planned cost of the JobKeeper program. Blaming 1,000 businesses for making "significant errors" on the application form, the Australian Government revealed it had overbudgeted the program, and that it was forecast to cost 70 billion, not 130 billion. The Treasury also announced that its original forecast of 6.5 million recipients was inaccurate, and closer to 3.5 million. Prime Minister Scott Morrison celebrated the saving, while the Opposition announced a parliamentary inquiry in an attempt to compel Treasurer Josh Frydenberg to explain the overestimation.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: In July 2020, Australian Finance Minister Mathias Cormann, in an interview with the US CNBC news channel, vowed that the government's budget deficit was expected to increase to A$85.8 billion Australian dollars in the financial year ended on 30 June and further widen to A$184.5 billion in the new fiscal year.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On 2 September, the Australian economy went into recession for the first time in nearly thirty years. The country's gross domestic product (GDP) fell 7 per cent in the June quarter. In December, it was announced Australia had pulled out of recession after experiencing a 3.3% growth in GDP in the September quarter. Treasurer Josh Frydenberg stated the effects of the recession had lasting impacts and the recovery was far from over. Australia is set to avoid an economic depression as forecast earlier in 2020, though GDP is likely to have experienced a contraction from 2019 figures.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On 17 November 2020, the NSW Government announced in the state budget that all NSW residents over 18 years of age would be eligible to receive four A$25 vouchers through Service NSW to help stimulate the economy. Two vouchers are for dining, Monday to Thursday only, excluding public holidays. The other two are to be spent on entertainment, excluding on public holidays. Businesses need to be COVID-safe registered, and sign-up for the scheme. The vouchers cannot be used for gambling, alcohol, cigarettes, retail purchases or accommodation. The program was originally called "Out and About".


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: Residents will need to have a Service NSW account to receive their vouchers. After trials in Sydney and regional areas, full rollout was scheduled for March. The trials began in Broken Hill, and the Rocks in Sydney on 11 February 2021.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: As early as mid-April 2021, the scheme was said by some regional NSW residents to be "city centric'. At this time, the vouchers had been used by less than 10% of the 5 million who can use it. There were calls by NSW opposition political parties for the scheme to be extended beyond its initial 30 June 2021 deadline to use the vouchers. On 9 June 2021, the Dine & Discover scheme was extended by a month to 31 July. The scheme was then extended again to 31 August due to the lockdown in NSW, and then eventually to 30 June 2022. In November 2021, two extra vouchers were granted, one for dining and one for entertainment.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On 22 February 2021, Prime Minister Scott Morrison announced that the JobSeeker Payment base rate would be increased by A$50 a fortnight from April 2021. The payment will rise to A$614 a fortnight, with an estimated cost over forward estimates of A$9 billion. It is also intended to increase the threshold amount recipients can earn before their payment starts to be reduced.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On 26 February 2021, the chief executive of the Australian Airports Association, James Goodwin, said that Australian airports had been losing A$320 million every month during the COVID-19 pandemic. He also said over the past 12 months, job losses amounted to 25 per cent of the airports' workforce.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On 10 March 2021, the Federal Government announced steps worth A$1.2 billion to encourage Australians to holiday within Australia to assist ailing tourist destinations. Between April and July, up to 800,000 airfares to 13 regions normally favoured by international tourists will be halved for domestic travellers.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On 3 June 2021, the Federal Government announced that people who lose work as a result of lockdowns, of at least 7 days' length, may be eligible for a A$325 or A$500 per week Temporary COVID Disaster Payment. To be eligible:


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: To get the full A$500 payment, the lost work must be at least 20 hours. If the lost work is under 20 hours, the payment is $325.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: Victoria announced A$30 million of financial support on 7 June 2021 for residents "locked out of work" by COVID lockdowns. The Victorian government also extended it emergency "hardship support payment" to October. This helps those on temporary or provisional visas who are not able get income from the Commonwealth.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: The pandemic had significant negative effect on the Australian labour market. In July 2019, unemployment was 5.1%, by July 2020 it peaked at 7.5%, during the pandemic, by the end of 2020 it had fallen to 6.6%. Figures for February to March 2021, released in April, showed unemployment had reduced to 5.8%, 0.4 points higher than at the start to the pandemic.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: In September 2020, a report from Ernst & Young stated that pandemic related border restrictions could result in a shortfall of 26,000 pickers over Australia's summer harvest season. Such work is typically reliant on seasonal staff from overseas. As a trial in early September 2020, 160 workers from Vanuatu were allowed into the Northern Territory (NT) to pick mangoes. They arrived on a specially chartered aircraft, and had to undergo the usual 14-day quarantine. It was estimated that the Vanuatuan workers saved A$100 million of fruit from the NT mango harvest being left to rot. The mango industry in the NT was valued at more than A$128 million in 2019, and produces more than half of Australia's mangoes.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On 30 September 2020, PM Scott Morrison announced that: "backpackers, Pacific Islanders and seasonal workers will be able to extend their visas to stay in Australia" and "welfare recipients will be offered incentives to pick fruit."


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: In late October 2020, some farmers found that they had to plough their produce back into the ground because it could not be harvested, at a loss of A$150,000.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: The "Relocation Assistance to Take Up a Job" (RATTUAJ) program, scheduled to run from 1 November 2020 to 31 December 2021, offered A$6,000 for transport, moving expenses, accommodation and work clothing for welfare recipients willing to relocate to a regional area for a minimum of 6 weeks for short term agricultural jobs. Up to early December 2020, the relocation incentives for unemployed Australians appeared to be failing. After operating for a month, Federal Department of Employment figures showed only 148 people had taken up the offer.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: Shortage of workers for harvesting can not only mean unpicked produce being left to rot or be ploughed back into fields, and farmers possibly not planting the next year, it creates an economic loss to those farmers, and can also noticeably increase prices for consumers.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: To encourage potential workers to return to Australia, on 19 January 2022, the Australian Government offered to repay visa fees, about A$600, to backpackers on working holiday-maker visas, who come to Australia in the following 12 weeks, and to international students who arrive within the following 8 weeks. There are about 23,000 backpackers and 150,000 students who have a visa but are not in Australia.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: In 2020, due to international travel restrictions, social distancing and lockdowns because of the COVID-19 pandemic, the rate of influenza in Australia, and deaths from it, were at "record lows". In mid-June 2021 the flu was said to be almost non-existent. In May 2019 there were over 30,000 cases, in May 2021, only 71. Professor Ian Barr of the Peter Doherty Institute remarked that influenza was "either eradicated, or it's at such low levels we're having trouble detect it." 2019 in Australia was particularly bad with 800 flu deaths, below 40 in 2020, and no reported deaths as of June 2021.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On 4 February 2021, World Cancer Day, the government organisation Cancer Australia said that in 2020 between January and September, there were nearly 150,000 less diagnostic tests for cancer performed, compared to the same period in 2019.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders have poorer health outcomes and a lower life expectancy than the non-Indigenous Australian population, particularly those living in remote areas, and along with overcrowded housing and many living in very remote communities, makes them one of the communities most vulnerable to the virus. The remote Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara (APY lands) in South Australia, whose population has many comorbidities, high rates of tobacco use, overcrowded housing and overall poor hygiene, introduced restricted access to the lands in early March to protect their people, especially elders, from the virus. The Minister for Indigenous Australians, Ken Wyatt, said it was a sensible move, and that the federal government would work with them. (A later call to evacuate elders to Adelaide by the APY Art Centre Collective was not put into operation.)


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: The federal government set up a national Indigenous advisory group in early March 2020, to create an emergency response plan for Aboriginal communities. The 43-page plan was published in March, and in late March, the Prime Minister that advised that Indigenous Australians over the age of 50 (along with everyone over 70 and those with a chronic illness over 60), should stay at home as much as possible. The Department of Health created a web page dedicated to advice for Indigenous people and remote communities, and the National Indigenous Australians Agency has one dedicated to the government's response to COVID-19. On 18 April the NIAA announced a government package of 123 million of "targeted measures to support Indigenous businesses and communities to increase their responses to COVID-19", for the coming two financial years.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: The Northern Territory developed a remote health pandemic plan, with NT Health setting up a number of remote clinics across the Territory. All non-essential travel to 76 remote communities was banned, and a 14-day isolation period imposed for those residents wanting to return home from regional centres, and in May 2020, health officials suggested that these controls should stay in place for the foreseeable future. In mid-March 2020 a group of senior NT clinicians called for 16 measures to be implemented as soon as possible to help protect vulnerable communities. Other states and territories have provided advice on their health agency websites.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: In May 2020 a group of Paakantyi families set up a tent town on the banks of the Darling River near Wilcannia in New South Wales, to escape the threat of the disease from overcrowded accommodation in the town.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: In late August 2021 a man in his 50s who died at Dubbo Hospital, is believed to be the first Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander COVID-19 related death. He was not vaccinated. By 7 September 2021, there had been 2 more deaths of indigenous Australians, who were also not vaccinated.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: The pandemic has created shortages of some medications since it began, initially related to panic buying. The most commonly used antidepressant in Australia, sertraline, is one of many such as the brand Zoloft, that have been affected by a global shortage. Olmesartan and irbesartan, both blood pressure medications were short in Australia as were hormone replacement therapy (HRT) patches and carbimazole, a thyroid medication. As of February 2021 the contraceptive pill "Norimin" (norethisterone) was hard for pharmacists to acquire, supply had been intermittent for 6–12 months. Shortages of Norimin and Brevinor, both Pfizer products, were reported in August 2020 and first predicted to last until December 2020, the shortage was then expected by the TGA "to be resolved in March or April 2021". In the case of sertraline a Serious Shortage Substitution Notice (SSSN) was issued by the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA). SSSNs were also issued in Australia for Prazosin (blood pressure), Metformin (diabetes), and Estradot (HRT), which in theory allows substitutions like issuing twice the number of tablets in place of the prescribed tablets, without a new prescription, but with the patients' consent. Chris Moy, Vice President of the Australian Medical Association (AMA) said medicine shortages in Australia were a "pre-existing problem" before COVID-19.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: Moy also said "A lot of our medications are made in China and India. Sovereign capability and protecting supply of our medications is something that should be seriously considered."


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: The TGA gave short-term approval for the import of some medicines that are "not on the Australian Register of Therapeutic Goods (ARTG) that are approved for import and supply in Australia because: there is a shortage of a medicine registered in Australia; and the medicine is needed in the interest of public health."


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: In 2020, local council elections were impacted by the pandemic. In Victoria candidates could only campaign online. NSW elections due in September were postponed a year.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: In 2021, NSW local council elections due on 4 September, already postponed from 2020, were postponed again to 4 December due to a wave of Delta variant infections that caused numerous lockdowns in the state.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On 31 January 2021, Federal politicians flying into Canberra from Western Australia had to quarantine for five days when a sudden lockdown was declared in Perth and two adjoining regions. Federal Parliament was scheduled to resume on 2 February.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On 26 July 2021 it was announced that, from 2 August, Parliament House in Canberra would come under COVID-19 restrictions to "minimise non-essential activity" for the next legislative sitting that day. All public galleries were closed and the general public was unable to enter the building. The number of politicians attending, and their staff, was "substantially reduced" and remote participation technology was used. Physical distancing returned. Use of the Check-in CBR app was extended to all food and beverage venues open under takeaway only restrictions. The restrictions lasted until 3 September.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: Throughout 2020 and 2021, several protests against COVID-19 lockdown restrictions were held in several state capitals including Adelaide, Brisbane, Melbourne, Perth and Sydney. In addition, protests were held in February 2021 against the Federal Government's national vaccine programmme. Police responded to these protests by arresting demonstrators and issuing fines.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: The major sporting leagues (A-League, AFL, AFL Women's, and the National Rugby League) initially stated that their 2020 seasons would not be suspended but would continue behind closed doors, with some games being played under those conditions. However, all the leagues were later suspended.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: Initially the 2020 Stawell Gift was postponed until later in the year; however, in May it was cancelled entirely for 2020.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: The 2020 AFL season was initially curtailed to a maximum of 17 games, with clubs expected to take at least a 10% revenue hit from coronavirus related issues. However, on 22 March, just before the end of round 1 of the 2020 season, AFL CEO Gillon McLachlan announced that the AFL season would be suspended until at least 31 May, citing the shutting of state borders as the primary cause for this decision. The AFL season restarted on 11 June, with the Grand Final being played on 24 October at the Gabba in Brisbane, Queensland, the first Grand Final to be held outside Victoria. The 2020 AFL Women's season was cancelled midway through the finals series, with no premiership awarded to any team.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: The 2020–2021 playoffs were shortened and the 2021–2022 season of the Australian Baseball League was cancelled due to travel restrictions and Victoria being in lockdown, respectively.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: The 2020 NBL Finals began with game two, although it was stated that the competition would be immediately suspended if any participants were to be diagnosed. The best of five series was subsequently cancelled after the third game was played with the title awarded to Perth Wildcats.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: The remaining two One Day Internationals between Australia and New Zealand in March 2020 were cancelled, and the first match was played without spectators. Cricket Australia also cancelled the Australian women's cricket team's tour of South Africa due to the virus.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: The first major sporting event in Australia to be affected was the 2020 Australian Grand Prix, which was cancelled on 13 March 2020 after McLaren withdrew when a team member tested positive for COVID-19. This was also enforced on the support races which included the 2020 Melbourne 400, which was the second round of the 2020 Supercars Championship to be cancelled. The 2021 Australian Grand Prix was postponed from its original March date to November to allow for the easing of travel restrictions. On 6 July 2021, it was cancelled for the second consecutive year due to "restrictions and logistical challenges" related to the pandemic.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: Following the implementation of travel restrictions by New Zealand, the Australian Rugby League Commission (ARLC) announced that the New Zealand Warriors would be based in Australia for the foreseeable future. The 2020 season was suspended indefinitely on 23 March. Chairman of the ARLC Peter V'landys requested a government bailout for the National Rugby League, a request that was struck down, and caused a considerable negative reaction.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On 22 April 2020, the NRL announced that they planned for the season to restart on 28 May, with training beginning on 4 May, and has planned for 18 rounds (giving a 20-round season) and a State of Origin series, with the Grand Final rescheduled for 25 October.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: The NRL season recommenced on 28 May 2020 with a round 3 game played in Brisbane between the Brisbane Broncos and Parramatta Eels. The match was played behind closed doors without any crowd, although the broadcasters (Channel 9 and Fox Sports) used fake crowd noise during the broadcast. The return match rated highly on TV as it was the first TV match of a team sport in Australia for 8 weeks. The Grand Final was played in front of a limited crowd on 25 October at ANZ Stadium.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: The 2020 State of Origin series took place after the NRL season, with Game 3 holding a capacity crowd at Brisbane's Suncorp Stadium.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: The 2020 Super Rugby season was suspended following the conclusion of play on 15 March 2020, due to the outbreak and the imposition of mandatory quarantine for international travellers to New Zealand.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: In 2020, the A-League initially announced a continuation of the league with the Wellington Phoenix being based in Australia; however, on 24 March 2020, suspended the remaining matches indefinitely. On 17 July, the season resumed in a NSW-based hub, where the season finished with the Grand Final occurring at Bankwest Stadium on 30 August in front of a limited crowd.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: The 2020 Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race was cancelled on 19 December due to an outbreak in the Greater Sydney region.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: Economic modelling in May 2020 by Tourism Research Australia predicted that the domestic tourism industry would drop in value from A$138billion to $83billion.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On 2 October 2020, Prime Minister Morrison announced that the Australian Government had formalised a deal allowing New Zealanders "one-way quarantine-free travel" into New South Wales and the Northern Territory from 16 October as part of initial steps to establish a "travel bubble" between the two countries. However, New Zealand Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern has ruled out extending reciprocal "quarantine-free travel" for Australians in order to contain the spread of COVID-19 into New Zealand.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On 17 October 2020, Stuff reported that 17 New Zealanders who had entered New South Wales traveled to Melbourne despite Victoria not being a party to the travel bubble arrangement with New Zealand. The Victorian Department of Health and Human Services confirmed the arrival of the group but stated that it did not have the authority to detain them. In response, Victorian Premier Daniel Andrews threatened to close his state's borders unless the Australian Federal Government blocked travellers using the Trans-Tasman bubble from traveling to Victoria. The Federal Government has disagreed with the Victorian Government's stance. In addition, New South Wales Premier Gladys Berejiklian announced that her government would not prevent New Zealand passengers from travelling to Victoria.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On 11 December 2020, the Premier of Queensland Annastacia Palaszczuk announced that her state would open its borders to travelers from New Zealand from 1:00 am the following day (12 December), exempting them from quarantine restrictions.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On 14 December 2020, the New Zealand Prime Minister Ardern announced that the New Zealand Government had approved plans to establish a quarantine free travel bubble with Australia in the first quarter of 2021. Australian Health Minister Greg Hunt welcomed the move, describing it as the "first step" in normalising international travel and reiterated the Australian Government's support for measures to establish the travel bubble.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On 25 January 2021, the Federal government immediately suspended the ability of New Zealanders to travel to Australia that they had since 16 October 2020, without quarantining, for at least 72 hours. This followed the discovery of a NZ resident with the SARS-CoV-2 Beta variant. The woman was not known to be infectious, having twice tested negative to COVID-19 before leaving quarantine, then visited many places in northern NZ, but she was then found to have the new strain.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On 19 April 2021, Australians were allowed quarantine-free travel to New Zealand for the first time in more than a year. To fly under the bubble's rules, passengers must have spent 14 days before departure in either Australia or New Zealand; however, they are not required to spend the full 14-day period or more in the other country, i.e. a person has spent at least 14 days in Australia, flies to New Zealand and returns to Australia after 7 days. They must not be awaiting the results of a COVID-19 test, nor have any COVID-19 symptoms, amongst other criteria.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: In late August 2021, the state of South Australia launched an app with facial recognition software that Australians subject to mandatory 14-day quarantines can opt to use in lieu of being quarantined at a hotel under police guard. The app randomly prompts users to take a picture of their face and submit geo-location data within 15 minutes of the prompt to prove to the South Australian government that the user is in an approved location. Users who refuse to comply or who fail to respond to a prompt within 15 minutes are checked on by local police and may be subject to fines.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: On 19 April 2020, Australia questioned China's handling of the pandemic, questioned the transparency of its disclosures, and demanded an international investigation into the origins of the virus and its spread. The Chinese Ambassador Cheng Jingye, in a rare breach of diplomatic protocol, leaked details of his telephone conversation with Frances Adamson, Secretary of Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, on the embassy website. He warned that the demand for an inquiry could result in a consumer boycott of students and tourists visiting Australia, and could affect sales of major exports. A trade dispute involving improperly labelled beef and barley dumping ensued, which seriously affected Australian exports. On 26 August 2020, China's deputy ambassador to Australia, Wang Xining, expressed that Australia's co-proposal for an independent investigation into the causes of the pandemic "hurts the feelings of the Chinese people" during his address to the National Press Club of Australia.


title: COVID-19 pandemic in Australia

text: Numerous events in 2020 and 2021 were cancelled, rescheduled, postponed, reduced in size, or had their location changed. Some went to an online or streaming format. In 2021, events such as Skyfire, regional agricultural shows, and music festivals (Byron Bay Bluesfest and Groovin the Moo) were cancelled for the second year. By 16 January 2021, twenty regional town shows scheduled for January or February 2021 had been postponed or cancelled in New South Wales alone. Many subsequent events were cancelled deep into 2021 and even into early 2022, especially as the new Omicron variant posed new risks.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: Cosmopolitanism is the idea that all human beings are members of a single community. Its adherents are known as cosmopolitan or cosmopolite. Cosmopolitanism is both prescriptive and aspirational, believing humans can and should be "world citizens" in a "universal community". The idea encompasses different dimensions and avenues of community, such as promoting universal moral standards, establishing global political structures, or developing a platform for mutual cultural expression and tolerance.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: For example, Kwame Anthony Appiah articulates a cosmopolitan community where individuals from varying locations (physical, economic, etc.) enter relationships of mutual respect despite their differing beliefs (religious, political, etc.). By comparison, Immanuel Kant envisioned a cosmopolitan world where armies were abolished and humans were governed under a representative global institution. In all instances, proponents of cosmopolitanism share an emphasis that all humans should form one cohesive and united community.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: In a looser but related sense, "cosmopolitan" is also used to describe places where people of various ethnic, cultural and/or religious backgrounds live together and interact with each other.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: The word derives from the , or "kosmopolitês", formed from "", "kosmos", i.e. "world", "universe", or "cosmos", and , ""politês"", i.e. "citizen" or "[one] of a city". Contemporary usage defines the term as "citizen of the world".


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: Definitions of cosmopolitanism usually begin with the Greek etymology of "citizen of the world". However, as Appiah points out, "world" in the original sense meant "cosmos" or "universe", not earth or globe as current use assumes. One definition that handles this issue is given in a recent book on political globalization:


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: Cosmopolitanism can be defined as a global politics that, firstly, projects a sociality of common political engagement among all human beings across the globe, and, secondly, suggests that this sociality should be either ethically or organizationally privileged over other forms of sociality.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: The Chinese term "tianxia" (all under Heaven), a metonym for empire, has also been re-interpreted in the modern age as a conception of cosmopolitanism, and was used by 1930s modernists as the title of a Shanghai-based, English-language journal of world arts and letters, "T'ien Hsia Monthly". Multilingual modern Chinese writers such as Lin Yutang, Wen Yuan-ning also translated cosmopolitanism using the now more common term "shijie zhuyi" (ideology of world[liness]).


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: Cosmopolitanism can be traced back to Diogenes of Sinope (c. 412 B.C.), the founder of the Cynic movement in Ancient Greece. It was said that when Diogenes was "Asked where he came from, he answered: 'I am a citizen of the world ("kosmopolitês")'". At the time, the broadest basis of social identity among Greeks was either the individual city-state or the culturally and linguistically homogenous "Hellenic" group.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: Stoicism, another Greek school of thought that was founded roughly a century later, built upon Diogenes' idea, with many of its thinkers and adherents stressing that each human being "dwells [...] in two communities – the local community of our birth, and the community of human argument and aspiration". A common way to understand Stoic cosmopolitanism is through Hierocles' circle model of identity, which states that individuals should regard themselves as concentric circles: the first one around the self, followed by immediate family, extended family, local group, citizens, countrymen, humanity. Within these circles human beings feel a sense of "affinity" or "endearment" towards others, which the Stoics termed "Oikeiôsis". The task of world citizens becomes then to "draw the circles somehow towards the centre, making all human beings more like our fellow city dwellers, and so forth".


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: In his 1795 essay Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch, Immanuel Kant stages a "ius cosmopoliticum" (cosmopolitan law/right) as a guiding principle to help global society achieve permanent, enduring peace. Kant's cosmopolitan right stems from an understanding of all human beings as equal members of a universal community. Cosmopolitan right thus works in tandem with international political rights, and the shared, universal right of humanity.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: Kant's cosmopolitan right is fundamentally bound to the conditions of universal hospitality and the right of resort. Universal hospitality is defined as the right to be welcomed upon arrival in foreign territory, but is contingent on a guest arriving in a peaceful manner. Kant makes the additional claim that all human beings have the basic right of resort: the right to present oneself in a foreign land. The right of resort is derived from Kant's understanding of the Earth's surface as essentially communal, and further emphasizing his claims on equally shared universal rights among all human beings.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: The philosophical concepts of Emmanuel Levinas, on ethics, and Jacques Derrida, on hospitality, provide a theoretical framework for the relationships between people in their everyday lives and apart from any form of written laws or codes. For Levinas, the foundation of ethics consists in the obligation to respond to the Other. In Being for the Other, he writes that there is no "universal moral law," only the sense of responsibility (goodness, mercy, charity) that the Other, in a state of vulnerability, calls forth. The proximity of the Other is an important part of Levinas's concept: the face of the Other is what compels the response.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: For Derrida, the foundation of ethics is hospitality, the readiness and the inclination to welcome the Other into one's home. Ethics, he claims, is hospitality. Pure, unconditional hospitality is a desire that underscores the conditional hospitality necessary in our relationships with others. Levinas's and Derrida's theories of ethics and hospitality hold out the possibility of an acceptance of the Other as different but of equal standing. Isolation is not a feasible alternative in the world, therefore, it is important to consider how best to approach these interactions, and to determine what is at stake for ourselves and the others: what conditions of hospitality to impose, and whether or not we have responded to the call of the Other. Further, both theories reveal the importance of considering how best to interact with the Other and others, and what is at stake.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: A further state of cosmopolitanism occurred after the Second World War. As a reaction to the Holocaust and other atrocities, the concept of crimes against humanity became a generally accepted category in international law. This clearly shows the appearance and acceptance of a notion of individual responsibility that is considered to exist toward all of humankind.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: Philosophical cosmopolitans are moral universalists: they believe that all humans, and not merely compatriots or fellow-citizens, come under the same moral standards. The boundaries between nations, states, cultures or societies are therefore morally irrelevant. A widely cited example of a contemporary cosmopolitan is Kwame Anthony Appiah.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: Some philosophers and scholars argue that the objective and subjective conditions arising in today's unique historical moment, an emerging planetary phase of civilization, creates a latent potential for the emergence of a cosmopolitan identity as global citizens and possible formation of a global citizens movement. These emerging objective and subjective conditions in the planetary phase include improved and affordable telecommunications; space travel and the first images of our fragile planet floating in the vastness of space; the emergence of global warming and other ecological threats to our collective existence; new global institutions such as the United Nations, World Trade Organization, or International Criminal Court; the rise of transnational corporations and integration of markets often termed economic globalization; the emergence of global NGOs and transnational social movements, such as the World Social Forum; and so on. Globalization, a more common term, typically refers more narrowly to the economic and trade relations and misses the broader cultural, social, political, environmental, demographic, values and knowledge transitions taking place.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: A number of contemporary theorists propose, directly and indirectly, various ways of becoming or being a cosmopolitan individual.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: Thich Nhat Hanh discusses what he calls "Interbeing" as a way of living one's life in relation to others; "Interbeing" might easily be compared to cosmopolitanism. Nhat Hanh's philosophical beliefs are grounded in the precepts of Buddhist teachings, which involve compassion and understanding to protect and live in harmony with all people, animals, plants, and minerals. He further describes what he calls "Mindfulness Training of the Order of Interbeing" as being aware of sufferings created by, but not limited to, the following causes: fanaticism and intolerances that disrupt compassion and living in harmony with others; indoctrination of narrow-minded beliefs; imposition of views; anger; and miscommunication. Understanding and compassion for others seems to be achieved by the understanding of others' suffering and the root causes of suffering. Therefore, to be responsible is to recognize and understand suffering, which then leads to compassion. It is through this process that others can be recognized as people.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: Other theorists, philosophers, and activists contend that recognizing suffering is necessary to end violence. In "Scared Sacred", Velcrow Ripper takes a journey to different sites of great suffering that ultimately leads him toward developing compassion. In "The Planet", Paul Gilroy explores how the construction and naturalization of race and the hierarchies produced by difference shape the hatred of others. It is the deconstruction of these ideologies that can lead to the compassion and humanization of others. Thus individual responsibility is being aware of what Judith Butler calls the precariousness of life in self and other; being a cosmopolitan seems to be, above all, a social, ethical enterprise.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: In "Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a World of Strangers", Kwame Anthony Appiah notes how social ethics seem to operate: Whatever obligation one might have to another, especially a foreign other, that obligation does not supersede the obligations one has to those people most familiar to them. However, as Judith Butler questions, "at what cost do I establish the familiar as the criterion" for valuing others? If one values the familiar more than the foreign, what are the consequences? Paul Gilroy offers a possible alternative to this emphasis on familiarity arguing that "methodical cultivation of a degree of estrangement from one's own culture and history ... might qualify as essential to a cosmopolitan commitment." This estrangement entails a "process of exposure to otherness" in order to foster "the irreducible value of diversity within sameness." Estrangement, therefore, could lead to de-emphasising the familiar in ethics by integrating otherness.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: For Gilroy, being cosmopolitan seems to involve both a social, ethical enterprise and a cultural enterprise. In "The Planet", Gilroy describes the cases of Tom Hurndall and Rachel Corrie; each seems to exemplify what might be considered Gilroy's figure of the cosmopolitan. Both Hurndall and Corrie removed themselves (geographically) from their home cultures, presumably both physically and mentally estranging themselves from their own cultures and histories. Hurndall and Corrie were both killed in 2003 (in separate incidents). Gilroy's model of estrangement might actually undermine itself through its examples; this might be construed as a failure of Gilroy's theory to address the practical difficulties of estranging oneself from the familiar.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: The Venus Project, an international, multidisciplinary educational organization created by Jacque Fresco, works to spread cosmopolitan ideas by transcending artificial boundaries currently separating people and emphasizing an understanding of our interdependence with nature and each other.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: Some forms of cosmopolitanism also fail to address the potential for economic colonization by powerful countries over less powerful ones. Frantz Fanon, in "The Wretched of the Earth", observes that when nations achieved independence from European colonizers, frequently there was no system in place to secure their economic future, and they became "manager[s] for Western enterprise...in practise set[ting] up its country as the brothel of Europe." When "third world" nations are drawn into economic partnerships with global capital, ostensibly to improve their national quality of life, often the only ones benefitting from this partnership are well-placed individuals and not the nation itself.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: Further, Mahmood Mamdani in "Good Muslim, Bad Muslim" suggests that the imposition of Western cultural norms, democracy and Christianity to name only two, has historically resulted in nationalist violence; however, Appiah has implied that democracy is a pre-requisite for cosmopolitan intervention in developing nations. Cosmopolitanism, in these instances, appears to be a new form of colonization: the powerful exploit the weak and the weak eventually fight back.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: Much of the political thinking of the last two centuries has taken nationalism and the framework of the sovereign nation-state for granted. With the advance of globalization and the increased facility of travel and communication, some thinkers consider that the political system based on the nation-state has become obsolete and that it is time to design a better and more efficient alternative. Jesús Mosterín analyzes how the world political system should be organized in order to maximize individual freedom and individual opportunity. Rejecting as muddled the metaphysical notion of free will, he focuses on political freedom, the absence of coercion or interference by others in personal decisions. Because of the tendencies to violence and aggression that lurk in human nature, some constraint on freedom is necessary for peaceful and fruitful social interaction.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: Especially, there is no rational ground for curtailing the cultural freedoms (of language, religion and customs) in the name of the nation, the church, or the party. From this point of view, the Internet provides a much more attractive model than the nation-state. Neither is there any just reason for restraining the free circulation of people, ideas, or goods. Mosterín thinks that the nation-state is incompatible with the full development of freedom, whose blossoming requires the reorganization of the world political system along cosmopolitan lines. He proposes a world without sovereign nation-states, territorially organized in small autonomous but not-sovereign cantonal polities, complemented by strong world organizations. He emphasizes the difference between international institutions, led by representatives of the national governments, and world or universal institutions, with clearly defined aims served by directors selected by their personal qualifications, independently of any national bias or proportion.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: Criticizing the abstract nature of most versions of cosmopolitanism, Charles Blattberg has argued that any viable cosmopolitanism must be "rooted," by which he means based upon a "global patriotism."


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: More general philosophical reviews of cosmopolitanism and multiculturalism are also available. Carol Nicholson compares John Searle's opposition to multiculturalism with Charles Taylor's celebration of it. She uses Richard Rorty as a triangulation point in that he remains neutral about multiculturalism, but his philosophical analysis of truth and practice can be deployed to argue against Searle and in favor of Taylor. At a conference on "Philosophy in a Multicultural Context", Rasmus Winther excavated the philosophical assumptions and practices connected with cosmopolitanism and multiculturalism. He develops Bruno Latour's conception of the philosopher as public diplomat.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: Emile Durkheim (1858–1917) observed the development of what he called the 'cult of the individual', which is a new religion that replaced the Christianity that was dying out, and which is centered around the sacredness of human dignity. This new religion would provide the new foundations of Western society, and these foundations are closely related to human rights and individual nation's constitutions. A society's sacred object would be the individual's human dignity, and the moral code guiding the society is found in that country's way of interpreting human dignity and human rights. Thus, rather than finding solidarity through national culture, or a particular traditional religious doctrine, society would be unified by its adherence to political values, i.e. individual rights and a defence of human dignity. Durkheim's cult of the individual has many similarities to John Rawls' political liberalism, which Rawls developed almost a century after Durkheim.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: Ulrich Beck (May 15, 1944 – January 1, 2015) was a sociologist who posed the new concept of cosmopolitan critical theory in direct opposition to traditional nation-state politics. Nation-state theory sees power relations only among different state actors, and excludes a global economy, or subjugates it to the nation-state model. Cosmopolitanism sees global capital as a possible threat to the nation state and places it within a meta-power game in which global capital, states and civil society are its players.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: It is important to mark a distinction between Beck's cosmopolitanism and the idea of a world state. For Beck, imposing a single world order was considered hegemonic at best and ethnocentric at worst. Rather, political and sociological cosmopolitanism rests upon these fundamental foundations:


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: A number of philosophers, including Emmanuel Levinas, have introduced the concept of the "Other". For Levinas, the Other is given context in ethics and responsibility; we should think of the Other as anyone and everyone outside ourselves. According to Levinas, our initial interactions with the Other occur before we form a will—the ability to make choices. The Other addresses us and we respond: even the absence of response is a response. We are thus conditioned by the Other's address and begin to form culture and identity. After the formation of the will, we choose whether to identify with the addresses by others and, as a result, continue the process of forming identity.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: During this process, it is possible to recognize ourselves in our interactions with Others. Even in situations where we engage in the most minimal interaction, we ascribe identities to others and simultaneously to ourselves. Our dependence on the Other for the continuous formation of language, culture, and identity means that we are responsible to others and that they are responsible to us. Also once we've formed a will, it becomes possible to recognize this social interdependence. When we have gained the capacity for recognition, the imperative is to perform that recognition and thereby become ethically responsible to the Other in conscience.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: Cosmopolitanism shares some aspects of universalism – namely the globally acceptable notion of human dignity that must be protected and enshrined in international law. However, the theory deviates in recognising the differences between world cultures.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: In addition, cosmopolitanism calls for equal protection of the environment and against the negative side effects of technological development. Human dignity, however, is convoluted because it is necessary to first distinguish who has the right to be respected and second to consider what rights are protectable. Under cosmopolitanism, all humans have rights; however, history shows that recognition of these rights is not guaranteed.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: As an example, Judith Butler discusses a Western discourse of "human" in "Precarious Life: The Powers of Mourning and Violence". Butler works through the idea of "human" and notes that "human" has been "naturalized in its 'Western' mold by the contemporary workings of humanism" (32). Thus, there is the idea that not all "human" lives will be supported in the same way, indeed, that some human lives are worth more protection than others. Others have extended this idea to examine how animals might be reconfigured as cosmopolitan, present the world-over with varying identities in different places.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: This idea is reiterated in Sunera Thobani's "Exalted Subjects: Studies in the Making of Race and Nation in Canada," where she discusses a discourse in which Muslim people fall into a good/bad dichotomy: a "good Muslim" is one who has been Westernized and a "bad Muslim" is one who visibly rejects Western cultural influences. Thobani notes that it is through media representations that these ideas become naturalized. Individuals who embrace Western ideals are considered fully "human" and are more likely to be afforded dignity and protection than those who defend their non-Westernized cultural identities.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: According to those who follow Beck's reasoning, a cosmopolitan world would consist of a plurality of states, which would use global and regional consensus to gain greater bargaining power against opponents. States would also utilize the power of civil society actors such as Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and consumers to strengthen their legitimacy and enlist the help of investors to pursue a cosmopolitan agenda.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: Other authors imagine a cosmopolitan world moving beyond today's conception of nation-states. These scholars argue that a truly cosmopolitan identity of Global Citizen will take hold, diminishing the importance of national identities. The formation of a global citizens movement would lead to the establishment of democratic global institutions, creating the space for global political discourse and decisions, would in turn reinforce the notion of citizenship at a global level. Nested structures of governance balancing the principles of irreducibility (i.e., the notion that certain problems can only be addressed at the global level, such as global warming) and subsidiarity (i.e., the notion that decisions should be made at as local a level possible) would thus form the basis for a cosmopolitan political order.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: Daniele Archibugi proposes a renewed model for global citizenship: institutional cosmopolitanism. It advocates some reforms in global governance to allow world citizens to take more directly a part into political life. A number of proposals have been made in order to make this possible. Cosmopolitan democracy, for example, suggests strengthening the United Nations and other international organizations by creating a World Parliamentary Assembly.


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: "Cosmopolitanism" became a rhetorical weapon used by nationalists against "alien" ideas that went counter to orthodoxy. European Jews were frequently accused of being "rootless cosmopolitans." Joseph Stalin in a 1946 Moscow speech attacked writings in which "the positive Soviet hero is derided and inferior before all things foreign and cosmopolitanism that we all fought against from the time of Lenin, characteristic of the political leftovers, is many times applauded."


title: Cosmopolitanism

text: In the German Democratic Republic, cosmopolitanism was characterized as a bourgeois-imperialist ideology that rejects the nations' right to independence and national sovereignty. Cosmopolitanism was said to promote the dismantling of national and patriotic traditions and national culture. It was said to be advocated by the Anglo-American imperialism with an aim to establish world hegemony (World Government) operating in the interests of monopoly capitalism. Its opposite was not chauvinist bourgeois nationalism, but patriotism; love of one's native place, one's country. Love of the homeland was said to be one of the deepest feelings of the working people, expressed in the struggle against conquerors and oppressors. In the 21st century, the epithet became a weapon used by Vladimir Putin in Russia, and by nationalists in Hungary and Poland. In modern times, Stephen Miller, a Trump administration senior policy advisor, publicly criticized CNN reporter Jim Acosta as exhibiting "cosmopolitan bias" during a discussion on the government's new immigration plan.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: Stephen F. Sisolak (born December 26, 1953) is an American businessman and politician who has served as the 30th governor of Nevada since 2019. A member of the Democratic Party, he served on the Clark County Commission from 2009 to 2019 and on the Nevada Board of Regents from 1999 to 2008.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: Born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, Sisolak graduated from the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee and the University of Nevada, Las Vegas Business School. After becoming involved in several civic causes and government projects, he was elected to the Nevada Board of Regents and served from 1999 to 2008. In 2008, he was elected to the Clark County Commission and was reelected in 2012 and 2016. Sisolak served as vice chair of the commission from 2011 to 2013 and as chair from 2013 to 2019.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: Sisolak ran for governor of Nevada in 2018. He defeated fellow Clark County commissioner Chris Giunchigliani for the Democratic nomination and then defeated the Republican nominee, then-attorney general Adam Laxalt, in the general election, becoming the first Democrat to serve as governor of Nevada since Bob Miller left office in 1999. He ran for reelection in 2022, losing to Republican nominee Joe Lombardo in a close race.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: Sisolak was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, on December 26, 1953. He is the son of Mary and Edward Frank Sisolak (1925-2004). His father was a design engineer for General Motors, and his mother worked at a convenience store. He is of Slovak and Czech descent. His grandfather Vendelín Šisolák (1899-1959) was from Lakšárska Nová Ves.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: Sisolak grew up in Wauwatosa, Wisconsin, and graduated from Wauwatosa West High School in 1972. His first job was as a caddie at Tripoli Country Club at age 13. He was active on the student council and played basketball. He earned a bachelor of science in business from the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee in 1974. He moved to Nevada shortly thereafter and earned a master of business administration from the University of Nevada, Las Vegas in 1978.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: Sisolak is a successful entrepreneur and was a partner in the American Distributing Company, a telemarketing venture that sells coffee cups, pens, and various other promotional items to businesses. He also held a partnership in a second company, Associated Industries.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: Sisolak ran for the Nevada Senate in the Las Vegas-based 5th district in 1996, losing to Republican incumbent Ann O'Connell.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: Sisolak was first elected to the Nevada Board of Regents in 1998. During his time on the Board of Regents, Sisolak discovered that thousands of Nevada students had been wrongly charged out-of-state tuition and won refunds for them.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: In 2002, Sisolak sided with students and voted against a 16% tuition increase. He voted against student fee hikes in 2003 and 2008.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: In 2004, Sisolak opposed dropping "Reno" from the University of Nevada, Reno's name and supported a uniform marketing of the institution that includes "Reno", saying that without it "the institution was presenting itself as somehow better or more important than its Southern counterpart, the University of Nevada, Las Vegas."


title: Steve Sisolak

text: Sisolak fought to bring back a popular apprenticeship program at the College of Southern Nevada that was abruptly canceled during the recession.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: Sisolak was elected to the Clark County Commission in 2008 in a close race to replace outgoing commissioner Bruce Woodbury.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: Sisolak was elected to a second term as a county commissioner in 2012, receiving the endorsement of the "Las Vegas Review Journal" and "Las Vegas Sun".


title: Steve Sisolak

text: Sisolak was sworn in as the Clark County commissioner on January 5, 2009. He represented District A on the commission. Sisolak served as vice chair of the commission from 2011 to 2013 and chaired the commission from 2013 to 2019. He resigned as a county commissioner on January 7, 2019, the day he was sworn in as governor, in order to appoint his successor.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: Sisolak was "vehemently opposed to raising property taxes" and property tax rates remained flat during his entire tenure on the commission.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: Sisolak won praise from the conservative Nevada Policy Research Institute for fighting against waste, fraud, and abuse. A spokesperson for the institute said, "His efforts to hold government accountable, especially the firefighters, and look closely at how tax money is being spent should be applauded." Sisolak successfully pushed the Water District to terminate a contract with Wolfgang Puck that was costing taxpayers $600,000 per year. During the recession, Sisolak was a vocal critic of overtime and sick leave abuse, and his efforts resulted in over $7 million in reduced overtime costs and $30 million in reduced disability costs.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: Sisolak voted to refund $4.1 million to 1,600 Laughlin property owners who had been overcharged assessment fees.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: Sisolak supported the "More Cops" initiative, which added 720 new officers to the Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department, and Republican Sheriff Joe Lombardo said that these additional police officers helped reduce violent crime 7% in 2018.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: Under Sisolak's chairmanship, Clark County opened The Harbor, an innovative juvenile justice resources center that operates 24 hours a day, seven days a week, and has prevented 3,000 youths from entering the criminal justice system.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: Sisolak supported bringing the Golden Knights and Raiders to Las Vegas. According to the "Las Vegas Review-Journal", he was the "driving force" behind getting the Raiders to come to Las Vegas.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: In addition to the county commission, Sisolak's other government involvement includes vice president and board of directors member for the Las Vegas Valley Water District and board of directors member for the Southern Nevada Water Authority. He has also served as a member of the Colorado River Commission of Nevada, and vice chair of the board of commissioners for the University Medical Center Of Southern Nevada.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: Sisolak is involved with many civic, charitable and business organizations, including the Henderson Chamber of Commerce, the American Red Cross-Clark County Chapter, the UNLV Alumni Association, Seniors United, American Red Cross Leadership Council, Las Vegas Chamber of Commerce, Las Vegas Better Business Bureau, the Boys & Girls Club, Hispanics in Politics, St. Joseph Husband of Mary Catholic Church, and the Nevada Partnership for Homeless Youth.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: Sisolak was long considered a potential candidate for governor of Nevada in the 2018 election. He first considered running for governor in 2014, but declined in February 2014.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: Sisolak officially announced his candidacy on June 22, 2017. He defeated Clark County Commission colleague Chris Giunchigliani on June 12, 2018, to become the Democratic nominee. The Republican nominee was Adam Laxalt, the attorney general of Nevada and the grandson of former U.S. senator Paul Laxalt.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: Sisolak's campaign priorities were education, healthcare, and the economy. He released a healthcare policy platform that included proposals to reduce pharmaceutical drug prices, fix Nevada's doctor shortage, and protect Nevadans with preexisting conditions. He said he wanted to continue Governor Sandoval's Medicaid expansion and new funding for education. Sisolak supported Question 1, also known as Marsy's Law, the crime victims rights bill, and opposed Question 3, the Energy Choice Initiative.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: Sisolak was endorsed by former President Barack Obama, then former Vice President Joe Biden, Senator Catherine Cortez Masto, Representative Dina Titus, the Sierra Club, the Human Rights Campaign, Let America Vote, and the Law Enforcement Coalition of Nevada.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: Sisolak was elected governor on November 6, 2018, defeating Laxalt with 49.4% of the vote to Laxalt's 45.3%. He lost all but two county-level jurisdictions, but carried the two largest, Clark and Washoe. He won primarily on the strength of carrying Clark County by 86,600 votes, more than double his statewide margin of 39,700. Sisolak became the first Democrat elected governor since 1994.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: Sisolak announced that he would seek reelection in 2022. He easily won the Democratic nomination against former Clark County Commissioner Tom Collins and faced Clark County Sheriff Joe Lombardo, the Republican nominee, in the general election. On November 11, he conceded after the Associated Press called the race for Lombardo, becoming the only incumbent governor to lose reelection in the 2022 midterm elections.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: On January 7, 2019, Sisolak was sworn in as the 30th governor of Nevada. He succeeded Brian Sandoval and became the first Democrat to serve as governor of Nevada since Bob Miller left office in 1999.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: On May 30, 2019, Sisolak vetoed a bill that proposed the adoption of National Popular Vote Interstate Compact in the presidential elections.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: Sisolak supports capital punishment. In April 2021, the Nevada Assembly passed a bill that would have repealed Nevada's capital punishment statute, but the state senate did not act on the matter after Sisolak said that he believes some crimes deserve the death penalty, implying he would veto the bill.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: On September 17, 2021, Kate Marshall resigned as lieutenant governor to take a job in the Biden administration. Sisolak filled the vacancy on December 16, 2021, when he announced Las Vegas educator Lisa Cano Burkhead as Nevada's new lieutenant governor.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: Sisolak's views on sensitive subjects such as same-sex marriage, guns, and the death penalty have changed over the years. On a survey titled the "Political Courage Test" during the 1996 Nevada state legislative election, in which he ran for a seat in the state senate, he answered "no" on whether the Nevada government should recognize same-sex marriage, "undecided" on whether clinics and medical facilities should get public funding to provide abortion services in Nevada, and "undecided" on whether sexual orientation should be added to Nevada's anti-discrimination laws. In the same survey, he supported the death penalty and did not support the decriminalization of marijuana.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: Since then, many of Sisolak's views have shifted to the left. He is now considered a moderate liberal.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: Sisolak married Lori Ann "Dallas" Garland in 1987, with whom he has two daughters. Garland filed for divorce in 2000. After the divorce, Sisolak raised his daughters as a single father; both his daughters attended Las Vegas public high schools and the University of Nevada, Las Vegas.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: Shortly after being elected governor in 2018, Sisolak announced his engagement to Kathy Ong, an Ely native and his girlfriend of five years. On December 28, 2018, Sisolak announced his marriage to Ong.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: Sisolak, a property owner on Las Vegas Boulevard South, received a total of $23.5 million in 2005 after the "airport refused to pay him for height restrictions imposed on a parcel he owned." McCarran officials had warned that paying off property owners who lost land value because of the height restrictions could cost more than $1 billion and make air travel to or from Las Vegas more expensive. Still, the Nevada Supreme Court ruled that landowners can seek compensation if planes flying below 500 feet hinder their ability to develop high-rise buildings. Sisolak maintained that his land, acquired before Clark County imposed height restrictions, had been devalued and that he was entitled to compensation.


title: Steve Sisolak

text: Sisolak has been accused by mining corporation Gypsum Resources LLC of engaging in a quid pro quo valued at $150 million during his time as Clark County commissioner chairman. Gypsum claims that at the end of Sisolak's term as chairman, while running for Nevada governor, he exchanged political favors with Save Red Rock attorney Justin Jones, who himself was campaigning for a seat on the Clark County commission. Save Red Rock, a nonprofit environmental activist group, has consistently expressed opposition toward Gypsum Resources LLC since its inception. In 2017, it convinced all Clark County planners to reject Gypsum Resources' latest development proposal. Beginning in December 2016, Save Red Rock has been in an open lawsuit with Clark County, attempting to deny the commission's approval of Gypsum Resources' developments in Red Rock Canyon. Conversely, Clark County has attempted to bar Save Red Rock from raising concerns about Gypsum Resources' development projects at public hearings. This legal battle persisted until the end of 2018, when Save Red Rock suddenly dropped its lawsuit against Clark County. Gypsum Resources claims that this dropped lawsuit was an exchanged favor between Jones and Sisolak. Gypsum alleges that Jones and Sisolak engaged in covert dealings, with Jones agreeing to drop Save Red Rock's lawsuit and provide Sisolak's gubernatorial campaign with the support of environmentalist groups if the Clark County commission denied Gypsum Resources' final appeal to complete its proposed development in Red Rock. The final appeal was scheduled to be heard on December 5, 2018, but this was delayed until 2019 so that “incoming commissioners could weigh in”, according to Sisolak. This action was praised by the Nevada Conservation League, and two weeks later, Save Red Rock dropped its lawsuit. Later in 2019, with Jones as the new county commissioner, Clark County denied Gypsum Resources its final appeal waiver. In Gypsum Resources' bankruptcy filing, it accuses the county of covering up “facts about governmental misconduct” relating to Jones's and Sisolak's covert deals. The county investigated Jones and Sisolak but found no wrongdoing. In this investigation, Jones was deposed about his communication with Sisolak. He originally denied any communication with Sisolak before his election to commissioner, but court documents revealed that they had communicated. Jones detailed to Sisolak's campaign manager that it would be “likely uncomfortable” for members of the commission if Gypsum Resources' appeal were approved. While Clark County has yet to find any wrongdoing, Gypsum Resources maintains the claim that the alleged deal caused its bankruptcy.


title: Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies

text: Ferdinand I (12 January 1751 – 4 January 1825) was the King of the Two Sicilies from 1816, after his restoration following victory in the Napoleonic Wars. Before that he had been, since 1759, Ferdinand IV of the Kingdom of Naples and Ferdinand III of the Kingdom of Sicily. He was also King of Gozo. He was deposed twice from the throne of Naples: once by the revolutionary Parthenopean Republic for six months in 1799 and again by Napoleon in 1805, before being restored in 1816.


title: Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies

text: Ferdinand was the third son of King Charles VII of Naples and V of Sicily by his wife, Maria Amalia of Saxony. On 10 August 1759, Charles succeeded his elder brother, Ferdinand VI, becoming King Charles III of Spain, but treaty provisions made him ineligible to hold all three crowns. On 6 October, he abdicated his Neapolitan and Sicilian titles in favour of his third son, because his eldest son Philip had been excluded from succession due to imbecility and his second son Charles was heir-apparent to the Spanish throne. Ferdinand was the founder of the cadet House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies.


title: Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies

text: Ferdinand was born in Naples and grew up amidst many of the monuments erected there by his father which can be seen today; the Palaces of Portici, Caserta and Capodimonte.


title: Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies

text: Ferdinand was his parents' third son, his elder brother Charles was expected to inherit Naples and Sicily. When his father ascended the Spanish throne in 1759 he abdicated Naples in Ferdinand's favour in accordance with the treaties forbidding the union of the two crowns. A regency council presided over by the Tuscan Bernardo Tanucci was set up. The latter, an able, ambitious man, wishing to keep the government as much as possible in his own hands, purposely neglected the young king's education, and encouraged him in his love of pleasure, his idleness and his excessive devotion to outdoor sports.


title: Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies

text: Ferdinand's minority/childhood ended in 1767, and his first act was the expulsion of the Jesuits. The following year he married Archduchess Maria Carolina, daughter of Empress Maria Theresa. By the marriage contract the queen was to have a voice in the council of state after the birth of her first son, and she was not slow to avail herself of this means of political influence.


title: Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies

text: Tanucci, who attempted to thwart her, was dismissed in 1777. The Englishman Sir John Acton, who in 1779 was appointed director of marine, won Maria Carolina's favour by supporting her scheme to free Naples from Spanish influence, securing "rapprochement" with Austria and Great Britain. He became practically and afterward actually prime minister. Although not a mere grasping adventurer, he was largely responsible for reducing the internal administration of the country to a system of espionage, corruption and cruelty.


title: Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies

text: Although peace was made with France in 1796, the demands of the French Directory, whose troops occupied Rome, alarmed the king once more, and at his wife's instigation he took advantage of Napoleon's absence in Egypt and of Nelson's victories to go to war. He marched with his army against the French and entered Rome (29 November), but on the defeat of some of his columns he hurried back to Naples, and on the approach of the French, fled on 23 December 1798 aboard Nelson's ship to Palermo, Sicily, leaving his capital in a state of anarchy.


title: Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies

text: The French entered the city in spite of the fierce resistance of the "lazzaroni", and with the aid of the nobles and bourgeoisie established the Parthenopaean Republic (January 1799). When, a few weeks later the French troops were recalled to northern Italy, Ferdinand sent a hastily assembled force, under Cardinal Ruffo, to reconquer the mainland kingdom. Ruffo, with the support of British artillery, the Church, and the pro-Bourbon aristocracy, succeeded, reaching Naples in May 1800, and the Parthenopaean Republic collapsed. After some months King Ferdinand returned to the throne.


title: Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies

text: The king, and above all the queen, were particularly anxious that no mercy should be shown to the rebels, and Maria Carolina (a sister of the executed Marie Antoinette) made use of Lady Hamilton, Nelson's mistress, to induce Nelson to carry out her vengeance.


title: Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies

text: The king returned to Naples soon afterwards, and ordered a few hundred who had collaborated with the French executed. This stopped only when the French successes forced him to agree to a treaty which included amnesty for members of the French party. When war broke out between France and Austria in 1805, Ferdinand signed a treaty of neutrality with the former, but a few days later he allied himself with Austria and allowed an Anglo-Russian force to land at Naples (see Third Coalition).


title: Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies

text: The French victory at the Battle of Austerlitz on 2 December enabled Napoleon to dispatch an army to southern Italy. Ferdinand fled to Palermo (23 January 1806), followed soon after by his wife and son, and on 14 February 1806 the French again entered Naples. Napoleon declared that the Bourbon dynasty had forfeited the crown, and proclaimed his brother Joseph King of Naples and Sicily. But Ferdinand continued to reign over the latter kingdom (becoming the first King of Sicily in centuries to actually reside there) under British protection.


title: Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies

text: Parliamentary institutions of a feudal type had long existed in the island, and Lord William Bentinck, the British minister, insisted on a reform of the constitution on English and French lines. The king indeed practically abdicated his power, appointing his son Francis as regent, and the queen, at Bentinck's insistence, was exiled to Austria, where she died in 1814.


title: Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies

text: After the fall of Napoleon, Joachim Murat, who had succeeded Joseph Bonaparte as king of Naples in 1808, was dethroned in the Neapolitan War, and Ferdinand returned to Naples. By a secret treaty he had bound himself not to advance further in a constitutional direction than Austria should at any time approve; but, though on the whole he acted in accordance with Metternich's policy of preserving the "status quo", and maintained with but slight change Murat's laws and administrative system, he took advantage of the situation to abolish the Sicilian constitution, in violation of his oath, and to proclaim the union of the two states into the kingdom of the Two Sicilies (12 December 1816).


title: Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies

text: Ferdinand was now completely subservient to Austria, an Austrian, Count Nugent, being even made commander-in-chief of the army. For the next four years he reigned as an absolute monarch within his domain, granting no constitutional reforms.


title: Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies

text: The suppression of liberal opinion caused an alarming spread of the influence and activity of the secret society of the Carbonari, which in time affected a large part of the army. In July 1820 a military revolt broke out under General Guglielmo Pepe, and Ferdinand was terrorised into signing a constitution on the model of the Spanish Constitution of 1812. On the other hand, a revolt in Sicily, in favour of the recovery of its independence, was suppressed by Neapolitan troops.


title: Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies

text: The success of the military revolution at Naples seriously alarmed the powers of the Holy Alliance, who feared that it might spread to other Italian states and so lead to a general European conflagration. The Troppau Protocol of 1820 was signed by Austria, Prussia and Russia, although an invitation to Ferdinand to attend the adjourned Congress of Laibach (1821) was issued at which he failed to distinguish himself. He had twice sworn to maintain the new constitution but was hardly out of Naples before he repudiated his oaths and, in letters addressed to all the sovereigns of Europe, declared his acts to have been null and void. Metternich had no difficulty in persuading the king to allow an Austrian army to march into Naples "to restore order".


title: Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies

text: The Neapolitans, commanded by General Pepe, made no attempt to defend the difficult defiles of the Abruzzi, and were defeated at Rieti (7 March 1821). The Austrians entered Naples.


title: Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies

text: Following the Austrian victory, the Parliament was dismissed and Ferdinand suppressed the Liberals and Carbonari.


title: Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies

text: The victory was used by Austria to force its grasp over Naples' domestic and foreign policies. Count Charles-Louis de Ficquelmont was appointed as the Austrian ambassador to Naples, practically administrating the country as well as managing the occupation and strengthening Austrian influence over Neapolitan elites.


title: Fully qualified domain name

text: A fully qualified domain name (FQDN), sometimes also referred to as an "absolute domain name", is a domain name that specifies its exact location in the tree hierarchy of the Domain Name System (DNS). It specifies all domain levels, including the top-level domain and the root zone. A fully qualified domain name is distinguished by its lack of ambiguity in terms of DNS zone location in the hierarchy of DNS labels: it can be interpreted only in one way.


title: Fully qualified domain name

text: A fully qualified domain name is conventionally written as a list of domain labels separated using the full stop “” character ("dot" or "period"). The top of the hierarchy in an FQDN begins with the rightmost label. For instance, in the FQDN , is a label directly under the root zone, is nested under , and finally is nested under .


title: Fully qualified domain name

text: The topmost layer of every domain name is the DNS root zone, which is expressed as an empty label and can be represented in an FQDN with a trailing dot, such as . A trailing dot is generally implied and often omitted by most applications. Trailing dots are required by the standard format for DNS zone files, as well as to disambiguate cases where an FQDN does not contain any other label separators, such as the FQDNs for the root zone itself and any top-level domain.


title: Fully qualified domain name

text: The length of each label must be between 1 and 63 octets, and the full domain name is limited to 255 octets, full stops included.


title: Fully qualified domain name

text: A relative domain name is a domain name which does not include all labels. It may also be referred to as a partially-qualified domain name, or PQDN. Hostnames can be used as relative domain names.


title: Fully qualified domain name

text: Dot-separated fully qualified domain names are the primarily used form for human-readable representations of a domain name. Dot-separated domain names are not used in the internal representation of labels in a DNS message but are used to reference domains in some TXT records and can appear in resolver configurations, system hosts files, and URLs.


title: Fully qualified domain name

text: Web addresses typically use FQDNs to represent the host, as it ensures the address will be interpreted identically on any network. Relative hostnames are allowed by some protocols, including HTTP, but disallowed by others, such as the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP).


title: Rent-seeking

text: Rent-seeking is the act of growing one's existing wealth without creating new wealth by manipulating the social or political environment.


title: Rent-seeking

text: Rent-seeking activities have negative effects on the rest of society. They result in reduced economic efficiency through misallocation of resources, reduced wealth creation, lost government revenue, heightened income inequality, and potential national decline.


title: Rent-seeking

text: Attempts at capture of regulatory agencies to gain a coercive monopoly can result in advantages for rent-seekers in a market while imposing disadvantages on their uncorrupt competitors. This is one of many possible forms of rent-seeking behavior.


title: Rent-seeking

text: The term rent, in the narrow sense of economic rent, was coined by the British 19th-century economist David Ricardo, but rent-seeking only became the subject of durable interest among economists and political scientists more than a century later after the publication of two influential papers on the topic by Gordon Tullock in 1967, and Anne Krueger in 1974. The word "rent" does not refer specifically to payment on a lease but rather to Adam Smith's division of incomes into profit, wage, and rent. The origin of the term refers to gaining control of land or other natural resources.


title: Rent-seeking

text: Georgist economic theory describes rent-seeking in terms of land rent, where the value of land largely comes from the natural resources native to the land, as well as collectively paid for services, for example: State schools, law enforcement, fire prevention and mitigation services etc. Rent seeking to the Georgist does not include those persons that may have invested substantial capital improvements to a piece of land, but rather those that perform in their role as mere titleholder. This is the dividing line between a rent-seeker and a property developer, which need not be the same person.


title: Rent-seeking

text: "Rent-seeking" is an attempt to obtain economic rent (i.e., the portion of income paid to a factor of production in excess of what is needed to keep it employed in its current use) by manipulating the social or political environment in which economic activities occur, rather than by creating new wealth. Rent-seeking implies extraction of uncompensated value from others without making any contribution to productivity. Because the nature of rent-seeking implies a fixed cost payment, only wealthy participants engage in these activities as a means of protecting their wealth from expropriation.