title: Lenny Wilkens

text: On November 29, 2006, he was hired as vice chairman of the Seattle SuperSonics' ownership group, and was later named the Sonics' President of Basketball Operations on April 27, 2007. On July 6, 2007, Wilkens resigned from the Sonics organization.


title: Lenny Wilkens

text: Wilkens later worked at Northwest FSN Studio as a college basketball analyst and occasionally appears on College Hoops Northwest at game nights.


title: Lenny Wilkens

text: He is the founder of the Lenny Wilkens Foundation for Children and lives in Medina, Washington. He is a practicing Catholic.


title: Messiah complex

text: A messiah complex (Christ complex or savior complex) is a state of mind in which an individual holds a belief that they are destined to become a savior today or in the near future. The term can also refer to a state of mind in which an individual believes that they are responsible for saving or assisting others.


title: Messiah complex

text: The term "messiah complex" is not addressed in the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" (DSM), as it is not a clinical term nor diagnosable disorder. However, the symptoms as a proposed disorder closely resemble those found in individuals with delusions of grandeur or that they have grandiose self-images that veer towards the delusional. An account specifically identified it as a category of religious delusion, which pertains to strong fixed beliefs that cause distress or disability. It is the type of religious delusion that is classified as grandiose while the other two categories are: persecutory and belittlement. According to philosopher Antony Flew, an example of this type of delusion was the case of Paul, who declared that God spoke to him, telling him that he would serve as a conduit for people to change. The Kent–Flew thesis argued that his experience entailed auditory and visual hallucinations.


title: Messiah complex

text: In terms of the attitude wherein an individual sees themselves as having to save another or a group of poor people, there is the notion that the action inflates their own sense of importance and discounts the skills and abilities of the people they are helping to improve their own lives.


title: Messiah complex

text: The messiah complex is most often reported in patients with bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. When a messiah complex is manifested within a religious individual after a visit to Jerusalem, it may be identified as a psychosis known as Jerusalem syndrome.


title: Alex Sandro

text: Alex Sandro Lobo da Silva (born 26 January 1991) is a Brazilian professional footballer who plays as a left-back for club Juventus and the Brazil national team.


title: Alex Sandro

text: At club level, Alex Sandro began his career with Atletico Paranaense, and later also played for Santos on loan. In 2011, he joined Porto for €9.6 million, alongside teammate and countryman Danilo, who plays as a right back. He joined Juventus in 2015, winning the domestic double in his first three seasons, followed by two more consecutive league titles over the following two years.


title: Alex Sandro

text: At international level, Alex Sandro represents Brazil, for which he has gained 30 caps. At youth level, he also represented the Brazil under-20 team, winning both the South American Youth Championship and the FIFA U-20 World Cup in 2011, He was later also part of the Brazil squad that won the 2019 Copa América.


title: Alex Sandro

text: After winning an impressive amount of honours with the Atletico Paranaense youth setup and a very good performance in the Copa Parana with the U23 side, Alex Sandro earned his first call up to the senior side in October 2008. He played one game in the Brasileiro, taking on Internacional on 18 October.


title: Alex Sandro

text: In 2009, Alex Sandro played a role in Atletico's championship run in the Campeonato Paranaense, playing in eight matches. He scored his first goal on 25 January against Rio Branco, passing the ball to himself around the keeper. As of October 2009, he has played in nine Brasileiro matches, playing a total of 269 minutes.


title: Alex Sandro

text: Alex Sandro was signed by Santos in 2010 on a two-year loan deal. Atletico Paranaense sold him to the investors, using Uruguayan club Deportivo Maldonado as a proxy to hold the registration rights. According to Atletico Paranaense's 2010 financial report, the club received R$1,114,000 from Deportivo Maldonado for transactions of unnamed players.


title: Alex Sandro

text: On 23 July 2011, Portuguese Primeira Liga club Porto signed Alex Sandro for €9.6 million from the proxy club Deportivo Maldonado. He signed a five-year contract with a release clause of €50 million.


title: Alex Sandro

text: On 20 August 2015, Alex Sandro joined Italian Serie A champions Juventus for €26 million on a five-year contract. He made his club debut on 12 September 2015 in a 1–1 home draw against Chievo in Serie A. Defending champions Juventus endured a difficult start to the season, and were in the bottom half of the table by late October. The club mounted a comeback that started with a last-gasp Turin derby win on 31 October, with the Brazilian left-back playing a key role in that upturn.


title: Alex Sandro

text: On 21 November 2015, Sandro assisted Paulo Dybala with a cross, helping Juventus beat rival side AC Milan 1–0 in Serie A. Four days later, on 25 November, he assisted another winning goal, for Mario Mandžukić, in a 1–0 home win over Manchester City in the UEFA Champions League to secure the club a spot in the round of 16 of the competition. On 17 January 2016, Alex Sandro scored his first Juventus goal – and his first in Serie A – from the top of the 18-yard box in the 42nd minute of a 4–0 away win over Udinese.


title: Alex Sandro

text: On 17 February, it was confirmed Alex Sandro would be sidelined for ten days after he picked up an injury to his rectus femoris muscle in his left thigh during training at the Juventus Center the day before, forcing him to miss out on the first leg of the round of 16 of the Champions League on 23 February against Bayern Munich. He returned for the second leg in Munich, where he could not prevent his team's elimination despite putting on a strong individual performance.


title: Alex Sandro

text: The Brazilian completed his first season in Turin winning a Serie A–Coppa Italia double. He came on as a substitute for Patrice Evra in the Coppa Italia final against Milan at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome, which was decided by an Álvaro Morata lone goal in extra time.


title: Alex Sandro

text: Despite scoring an own goal in a 3–1 away defeat to Genoa, Alex Sandro carried his form of the previous season into the new one. A series of impressive performances saw him displace incumbent Patrice Evra from the starting left back role. The Frenchman eventually moved to Marseille in January 2017.


title: Alex Sandro

text: Alex Sandro completed the season with 43 appearances across competitions, 11 more than the previous year. That made him one of the most frequently used players by coach Massimiliano Allegri. From a statistical standpoint, the Brazilian also further improved his goalscoring output, netting three times in the league as Juventus completed a third successive league and cup double.


title: Alex Sandro

text: The one trophy that evaded Alex Sandro was the UEFA Champions League, which saw his side lose 4–1 in the final to holders Real Madrid at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff. Alex Sandro played a key role in Mario Mandžukić's temporary equaliser in the first half, supplying the cross that was chested down to the Croatian by Gonzalo Higuaín. In the second half, however, Alex Sandro's and his teammates' performances were less convincing, and one of Alex Sandro's mistakes led to a goal from his former Brazil Under-20 and Porto colleague Casemiro.


title: Alex Sandro

text: Prior to the final he had played a vital role in the "Bianconeri"'s run, especially in the quarter-finals against Barcelona, where excellent defensive performances helped to neutralise the attacking threat of Lionel Messi, and enabled Juventus to keep clean sheets across both legs of the tie.


title: Alex Sandro

text: In his third season with Juventus, Alex Sandro made 39 appearances for Juventus in all competitions, scoring four goals, all of which came in Serie A, from 26 league appearances; he finished the 2017–18 season by winning a third consecutive domestic double with the club.


title: Alex Sandro

text: On 23 October 2018, Alex Sandro made his 50th UEFA Champions League appearance (excluding qualifying rounds) in a 1–0 away win over Manchester United. He made his 100th Serie A appearance with Juventus on 30 March 2019, in a 1–0 home win over Empoli. In Juventus's following league match on 2 April, a 2–0 away win over Cagliari, he made his 150th appearance for the club. On 20 April, he scored the temporary equaliser as Juventus came from behind to defeat rivals Fiorentina 2–1 at home and win the Serie A title.


title: Alex Sandro

text: On 24 August 2019, on the opening matchday of the 2019–20 Serie A season, Alex Sandro assisted Giorgio Chiellini's goal in a 1–0 away win against Parma. On 18 December, he provided two assists, one for Paulo Dybala and another for Cristiano Ronaldo, in a 2–1 away win against Sampdoria.


title: Alex Sandro

text: Alex Sandro is a part of the golden Atlético Paranaense youth setup, which has produced a great amount of defenders in very little time, with Raul, Manoel, Ronaldo Alves, Carlão and Bruno Costa all making themselves known in 2009. After being a part of the Brazil under-18 setup, Alex Sandro was called up to the under-20 side in August 2009, alongside teammates Raul, Renan Foguinho and Gabriel Pimba. He made his debut in a friendly match at 18 years of age.


title: Alex Sandro

text: He was a member of the teams that won the 2011 South American Youth Championship in Peru, as well as the 2011 FIFA U-20 World Cup in Colombia, also featuring in the final of the tournament against Portugal, which Brazil won 3–2 in extra-time.


title: Alex Sandro

text: Alex Sandro made his senior international debut on 10 November 2011 in a 2–0 away win over Gabon. He scored his first international goal on 12 October 2018, in a 2–0 friendly away win over Saudi Arabia.


title: Alex Sandro

text: In May 2019, Sandro was included in Brazil's 23-man squad for the 2019 Copa América on home soil by manager Tite. In Brazil's final group match on 22 June, a 5–0 win against Peru, Sandro made a substitute appearance, coming on for Filipe Luís. In the quarter-final match against Paraguay on 27 June, he once again made a substitute appearance, replacing the injured Filipe Luís at half-time; following a 0–0 draw, Brazil advanced to the semi-finals 4–3 on penalties. Sandro started in the 2019 Copa América Final against Peru on 7 July, at the Maracanã Stadium; the match ended in a 3–1 victory to Brazil.


title: Alex Sandro

text: On 17 June 2021, he scored the opening goal in a 4–0 win over Peru in Brazil's second group match of the 2021 Copa América, which took place on home soil.


title: Alex Sandro

text: Regarded as one of the best left-backs in the world, Alex Sandro is a quick, energetic and offensive minded defender, who is also a strong tackler and a good reader of the game, courtesy of his speed and anticipation. He is capable of playing anywhere along the left flank; although mainly a full-back, he has also been used as a wing-back and as a wide midfielder. He has also occasionally been deployed in a more advanced position, as an outside forward or offensive winger, and even as a left-sided centre-back in a three–man back-line. He has been described as a player who is a "powerful runner, can beat opponents one-on-one and is an excellent crosser of the ball". His playing position, athleticism, and playing style have drawn comparisons with compatriot and 2002 FIFA World Cup-winner Roberto Carlos.


title: Herb Edelman

text: Herbert Edelman (November 5, 1933 – July 21, 1996) was an American actor of stage, film and television. He was twice nominated for an Emmy Award for his television work. One of his best-known roles was as Stanley Zbornak, the ex-husband of Dorothy Zbornak (played by Beatrice Arthur) on "The Golden Girls". He also had a recurring role on the 1980s medical drama "St. Elsewhere".


title: Herb Edelman

text: Edelman was born in New York City in the borough of Brooklyn. Before becoming an actor, Edelman studied to become a veterinarian at Cornell University, but left during his first year. After serving in the United States Army as an announcer for Armed Forces Radio, he enrolled in Brooklyn College as a theater student, but eventually dropped out. He later worked as a hotel manager and as a taxicab driver. One of his fares was director Mike Nichols, who in 1963 cast Edelman in his breakthrough Broadway role, as the bewildered telephone repairman in Neil Simon's "Barefoot in the Park". Edelman reprised his role in the 1967 film version (starring Robert Redford and Jane Fonda).


title: Herb Edelman

text: He appeared as Murray the Cop in the movie version of Simon's "The Odd Couple" (1968) and later appeared in Simon's "California Suite" (1978). He also had a role in "The Way We Were" (1973) and in an installment of the Japanese movie series "Otoko wa Tsurai yo" in 1979.


title: Herb Edelman

text: He remains best known for his three decades in television, usually as a co-star, recurring character, or guest star on "CHIPS", "The Golden Girls", "That Girl", "Love, American Style", "The Streets of San Francisco", "Maude", "Cannon", "Happy Days", "Welcome Back, Kotter", "Kojak", "Fantasy Island", "Cagney & Lacey", and "MacGyver", but occasionally in a lead role. In 1976, he starred in the Saturday morning children's series "Big John, Little John", as well as "The Good Guys" with Bob Denver (in what was Denver's first series after "Gilligan's Island"), from 1968 to 1970.


title: Herb Edelman

text: He also appeared with Bill Bixby and Valerie Perrine in Bruce Jay Friedman's "Steambath", a controversial PBS dramedy, during 1973. From 1984 to 1988, he had a recurring role on "St. Elsewhere". Edelman also appeared in ten episodes of "Murder, She Wrote" between 1984 and 1995, most frequently appearing as New York Police Department Lieutenant Artie Gelber. His last role was in an episode of "Burke's Law".


title: Herb Edelman

text: Edelman was married to soap opera actress Louise Sorel from 1964 to 1970; he had two children, Briana Edelman and Jacy Edelman. He was romantically linked with actress Christina Pickles from the mid-1980s until his death.


title: Herb Edelman

text: Herbert Edelman died of emphysema on July 21, 1996, in Los Angeles at the age of 62; he was then interred at Montefiore Cemetery in Springfield Gardens, Queens.


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: Rumination is the focused attention on the symptoms of one's distress, and on its possible causes and consequences, as opposed to its solutions, according to the "Response Styles Theory" proposed by Nolen-Hoeksema (1998).


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: Because the Response Styles Theory has been empirically supported, this model of rumination is the most widely used conceptualization. Other theories, however, have proposed different definitions for rumination. For example, in the "Goal Progress Theory", rumination is conceptualized not as a reaction to a mood state, but as a "response to failure to progress satisfactorily towards a goal". As such, both rumination and worry are associated with anxiety and other negative emotional states; however, its measures have not been unified. Multiple tools exist to measure ruminative thoughts. Treatments specifically addressing ruminative thought patterns are still in the early stages of development.


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: Response styles theory (RST) initially defined rumination as passively and repetitively focusing on one's symptoms of depression and the possible causes and consequences of these symptoms. As evidence for this definition, rumination has been implicated in the development, maintenance, and aggravation of both depressive symptoms as well as episodes of major depression. Recently, RST has expanded the definition of rumination beyond depression to include passive and repetitive focus on the causes, consequences, and symptoms of one's distress in general. This change was made because rumination has been implicated in a host of disorders, not just depression.


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: RST also contends that positive distraction is the healthy alternative to rumination, where focus is directed to positive stimuli instead of to distress. However, the literature suggests that positive distraction may not be as potent a tool as once thought.


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: Specifically, the S-REF model defines rumination as "repetitive thoughts generated by attempts to cope with self-discrepancy that are directed primarily toward processing the content of self-referent information and not toward immediate goal-directed action." Put more simply, when a person ruminates, he or she aims to answer questions such as:


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: However, in answering these questions, ruminators tend to focus on their emotions (i.e., "self-referent information") as opposed to problem solving (i.e., "goal-directed action").


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: Meta-cognition is also an important part of the S-REF model and helps to explain the link between rumination and depression. Specifically, those who hold "positive meta-cognitive beliefs" about rumination (to make sense of negative thoughts and emotions or ensure the prevention of the same) are perhaps initially motivated to engage in rumination with high perseverance. However, individuals who have engaged themselves in positive acts of rumination were more likely to use rumination as a coping mechanism upon encountering nay negative emotions. This causes the individual to modify his/her perception of rumination as unpleasant, unmanageable and "socially damaging" in general. Rumination additionally has a tendency to magnify with an up-regulation of emotions in the body, thus beginning the downward-moving spiral of depression. The individual's "negative meta-cognitive" beliefs then contribute to the development and maintenance of depression.


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: Goal progress theory (GPT), sometimes referred to as Control Theory, seeks to explain rumination as a function of goal progress. Specifically, GPT views rumination as an example of the Zeigarnik Effect, which suggests that individuals are more likely to remember information from unfinished tasks than from finished tasks. From this understanding, GPT defines rumination as "the tendency to think recurrently about important, higher order goals that have not yet been attained" or towards which sufficient progress has not been made.


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: GPT predicts that individuals for whom goal-related information is highly accessible should be more likely to ruminate. Various studies have provided support for this prediction. However, the rumination experienced is focused more towards problem solving than rumination described by RST.


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: Extensive research on the effects of rumination, or the tendency to self-reflect, shows that the negative form of rumination (associated with dysphoria) interferes with people's ability to focus on problem-solving and results in dwelling on negative thoughts about past failures. Evidence from studies suggests that the negative implications of rumination are due to cognitive biases, such as memory and attentional biases, which predispose ruminators to selectively devote attention to negative stimuli.


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: The organic causes of rumination are not fully understood. Research has identified the activation of certain regions in the brain's default mode networks as neural substrates of rumination, but the number of brain-imaging studies on rumination is limited.


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: The tendency to negatively ruminate is a stable constant over time and serves as a significant risk factor for clinical depression. Not only are habitual ruminators more likely to become depressed, but experimental studies have demonstrated that people who are induced to ruminate experience greater depressed mood. There is also evidence that rumination is linked to general anxiety, post traumatic stress, binge drinking, eating disorders, and self-injurious behavior. Research suggests that rumination is somewhat associated with a higher frequency of non-suicidal self-injury, and more heavily associated with a history of non-suicidal self injury.


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: Rumination was originally believed to predict the duration of depressive symptoms. In other words, ruminating about problems was presumed to be a form of memory rehearsal which was believed to actually lengthen the experience of depression. The evidence now suggests that although rumination contributes to depression, it is not necessarily correlated with the duration of symptoms.


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: Research on the relationships between executive functions and rumination has yielded mixed results. Some studies have observed a negative correlation with two executive functioning abilities, set-shifting and inhibition, but the magnitudes of those relationships are unclear. Another study observed only one relationship between rumination and one executive function, specifically the ability to discard past information from working memory. Other studies, however, found no relationship between rumination and working memory.


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: Theories of rumination differ in their predictions regarding the content of ruminative thoughts based on their respective conceptualizations.


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: Some models propose that rumination is focused on negative feeling states and/or the circumstances surrounding that emotion (RST, rumination on sadness, Trapnell and Campbell, stress-reactive rumination, post-event processing models). Rumination in other models focuses on discrepancies between one's current and desired status (goal progress, conceptual evaluative model of rumination). Finally, other models propose that it is the negative themes of uncontrollability and harm in metacognitions that are most important. Some common thoughts that are characteristic of ruminative responses are questioning the well-being of oneself and focusing on the possible causes and consequences of one's depressive symptoms (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991). For example, some ruminative thoughts include "why am I such a loser", "I'm in such a bad mood" or "I just don't feel like doing anything".


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: The tendency to ruminate can be assessed with the Ruminative Responses Scale of the Response Styles Questionnaire. On this measure, people are asked to indicate how often they engage in 22 ruminative thoughts or behaviors when they feel sad or blue.


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: The Rumination On Sadness Scale is a self-report tool consisting of 13 items that uses the Likert Scale to measure rumination of sadness.


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: The 31-item Repetitive Thinking Questionnaire (RTQ) measures worry, rumination, and post-event processing with the purpose of controlling for effects associated with a psychological diagnosis or disorder. It includes two subscales, Repetitive Negative Thinking (RNT) and Absence of Repetitive Thinking (ART). RNT is associated with anxiety, depression, and other negative emotions as it influences metacognitive beliefs, cognitive avoidance strategies, and maladaptive thought control strategies. The ART subscale reflects the absence of those negative emotions associated with the RNT subscale, essentially measuring their opposites.


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: The Rumination-Reflection Scale involves 24 items. Half of the questions look for adaptive reflective thought while the other half note self-rumination focus. This scale incorporates the Likert Scale.


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: According to Susan Nolen-Hoeksema, women tend to ruminate when they are depressed, whereas men tend to distract themselves. This difference in response style was proposed to explain the higher rates of depression in women compared to men. Research has supported the theory that women have a greater likelihood to ruminate than men, but the magnitude of this difference seems to be small. The prediction that men are more likely to distract themselves has not been consistently supported in research.


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: A meta-analysis was performed on both the sex differences in rumination of adults and the rumination subtypes "brooding" and "reflection." Studies show that women's chances of experiencing depressive symptoms or depression was twice that of men. The response styles theory (RST) suggests this may be due, to some extent, to higher rates of rumination in women. Brooding can be operationalized as continuous, passive, negative internalized thoughts. It is highly connected to worsening depression. Reflection is neutral, rather than negative, more active observation of self. In the meta-analysis, women showed statistically significant increases in levels of both brooding and reflection, supporting RST. Interestingly, there was a much smaller sex difference in reflection than brooding. The meta-analyses found similar results across multiple study designs.


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: Although rumination is generally unhealthy and associated with depression, thinking and talking about one's feelings can be beneficial under the right conditions. According to Pennebaker, healthy self-disclosure can reduce distress and rumination when it leads to greater insight and understanding about the source of one's problems. Thus, when people share their feelings with others in the context of supportive relationships, they are likely to experience growth. In contrast, when people repetitively ruminate and dwell on the same problem without making progress, they are likely to experience depression. Co-rumination is a process defined as "excessively discussing personal problems within a dyadic relationship", a construct that is relatively understudied in both its negative and positive trade-offs.


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: Some studies have begun developing a type of cognitive behavioral therapy that focuses on rumination, but further research is still needed. Rumination-focused cognitive behavior therapy aims to teach patients to recognize when they begin to ruminate and ultimately re-frame the way they view themselves.


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: Rumination has been confounded with other similar constructs that may overlap with it. Worry and negative automatic thoughts are two of them.


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: Rumination appears closely related to worry. Some models consider rumination to be a type of worry (S-REF). Worry has been identified as "a chain of thoughts and images, negatively affect-laden and relatively uncontrollable; it represents an attempt to engage in mental problem solving on an issue whose outcome is uncertain, but contains the possibility of one or more negative outcomes."


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: Worry is often studied in the context of generalized anxiety disorder, whereas rumination is often studied in the context of major depressive disorder. Because of the high comorbidity of these two conditions, more recent research is exploring the overlap of worry and rumination.


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: According to the Mental Health Foundation, rumination has been identified to be one of the main problems that leads to anxiety and depression. A study conducted by psychologists from the University of Liverpool, suggests that dwelling on negative events that have occurred in one's life is the biggest predictor of depression and anxiety.


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: Measures of rumination and worry have also demonstrated high correlations, above and beyond that of symptom measures of anxiety and depression (r=.66; Beck & Perkins, 2001). Rumination and worry overlap in their relationships to anxiety and depression, although some studies do indicate specificity of rumination to depression and worry to anxiety. Rumination has been found to predict changes in both depression and anxiety symptoms and individuals with major depression have been reported to engage in levels of worry similar to individuals with GAD. As a whole, these studies suggest that rumination and worry are related not only to each other, but also each is related to symptoms of both depression and anxiety.


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: Other studies have demonstrated that the content of worry and rumination are distinct; worry thoughts are often focused on problem-solving and have a future orientation, whereas ruminative thoughts concern themes of loss and are more focused on the past. Rumination, as compared to worry, has also been associated with less effort and less confidence in problem solving (Papageorgiou & Wells, 2004). It has also been suggested that rumination and worry serve different purposes, namely that rumination is associated with greater belief in the personal relevance of a situation and a larger need to understand it, whereas worry is associated with a desire to avoid worry thoughts (Watkins 2004b). Worry has also been hypothesized to contain more imagery than rumination; however, support for this has been mixed.


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: Overall, these studies suggest that worry and rumination are related constructs that both lead to depression and anxiety. It is likely that rumination and worry, as with rumination and reflection, are related types of repetitive negative thinking that may be better captured as subtypes of some larger construct, such as avoidant coping strategies.


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: Rumination has been compared to automatic negative thoughts, defined as repetitive thoughts that contain themes of personal loss or failure.


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: Nolen-Hoeksema (2004) contends that rumination (as defined in RST) is distinct from negative automatic thoughts in that while negative automatic thoughts are relatively shorthand appraisals of loss and depression in depression, rumination consists of longer chains of repetitive, recyclic, negative and self-focused thinking that may occur as a response to initial negative thoughts. Nolen also suggests that rumination may, in addition to analysis of symptoms, causes, and consequences, contain negative themes like those in automatic thoughts. Similarly, Papageorgiou and Wells (2004) have provided supports to this conclusion when they found that rumination can predict depression even when negative cognitions are controlled, suggesting that these constructs do not wholly overlap and have different predictive value.


title: Rumination (psychology)

text: Despite Nolen-Hoeksema's (2004) argument that rumination and negative automatic thoughts are distinct phenomena, the Response Style Questionnaire has been criticized for its conceptual overlap with negative automatic thoughts.


title: Slovaks

text: The Slovaks (, singular: "Slovák", feminine: "Slovenka", plural: "Slovenky") are a West Slavic ethnic group and nation native to Slovakia who share a common ancestry, culture, history and speak Slovak.


title: Slovaks

text: In Slovakia, 4.4 million are ethnic Slovaks of 5.4 million total population. There are Slovak minorities in many neighboring countries including Austria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Serbia and Ukraine and sizeable populations of immigrants and their descendants in Australia, Canada, France, Germany, United Kingdom and the United States among others, which are collectively referred to as the Slovak diaspora.


title: Slovaks

text: The name "Slovak" is derived from "*Slověninъ", plural "*Slověně", the old name of the Slavs (Proglas, around 863). The original stem has been preserved in all Slovak words except the masculine noun; the feminine noun is "Slovenka", the adjective is "slovenský", the language is "slovenčina" and the country is "Slovensko". The first written mention of adjective "slovenský" (Slovak) is in 1294 ("ad parvam arborem nystra slowenski breza ubi est meta").


title: Slovaks

text: The original name of Slovaks "Slovenin"/"Slovene" was still recorded in Pressburg Latin-Czech Dictionary (the 14th century), but it changed to "Slovák" under the influence of Czech and Polish (around 1400). The first written mention of new form in the territory of present-day Slovakia is from Bardejov (1444, ""Nicoulaus Cossibor hauptman, Nicolaus Czech et Slowak, stipendiarii supremi""). The mentions in Czech sources are older (1375 and 1385). The change is not related to the ethnogenesis of Slovaks, but exclusively to linguistic changes in the West Slavic languages. The word "Slovak" was used also later as a common name for all Slavs in Czech, Polish, and also Slovak together with other forms.


title: Slovaks

text: In Hungarian, "Slovak" is "Tót" (pl: "tótok"), an exonym. It was originally used to refer to all Slavs including Slovenes and Croats, but eventually came to refer primarily to Slovaks. Many place names in Hungary such as Tótszentgyörgy, Tótszentmárton, and Tótkomlós still bear the name. Tóth is a common Hungarian surname.


title: Slovaks

text: The Slovaks have also historically been variously referred to as "Slovyenyn", "Slowyenyny", "Sclavus", "Sclavi", "Slavus", "Slavi", "Winde", "Wende", or "Wenden". The final three terms are variations of the Germanic term Wends, which was historically used to refer to any Slavs living close to Germanic settlements.


title: Slovaks

text: The early Slavs came to the territory of Slovakia in several waves from the 5th and 6th centuries and were organized on a tribal level. Original tribal names are not known due to the lack of written sources before their integration into higher political units. Weakening of tribal consciousness was probably accelerated by Avars, who did not respect tribal differences in the controlled territory and motivated remaining Slavs to join together and to collaborate on their defense. In the 7th century, Slavs (probably including some Slovak ancestors) founded a larger tribal union: Samo's empire. Regardless of Samo's empire, the integration process continued in other territories with various intensities.


title: Slovaks

text: The final fall of the Avar Khaganate allowed new political entities to arise. The first such political unit documented by written sources is the Principality of Nitra, one of the foundations of later common ethnic consciousness. At this stage in history it is not yet possible to assume a common identity of all ancestors of Slovaks in the neighboring eastern territories, even if it was inhabited by closely related Slavs. The Principality of Nitra became a part of Great Moravia, a common state of Moravians (Czech ancestors were joined only for a few years). The relatively short existence of Great Moravia prevented it from suppressing differences which resulted from its creation from two separate entities, and therefore a common "Slovak-Moravian" ethnic identity failed to develop. The early political integration in the territory of present-day Slovakia was, however, reflected in linguistic integration. While dialects of the early ancestors of Slovaks were divided into West Slavic (western and eastern Slovakia) and non-West Slavic (central Slovakia), between the 8th and 9th centuries both dialects merged, thus laying the foundations of a later Slovak language.


title: Slovaks

text: The 10th century is a milestone in the Slovak ethnogenesis. The fall of Great Moravia and further political changes supported their formation into a separate nation. At the same time, with the extinction of the Proto-Slavic language, between the 10th and 13th centuries Slovak evolved into an independent language (simultaneously with other Slavic languages). The early existence of the Kingdom of Hungary positively influenced the development of common consciousness and companionship among Slavs in the Northern Hungary, not only within boundaries of present-day Slovakia. The clear difference between Slovaks and Hungarians made adoption of a specific name unnecessary and Slovaks preserved their original name (in Latin e.g. "Slavus"), which was also used in communication with other Slavic peoples (Polonus, Bohemus, Ruthenus). In political terms, the medieval Slovaks were a part of the multi-ethnic political nation "Natio Hungarica", together with Hungarians (or, more exactly, Magyars), Slavonians, Germans, Romanians and other ethnic groups in the Kingdom of Hungary. Since a medieval political nation did not consist of ordinary people but nobility, membership of the privileged class was necessary for all these peoples ("nobiles Hungary").


title: Slovaks

text: Like other nations, the Slovaks began to transform into a modern nation from the 18th century under the idea of national romanticism. The modern Slovak nation is the result of radical processes of modernization within the Habsburg Empire which culminated in the middle of the 19th century. The transformation process was slowed down by conflict with Hungarian nationalism and the ethnogenesis of the Slovaks become a political question, particularly regarding their deprivation and preservation of their language and national rights. In 1722, Michal Bencsik, professor of law at the University of Trnava, published a theory that nobility and burghers of Trenčín should not have same privileges as Hungarians, because they are descendants of Svatopluk's people (inferior to Magyars). Neither Bencsik nor his Slovak opponent Ján Baltazár Magin put the continuity of settlement into serious question. Also, the first history of Slovaks written by Georgius Papanek (or Juraj Papánek), traced the roots of the Slovaks to Great Moravia in "Historia gentis Slavae. De regno regibusque Slavorum..." (1780) ("History of the Slovak nation: On the kingdom and kings of the Slovaks"). Papánek's work became a basis for argumentation of the Slovak national revival movement. However, the Slovak national revival not only accepted the continuity of population but also emphasized it, thus proving that Slovaks are equal citizens of the state and neither a Hungarian "unique statesmanlike gift" nor Christianization was required for the foundation of the state.


title: Slovaks

text: In 1876, Hungarian linguist Pál Hunfalvy published a theory about missing continuity between Slovaks and Slavs before the arrival of the Hungarians. Hunfalvy tried to prove that ancestors of Slovaks did not live in the territory of the present-day Slovakia before arrival of the old Hungarians (Magyars), but Slovaks emerged later from other Slavs who came to the Kingdom of Hungary from neighbouring countries after the 13th century. János Karácsonyi assumed that central and northern Slovakia were uninhabited (1901) and in his next work "Our historical right to the territorial integrity of our country" (1921) he claimed that the remainder of the original Slavs were assimilated by Magyars and modern Slovaks are descendants of immigrants from Upper Moravia and Oder (the population density on these territories was too low in that time and large numbers of colonists coming from these areas was not possible). The theory was then misused by inter-war Hungarian revisionists, who questioned continuity to support Hungarian claims on Slovakia. In 1982, when rich archaeological evidence proving the opposite was already available, a similar theory was published by Hungarian historian György Györffy. Györffy accepted that smaller groups of Slavs could remain in the territory of Slovakia, but stated that the Slovaks' origin was in sparse settlement of various Slavic groups strengthened by later colonization. According to Ferenc Makk, the medieval Moravians are not the ancestors of Slovaks and the majority of the Slovak people are descended from later Slavic newcomers.


title: Slovaks

text: The opposite theory, supporting the supposed former common past of the Czech and Slovak nations, thus also legitimizing the creation of the united Czechoslovak nation, gained political support in inter-war Czechoslovakia. Like Karácsonyi, Czech historian Václav Chaloupecký assumed that northern and central parts of Slovakia remained uninhabited until the 13th century and that the south-western part was inhabited by Czechs. Yet, in 1946 Chaloupecký assumed that the Slovak nation emerged from neighboring Slavs and had been formed only in the 17th century. His theory about the lack of population in the greater part of Slovakia covered by forests had already been scientifically refuted by Daniel Rapant (e.g. in "O starý Liptov", 1934), and was proven wrong by numerous archaeological finds and rejected by Czechoslovak histography. On the other hand, inter-war Slovak autonomists, opposing ethnic Czechoslovakism, dated the existence of the Slovak nation to the time of Pribina (trials to document existence of Slovaks in early Slavic era, i.e. in the time of Samo's empire, are marginal and exist outside of modern mainstream Slovak historiography).


title: Slovaks

text: After the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993, the formation of independent Slovakia motivated interest in a particularly Slovak national identity. One reflection of this was the rejection of the common Czechoslovak national identity in favour of a purely Slovak one.


title: Slovaks

text: The first known Slavic states on the territory of present-day Slovakia were the Empire of Samo and the Principality of Nitra, founded sometime in the 8th century.


title: Slovaks

text: Great Moravia (833 – ?907) was a Slavic state in the 9th and early 10th centuries, whose creators were the ancestors of the Czechs and Slovaks. Important developments took place at this time, including the mission of Byzantine monks Cyril and Methodius, the development of the Glagolitic alphabet (an early form of the Cyrillic script), and the use of Old Church Slavonic as the official and literary language. Its formation and rich cultural heritage have attracted somewhat more interest since the 19th century.


title: Slovaks

text: The original territory inhabited by the Slavic tribes included not only present-day Slovakia, but also parts of present-day Poland, southeastern Moravia and approximately the entire northern half of present-day Hungary.


title: Slovaks

text: The territory of present-day Slovakia was split in two parts between the Kingdom of Hungary (under Hungarian rule gradually from 907 to the early 14th century) to Upper Hungary and Royal Hungary (under the Habsburgs from 1527 – 1848 (see also Hungarian Revolution of 1848)) until the formation of Czechoslovakia in 1918. However, according to other historians, from 895 to 902, the whole area of the present-day Slovakia became part of the rising Principality of Hungary, and became (without gradation) part of the Kingdom of Hungary a century later. A separate entity called Nitra Frontier Duchy, existed at this time within the Kingdom of Hungary. This duchy was abolished in 1107. The territory inhabited by the Slovaks in present-day Hungary was gradually reduced.


title: Slovaks

text: When most of Hungary was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1541 (see Ottoman Hungary), the territory of present-day Slovakia became the new center of the reduced kingdom that remained under Hungarian, and later Habsburg rule, officially called Royal Hungary. Some Croats settled around and in present-day Bratislava for similar reasons. Also, many Germans settled in the Kingdom of Hungary, especially in the towns, as work-seeking colonists and mining experts from the 13th to the 15th century. Jews and Gypsies also formed significant populations within the territory. During the period, most of present-day Slovakia was part of Habsburg rule, but Ottoman ruled southern and southeasternmost parts of it.


title: Slovaks

text: After the Ottoman Empire was forced to retreat from present-day Hungary around 1700, thousands of Slovaks were gradually settled in depopulated parts of the restored Kingdom of Hungary (present-day Hungary, Romania, Serbia, and Croatia) under Maria Theresia, and that is how present-day Slovak enclaves (like Slovaks in Vojvodina, Slovaks in Hungary) in these countries arose.


title: Slovaks

text: After Transylvania, Upper Hungary (present-day Slovakia) was the most advanced part of the Kingdom of Hungary for centuries, but in the 19th century, when Buda/Pest became the new capital of the kingdom, the importance of the territory, as well as other parts within the Kingdom fell, and many Slovaks were impoverished. As a result, hundreds of thousands of Slovaks emigrated to North America, especially in the late 19th and early 20th century (between cca. 1880–1910), a total of at least 1.5 million emigrants.


title: Slovaks

text: Slovakia exhibits a very rich folk culture. A part of Slovak customs and social convention are common with those of other nations of the former Habsburg monarchy (the Kingdom of Hungary was in personal union with the Habsburg monarchy from 1867 to 1918).


title: Slovaks

text: People of Slovakia spent most part of the 20th century within the framework of Czechoslovakia, a new state formed after World War I. Significant reforms and post-World War II industrialization took place during this time. Slovak was strongly influenced by Czech during this period.


title: Slovaks

text: The art of Slovakia can be traced back to the Middle Ages, when some of the greatest masterpieces of the country's history were created. Significant figures from this period included the many Old Masters, among them the Master Paul of Levoča and Master MS. More contemporary art can be seen in the shadows of Koloman Sokol, Albín Brunovský, Martin Benka, Mikuláš Galanda, Ľudovít Fulla. Julius Koller and Stanislav Filko, in the 21st century Roman Ondak, Blažej Baláž. The most important Slovak composers have been Eugen Suchoň, Ján Cikker, and Alexander Moyzes, in the 21st century Vladimir Godar and Peter Machajdík.


title: Slovaks

text: The most famous Slovak names can indubitably be attributed to invention and technology. Such people include Jozef Murgaš, the inventor of wireless telegraphy; Ján Bahýľ, Štefan Banič, inventor of the modern parachute; Aurel Stodola, inventor of the bionic arm and pioneer in thermodynamics; and, more recently, John Dopyera, father of modern acoustic string instruments. Hungarian inventors Joseph Petzval and Stefan Jedlik were born of Slovak fathers.


title: Slovaks

text: Slovakia is also known for its polyhistors, of whom include Pavol Jozef Šafárik, Matej Bel, Ján Kollár, and its political revolutionaries, such Milan Rastislav Štefánik and Alexander Dubček.


title: Slovaks

text: There were two leading persons who codified Slovak. The first one was Anton Bernolák whose concept was based on the dialect of western Slovakia (1787). It was the enactment of the first national standard language for the Slovaks. The second notable man was Ľudovít Štúr. His formation of Slovak had principles in the dialect of central Slovakia (1843).


title: Slovaks

text: The best known Slovak hero was Juraj Jánošík (the Slovak equivalent of Robin Hood). The prominent explorer and diplomat Móric Beňovský, Hungarian transcript Benyovszky was Slovak as well (he comes from Vrbové in present-day Slovakia and is e.g. listed as "nobilis Slavicus – Slovak nobleman" in his secondary school registration).


title: Slovaks

text: In terms of sports, the Slovaks are probably best known (in North America) for their ice hockey personalities, especially Stan Mikita, Peter Šťastný, Peter Bondra, Žigmund Pálffy, Marián Hossa and Zdeno Chára. For a list see List of Slovaks. Zdeno Chára is only the second European captain in history of the NHL that led his team to win the Stanley Cup, winning it with Boston Bruins in season 2010–11.


title: Slovaks

text: There are approximately 5.4 million autochthonous Slovaks in Slovakia. Further Slovaks live in the following countries ("the list shows estimates of embassies etc. and of associations of Slovaks abroad in the first place, and official data of the countries as of 2000/2001 in the second place").


title: Slovaks

text: The list stems from Claude Baláž, a Canadian Slovak, the current plenipotentiary of the Government of the Slovak Republic for Slovaks abroad (see e.g.: ):


title: Slovaks

text: The number of Slovaks living outside Slovakia in line with the above data was estimated at max. 2,016,000 in 2001 (2,660,000 in 1991), implying that, in sum, there were max. some 6,630,854 Slovaks in 2001 (7,180,000 in 1991) in the world. The estimate according to the right-hand site chart yields an approximate population of Slovaks living outside Slovakia of 1.5 million.


title: Slovaks

text: Other (much higher) estimates stemming from the Dom zahraničných Slovákov (House of Foreign Slovaks) can be found on "SME".


title: Sublimation (psychology)

text: In psychology, sublimation is a of defense mechanism, in which socially unacceptable impulses or idealizations are transformed into socially acceptable actions or behavior, possibly resulting in a long-term conversion of the initial impulse.


title: Sublimation (psychology)

text: Sigmund Freud believed that sublimation was a sign of maturity and civilization, allowing people to function normally in culturally acceptable ways. He defined sublimation as the process of deflecting sexual instincts into acts of higher social valuation, being "an especially conspicuous feature of cultural development; it is what makes it possible for higher psychical activities, scientific, artistic or ideological, to play such an 'important' part in civilized life." Wade and Travis present a similar view, stating that sublimation occurs when displacement "serves a higher cultural or socially useful purpose, as in the creation of art or inventions."


title: Sublimation (psychology)

text: In the opening section of "Human, All Too Human" entitled 'Of first and last things', Nietzsche wrote:


title: Sublimation (psychology)

text: There is, strictly speaking, neither unselfish conduct, nor a wholly disinterested point of view. Both are simply sublimations in which the basic element seems almost evaporated and betrays its presence only to the keenest observation. All that we need and that could possibly be given us in the present state of development of the sciences, is a chemistry of the moral, religious, aesthetic conceptions and feeling, as well as of those emotions which we experience in the affairs, great and small, of society and civilization, and which we are sensible of even in solitude. But what if this chemistry established the fact that, even in its domain, the most magnificent results were attained with the basest and most despised ingredients? Would many feel disposed to continue such investigations? Mankind loves to put by the questions of its origin and beginning: must one not be almost inhuman in order to follow the opposite course?


title: Sublimation (psychology)

text: In Freud's psychoanalytical theory, erotic energy is allowed a limited amount of expression, owing to the constraints of human society and civilization itself. It therefore requires other outlets, especially if an individual is to remain psychologically balanced. The ego must act as a mediator between the moral norms of the superego, the realistic expectations of reality, and the basic Id's. One method by which the ego lessens the stress that unacceptably strong urges or emotions can cause is through sublimation. Sublimation transforms undesirable impulses into desirable and acceptable behaviors.


title: Sublimation (psychology)

text: Sublimation () is the process of transforming libido into "socially useful" achievements, including artistic, cultural, and intellectual pursuits. Freud considered this psychical operation to be fairly salutary compared to the others that he identified, such as repression, displacement, denial, reaction formation, intellectualisation, and projection. In "The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence" (1936), his daughter, Anna, classed sublimation as one of the major 'defence mechanisms' of the psyche.


title: Sublimation (psychology)

text: Freud got the idea of sublimation while reading "The Harz Journey" by Heinrich Heine. The story is about Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach who cut off the tails of dogs he encountered in childhood and later became a surgeon. Freud concluded that sublimation could be a conflict between the need for satisfaction and the need for security without perturbation of awareness. In an action performed many times throughout one's life, which firstly appears sadistic, thought is ultimately refined into an activity which is of benefit to mankind.


title: Sublimation (psychology)

text: Projection is a mental process also introduced by Freud in which people attribute to others what is on their mind. An example of this would be if an individual is frustrated and angry, and assume that other people are feeling that type of way towards them as well. This defense mechanism was introduced to Freud from whom he borrowed the term projection from neurology to refer to the intrinsic ability of neurons to transmit one stimuli of the nervous system to the next.


title: Sublimation (psychology)

text: Seeing oneself in another is still considered to be the meaning of the phrase in modern psychological science. Positive and negative repercussions can result from this seemingly universal human social animal inclination. Projection can be the root of both compassion and cold nature, depending on the traits that are projected and if they are denied in the self.


title: Sublimation (psychology)

text: Harry Stack Sullivan, the pioneer of interpersonal psychoanalysis, defined sublimation as the unwitting substitution of a partial satisfaction with social approval for the pursuit of a direct satisfaction which would be contrary to one's ideals or to the judgment of social censors and other important people who surround one. The substitution might not be quite what we want, but it is the only way that we can get part of our satisfaction and feel secure, too. Sullivan documented that all sublimatory things are more complicated than the direct satisfaction of the needs to which they apply. They entail no disturbance of consciousness, no stopping to think why they must be done or what the expense connected with direct satisfaction would be. In successful sublimation, Sullivan observed extraordinarily efficient handling of a conflict between the need for a satisfaction and the need for security without perturbation of awareness.


title: Sublimation (psychology)

text: Sexual sublimation was according to Freud a deflection of sexual instincts into non-sexual activity, based upon a principle akin to the conservation of energy in physics.


title: Sublimation (psychology)

text: There is a finite amount of activity, and it is converted, in a mechanistic fashion like a mechanical engine, from sexual activity to non-sexual.


title: Sublimation (psychology)

text: One such example is the case of Wolf Man, a case in which a young boy's sexual attraction to his father was redirected towards Christianity and eventually led the boy to obsessional neurosis in the form of uncontrollable sacrilegious reverence. Freud travelled to Clark University to speak about instances of sexual sublimation, but he was not wholly convinced of his own theories. 20th century psychological thought by the likes of Melanie Klein has largely relegated the idea and replaced it with subtler ideas. One such idea is that the sexual desires are not made totally non-sexual, but rather transformed into a more appropriate desire.


title: Sublimation (psychology)

text: Although superficially valid, with anecdotal examples from non-psychologists of civilizations at large and specific great achievers repressing sexual urges (e.g. Renoir "painting with his cock", Wayland Young stating that "love's loss is empire's gain", Lawrence Stone's view that Western civilization has achieved so much because of sublimation, and the claims by biographers of many people from Higgins on Rider Haggard to Sinclair on George Grey), it is ill-defined and comes with the caveats that it rarely happens in practice, that many things attributed to it are actually the results of something else, and that it is most definitely not some quasi-physical transfer of some sort of "sexual energy" in the modern psychoanalytical view but rather an internal thought process.


title: Sublimation (psychology)

text: As espoused in the "Tanya", Hasidic Jewish mysticism views sublimation of the animal soul as an essential task in life, wherein the goal is to transform animalistic and earthy cravings for physical pleasure into holy desires to connect with God.


title: Sublimation (psychology)

text: Different schools of thought describe general sexual urges as carriers of spiritual essence, and have the varied names of vital energy, vital winds (prana), spiritual energy, ojas, shakti, tummo, or kundalini. It is also believed that undergoing sexual sublimation can facilitate a mystical awakening in an individual.


title: Sublimation (psychology)

text: can only be based on the totally erroneous supposition that the unconscious is a monster. It is a view that springs from fear of nature and the realities of life. Freud invented the idea of sublimation to save us from the imaginary claws of the unconscious. But what is real, what actually exists, cannot be alchemically sublimated, and if anything is apparently sublimated it never was what a false interpretation took it to be.


title: Sublimation (psychology)

text: In the same article, Jung went on to suggest that unconscious processes became dangerous only to the extent that people repress them. The more people come to assimilate and recognize the unconscious, the less of a danger it becomes. In this view sublimation requires not repression of drives through will, but acknowledgement of the creativity of unconscious processes and a learning of how to work with them.


title: Sublimation (psychology)

text: This differs fundamentally from Freud's view of the concept. For Freud, sublimation helped explain the plasticity of the sexual instincts (and their convertibility to non-sexual ends) - see libido. The concept also underpinned Freud's psychoanalytical theories, which showed the human psyche at the mercy of conflicting impulses (such as the super-ego and the id).


title: Sublimation (psychology)

text: In his private letters, Jung criticized Freud for obscuring the alchemical origins of sublimation and for attempting instead to make the concept appear scientifically credible:


title: Sublimation (psychology)

text: The French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan's exposition of sublimation is framed within a discussion about the relationship of psychoanalysis and ethics within the seventh book of his seminars. Lacanian sublimation is defined with reference to the concept "Das Ding" (later in his career Lacan termed this "objet petit a"); "Das Ding" is German for "the thing" though Lacan conceives it as an abstract notion and one of the defining characteristics of the human condition. Broadly speaking it is the vacuum one experiences as a human being and which one endeavours to fill with differing human relationships, objects and experiences, all of which are used to plug a gap in one's psychical needs. Unfortunately, all attempts to overcome the vacuity of "Das Ding" are insufficient in wholly satisfying the individual. For this reason, Lacan also considers "Das Ding" to be a non-Thing or vacuole.


title: Sublimation (psychology)

text: Lacan considers "Das Ding" a lost object ever in the process of being recuperated by Man. Temporarily the individual will be duped by his or her own psyche into believing that this object, this person or this circumstance can be relied upon to satisfy his needs in a stable and enduring manner when in fact it is in its nature that the object as such is lost—and will never be found again. Something is there while one waits for something better, or worse, but which one wants, and again "Das Ding" "is to be found at most as something missed. One doesn't find it, but only its pleasurable associations." Human life unravels as a series of detours in the quest for the lost object or the absolute Other of the individual: "The pleasure principle governs the search for the object and imposes detours which maintain the distance to "Das Ding" in relation to its end."


title: Sublimation (psychology)

text: Lacanian sublimation centres to a large part on the notion of "Das Ding". His general formula for sublimation is that "it raises an object ... to the dignity of The Thing." Lacan considers these objects (whether human, aesthetic, credal, or philosophical) to be signifiers which are representative of "Das Ding" and that "the function of the pleasure principle is, in effect, to lead the subject from signifier to signifier, by generating as many signifiers as are required to maintain at as low a level as possible the tension that regulates the whole functioning of the psychic apparatus." Furthermore, man is the "artisan of his support system", in other words, he creates or finds the signifiers which delude him into believing he has overcome the emptiness of "Das Ding".


title: Sublimation (psychology)

text: Lacan also considers sublimation to be a process of creation "ex nihilo" (creating out of nothing), whereby an object, human or manufactured, comes to be defined in relation to the emptiness of "Das Ding". Lacan's prime example of this is the courtly love of the troubadours and "Minnesänger" who dedicated their poetic verse to a love-object which was not only unreachable (and therefore experienced as something missing) but whose existence and desirability also centered around a hole (the vagina). For Lacan such courtly love was "a paradigm of sublimation." He affirms that the word 'troubadour' is etymologically linked to the Provençal verb "trobar" (like the French "trouver"), "to find". If we consider again the definition of "Das Ding", it is dependent precisely on the expectation of the subject to re-find the lost object in the mistaken belief that it will continue to satisfy him (or her).


title: Sublimation (psychology)

text: Lacan maintains that creation "ex nihilo" operates in other noteworthy fields as well. In pottery for example vases are created around an empty space. They are primitive and even primordial artifacts which have benefited mankind not only in the capacity of utensils but also as metaphors of (cosmic) creation "ex nihilo". Lacan cites Heidegger who situates the vase between the earthly (raising clay from the ground) and the ethereal (pointing upwards to receive). In architecture, Lacan asserts, buildings are designed around an empty space and in art paintings proceed from an empty canvas, and often depict empty spaces through perspective.


title: Sublimation (psychology)

text: In myth, Pan pursues the nymph Syrinx who is transformed into hollow reeds in order to avoid the clutches of the god, who subsequently cuts the reeds down in anger and transforms them into what we today call panpipes (both reeds and panpipes rely on their hollowness for the production of sound).


title: Sublimation (psychology)

text: Lacan briefly remarks that religion and science are also based around emptiness. In regard to religion, Lacan refers the reader to Freud, stating that much obsessional religious behavior can be attributed to the avoidance of the primordial emptiness of "Das Ding" or in the respecting of it. As for the discourse of science this is based on the notion of "Verwerfung" (the German word for "dismissal") which results in the dismissing, foreclosing or exclusion of the notion of "Das Ding" presumably because it defies empirical categorisation.


title: Sublimation (psychology)

text: These investigators view their research, published 2013 in the "Journal of Personality and Social Psychology", as providing "possibly the first experimental evidence for sublimation and [suggesting] a cultural psychological approach to defense mechanisms."


title: Arjun Sarja filmography

text: Arjun Sarja is an Indian actor, producer and director who works predominantly in Tamil cinema and he also established his career in Telugu and Kannada cinema. He debuted as a child actor in the film "Simhada Mari Sainya" in the year 1981. Sarja had acted in more than 160 movies. He has directed 12 films and also produced and distributed a number of films. After starring in numerous Kannada films with minor roles, he starred in his first movie as an independent actor in "Male Bantu Male". In 1984, Sarja made his Tamil Debut in Rama Narayanan's film "Nandri". During the subsequent years he acted in many Telugu and Kannada films portraying lead and supporting roles in "Premagni" (1989), "Prathap" (1990) and "Shivanaga" (1992).


title: Arjun Sarja filmography

text: Sarja made his directorial debut with the film "Sevagan" in 1992. In 1993, he starred in his first breakthrough film as a contemporary actor in S. Shankar's "Gentleman", which opened to positive reviews, while Sarja went on to win the Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Actor. He then starred in commercially successful films such as "Jai Hind" (1994), "Karnaa" (1995), and the crime drama film "Kurudhipunal" (1995). In 1999, he starred in the political thriller "Mudhalvan" (1999). Sarja won critical acclaim for portraying an ambitious television reporter who became the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu for a day. The film ran for over 100 days in theaters and won awards on a regional scale.


title: Arjun Sarja filmography

text: In 2000, he starred in Vasanth's film "Rhythm". He appeared in several action films in which he directed and featured in lead roles are "Ezhumalai" (2002) and "Parasuram" (2003), while also starred in "Arasatchi" (2004). The films, "Giri" (2004) and "Marudhamalai" (2007) were box office hits, while several were average grossers including "Madrasi" (2006), "Vathiyar" (2006) and "Durai" (2008). He portrayed the role of the Hindu deity Hanuman in Krishna Vamsi's devotional film "Sri Anjaneyam" (2004).


title: Arjun Sarja filmography

text: Since 2010, Sarja has attempted to change his "action king" image and played negative roles. In 2011, he starred alongside Ajith Kumar in Venkat Prabhu's crime thriller "Mankatha," which became a box office success. The following year he appeared in Kannada film "Prasad", for which he won the Karnataka State Film Award for Best Actor. He then starred in Mani Ratnam's "Kadal" (2013), in which he portrayed in the role of a smuggler, which went on to become a box office failure. In a directorial venture, "Jai Hind 2" became a box office success in Kannada, while the Tamil and Telugu versions failed at the box office. In 2017, he starred in his 150th film "Nibunan" which was simultaneously released in Tamil as "Nibunan" and Kannada as "Vismaya". He then acted in Telugu film "Naa Peru Surya, Naa Illu India" with Allu Arjun, followed by "Irumbu Thirai" (2018), a Tamil action movie co-starring Vishal, which later being a blockbuster at the box office.


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: Sally Ann Howes (20 July 1930 – 19 December 2021) was an English actress and singer. Her career on screen, stage and television spanned six decades. She is best known for the role of Truly Scrumptious in the 1968 musical film "Chitty Chitty Bang Bang". In 1963, she was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Lead Actress in a Musical for her performance in "Brigadoon".


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: Howes was born on 20 July 1930 in St John's Wood, London, the daughter of British comedian/actor/singer/variety star Bobby Howes (1895–1972) and actress/singer Patricia Malone (1899–1971). She was the granddaughter of Capt. J.A.E. Malone (died 1928), London theatrical director of musicals, and she had an older brother, Peter Howes, a professional musician and music professor. Her great-grandfather, Captain Joseph Malone, was awarded the Victoria Cross in 1854 at the Charge of the Light Brigade. Her uncle, Pat Malone, was an actor on stage, films, and television.


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: Howes moved to the family's country house in Essendon, Hertfordshire, for the duration of World War II. She was a show-business baby who lived a quiet, orderly childhood, where she grew up with a nanny and was surrounded by a variety of pets and her parents' theatrical peers, including actor/writer Jack Hulbert and his wife, actress Cicely Courtneidge, who had an adjoining house.


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: Her first taste of the stage was school productions, but as she came from a theatrical family, another family friend, an agent who was visiting the Howes family for dinner, became impressed with her and not long after suggested the young Sally Ann for a role in a film. Two hundred young girls had already been screen tested without success, and the producers were desperate to find a talented little girl to play the lead, and they asked her father to please rush in some pictures on the recommendation of the agent. The film, "Thursday's Child", was written by playwright and screenwriter Rodney Ackland, also a close neighbour to the Howes family, and it would become Ackland's directorial debut. "Thursday's Child" (1943) launched her career.


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: A second film, "The Halfway House" (1944), in which she plays a major role as a teenager trying to get her parents to stay together, led to Howes being put under contract by Michael Balcon of Ealing Studios, and this was followed by many other film roles as a child actress, including "Dead of Night" (1945) with Michael Redgrave, "Pink String and Sealing Wax" (1945), "Nicholas Nickleby" (1947), "My Sister and I" (1948), and "Anna Karenina" (1948), with Vivien Leigh.


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: At the age of 18, the Rank Organisation put Howes under a seven-year contract, and she went on to make the films "Stop Press Girl" (1949), "The History of Mr. Polly" (1949) with John Mills, "Fools Rush In" (1949), and "Honeymoon Deferred" (1951). She married Maxwell Coker in 1950.


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: On a teacher friend's recommendation, Howes took singing lessons – not only to bring out her natural talents, but in an effort to lower her speaking voice, which was quite high. While still in her teens, she made her first musical-comedy stage appearance in "Fancy Free". In late 1950, she starred in a BBC TV version of "Cinderella".


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: The same year, Howes accepted her first professional stage role in the Sandy Wilson musical "Caprice." She terminated her contract with Rank, where she had been unhappy with the film roles she'd received, and with being "lent out" to other studios. She was finding gainful employment in television and radio, and looking to flex her singing talent, something Balcon and Rank had overlooked. "Caprice" was followed by "Bet Your Life" with Julie Wilson, Arthur Askey, and Brian Reece, with whom Howes was also simultaneously on radio. She participated in a TV version of "The Golden Fool".


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: In 1953, she starred in the West End in the musical "Paint Your Wagon" with her father, Bobby Howes, which ran for 18 months. It was followed by "Summer Song", also in the West End, firmly establishing Howes as a leading musical comedy star.


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: Then came her critically acclaimed performance in the stage drama "A Hatful of Rain". In the early-to-mid-1950s, Howes's career expanded to include television appearances, modelling, commercials, and product endorsements.


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: Howes appeared as a comics character in "TV Fun" serial comics and annuals, as a young, wholesome teacher in the wild American West (at a time when Western TV shows were very popular). She appeared on many magazine covers, most notably "Life" (3 March 1958), when she took over Julie Andrews's role in "My Fair Lady" on New York City's Broadway.


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: Howes was offered the part in "My Fair Lady" twice before: first, to join the musical's U.S. touring company (which she declined); and second, to replace Andrews on Broadway – which, at the time, conflicted with Howes's commitment to film "Admirable Crichton" (1957) with Kenneth More. "My Fair Lady" creators Lerner and Loewe were persistent, though, and Howes accepted the third time, with a year's contract, and at a higher salary than Andrews. Howes was an instant hit as Eliza Doolittle.


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: In January 1958, Howes married Tony-winning composer Richard Adler ("The Pajama Game", "Damn Yankees"). The following December, she appeared in Adler's musical television adaptation of O. Henry's short story "The Gift of the Magi" (1958), which Adler wrote expressly for her. Adler and Bob Merrill also collaborated on a musical version of W. Somerset Maugham's "Of Human Bondage" so Howes could play Mildred.


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: She appeared on many TV shows, including those of Perry Como and Dinah Shore, and Jack Paar's "The Tonight Show" in 1962. She appeared on "The Bell Telephone Hour", "The Kraft Music Hall", and "The United States Steel Hour", and appeared on "The Ed Sullivan Show" four times.


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: When her contract in "My Fair Lady" ended, she returned to Britain to tape six 1-hour installments of "The Sally Ann Howes Show", a variety show for ITV, the British commercial television network.


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: Howes was invited to sing for US presidents Dwight D. Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy, and Lyndon B. Johnson. She became a frequent guest panellist on game shows and was known for her quick, spontaneous answers.


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: She returned to Broadway in 1961 in the short run of "Kwamina", another musical Adler wrote for her, where she starred opposite Terry Carter. Its theme of interracial romance proved controversial at a time when civil rights were hotly contested, and it has not been revived on Broadway since. (Howes's father was also on Broadway that year, in a short revival of "Finian's Rainbow".) That year, she did "Jane Eyre" for television.


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: In 1962, she starred in a short revival of the musical "Brigadoon" at the New York City Opera and received a Tony nomination, the first performer to be nominated for a revival performance. She recreated the role in a private White House performance at the invitation of President and Mrs. Kennedy.


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: In 1964, she starred on Broadway opposite Robert Alda and Steve Lawrence in the musical "What Makes Sammy Run?", with over 500 performances.


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: She returned to familiar territory on TV in 1966 with "Brigadoon" opposite Robert Goulet, Peter Falk, and some of her Broadway cast; it won six Emmy Awards.


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: In 1968, Howes appeared in the children's film "Chitty Chitty Bang Bang", starring as Truly Scrumptious, the beautiful aristocratic daughter of a confectionery magnate. For this leading role, she was paid £44,939 ($1,133,323 in 2021 terms), whereas her male co-star Dick Van Dyke's fee was £615,425 ($15,520,489 in 2021 terms). At the time, Van Dyke was a major box office draw, having starred in "Mary Poppins" (1964).


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: At her audition for this role, Howes was asked if she could dance. Her father had taught her to always say yes if a director asks if you can do something, and then if you can't do it, learn very quickly how to. She had a crash course in dancing lessons before filming a dance as a wooden doll. She found that 150 extras were watching her film this scene, and somehow she managed to complete it in one take.


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: "Chitty Chitty Bang Bang" did not, however, restart Howes' film career or launch a career for her in episodic television despite several guest-starring roles in "", "Marcus Welby, M.D.", "Branigan", and "The Men From Shiloh". Even the pilot "Prudence and the Chief", which was a spoof on "The King and I", did not get picked up as a TV series. In addition, film musicals were now failing at the box office, and that avenue was closed to her. As a result, she returned almost exclusively to the stage, appearing in only a few more films and television productions.


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: "I would have liked a film career, but I didn't pursue it – I just loved connecting with an audience," said Howes. "The theatre is a drug. The problem is that to be remembered, you have to do films."


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: In the 1970s, she toured Britain with "The King and I" and later the United States with "The Sound of Music". After her debut with the Los Angeles Civic Light Opera in 1972 with "The Sound of Music", she returned to Britain to star in the stage drama, "Lover," which was written specifically for her.


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: In the 1970s and 1980s, she began to cross over from standard musicals to operettas. She performed two summers with the Kenley Players in "Blossom Time" and "The Great Waltz", and she later added Franz Lehár's "The Merry Widow" and then two seasons of Stephen Sondheim's "A Little Night Music" at the New York City Opera. She also added the role of Gertrude in "Hamlet" to her repertoire. In the 1980s, she twice appeared in BBC TV's long-running Edwardian Music Hall programme, "The Good Old Days".


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: She later said "The moment you hit 45... your career changes. You have to rethink everything, and you have to adjust. I was always aware of it because of the people I was brought up with. We saw careers go up and down and be killed off. I've never been prepared for anything, I've always jumped into the next thing, and therefore it's been a strange career. I've enjoyed experimenting. I've been so fortunate to be able to change – do cabaret, do concerts, or lectures."


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: In 1990, she debuted her one-woman show, "From This Moment On", at the Edinburgh Festival and at a benefit for the Long Island AIDS Association at the John Drew Theatre in East Hampton, New York. Her last film was the 1992 miniseries "Judith Krantz's Secrets." That marked her 50th year in film.


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: Her other projects included narrations of "Cubby Broccoli, The Man Behind Bond" on the release of the DVD "Diamonds Are Forever" in 2000, "The Making of Chitty Chitty Bang Bang The Musical" (2002), and her appearance in the documentary, "After They Were Famous – Chitty Chitty Bang Bang" (2004).


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: Except for occasional lectures, charity functions, and some Broadway openings, she was semi-retired, although she still hosted events or performed two or three times per year. Over the period September 2007 to January 2008, she toured the U.S. in the Cameron Mackintosh production of "My Fair Lady", appearing as Mrs. Higgins. When she was not performing, she was an artistic advisor for the Palm Beach Theatre Guild, a non-profit organisation dedicated to preserving the Royal Poinciana Playhouse in Palm Beach, Florida.


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: Howes married Richard Adler in 1958, and adopted his sons Andrew and Christopher after their mother died in 1964. Howes and Adler divorced in 1966, though she continued raising the boys after their divorce. Howes recalled her marriage to Adler as a mistake stating, "We were both in show business but our values were very different. And his career was plummeting and mine was going great guns. And I made another mistake – I began turning down work because I thought if I was working and he wasn't, it would increase his insecurity." Christopher was a Broadway lyricist, and died of AIDS-related cancer in 1984 at the age of 30.


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: She was married to the English literary agent Douglas Rae from 1972 until his death in September 2021. According to her nephew, they were "inseparable".


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: Early TV appearances included a guest appearance in "Cafe Continental" with her father when they faced the camera together for the first time. Other appearances included "Kaleidoscope", and her own Sunday night series called "Short and Sweet" with Harry Jacobson at the piano. She appeared in the 1951 Festival of Musical Production, which was written for her and entitled "The Golden Year."


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: In the late 1940s and early 1950s, she appeared on many radio programmes including: "Ignorance is Bliss", "Geraldo's Open House", "Taxi" with Jerry Verno, "Desert Island Discs", "Talk Yourself Out of This", and she appeared twice on the "Calling All Forces" show.


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: She can also be found on the albums "The Best of the Telephone Hour", "Cole Porter: A Remembrance" (1965), "An Evening With Alan Jay Lerner" (1987), and the three Christmas songs she recorded, "Toyland", "It Came Upon A Midnight Clear", and "O Little Town of Bethlehem" can be found reissued each year on various compilation Christmas albums. The last known recording she made was a gift album for a party for a friend, called "Mary Lea, Songs My Sister Loved & Sang" (1998) for which she held the production rights and copyright.


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: In the late 1940s and early 1950s, Sally Ann Howes lent her face to many products, a few of which are mentioned here:


title: Sally Ann Howes

text: The following publications feature portions about her career and life. For magazine articles and covers, see her biography on the Internet Movie Database: .


title: Phoenician language

text: Phoenician ( ) is an extinct Canaanite Semitic language originally spoken in the region surrounding the cities of Tyre and Sidon. Extensive Tyro-Sidonian trade and commercial dominance led to Phoenician becoming a lingua franca of the maritime Mediterranean during the Iron Age. The Phoenician alphabet spread to Greece during this period, where it became the source of all modern European scripts.


title: Phoenician language

text: The area in which Phoenician was spoken includes the northern Levant and, at least as a prestige language, Anatolia, specifically the areas now including Syria, Lebanon, parts of Cyprus and some adjacent areas of Turkey. It was also spoken in the area of Phoenician colonization along the coasts of the southwestern Mediterranean Sea, including those of modern Tunisia, Morocco, Libya and Algeria as well as Malta, the west of Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, the Balearic Islands and southernmost Spain.


title: Phoenician language

text: In modern times, the language was first decoded by Jean-Jacques Barthélemy in 1758, who noted that the name "Phoenician" was first given to the language by Samuel Bochart in his "Geographia Sacra seu Phaleg et Canaan".


title: Phoenician language

text: The Phoenicians were the first state-level society to make extensive use of the Semitic alphabet. The Phoenician alphabet is the oldest verified consonantal alphabet, or "abjad." It has become conventional to refer to the script as "Proto-Canaanite" until the mid-11th century BC, when it is first attested on inscribed bronze arrowheads, and as "Phoenician" only after 1050 BC. The Phoenician phonetic alphabet is generally believed to be at least the partial ancestor of almost all modern alphabets.


title: Phoenician language

text: From a traditional linguistic perspective, Phoenician was composed of a variety of dialects. According to some sources, Phoenician developed into distinct Tyro-Sidonian and Byblian dialects. By this account, the Tyro-Sidonian dialect, from which the Punic language eventually emerged, spread across the Mediterranean through trade and colonization, whereas the ancient dialect of Byblos, known from a corpus of only a few dozen extant inscriptions, played no expansionary role. However, the very slight differences in language and the insufficient records of the time make it unclear whether Phoenician formed a separate and united dialect or was merely a superficially defined part of a broader language continuum. Through their maritime trade, the Phoenicians spread the use of the alphabet to Northwest Africa and Europe, where it was adopted by the Greeks. Later, the Etruscans adopted a modified version for their own use, which, in turn, was modified and adopted by the Romans and became the Latin alphabet. In the east of the Mediterranean region, the language was in use as late as the 1st century BC, when it seems to have gone extinct there.


title: Phoenician language

text: Punic colonisation spread Phoenician to the western Mediterranean, where the distinct Punic language developed. Punic also died out, but it seems to have survived far longer than Phoenician, until the 6th century, perhaps even into the 9th century AD.


title: Phoenician language

text: Phoenician was written with the Phoenician script, an abjad (consonantary) originating from the Proto-Canaanite alphabet that also became the basis for the Greek alphabet and, via an Etruscan adaptation, the Latin alphabet. The Punic form of the script gradually developed somewhat different and more cursive letter shapes; in the 3rd century BC, it also began to exhibit a tendency to mark the presence of vowels, especially final vowels, with an aleph or sometimes an ayin. Furthermore, around the time of the Second Punic War, an even more cursive form began to develop, which gave rise to a variety referred to as Neo-Punic and existed alongside the more conservative form and became predominant some time after the destruction of Carthage (c. 149 BC). Neo-Punic, in turn, tended to designate vowels with matres lectionis ("consonantal letters") more frequently than the previous systems had and also began to systematically use different letters for different vowels, in the way explained in more detail below. Finally, a number of late inscriptions from what is now Constantine, Algeria dated to the first century BC make use of the Greek alphabet to write Punic, and many inscriptions from Tripolitania, in the third and fourth centuries AD use the Latin alphabet for that purpose.


title: Phoenician language

text: In Phoenician writing, unlike that of abjads such as those of Aramaic, Biblical Hebrew and Arabic, even long vowels remained generally unexpressed, regardless of their origin (even if they originated from diphthongs, as in bt 'house', for earlier "*bayt-"; Hebrew spelling has byt). Eventually, Punic writers began to implement systems of marking of vowels by means of "matres lectionis". In the 3rd century BC appeared the practice of using final 'ālep to mark the presence of any final vowel and, occasionally, of yōd to mark a final long .


title: Phoenician language

text: Later, mostly after the destruction of Carthage in the so-called "Neo-Punic" inscriptions, that was supplemented by a system in which wāw denoted , yōd denoted , 'ālep denoted and , ʿayin denoted and hē and could also be used to signify . This latter system was used first with foreign words and was then extended to many native words as well.


title: Phoenician language

text: A third practice reported in the literature is the use of the consonantal letters for vowels in the same way as had occurred in the original adaptation of the Phoenician alphabet to Greek and Latin, which was apparently still transparent to Punic writers: hē for and 'ālep for .


title: Phoenician language

text: Later, Punic inscriptions began to be written in the Latin alphabet, which also indicated the vowels. Those later inscriptions, in addition with some inscriptions in Greek letters and transcriptions of Phoenician names into other languages, represent the main source of knowledge about Phoenician vowels.


title: Phoenician language

text: The following table presents the consonant phonemes of the Phoenician language as represented in the Phoenician alphabet, alongside their standard Semiticist transliteration and reconstructed phonetic values in the International Phonetic Alphabet.:


title: Phoenician language

text: The system reflected in the abjad above is the product of several mergers. From Proto-Northwest Semitic to Canaanite, and have merged into , and have merged into , and , and have merged into . Next, from Canaanite to Phoenician, the sibilants and were merged as , and were merged as , and * and * were merged as *. For the phonetic values of the sibilants, see below. These latter developments also occurred in Biblical Hebrew at one point or another, except that merged into there.


title: Phoenician language

text: The original value of the Proto-Semitic sibilants, and accordingly of their Phoenician counterparts, is disputed. While the traditional sound values are for , for , for , and for , recent scholarship argues that was , was , was , and was , as transcribed in the consonant table above. Krahmalkov, too, suggests that Phoenician *z may have been [dz] or even [zd] based on Latin transcriptions such as "esde" for the demonstrative "z."


title: Phoenician language

text: On the other hand, it is debated whether šīn and sāmek , which are mostly well distinguished by the Phoenician orthography, also eventually merged at some point, either in Classical Phoenician or in Late Punic.


title: Phoenician language

text: In later Punic, the laryngeals and pharyngeals seem to have been entirely lost. Neither these nor the emphatics could be adequately represented by the Latin alphabet, but there is also evidence to that effect from Punic script transcriptions.


title: Phoenician language

text: There is no consensus on whether Phoenician-Punic ever underwent the lenition of stop consonants that happened in most other Northwest Semitic languages such as Biblical Hebrew and Aramaic (cf. Hackett vs Segert and Lyavdansky). The consonant may have been "generally" transformed into in Punic and in late Phoenician, as it was in Proto-Arabic. Certainly, Latin-script renditions of late Punic include many spirantized transcriptions with "ph", "th" and "kh" in various positions (although the interpretation of these spellings is not entirely clear) as well as the letter "f" for the original *p. However, in Neo-Punic, *b lenited to /v/ contiguous to a following consonant, as in the Latin transcription "lifnim" for *lbnm "for his son".


title: Phoenician language

text: Knowledge of the vowel system is very imperfect because of the characteristics of the writing system. During most of its existence, Phoenician writing showed no vowels at all, and even as vowel notation systems did eventually arise late in its history, they never came to be applied consistently to native vocabulary. It is thought that Phoenician had the short vowels , , and the long vowels , , , , . The Proto-Semitic diphthongs and are realized as and . That must have happened earlier than in Biblical Hebrew since the resultant long vowels are not marked with the semivowel letters ("bēt" "house" was written bt, in contrast to Biblical Hebrew byt).


title: Phoenician language

text: The most conspicuous vocalic development in Phoenician is the so-called Canaanite shift, shared by Biblical Hebrew, but going further in Phoenician. The Proto-Northwest Semitic and became not merely as in Tiberian Hebrew, but . Stressed Proto-Semitic became Tiberian Hebrew ( in other traditions), but Phoenician . The shift is proved by Latin and Greek transcriptions like "rūs/ρους" for "head, cape" 𐤓𐤀𐤔 /ruːʃ/ (Tiberian Hebrew "rōš" /roːʃ/, ); similarly notice stressed (corresponding to Tiberian Hebrew ) "samō/σαμω" for "he heard" 𐤔𐤌𐤏 /ʃaˈmoʕ/ (Tiberian Hebrew "šāmaʻ" /ʃɔːˈmaʕ/, ); similarly the word for "eternity" is known from Greek transcriptions to have been "ūlōm/ουλομ" 𐤏𐤋𐤌 /ʕuːˈloːm/, corresponding to Biblical Hebrew "ʻōlām" עולם /ʕoːlɔːm/ and Proto-Semitic "ʻālam" /ˈʕaːlam/ (in Arabic: "ʻālam" عالم /ˈʕaːlam/). The letter Y used for words such as 𐤀𐤔 /ʔəʃ/ "ys/υς" "which" and 𐤀𐤕 /ʔət/ "yth/υθ" (definite accusative marker) in Greek and Latin alphabet inscriptions can be interpreted as denoting a reduced schwa vowel that occurred in pre-stress syllables in verbs and two syllables before stress in nouns and adjectives, while other instances of Y as in "chyl/χυλ" and even "chil/χιλ" for 𐤊𐤋 /kull/ "all" in "Poenulus" can be interpreted as a further stage in the vowel shift resulting in fronting () and even subsequent delabialization of and . Short in originally-open syllables was lowered to and was also lengthened if it was accented.


title: Phoenician language

text: Stress-dependent vowel changes indicate that stress was probably mostly final, as in Biblical Hebrew. Long vowels probably occurred only in open syllables.


title: Phoenician language

text: As is typical for the Semitic languages, Phoenician words are usually built around consonantal roots and vowel changes are used extensively to express morphological distinctions. However, unlike most Semitic languages, Phoenician preserved (or, possibly, re-introduced) numerous uniconsonantal and biconsonantal roots seen in Proto-Afro-Asiatic: compare the verbs 𐤊𐤍 kn "to be" vs Arabic كون kwn, 𐤌𐤕 mt "to die" vs Hebrew and Arabic מות/موت mwt and 𐤎𐤓 sr "to remove" vs Hebrew סרר srr.


title: Phoenician language

text: Nouns are marked for gender (masculine and feminine), number (singular, plural and vestiges of the dual) and state (absolute and construct, the latter being nouns that are followed by their possessors) and also have the category definiteness. There is some evidence for remains of the Proto-Semitic genitive grammatical case as well. While many of the endings coalesce in the standard orthography, inscriptions in the Latin and Greek alphabet permit the reconstruction of the noun endings, which are also the adjective endings, as follows:


title: Phoenician language

text: In late Punic, the final of the feminine was apparently dropped: ' "son of the queen" or ' "brother of the queen" rendered in Latin as HIMILCO. was also assimilated to following consonants: e.g. 𐤔𐤕 "year" for earlier 𐤔𐤍𐤕 .


title: Phoenician language

text: The case endings in general must have been lost between the 9th century BC and the 7th century BC: the personal name rendered in Akkadian as ma-ti-nu-ba-a-li "Gift of Baal", with the case endings -u and -i, was written ma-ta-an-baa-al (likely Phoenician spelling *𐤌𐤕𐤍𐤁𐤏𐤋) two centuries later. However, evidence has been found for a retention of the genitive case in the form of the first-singular possessive suffix: 𐤀𐤁𐤉 ' /abiya/ "of my father" vs 𐤀𐤁 ' /abī/ "my father". If true, this may suggest that cases were still distinguished to some degree in other forms as well.


title: Phoenician language

text: Enclitic personal pronouns were added to nouns (to encode possession) and to prepositions, as shown below for "Standard Phoenician" (the predominant dialect, as distinct from the Byblian and the late Punic varieties). They appear in a slightly different form depending on whether or not they follow plural-form masculine nouns (and so are added after a vowel). The former is given in brackets with the abbreviation a.V.


title: Phoenician language

text: In addition, according to some research, the same written forms of the enclitics that are attested after vowels are also found after a singular noun in what must have been the genitive case (which ended in , whereas the plural version ended in ). Their pronunciation can then be reconstructed somewhat differently: first-person singular // 𐤉 ', third-person singular masculine and feminine // 𐤉 ' and // 𐤉 '. The third-person plural singular and feminine must have pronounced the same in both cases, i.e. // 𐤍𐤌 ' and // 𐤍𐤌 .


title: Phoenician language

text: These enclitic forms vary between the dialects. In the archaic Byblian dialect, the third person forms are 𐤄 h and 𐤅 w // for the masculine singular (a.V. 𐤅 w //), 𐤄 h // for the feminine singular and 𐤅𐤌 hm // for the masculine plural. In late Punic, the 3rd masculine singular is usually // 𐤌 .


title: Phoenician language

text: The same enclitic pronouns are also attached to verbs to denote direct objects. In that function, some of them have slightly divergent forms: first singular // 𐤍 and probably first plural //.


title: Phoenician language

text: The near demonstrative pronouns ("this") are written, in standard Phoenician, 𐤆 z [za] for the singular and 𐤀𐤋 ' [ʔilːa] for the plural. Cypriot Phoenician displays 𐤀𐤆 ' [ʔizːa] instead of 𐤆 z [za]. Byblian still distinguishes, in the singular, a masculine ' [zan] / ' [za] from a feminine 𐤆𐤕 ' [zuːt] / 𐤆𐤀 ' [zuː]. There are also many variations in Punic, including 𐤎𐤕 st [suːt] and 𐤆𐤕 zt [zuːt] for both genders in the singular. The far demonstrative pronouns ("that") are identical to the independent third-person pronouns. The interrogative pronouns are or perhaps 𐤌𐤉 ' "who" and 𐤌 ' "what". Indefinite pronouns are "anything" is written 𐤌𐤍𐤌 mnm (possibly pronounced [miːnumːa], similar to Akkadian [miːnumːeː]) and 𐤌𐤍𐤊 mnk (possibly pronounced [miːnukːa]). The relative pronoun is a 𐤔 [ʃi], either followed or preceded by a vowel.


title: Phoenician language

text: The definite article was , and the first consonant of the following word was doubled. It was written 𐤄 h but in late Punic also 𐤀 ' and 𐤏 ' because of the weakening and coalescence of the gutturals. Much as in Biblical Hebrew, the initial consonant of the article is dropped after the prepositions 𐤁 b-, 𐤋 l- and 𐤊 k-; it could also be lost after various other particles and function words, such the direct object marker 𐤀𐤉𐤕 and the conjunction 𐤅 w- "and".


title: Phoenician language

text: Of the cardinal numerals from 1 to 10, 1 is an adjective, 2 is formally a noun in the dual and the rest are nouns in the singular. They all distinguish gender: 𐤀𐤇𐤃', 𐤀𐤔𐤍𐤌/𐤔𐤍𐤌' (construct state 𐤀𐤔𐤍/𐤔𐤍 '), 𐤔𐤋𐤔 ', 𐤀𐤓𐤁𐤏', 𐤇𐤌𐤔 ', 𐤔𐤔 ', 𐤔𐤁𐤏 ', 𐤔𐤌𐤍/𐤔𐤌𐤍𐤄 ', 𐤕𐤔𐤏 ', 𐤏𐤔𐤓/𐤏𐤎𐤓' vs 𐤀𐤇𐤕', unattested, 𐤔𐤋𐤔𐤕 ', 𐤀𐤓𐤁𐤏𐤕 ', 𐤇𐤌𐤔𐤕 ', 𐤔𐤔𐤕 ', 𐤔𐤁𐤏𐤕 ', 𐤔𐤌𐤍𐤕 ', unattested, 𐤏𐤔𐤓𐤕 '. The tens are morphologically masculine plurals of the ones: 𐤏𐤔𐤓𐤌/𐤏𐤎𐤓𐤌 ', 𐤔𐤋𐤔𐤌 ', 𐤀𐤓𐤁𐤏𐤌 ', 𐤇𐤌𐤔𐤌 ', 𐤔𐤔𐤌 ', 𐤔𐤁𐤏𐤌', 𐤔𐤌𐤍𐤌 ', 𐤕𐤔𐤏𐤌 '. "One hundred" is 𐤌𐤀𐤕 ', two hundred is its dual form ', whereas the rest are formed as in 𐤌𐤀𐤕𐤌 ' (three hundred). One thousand is 𐤀𐤋𐤐'. Ordinal numerals are formed by the addition of *iy 𐤉 '. Composite numerals are formed with w- 𐤅 "and", e.g. 𐤏𐤔𐤓 𐤅𐤔𐤍𐤌 for "twelve".


title: Phoenician language

text: The verb inflects for person, number, gender, tense and mood. Like for other Semitic languages, Phoenician verbs have different "verbal patterns" or "stems", expressing manner of action, level of transitivity and voice.


title: Phoenician language

text: The perfect or suffix-conjugation, which expresses the past tense, is exemplified below with the root 𐤐𐤏𐤋 p-ʻ-l "to do" (a "neutral", G-stem).