title: Duchy

text: There once existed an important difference between "sovereign dukes" and dukes who were ordinary noblemen throughout Europe. Some historic duchies were sovereign in areas that would become part of nation-states only during the modern era, such as happened in Germany (once a federal empire) and Italy (previously a unified kingdom). In contrast, others were subordinate districts of those kingdoms that had unified either partially or completely during the medieval era, such as France, Spain, Sicily, Naples, and the Papal States.


title: Duchy

text: In France, several duchies existed in the medieval period, including Normandy, Burgundy, Brittany, and Aquitaine.


title: Duchy

text: The medieval German stem duchies (, literally "tribal duchy," the official title of its ruler being "Herzog" or "duke") were associated with the Frankish Kingdom and corresponded with the areas of settlement of the major Germanic tribes. They formed the nuclei of the major feudal states that comprised the early era of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation (961-1806; in German: "Heiliges Römisches Reich Deutscher Nation"). These were "Schwaben" (Swabia, mainly the present-day German state of Baden-Württemberg), "Bayern" (Bavaria), and "Sachsen" (Saxony) in pre-Carolingian times, to which "Franken" (Franconia, at present the northern part of the German state of Bavaria) and "Lothringen" (Lorraine, nowadays mostly part of France) were added in post-Carolingian times. As mentioned above, such a duke was styled "Herzog" (literally "the one who is leading [the troops]").


title: Duchy

text: In medieval England, duchies associated with the territories of Lancashire and Cornwall were created, with certain powers and estates of land accruing to their dukes. The Duchy of Lancaster was created in 1351 but became merged with the Crown when, in 1399, Henry Bolingbroke, Duke of Lancaster, ascended the throne of England as Henry IV. Nowadays, the Duchy of Lancaster always belongs to the sovereign and its revenue is the Privy Purse. The Duchy of Cornwall was created in 1337 and held successively by the Dukes of Cornwall, who were also heirs to the throne. Nowadays, the Duchy of Cornwall belongs to the sovereign's heir apparent, if there is one: it reverts to the Crown in the absence of an heir apparent and is automatically conferred to the heir apparent upon birth. These duchies today have mostly lost any non-ceremonial political role, but generate their holders' private income. During the Wars of the Roses, the Duke of York made a successful entry into the City of York, by merely claiming no harm and that it was his right to possess "his duchy of York." Any and all feudal duchies that made up the patchwork of England have since been absorbed within the Royal Family. Other than Cornwall and Lancaster, British royal dukedoms are titular and do not include landholdings. Non-royal dukedoms are associated with ducal property, but this is meant as the duke's private property, with no other feudal privileges attached. At present, all independent (i.e., sovereign) duchies have disappeared.


title: Duchy

text: The following duchies were part of the medieval Kingdom of Italy, which itself was part of the Holy Roman Empire:


title: Duchy

text: All provinces of Sweden have the right to have a ducal coronet in their arms. The king gives princes and princesses ducal titles "of" them. The current such royal duchies are:


title: Henry Clay Frick

text: Henry Clay Frick (December 19, 1849 – December 2, 1919) was an American industrialist, financier, and art patron. He founded the H. C. Frick & Company coke manufacturing company, was chairman of the Carnegie Steel Company, and played a major role in the formation of the giant U.S. Steel manufacturing concern. He also financed the construction of the Pennsylvania Railroad and the Reading Company, and had extensive real estate holdings in Pittsburgh and throughout the state of Pennsylvania. He later built the historic neoclassical Frick Mansion (now a landmark building in Manhattan), and upon his death donated his extensive collection of old master paintings and fine furniture to create the celebrated Frick Collection and art museum. However, as a founding member of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club, he was also in large part responsible for the alterations to the South Fork Dam that caused its failure, leading to the catastrophic Johnstown Flood. His vehement opposition to unions also caused violent conflict, most notably in the Homestead Strike.


title: Henry Clay Frick

text: Frick was born in West Overton, Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, in the United States, a grandson of Abraham Overholt (Oberholzer), the owner of the prosperous Overholt Whiskey distillery (see Old Overholt). His father was of Swiss ancestry; his mother was of German ancestry. Frick's father, John W. Frick, was unsuccessful in business pursuits. Henry Clay Frick attended Otterbein College for one year, but did not graduate. In 1871, at 21 years old, Frick joined two cousins and a friend in a small partnership, using a beehive oven to turn coal into coke for use in steel manufacturing, and vowed to be a millionaire by the age of thirty. The company was called Frick Coke Company.


title: Henry Clay Frick

text: Thanks to loans from the family of lifelong friend Andrew Mellon, by 1880, Frick bought out the partnership. The company was renamed H. C. Frick & Company, employed 1,000 workers and controlled 80 percent of the coal output in Pennsylvania, operating coal mines in Westmoreland and Fayette counties, where he also operated banks of beehive coke ovens. Some of the brick and stone structures are still visible in both Fayette and Westmoreland Counties.


title: Henry Clay Frick

text: Shortly after marrying Adelaide Howard Childs, in 1881, Frick met Andrew Carnegie in New York City while the Fricks were on their honeymoon. This introduction would lead to an eventual partnership between H. C. Frick & Company and Carnegie Steel Company and, eventually, to United States Steel. This partnership ensured that Carnegie's steel mills had adequate supplies of coke. Frick became chairman of the company. Carnegie made multiple attempts to force Frick out of the company they had created by making it appear that the company had nowhere left to go and that it was time for Frick to retire. Despite the contributions Frick had made towards Andrew Carnegie's fortune, Carnegie disregarded him in many executive decisions including finances.


title: Henry Clay Frick

text: At the suggestion of his friend Benjamin Ruff, Frick helped to found the exclusive South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club high above Johnstown, Pennsylvania. The charter members of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club were Benjamin Ruff; T. H. Sweat, Charles J. Clarke, Thomas Clark, Walter F. Fundenberg, Howard Hartley, Henry C. Yeager, J. B. White, Henry Clay Frick, E. A. Meyers, C. C. Hussey, D. R. Ewer, C. A. Carpenter, W. L. Dunn, W. L. McClintock, and A. V. Holmes.


title: Henry Clay Frick

text: The sixty-odd club members were the leading business tycoons of Western Pennsylvania, and included among their number Frick's best friend, Andrew Mellon, his attorneys Philander Knox and James Hay Reed, as well as Frick's occasional business partner Andrew Carnegie. The club members made inadequate repairs to what was at that time the world's largest earthen dam, behind which formed a private lake called Lake Conemaugh. Less than downstream from the dam sat the city of Johnstown. Cambria Iron Company operated a large iron and steel work in Johnstown and its owner, Daniel J. Morrell, was concerned about the safety of the dam and the thoroughness of repairs made to it. Morrell had even sent his own engineer, John Fulton, to inspect the site but little was done in the long run to satisfy his concerns and the matter was largely dropped after Morrell's death in 1885.


title: Henry Clay Frick

text: The Club fatally lowered the dam by more than 3 feet. Poor repairs and maintenance, unusually high snow melt and heavy spring rains combined to cause the dam to give way on May 31, 1889, resulting in the Johnstown Flood. A screen placed across the spillway by the club to prevent fish from escaping also partly blocked the main spillway. When word of the dam's failure was telegraphed to Pittsburgh, Frick and other members of the club gathered to form the Pittsburgh Relief Committee for assistance to the flood victims, as well as determining never to speak publicly about the club or the flood. This strategy was a success, and Knox and Reed were able to fend off all lawsuits that would have placed blame upon the club's members. With a volumetric flow rate that temporarily equalled that of the Mississippi River, the flood killed 2,209 people and caused US$17 million of damage (about $450 million in 2015 dollars). Although Cambria Iron's facilities were heavily damaged, they returned to full production within a year and a half.


title: Henry Clay Frick

text: The American Society of Civil Engineers launched an investigation of the South Fork Dam breach immediately after the flood. However, the report was delayed, subverted, and whitewashed, before being released two years after the disaster. A detailed discussion of what happened during the ASCE investigation, its participating engineers, and the science behind the 1889 flood was published in 2018.


title: Henry Clay Frick

text: In 1881, Frick, already wealthy, took control of his grandfather's whiskey company, Old Overholt. Frick split ownership with Andrew Mellon and Charles W. Mauck; each owned one-third of the company. The family's whiskey company was a sentimental side business for Frick, and was headquartered in Pittsburgh's Frick Building. In 1907, as prohibition became more popular across the country, Frick and Mellon removed their names from the distilling license, although they retained ownership in the company. Upon Frick's death in 1919, he left his share of the company to Mellon.


title: Henry Clay Frick

text: Frick and Carnegie's partnership was strained over actions taken in response to the Homestead Steel Strike, an 1892 labor strike at the Homestead Works of the Carnegie Steel Company, called by the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers. At Homestead, striking workers, some of whom were armed, had locked the company staff out of the factory and surrounded it with pickets. Frick was known for his anti-union policy and as negotiations were still taking place, he ordered the construction of a solid board fence topped with barbed wire around mill property. The workers dubbed the newly fortified mill "Fort Frick." With the mill ringed by striking workers, Pinkerton agents planned to access the plant grounds from the river. Three hundred Pinkerton detectives assembled on the Davis Island Dam on the Ohio River about five miles (8 km) below Pittsburgh at 10:30 p.m. on the night of July 5, 1892. They were given Winchester rifles, placed on two specially-equipped barges and towed upriver with the object of removing the workers by force. Upon their landing, a large mêlée between workers and Pinkerton detectives ensued. Ten men were killed, nine of them workers, and there were seventy injuries. The Pinkerton agents were thrown back, and the riot was ultimately quelled only by the intervention of 8,000 armed state militia under the command of Major General George R. Snowden. During the confrontation Frick issued an ultimatum to Homestead workers, which restated his refusal to speak with union representatives and threatened to have striking workers evicted from their homes.


title: Henry Clay Frick

text: Among working-class Americans, Frick's actions against the strikers were condemned as excessive, and he soon became a target of even more union organizers. Because of this strike, people like Alan Petrucelli had thought that he is depicted as the "rich man" in Maxo Vanka's murals in St. Nicholas Croatian Church, but the Society to Preserve the Millvale Murals of Maxo Vanka (which works to preserve the artwork) says it depicts Andrew Mellon.


title: Henry Clay Frick

text: In 1892, during the Homestead strike, anarchist Alexander Berkman attempted to assassinate Frick. On July 23, Berkman, armed with a revolver and a sharpened steel file, entered Frick's office in downtown Pittsburgh.


title: Henry Clay Frick

text: Frick, realizing what was happening, attempted to rise from his chair while Berkman pulled a revolver and fired at nearly point-blank range. The bullet hit Frick in the left earlobe, penetrated his neck near the base of the skull, and lodged in his back. The impact knocked Frick down, and Berkman fired again, striking Frick for a second time in the neck and causing him to bleed extensively. Carnegie Steel vice president (later, president) John George Alexander Leishman, who was with Frick, was then able to grab Berkman's arm and prevented a third shot, probably saving Frick's life.


title: Henry Clay Frick

text: Frick was seriously wounded, but rose and (with the assistance of Leishman) tackled his assailant. All three men crashed to the floor, where Berkman managed to stab Frick four times in the leg with the pointed steel file before finally being subdued by other employees and a carpenter, who had rushed into the office. The carpenter also hit Berkman with a hammer during the scuffle.


title: Henry Clay Frick

text: Frick was back at work in a week; Berkman was charged and found guilty of attempted murder. Berkman's actions in planning the assassination clearly indicated a premeditated intent to kill, and he was sentenced to 22 years in prison. Negative publicity from the attempted assassination resulted in the collapse of the strike. Approximately 2,500 men lost their jobs, and most of the workers who stayed had their wages halved.


title: Henry Clay Frick

text: Frick married Adelaide Howard Childs of Pittsburgh on December 15, 1881. They had four children: Childs Frick (born March 12, 1883), Martha Howard Frick (born August 9, 1885), Helen Clay Frick (born September 3, 1888) and Henry Clay Frick, Jr. (born July 8, 1892). In 1882, after the formation of the partnership with Andrew Carnegie, Frick and his wife bought a home they eventually called Clayton, an estate in Pittsburgh's East End. They moved into the home in early 1883. The Frick children were born in Pittsburgh and were raised at Clayton. Two of them, Henry, Jr. and Martha, died in infancy or childhood.


title: Henry Clay Frick

text: In 1904, he built Eagle Rock, a summer estate at Prides Crossing in Beverly, Massachusetts on Boston's fashionable North Shore. The 104-room mansion designed by Little & Browne was razed in 1969.


title: Henry Clay Frick

text: Frick was a fervent art collector whose wealth allowed him to accumulate a large collection. By 1905, Henry Clay Frick's business, social, and artistic interests had shifted from Pittsburgh to New York. He took his art collection with him to New York, rented out the William H. Vanderbilt House, and served on many corporate boards, which brought him considerable opportunity to continue his lifelong business interests.


title: Henry Clay Frick

text: For example, as a board member of the Equitable Life Insurance Company, Frick attempted the removal of James Hazen Hyde (the founder's only son and heir) from the United States to France by seeking an appointment for him to become United States Ambassador to France. Frick had engaged a similar stratagem when orchestrating the ouster of the man who had saved his life, John George Alexander Leishman, from the presidency of Carnegie Steel a decade


title: Henry Clay Frick

text: beforehand. In that instance, Leishman had chosen to accept the post as ambassador to Switzerland. Hyde, however, rebuffed Frick's plan. He did, however, move to France, where he served as an ambulance driver during World War I and lived until the outbreak of World War II. (Coincidentally, while in France, Hyde married Leishman's eldest daughter Marthe.)


title: Henry Clay Frick

text: The Frick Collection is home to one of the finest collections of European paintings in the United States. It contains many works of art dating from the pre-Renaissance up to the post-Impressionist eras, but in no logical or chronological order. It includes several very large paintings by J. M. W. Turner and John Constable. In addition to paintings, it also contains an exhibition of carpets, porcelain, sculptures, and period furniture. Frick continued to live at both his New York mansion and at Clayton until his death.


title: Henry Clay Frick

text: Frick purchased the "Westmoreland", a private railroad car, from the Pullman Company in 1910. The car cost nearly $40,000, and featured a kitchen, pantry, dining room, servant's quarters, two staterooms, and a lavatory. Frick frequently used the car for travel between his residences in New York City, Pittsburgh, and Prides Crossing, Massachusetts, as well for trips to places such as Palm Beach, Florida, and Aiken, South Carolina. The car remained in the Frick family until it was scrapped by Helen Clay Frick in 1965. Photographs of family and friends travelling on the "Westmoreland" form part of the Frick archive, as do the original construction plans and upholstery fabric samples.


title: Henry Clay Frick

text: Frick and his wife Adelaide had booked tickets to travel back to New York on the inaugural trip of the RMS "Titanic" in 1912, along with J.P. Morgan. The couple canceled their trip after Adelaide sprained her ankle in Italy and missed the disastrous voyage.


title: Henry Clay Frick

text: Frick died of a heart attack on December 2, 1919, weeks before his 70th birthday. He was buried in Pittsburgh's Homewood Cemetery.


title: Henry Clay Frick

text: Frick left a will in which he bequeathed of undeveloped land to the City of Pittsburgh for use as a public park, together with a $2 million trust fund to assist with the maintenance of the park. Frick Park opened in 1927. Between 1919 and 1942, money from the trust fund was used to enlarge the park, increasing its size to almost . Following the death of Adelaide Howard Childs Frick in 1931, the Frick Collection was opened to the public as a museum in 1935.


title: Henry Clay Frick

text: Many years after her father's death, Helen Clay Frick returned to Clayton in 1981, and lived there until her death in 1984. After extensive restoration, this property was also opened to the public in 1990 as the Frick Art & Historical Center.


title: Henry Clay Frick

text: Frick was elected an honorary member of the Alpha chapter of Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia music fraternity at the New England Conservatory of Music on October 19, 1917.


title: Henry Clay Frick

text: The Henry Clay Frick archive of business records consisted of the documents regarding the business and financial dealings from 1849 to 1919. These original documents record the evolution of the period of American steel and coal industrial growth. Documentation includes first business activities, first coal firm, H.C. Frick & Company, to the formation of United States Steel Corporation on March 2, 1901. Correspondence sent and received from prominent businessmen such as Andrew Carnegie, Charles Schwab, Andrew Mellon, Henry Oliver, H. H. Rogers, Henry Phipps, and J. P. Morgan are part of the collection. Much of the collection is available as digitized and openly accessible. Most of the collection is from 1881 to 1914, and is relevant to the history of the Pittsburgh region.


title: Henry Clay Frick

text: The archive of Frick's great-grandfather, Henry Overholt (1739–1813), is also housed at the Archives Service Center, University of Pittsburgh Library System, University of Pittsburgh.


title: Duncan Robinson (basketball)

text: Duncan McBryde Robinson (born April 22, 1994) is an American professional basketball player for the Miami Heat of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played college basketball for the NCAA Division III Williams College Ephs and the NCAA Division I Michigan Wolverines. He transferred to Michigan from Williams after leading the Ephs to the 2014 NCAA Division III men's basketball tournament championship game.


title: Duncan Robinson (basketball)

text: Robinson led the Big Ten Conference in three-point shooting percentage (.450) from the beginning of conference play in December 2015 until early February 2016. In his three-year career at Michigan, he was a member of tournament champions in 2017 and 2018. Robinson was the 2018 Big Ten Conference Sixth Man of the Year. He was part of the 2017–18 team that lost to Villanova in the championship game of the 2018 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament.


title: Duncan Robinson (basketball)

text: After going undrafted in the 2018 NBA draft, Robinson signed with the Heat. He reached the 2020 NBA Finals with the team. Robinson has set numerous 3-point shot records during his tenure with the Heat.


title: Duncan Robinson (basketball)

text: Born April 22, 1994, in York, Maine, Robinson is the son of Elisabeth and Jeffrey Robinson and the youngest of their three children (after sister Marta and brother Eli). He is part Hawaiian on his mother's side. Robinson grew up in the town of New Castle, New Hampshire, where his Maude H. Trefethen Elementary School 6th grade graduating class was composed of just four students.


title: Duncan Robinson (basketball)

text: Robinson attended Rye Junior High School and elected to attend The Governor's Academy in Massachusetts rather than Portsmouth High School, which is the public high school for students in New Castle.


title: Duncan Robinson (basketball)

text: Robinson began his freshman season as a point guard for The Governor's Academy in 2008, but did not play much until he became "serviceable" as a junior. In his early years, he practiced shooting for hours, attempting to make 1,600 shots per week. Robinson started working with trainer Noah LaRoche during his junior season. After averaging 18.5 points as a senior at The Governor's Academy, he was selected to the 2012 All-NEPSAC Class B first team and the 2012 All-Independent School League (ISL) team. He graduated with a 3.55 G.P.A.


title: Duncan Robinson (basketball)

text: Following his senior season, Robinson played on the spring and summer Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) circuit and did a postgraduate year at Phillips Exeter Academy in order to increase his college prospects. Robinson played for Michael Crotty Jr.'s Middlesex Magic AAU team. Crotty had been a two-time All-American at Williams College, having served as point guard for the 2003 NCAA Division III Tournament champions (and 2004 Tournament runners up). Following his senior season, Robinson measured and . By the end of the summer, he had grown to and .


title: Duncan Robinson (basketball)

text: During the last weekend of September 2012 while on a campus visit, Division III Williams made Robinson an offer that he accepted immediately. At the time, Williams was ranked the number one liberal arts college in the country according to "U.S. News & World Report", and the school was a Division III basketball powerhouse. They had gone 93–22 over the prior four seasons under head coach Mike Maker. In 2013, Robinson led Phillips Exeter Academy to its first NEPSAC Class A championship victory on March 10 against Choate Rosemary Hall with a 24-point, 10-rebound MVP performance. Exeter finished the season at 28–1. Nonetheless, his only scholarship offer was from NCAA Division II's Merrimack College. He also had interest from Division I Brown Bears and Columbia Lions as well as Division III Bates and Amherst.


title: Duncan Robinson (basketball)

text: Prior to the November 15, 2013, season opener against Southern Vermont College, Williams was ranked third among Division III teams according to the preseason poll. Williams lost in the shadow of a home court scheduling conflict despite 5–6 shooting by Robinson. Robinson became the only freshman starter in Maker's six-year tenure as head coach at Williams. In his 2013–14 freshman season at Williams, Robinson was twice named New England Small College Athletic Conference (NESCAC) Player of the Week during the regular season. Williams reached the 2014 NCAA Men's Division III basketball tournament championship game, but fell 75–73 to University of Wisconsin–Whitewater as Robinson scored 17 points. After Williams took a one-point lead with 4.9 seconds left, Wisconsin pushed the ball upcourt without calling time-out to score the winning basket in what Chris Strauss of "USA Today" described as the best NCAA basketball tournament game of the weekend. Robinson had posted 30 points in the tournament semifinals against bitter rival Amherst College who had defeated Williams in the season's three previous meetings. Williams finished the season with a 28–5 record. That season, he set school records for single-season minutes played 1,110 minutes and freshman-season points scored (548). As a freshman, he led the NECSAC in 3-point field goal percentage (44.8%) and minutes played (1108), while ranking 2nd in minute per game (34.6 v. 35.4 by Joey Kizel). In conference games, Robinson led the conference in 3-point field goal percentage (50%) and 3-point shots made per game (3.6). Following the season, he was the NESCAC Rookie of the Year and a Second Team All-NESCAC selection. Robinson became Williams' first freshman to be named All-American (4th team, D3Hoops.com), first D3Hoops.com National Rookie of the Year, first freshman NCAA All-Tournament Team selection and first freshman 500-point scorer.


title: Duncan Robinson (basketball)

text: Following the 2013–14 season, Maker left Williams to become the head coach for the Marist Red Foxes. Robinson was immediately contacted by schools from the ACC, Big 12, Big Ten, Pac-12, Atlantic 10, Ivy League, Patriot League and America East conferences. Among the schools that were interested were Creighton, Boston College and Providence. After his freshman success, he had decided that he would only leave Williams to play for a winning program that was an elite academic institution and that used a system and style that he had become used to. Robinson had played against Nik Stauskas in NEPSAC play and was impressed with how Michigan's John Beilein had developed "under-recruited players" such as Stauskas who was a 1st round selection in the 2014 NBA draft. Maker had been an assistant coach for Beilein at West Virginia from 2005 to 2007. At both Exeter and Williams, Robinson had played in systems that were similar to the one that Beilein runs at Michigan. Robinson asked Maker to contact Beilein who on faith replied that Michigan may have interest at the preferred walk-on level. Robinson was not interested in walk-on consideration given competing scholarship offers. A week later, after seeing video, Beilein said Michigan was considering a scholarship offer. Robinson scheduled visits to Michigan and new Atlantic 10 member Davidson. After the visit to Michigan, Robinson committed to the school. He announced his decision via Twitter on August 6, 2014.


title: Duncan Robinson (basketball)

text: Besides Bob McCann, who transferred from Division III Upsala College to Morehead State University after his freshman season, Robinson is the only other player to transfer from Division III to Division I with a full scholarship, according to some sources. During the 2014–15 NCAA Division I season, Robinson redshirted for the Michigan Wolverines, meaning that he could not participate in games, but could practice with the team. In December 2014 with assistant coach Jeff Meyer as his rebounder, Robinson broke Stauskas' Michigan Wolverines practice record for three-pointers in a drill (five minutes, one ball, one rebounder) by posting 78, surpassing Stauskas by three.


title: Duncan Robinson (basketball)

text: In Robinson's second game for the 2015–16 Michigan Wolverines, he posted 19 points on 6–6 shooting (5–5 3-point shots) from the floor against Elon on November 16, 2015. On December 1, in the ACC–Big Ten Challenge against NC State, he posted 17 points on 5–7 3-point shooting, which established a Michigan record for single ACC-B1G game 3-point shooting percentage (min 5 attempts). On December 12, Michigan defeated Delaware State 80–33, as Robinson made his first career start for Michigan by posting 11 points on 3–5 three-point shooting. At the time Robinson ranked third in the nation in three-point shooting percentage. Note that various sources have various eligibility thresholds. E.g., while BigTen.org only requires a minimum of 1.0 made per game, NCAA.org requires a minimum of 2.5 made per game. On December 23, Robinson tied his career high (set twice at Williams) with six assists against Bryant. The game marked the ninth consecutive game in which he made at least three 3-point shots. Robinson entered conference play as the Big Ten leader in three-point field goal percentage and led the Big Ten Conference in both three-point field goals (52) and three-point field goal percentage (.565) through the first week of the Big Ten Conference schedule. On January 12, with leading scorer Caris LeVert sidelined, Michigan defeated Maryland 70–67 as Robinson contributed 17 points on 5–9 three-point shooting. On January 23, Michigan defeated Nebraska 81–68, behind a game-high and season-high 21 points by Robinson. With the Cornhusker defense challenging his three-point shot, he scored more points inside the three-point line than outside it for the first time as a Wolverine. The January 27 game against Rutgers marked the 17th consecutive game in which Robinson made at least two three-point shots. Robinson made only one three-point shot in each the subsequent two games against Penn State and Indiana. Nonetheless, Robinson entered the February 6 Michigan–Michigan State rivalry game against the 10th-ranked Michigan State Spartans as the Big Ten Conference leader in three-point shots made and three-point field goal percentage, but he was held to 0–3 three-point shooting in the game. The game marked the first time since the season opener, that Robinson did not make a single three-point shot, ending a 22-game streak. On February 10, Michigan defeated Minnesota as Robinson posted a game- and season-high nine rebounds to go along with 14 points on 4-for-7 three-point shooting.


title: Duncan Robinson (basketball)

text: On March 10, in Michigan's first game of the 2016 Big Ten Conference men's basketball tournament against Northwestern, Robinson scored 21 points including a three-point shot that tied the score with 46.5 seconds remaining in overtime. The following day, in the quarterfinals against first-seeded Indiana, Robinson again put Michigan in position to win by tying the score with a three-point shot with 46 seconds remaining (this time in regulation). The following day, in the semifinals against Purdue, Robinson recorded his 90th three-pointer of the season, becoming just the fifth Wolverine in history to reach the milestone. On March 16, in the First Four round of the 2016 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament, Michigan defeated Tulsa, 67–62, with support from Robinson who recorded his first double-double as a Wolverine with 13 points and a season-high 11 rebounds. Robinson finished the season second to Bryn Forbes (48.1%) among Big Ten players in three-point field goal percentage with a 45.0% mark.


title: Duncan Robinson (basketball)

text: Following the previous season, several other wing players left the team. Caris LeVert graduated. Aubrey Dawkins transferred to play for the UCF Knights. Kameron Chatman announced his intention to transfer. Robinson mostly came off the bench, although he did start one game due to a bookkeeping error on December 17 against Maryland Eastern Shore. Late in the season, he began producing "The Dak and Dunc Show" podcast with teammate Andrew Dakich for WCBN-FM Sports, which was available on iTunes. The team won the 2017 Big Ten Conference men's basketball tournament and reached the sweet sixteen round of the 2017 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament.


title: Duncan Robinson (basketball)

text: Robinson began his senior season with a team-high 21 points against North Florida on November 11, 2017. In the game, he and Charles Matthews became the first Michigan teammates to score 20 points in a game since March 3, 2015. On January 13, Isaiah Livers replaced Robinson in the starting lineup for Michigan when they faced Michigan State in their rivalry game. With Livers sidelined on February 11, Robinson returned to the starting lineup, where he recorded 16 points, including 14 points in the first half in an 83–72 victory over Wisconsin. On February 14, Robinson recorded 18 points, on a season-high six three-point shots in a 74–59 victory over Iowa. With his six three-pointers in the game, Robinson surpassed Zack Novak for sixth all-time on Michigan's career three-point leaderboard with 215 for his career Following the 2017–18 Big Ten Conference regular season, Robinson was named the Big Ten Sixth Man of the Year by the coaches. On March 1 in the 2018 Big Ten Conference men's basketball tournament Robinson helped lead Michigan to a 77–71 overtime victory over Iowa after his co-captains, Wagner and Abdur-Rahkman, fouled out by converting a go-ahead three-point shot with 2:17 remaining in overtime and two free throws to give Michigan a two-possession lead with 10 seconds remaining. The following day in the quarterfinals of the Big Ten tournament Robinson scored his 1,000th career point on his second three-point field goal of the first half. Robinson finished the game with 16 points off the bench, including four three-pointers in a 77–58 victory over Nebraska. Robinson averaged 11 points per game during Michigan's four games, helping them win the tournament championship. On March 21, Robinson became an Academic All-Big Ten honoree. The team lost in the 2018 NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Championship Game to Villanova. Robinson was the first player to play in both an NCAA Division I men's basketball championship game and a Division III championship game. Since the team reached the championship games of both the Big Ten tournament and the NCAA Tournament, Robinson shares the Michigan (and NCAA) single-season games played record (41) with teammates Abdur-Rahkman, Jon Teske, Zavier Simpson and Matthews. Members of the 2010–11 Connecticut Huskies also played 41 games (an NCAA record). Over the course of three seasons, Robinson finished his career with 237 made three-point shots (on 41.9% shooting), placing fourth on Michigan's all-time list.


title: Duncan Robinson (basketball)

text: After going undrafted in the 2018 NBA draft, he signed an NBA Summer League contract with the Miami Heat. After 5 Summer League games in which he averaged 12.4 points and 2.4 rebounds while shooting 58% (22-for-38) from the field including 63% (17-for-27) on three-point shots, he agreed to a two-way contract with the Miami Heat and Sioux Falls Skyforce on July 10, 2018. When Robinson made his NBA debut, it was the first by a former Division III player since Devean George. Robinson joined Big X, a team composed of former Big Ten players, in The Basketball Tournament 2018.


title: Duncan Robinson (basketball)

text: Although the Heat's formal training camp did not begin until September 25, 2018, Robinson declined an invitation to participate as part of the G League-manned squad that Team USA used from September 6 through September 17 to qualify for the 2019 FIBA Basketball World Cup so that he could participate in informal developmental training with the Heat. When the Heat began the season with four injured players (Wayne Ellington, Justise Winslow, James Johnson and Dion Waiters), Robinson and fellow two-way player Yante Maten made the official October 15 opening day roster. The team began the season with 14 players under full NBA contracts. When the G League training camps opened on October 22, Robinson stayed with the Heat. Robinson made his NBA debut in the Heat's fourth game of the season on October 24, against the New York Knicks with three points and four rebounds in 10 minutes of action. He made his first field goal attempt, a three-point shot. He scored 15 points as a starter when Sioux Falls opened its season on November 2 with a 112–101 victory against the Fort Wayne Mad Ants. On December 10, Robinson went 10 for 17 on 3-point shot attempts against the Agua Caliente Clippers posting 32 points, 7 rebounds and 6 assists. Robinson scored five points in his first NBA start on February 25, 2019 against the Phoenix Suns. On March 19, Robinson posted his G-League best 36 points against the Oklahoma City Blue. Robinson was a 2019 All-NBA G League Third Team selection after posting 21.4 points with a 51.4 percent field goal percentage and 48.3 three-point percentage along with 4.3 rebounds and three assists in 33 games, which resulted in his contract being converted to a standard two-year contract on April 9. Robinson established 2 Skyforce franchise records: Single-season 3-point shots made (157), career 3-point shot percentage (48.5%, min 200 attempts). The career 3-point shot percentage is a NBA G-League all-time record. Robinson led the G League in minutes per game that season (36.9). Robinson closed the season with his first double-digit scoring effort with 15 points against the Brooklyn Nets on April 10.


title: Duncan Robinson (basketball)

text: During the 2019 off-season, Robinson's contract became a $1 million guarantee with the possibility of a $1.4 million guarantee if he remained on the roster through midseason. He bulked up prior to the 2019–20 season. With Jimmy Butler sidelined on October 27, Robinson posted a then career-high 21 points against the Minnesota Timberwolves. He then posted 23 points on 7-for-11 three-point shooting on November 3 against the Houston Rockets. On November 20, Robinson posted a career-high 29 points against his college coach John Beilein's Cleveland Cavaliers, establishing Heat records with 7 three-point shots in a quarter and 8 in a half. On December 1, Robinson posted a 10-rebound/10-point double-double against the Brooklyn Nets. On December 10 (the one-year anniversary of his first professional 10 3-point shot performance), Robinson scored an NBA career-high 34 points, making 10 three-pointers that tied a Heat franchise record for three-pointers made in a game, in a 135–121 overtime win against the Atlanta Hawks. In that game teammate Kendrick Nunn added 36 points, establishing an NBA record for points by an undrafted duo (70). Following his performance, "The Wall Street Journal" called Robinson "the most improbable player in the NBA" and "one of the best shooters on the planet" in an article on December 13, 2019. On February 12, 2020 against Utah, he posted his 200th NBA 3-point shot in just his 69th career game, the fastest in NBA history surpassing Donovan Mitchell and Luka Dončić (84 games). He appeared as a competitor in the Three-Point Contest at the 2020 NBA All-Star Game.


title: Duncan Robinson (basketball)

text: On March 4 against Orlando, Robinson posted 9 three point shots (including 7 in a row at one point). On March 6, 2020, Robinson scored 24 points and had five rebounds and four assists in a 110–104 loss to the New Orleans Pelicans, shooting 8-of-14 on three-pointers (giving him 17 3-point shots over consecutive games). His 8 three pointers raised his single-season total to 233 with 19 games remaining, passing Wayne Ellington's single-season Heat three-pointers record (227), Damon Jones's NBA undrafted player single-season three-pointers record (225), and Kyle Korver's NBA single-season record for most by a first or second year player (226). The performance set Robinson up for two more record chases on March 8: tie with Rafer Alston for most consecutive games by a Heat player with at least one 3-pointer (49) and George McCloud's NBA record largest increase in made three pointers from one season to the next (223). On March 8 against the Washington Wizards, Robinson's former roommate, Mo Wagner got Robinson's temper up enough to earn his first technical foul. In that March 8 contest, Robinson went 7 for 11 on three point shots (giving him 24 3-point shots over 3 consecutive games) and tied Alston with 49 consecutive games with a 3-point conversion, a streak that did not snap until the final game of the season at 57 (from game 16 to game 72). Robinson was also on pace to smash other NBA records: 3-point percentage of field goals attempts (88.3 percent of Robinson's shots were threes vs. the NBA record of 82.7% by Wayne Ellington, minimum 400 attempts) and fewest 2-point field goal attempts (P. J. Tucker, 136, 2400 minute minimum). He finished the COVID-shortened 2019-20 NBA season (the Heat only played 73 games) with 270 three point shots made. For the season, Robinson set several Heat franchise single-season shooting records: Effective field goal percentage (.667), True shooting percentage (.684) and 2-point field goal percentage (.654).


title: Duncan Robinson (basketball)

text: Robinson debuted in his first NBA playoff game on August 18 with 2-for-8 3-point shooting for 6 points, 3 rebounds and 1 assist against the Indiana Pacers. On August 20, he began the game with three straight three point shots, and he tied the Heat's franchise record for most three-pointers in a playoff game (7, Mike Miller, 2012 NBA Finals), during game 2 of the first round of the 2020 NBA playoffs. He led all scorers in the game with 24 points, going 7-for-8 in 3-point shooting and 3-for-3 in free throws. Robinson helped the Heat reach the 2020 NBA Finals against the Los Angeles Lakers, where he again made 7 3-point shots in game 5, which broke Gary Neal's NBA Finals record for undrafted players and staved off elimination. The Heat lost in 6 games.


title: Duncan Robinson (basketball)

text: On December 25, 2020, Robinson made 7 3-point shots, which tied Brandon Ingram as an NBA Christmas Day record that was tied hours later by Kyrie Irving. The next day Bleacher Report posted a YouTube video showing that 6 of these were made in the first half, setting an NBA Christmas Day single-half record. On January 6 against the Boston Celtics, Robinson surpassed Damian Lillard and Luka Dončić (117), by posting his 300th made 3-point shot in his 95th career game. On March 11, in a game against the Orlando Magic, Robinson made his 400th three point shot in his NBA-record 125th game surpassing Trae Young (159) and Dončić (160). The Chicago Bulls snapped Robinson's franchise record 25-game streak of consecutive games with multiple 3-point conversions on April 26. On May 1, 2021, in a game against the Cleveland Cavaliers, Robinson recorded his 500th career three-pointer, becoming the fastest player to reach the milestone in just 152 games, surpassing the previous record of 187 games set by Dončić. Robinson converted 3-point shots in each of the final 48 games of the season (games 25 to 72).


title: Duncan Robinson (basketball)

text: On August 6, 2021, Robinson signed a five-year, $90 million deal to stay with the Heat, the largest contract in NBA history for an undrafted player, surpassing Fred VanVleet's 4-year/$85 million deal the year before. Robinson converted 3-point shots in the first 21 games of the season before the Cleveland Cavaliers held him scoreless on December 1, snapping his consecutive streak at 69 games. On December 4, in a 129-103 win against the Memphis Grizzlies, Robinson recorded his 600 three-pointer, becoming the fastest player to reach the milestone in just 184 games, surpassing the prior record made by Donovan Mitchell in 240 games. On December 31, Robinson was one of 7 Heat players sidelined because of the NBA's COVID health and safety protocols. By missing his first game since April 2019, he snapped a franchise-best 182 consecutive games streak (Glen Rice 174). On February 17, 2022 against the Charlotte Hornets in his 216th game Robinson made his 700th 3-point shot, surpassing Buddy Hield's (269 games) NBA record. Through the 2021-22 NBA season, Robinson held several Heat franchise career shooting records: Effective field goal percentage (.610) and 2-point field goal percentage (.617).


title: Duncan Robinson (basketball)

text: On April 17, 2022, during Game 1 of the first round of the playoffs, Robinson scored 27 points off the bench in a 115–91 win over the Atlanta Hawks. He also hit 8 three-pointers, which was a Heat franchise record for most threes made in a postseason game. He tied J. R. Smith for the second most by an NBA reserve in the post season (one behind a 2011 effort by Jason Terry). Robinson was 9 for 10 from the field and 8 for 9 on three point shots. He made his last 7 three point attempts (5 for 5 in the second half and 4 for 4 in the final quarter).


title: Duncan Robinson (basketball)

text: In 2021, Duncan started a podcast called "The Long Shot Pod" with his friend Davis Reid. Produced by the podcasting company, ThreeFourTwo Productions owned by former NBA player JJ Redick. Each podcast features exclusive conversations between Duncan Robinson and his co-host Davis Reid, sometimes with NBA players as well as celebrities from other areas of media. The podcast has a total of 8 million views on YouTube.


title: UFC 1

text: The Ultimate Fighting Championship (later renamed UFC 1: The Beginning) was the first mixed martial arts event by the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC), held at the McNichols Sports Arena in Denver, Colorado, United States, on November 12, 1993. The event was broadcast live on pay-per-view and later released on home video.


title: UFC 1

text: Although the event was the lowest profile by the contemporary standards (the venue was less than half-packed, the grand prix of the tournament was as big as a regular sparring partner biannual salary, major martial arts observers and columnists did not bother to show up, the press in general neglected the event, "Black Belt" first mentioned it only several months later, big-name fighters turned down the offers to participate or to make a guest appearance in the audience), it pioneered the interstylistic match-ups between the practitioners of different martial arts, and set the pattern for the future sporting events of the kind.


title: UFC 1

text: "UFC 1" was co-created by Rorion Gracie and the Torrance-based UFC promoter Art Davie, who decided to take locally famous Gracie Garage Challenge fights versus California's martial artists to a new level, televised nationally, with the opponents picked internationally.


title: UFC 1

text: They did not come up with a 16-man tournament, as the big-name martial artists, mainly kickboxers, namely Dennis Alexio, Benny Urquidez, Stan Longinidis, Jean-Yves Thériault, Rick Roufus, Stan Longinidis, Maurice Smith, Bart Vale, Hee Il Cho, George Dillman, Gene LeBell, Rob Kaman, Peter Aerts, Ernesto Hoost, Masaaki Satake, were among the others "publicly invited" by Art Davie, but had shown no interest in participating. Davie placed advertisements in martial arts magazines to recruit fighters. He found less than a dozen who answered the call. The promoters came up with an eight-man tournament format, with the winner receiving $50,000.


title: UFC 1

text: They wanted it to look brutal on television, so John Milius, one of Rorion Gracie's students and a Hollywood veteran who had directed "Conan the Barbarian", decided the fights should take place in an octagonal cage fenced with chain link. Campbell McLaren, a SEG executive, wanted people to consider the championship a live, televised version of "Mortal Kombat", a popular fighting video game, in which victorious fighters got to "finish" their opponents through moves such as ripping their spines out of their bodies. That one and the Davie's idea to top the cage with razor wire were rejected. UFC promoters initially pitched the event as a real-life fighting video game tournament similar to "Mortal Kombat" and "Street Fighter".


title: UFC 1

text: McNichols Sports Arena in Denver, a place which elevation above sea level is one mile high, had been chosen because Colorado had no athletic commission and thus no governing body from which they would need to get approval for bare-knuckle fighting. The arena had hosted only two fight cards in its history, both of minor significance, occurring earlier in 1993.


title: UFC 1

text: The major accomplishment though for the promoters was to gather a celebrity commentary team for the event. The commentary team for the pay-per-view was Bill Wallace, Jim Brown, and Kathy Long, with additional analysis from Rod Machado and post-fight interviews by Brian Kilmeade. The ring announcer was Rich Goins.


title: UFC 1

text: Jason DeLucia was an alternate for the event, having defeated Trent Jenkins in the alternate bout. However, as no fighter pulled out during the tournament, he was not called upon.


title: UFC 1

text: The tournament featured fights with no weight classes, rounds, or judges. The three rules – no biting, no eye gouging, and no groin shots – were to be enforced only by a $1,500 fine. The match only ended by submission, knockout, or the fighter's corner throwing in the towel, although the referee stopped the first fight at 26 seconds. Gloves were allowed, as Art Jimmerson showed in his quarterfinal bout against Royce Gracie, which he fought with one boxing glove.


title: UFC 1

text: Royce Gracie won the tournament by defeating Gerard Gordeau via submission due to a rear naked choke. The referees for "UFC 1" were João Alberto Barreto and Hélio Vigio, two veteran vale tudo referees from Brazil.


title: UFC 1

text: The event and its outcome catapulted Gracie Jiu-Jitsu (also known as Brazilian jiu-jitsu) to new heights in the United States and worldwide. Its gate and pay-per-view buys ensured that there would be more UFCs in the near future, which proved to be the case. The event sold nearly 90,000 live pay-per-view buys, in addition to drawing new audiences through video rental stores such as Blockbuster Video.


title: Mortar (masonry)

text: Mortar is a workable paste which hardens to bind building blocks such as stones, bricks, and concrete masonry units, to fill and seal the irregular gaps between them, spread the weight of them evenly, and sometimes to add decorative colors or patterns to masonry walls. In its broadest sense, mortar includes pitch, asphalt, and soft mud or clay, as those used between mud bricks, as well as cement mortar. The word "mortar" comes from Old French "mortier", "builder's mortar, plaster; bowl for mixing." (13c.).


title: Mortar (masonry)

text: Cement mortar becomes hard when it cures, resulting in a rigid aggregate structure; however, the mortar functions as a weaker component than the building blocks and serves as the sacrificial element in the masonry, because mortar is easier and less expensive to repair than the building blocks. Bricklayers typically make mortars using a mixture of sand, a binder, and water. The most common binder since the early 20th century is Portland cement, but the ancient binder lime mortar is still used in some specialty new construction. Lime, lime mortar, and gypsum in the form of plaster of Paris are used particularly in the repair and repointing of historic buildings and structures, so that the repair materials will be similar in performance and appearance to the original materials. Several types of cement mortars and additives exist.


title: Mortar (masonry)

text: The first mortars were made of mud and clay, as demonstrated in the 10th millennia BCE buildings of Jericho, and the 8th millennia BCE of Ganj Dareh.


title: Mortar (masonry)

text: According to Roman Ghirshman, the first evidence of humans using a form of mortar was at the Mehrgarh of Baluchistan in what is today Pakistan, built of sun-dried bricks in 6500 BCE.


title: Mortar (masonry)

text: Gypsum mortar, also called plaster of Paris, was used in the construction of many ancient structures. It is made from gypsum, which requires a lower firing temperature. It is therefore easier to make than lime mortar and sets up much faster, which may be a reason it was used as the typical mortar in ancient, brick arch and vault construction. Gypsum mortar is not as durable as other mortars in damp conditions.


title: Mortar (masonry)

text: In the Indian subcontinent, multiple cement types have been observed in the sites of the Indus Valley civilization, with gypsum appearing at sites such as the Mohenjo-daro city-settlement, which dates to earlier than 2600 BCE.


title: Mortar (masonry)

text: Gypsum cement that was ""light grey and contained sand, clay, traces of calcium carbonate, and a high percentage of lime"" was used in the construction of wells, drains, and on the exteriors of ""important looking buildings"." Bitumen mortar was also used at a lower-frequency, including in the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro.


title: Mortar (masonry)

text: In early Egyptian pyramids, which were constructed during the Old Kingdom (~2600–2500 BCE), the limestone blocks were bound by a mortar of mud and clay, or clay and sand. In later Egyptian pyramids, the mortar was made of gypsum, or lime. Gypsum mortar was essentially a mixture of plaster and sand and was quite soft.


title: Mortar (masonry)

text: Historically, building with concrete and mortar next appeared in Greece. The excavation of the underground aqueduct of Megara revealed that a reservoir was coated with a pozzolanic mortar 12 mm thick. This aqueduct dates back to c. 500 BCE. Pozzolanic mortar is a lime based mortar, but is made with an additive of volcanic ash that allows it to be hardened underwater; thus it is known as hydraulic cement. The Greeks obtained the volcanic ash from the Greek islands Thira and Nisiros, or from the then Greek colony of Dicaearchia (Pozzuoli) near Naples, Italy. The Romans later improved the use and methods of making what became known as pozzolanic mortar and cement. Even later, the Romans used a mortar without pozzolana using crushed terra cotta, introducing aluminum oxide and silicon dioxide into the mix. This mortar was not as strong as pozzolanic mortar, but, because it was denser, it better resisted penetration by water.


title: Mortar (masonry)

text: Hydraulic mortar was not available in ancient China, possibly due to a lack of volcanic ash. Around 500 CE, sticky rice soup was mixed with slaked lime to make an inorganic−organic composite sticky rice mortar that had more strength and water resistance than lime mortar.


title: Mortar (masonry)

text: It is not understood how the art of making hydraulic mortar and cement, which was perfected and in such widespread use by both the Greeks and Romans, was then lost for almost two millennia. During the Middle Ages when the Gothic cathedrals were being built, the only active ingredient in the mortar was lime. Since cured lime mortar can be degraded by contact with water, many structures suffered over the centuries from wind-blown rain.


title: Mortar (masonry)

text: Ordinary Portland cement mortar, commonly known as OPC mortar or just cement mortar, is created by mixing powdered Ordinary Portland Cement, fine aggregate and water.


title: Mortar (masonry)

text: It was invented in 1794 by Joseph Aspdin and patented on 18 December 1824, largely as a result of efforts to develop stronger mortars. It was made popular during the late nineteenth century, and had by 1930 became more popular than lime mortar as construction material. The advantages of Portland cement is that it sets hard and quickly, allowing a faster pace of construction. Furthermore, fewer skilled workers are required in building a structure with Portland cement.


title: Mortar (masonry)

text: As a general rule, however, Portland cement should not be used for the repair or repointing of older buildings built in lime mortar, which require the flexibility, softness and breathability of lime if they are to function correctly.


title: Mortar (masonry)

text: In the United States and other countries, five standard types of mortar (available as dry pre-mixed products) are generally used for both new construction and repair. Strengths of mortar change based on the mix ratio for each type of mortar, which are specified under the ASTM standards.


title: Mortar (masonry)

text: These premixed mortar products are designated by one of the five letters, M, S, N, O, and K. Type M mortar is the strongest, and Type K the weakest.


title: Mortar (masonry)

text: Polymer cement mortars (PCM) are the materials which are made by partially replacing the cement hydrate binders of conventional cement mortar with polymers. The polymeric admixtures include latexes or emulsions, redispersible polymer powders, water-soluble polymers, liquid thermoset resins and monomers. Although they increase cost of mortars when used as an additive, they enhance properties. Polymer mortar has low permeability that may be detrimental to moisture accumulation when used to repair a traditional brick, block or stone wall. It is mainly designed for repairing concrete structures. The use of recovered plastics in mortars is being researched and is gaining ground. Depolymerizing PET to use as a polymeric binder to enhance mortars is actively being studied.


title: Mortar (masonry)

text: The setting speed can be increased by using impure limestone in the kiln, to form a hydraulic lime that will set on contact with water. Such a lime must be stored as a dry powder. Alternatively, a pozzolanic material such as calcined clay or brick dust may be added to the mortar mix. Addition of a pozzolanic material will make the mortar set reasonably quickly by reaction with the water.


title: Mortar (masonry)

text: It would be problematic to use Portland cement mortars to repair older buildings originally constructed using lime mortar. Lime mortar is softer than cement mortar, allowing brickwork a certain degree of flexibility to adapt to shifting ground or other changing conditions. Cement mortar is harder and allows little flexibility. The contrast can cause brickwork to crack where the two mortars are present in a single wall.


title: Mortar (masonry)

text: Lime mortar is considered breathable in that it will allow moisture to freely move through and evaporate from the surface. In old buildings with walls that shift over time, cracks can be found which allow rain water into the structure. The lime mortar allows this moisture to escape through evaporation and keeps the wall dry. Re−pointing or rendering an old wall with cement mortar stops the evaporation and can cause problems associated with moisture behind the cement.


title: Mortar (masonry)

text: Pozzolana is a fine, sandy volcanic ash. It was originally discovered and dug at Pozzuoli, nearby Mount Vesuvius in Italy, and was subsequently mined at other sites, too. The Romans learned that pozzolana added to lime mortar allowed the lime to set relatively quickly and even under water. Vitruvius, the Roman architect, spoke of four types of pozzolana. It is found in all the volcanic areas of Italy in various colours: black, white, grey and red. Pozzolana has since become a generic term for any siliceous and/or aluminous additive to slaked lime to create hydraulic cement.


title: Mortar (masonry)

text: Finely ground and mixed with lime it is a hydraulic cement, like Portland cement, and makes a strong mortar that will also set under water.


title: Mortar (masonry)

text: As the mortar hardens, the current atmosphere is encased in the mortar and thus provides a sample for analysis. Various factors affect the sample and raise the margin of error for the analysis.


title: Mortar (masonry)

text: The possibility to use radiocarbon dating as a tool for mortar dating was introduced as early as the 1960s, soon after the method was established (Delibrias and Labeyrie 1964; Stuiver and Smith 1965; Folk and Valastro 1976). The very first data were provided by van Strydonck et al. (1983), Heinemeier et al.(1997) and Ringbom and Remmer (1995). Methodological aspects were further developed by different groups (an international team headed by Åbo Akademi University, and teams from CIRCE, CIRCe, ETHZ, Poznań, RICH and Milano-Bicocca laboratory.


title: Mortar (masonry)

text: To evaluate the different anthropogenic carbon extraction methods for radiocarbon dating as well as to compare the different dating methods, i.e. radiocarbon and OSL, the first intercomparison study (MODIS) was set up and published in 2017.


title: Shakira discography

text: Colombian singer and songwriter Shakira has released 11 studio albums, five live albums, two compilation albums, 68 singles (including 13 as a featured artist and 5 promotional singles) and 62 music videos (see Shakira videography). With estimated sales of 80 million records worldwide as of 2014 according to "Billboard", she is the highest-selling Colombian artist and the best-selling female Latin artist of all time. She is the only South American artist to peak at number one on the Australian Singles Chart, the UK Singles Chart, and the US "Billboard" Hot 100. Her singles "Hips Don't Lie" and "Waka Waka (This Time for Africa)", have achieved sales in excess of five million units, becoming some of the best-selling singles worldwide.


title: Shakira discography

text: Shakira's musical career started at the age of 13 when she signed with Sony Music. Her first two studio albums, "Magia" and "Peligro", were released in Colombia in 1991 and 1993 respectively. They performed poorly and had low sales, with the former selling fewer than 1000 copies. Fueled by the success of its lead single "Estoy Aquí", her next album "Pies Descalzos" (1996) became a success all across Latin America, receiving a diamond certification in Colombia. Her success in Latin America was consolidated by "Dónde Están los Ladrones?" (1998), which peaked atop the US "Billboard" Top Latin Albums chart. Like "Pies Descalzos", it spawned numerous singles, including the popular "Ciega, Sordomuda". The album also spawned the top-ten hit "Ojos Así", which performed successfully in several European and Latin American countries. "Dónde Están los Ladrones?" is the ninth best-selling Latin album in the United States.


title: Shakira discography

text: Motivated by Gloria Estefan, Shakira successfully crossed over into the English-language pop music scene with the release of the multi-platinum selling "Laundry Service" (2001) and its worldwide chart-toppers "Whenever, Wherever" and "Underneath Your Clothes". The album sold three million copies in six months of its release in the United States. By 2002, "Laundry Service" had sold more than four million copies across Europe and was declared the seventh best-selling album in the world in the same year by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI). Out of a total of 60 songs, Shakira selected 20 songs and divided them into two albums, the Spanish "Fijación Oral, Vol. 1" and the English "Oral Fixation, Vol. 2"; both were released in 2005. The former opened at number four on the US "Billboard" 200 with first-week sales of 157,000 units—the highest debut of a full-length Spanish-language album in the country. It finished as the second best-selling Latin album of the decade and is the eighth best-selling Latin album in the United States. Its lead single "La Tortura" spent 25 non-consecutive weeks at number one on the US "Billboard" Hot Latin Songs chart. "La Tortura" held the record for longest-running number one single on the chart by nearly a decade, until it was succeeded by Enrique Iglesias's song "Bailando" in October 2014. "Oral Fixation, Vol. 2" debuted within the top ten in most countries, although its sales began to decline in early 2006. Shakira's label Epic then reissued the album, adding its second single "Hips Don't Lie" to the track list; the song topped charts in 55 countries, including the UK Singles chart and the US "Billboard" Hot 100. One of the best-selling singles of the 21st century, "Hips Don't Lie" successfully revitalised sales of its parent album. "Fijación Oral, Vol. 1" and "Oral Fixation, Vol. 2" sold combined copies of over 12 million worldwide.


title: Shakira discography

text: Shakira's eighth studio album, "She Wolf" (2009), deviated from her signature Latin pop and pop rock styles, instead exploring the electropop genre. It performed well in Europe and Latin America; in Mexico it was certified platinum and gold within a week of its release. However, it did not replicate its success in the United States, where it peaked at number 15 on the "Billboard" 200. Shakira was chosen to record the official song of the 2010 FIFA World Cup, "Waka Waka (This Time for Africa)", which was released in May 2010. It topped numerous record charts and was a multi-platinum selling single in Italy, Germany, Mexico, Spain and Switzerland. It was similarly successful in the United States, where it sold more than one million copies and was certified platinum. In the same year, her ninth studio album "Sale el Sol" was released. Preceded by the top ten hit "Loca", the bilingual album marked a musical return to Shakira's "roots" and retained her success in Europe and Latin America, being certified diamond in both Colombia and France. Inspired by her relationship with Spanish footballer Gerard Piqué and the birth of their son Milan Piqué Mebarak, her tenth studio album "Shakira" was released in 2014. It became her second consecutive diamond album in Colombia and debuted at number two on the US "Billboard" 200—her highest peak in the country for an album. It featured the top-ten hits "Can't Remember to Forget You" and "Dare (La La La)". Her eleventh studio album, "El Dorado", was released in May 2017 and became her sixth album to reach number one on the US "Billboard" Top Latin Albums chart. Its lead single "Chantaje" featuring Maluma became an international success and received a 16-times platinum Latin certification from the RIAA.


title: Kunchacko Boban filmography

text: Kunchacko Boban is an Indian actor, producer and businessman who works in Malayalam film industry and has acted in more than 90 films over the period of more than two decades and has received several awards including the Kerala State Film Awards.


title: Kunchacko Boban filmography

text: He started acting at the age of 5 in the Fazil directed drama "Dhanya" as a child artist in a small role and it was produced by his father Boban Kunchacko. He debuted as an adult leading role in Fazil's 1997 romantic drama Aniyathipravu which became the highest-grossing Malayalam film until then, establishing him as a bankable actor overnight.


title: Kunchacko Boban filmography

text: In 2016, Kunchacko produced the comedy drama film Kochauvva Paulo Ayyappa Coelho through Udaya Studios, in the process of reviving the studio after a 30-year hiatus.


title: Kunchacko Boban filmography

text: Kunchacko has announced the movie 'Ariyippu' under the banner of Udaya Studios at the occasion of his Silver Jubilee celebration as hero and Platinum Jubilee celebration of Udaya Pictures.


title: Immunotherapy

text: Immunotherapy or biological therapy is the treatment of disease by activating or suppressing the immune system. Immunotherapies designed to elicit or amplify an immune response are classified as "activation immunotherapies," while immunotherapies that reduce or suppress are classified as "suppression immunotherapies". Immunotherapy is under preliminary research for its potential to treat various forms of cancer.


title: Immunotherapy

text: Cell-based immunotherapies are effective for some cancers. Immune effector cells such as lymphocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, natural killer cells, and cytotoxic T lymphocytes work together to defend the body against cancer by targeting abnormal antigens expressed on the surface of tumor cells. Vaccine-induced immunity to COVID-19 relies mostly on an immunomodulatory T cell response.


title: Immunotherapy

text: Therapies such as granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), interferons, imiquimod and cellular membrane fractions from bacteria are licensed for medical use. Others including IL-2, IL-7, IL-12, various chemokines, synthetic cytosine phosphate-guanosine (CpG) oligodeoxynucleotides and glucans are involved in clinical and preclinical studies.


title: Immunotherapy

text: Immunomodulators are the active agents of immunotherapy. They are a diverse array of recombinant, synthetic, and natural preparations.


title: Immunotherapy

text: Cancer treatment used to be focused on killing or removing cancer cells and tumours, with chemotherapy or surgery or radiation. These treatments can be very effective and in many cases are still used. In 2018 the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to James P. Allison and Tasuku Honjo "for their discovery of cancer therapy by inhibition of negative immune regulation." Cancer immunotherapy attempts to stimulate the immune system to destroy tumours. A variety of strategies are in use or are undergoing research and testing. Randomized controlled studies in different cancers resulting in significant increase in survival and disease free period have been reported and its efficacy is enhanced by 20–30% when cell-based immunotherapy is combined with conventional treatment methods.


title: Immunotherapy

text: One of the oldest forms of cancer immunotherapy is the use of BCG vaccine, which was originally to vaccinate against tuberculosis and later was found to be useful in the treatment of bladder cancer. BCG immunotherapy induces both local and systemic immune responses. The mechanisms by which BCG immunotherapy mediates tumor immunity have been widely studied, but they are still not completely understood.


title: Immunotherapy

text: The use of monoclonal antibodies in cancer therapy was first introduced in 1997 with rituximab, an anti-CD20 antibody for treatment of B cell lymphoma. Since then several monoclonal antibodies have been approved for treatment of various haematological malignancies as well as for solid tumours.


title: Immunotherapy

text: The extraction of G-CSF lymphocytes from the blood and expanding in vitro against a tumour antigen before reinjecting the cells with appropriate stimulatory cytokines. The cells then destroy the tumour cells that express the antigen. Topical immunotherapy utilizes an immune enhancement cream (imiquimod) which produces interferon, causing the recipient's killer T cells to destroy warts, actinic keratoses, basal cell cancer, vaginal intraepithelial neoplasia, squamous cell cancer, cutaneous lymphoma, and superficial malignant melanoma. Injection immunotherapy ("intralesional" or "intratumoural") uses mumps, candida, the HPV vaccine or trichophytin antigen injections to treat warts (HPV induced tumours).


title: Immunotherapy

text: Adoptive cell transfer has been tested on lung and other cancers, with greatest success achieved in melanoma.


title: Immunotherapy

text: Dendritic cells (DC) can be stimulated to activate a cytotoxic response towards an antigen. Dendritic cells, a type of antigen-presenting cell, are harvested from the person needing the immunotherapy. These cells are then either pulsed with an antigen or tumour lysate or transfected with a viral vector, causing them to display the antigen. Upon transfusion into the person, these activated cells present the antigen to the effector lymphocytes (CD4+ helper T cells, cytotoxic CD8+ T cells and B cells). This initiates a cytotoxic response against tumour cells expressing the antigen (against which the adaptive response has now been primed). The first FDA-approved cell-based immunotherapy, the cancer vaccine Sipuleucel-T is one example of this approach. The Immune Response Corporation (IRC) developed this immunotherapy and licensed the technology to Dendreon, which obtained FDA clearance.


title: Immunotherapy

text: The current approaches for DC-based vaccination are mainly based on antigen loading on "in vitro"-generated DCs from monocytes or CD34+ cells, activating them with different TLR ligands, cytokine combinations, and injecting them back to the patients. The "in vivo" targeting approaches comprise administering specific cytokines (e.g., Flt3L, GM-CSF) and targeting the DCs with antibodies to C-type lectin receptors or agonistic antibodies (e.g., anti-CD40) that are conjugated with antigen of interest. Future approach may target DC subsets based on their specifically expressed C-type lectin receptors or chemokine receptors. Another potential approach is the generation of genetically engineered DCs from induced pluripotent stem cells and use of neoantigen-loaded DCs for inducing better clinical outcome.


title: Immunotherapy

text: Alternatively, Genetically engineered T cells are created by harvesting T cells and then infecting the T cells with a retrovirus that contains a copy of a T cell receptor (TCR) gene that is specialised to recognise tumour antigens. The virus integrates the receptor into the T cells' genome. The cells are expanded non-specifically and/or stimulated. The cells are then reinfused and produce an immune response against the tumour cells. The technique has been tested on refractory stage IV metastatic melanomas and advanced skin cancer. The first FDA-approved CAR-T drug, Kymriah, used this approach. To obtain the clinical and commercial supply of this CAR-T, Novartis purchased the manufacturing plant, the distribution system and hired the production team that produced Sipuleucel-T developed by Dendreon and the Immune Response Corporation.


title: Immunotherapy

text: Whether T cells are genetically engineered or not, before re-infusion, lympho-depletion of the recipient is required to eliminate regulatory T cells as well as unmodified, endogenous lymphocytes that compete with the transferred cells for homeostatic cytokines. Lymphodepletion may be achieved by myeloablative chemotherapy, to which total body irradiation may be added for greater effect. Transferred cells multiplied "in vivo" and persisted in peripheral blood in many people, sometimes representing levels of 75% of all CD8 T cells at 6–12 months after infusion. , clinical trials for metastatic melanoma were ongoing at multiple sites. Clinical responses to adoptive transfer of T cells were observed in patients with metastatic melanoma resistant to multiple immunotherapies.


title: Immunotherapy

text: Anti-PD-1/PD-L1 and anti-CTLA-4 antibodies are the two types of checkpoint inhibitors currently available to patients. The approval of anti-cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 (CTLA-4) and anti-programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) antibodies for human use has already resulted in significant improvements in disease outcomes for various cancers.


title: Immunotherapy

text: Although these molecules were originally discovered as molecules playing a role in T cell activation or apoptosis, subsequent preclinical research showed their important role in the maintenance of peripheral immune tolerance.


title: Immunotherapy

text: Immune checkpoint inhibitors are approved to treat some patients with a variety of cancer types, including melanoma, breast cancer, bladder cancer, cervical cancer, colon cancer, head and neck cancer, or Hodgkin lymphoma.


title: Immunotherapy

text: These therapies have revolutionized cancer immunotherapy as they showed for the first time in many years of research in metastatic melanoma, which is considered one of the most immunogenic human cancers, an improvement in overall survival, with an increasing group of patients benefiting long-term from these treatments.


title: Immunotherapy

text: Autologous immune enhancement therapy use a person's own peripheral blood-derived natural killer cells, cytotoxic T lymphocytes, epithelial cells and other relevant immune cells are expanded "in vitro" and then re-infused. The therapy has been tested against Hepatitis C, Chronic fatigue syndrome and HHV6 infection.


title: Immunotherapy

text: Immune suppression dampens an abnormal immune response in autoimmune diseases or reduces a normal immune response to prevent rejection of transplanted organs or cells.


title: Immunotherapy

text: Immunosuppressive drugs help manage organ transplantation and autoimmune disease. Immune responses depend on lymphocyte proliferation. Cytostatic drugs are immunosuppressive. Glucocorticoids are somewhat more specific inhibitors of lymphocyte activation, whereas inhibitors of immunophilins more specifically target T lymphocyte activation. Immunosuppressive antibodies target steps in the immune response. Other drugs modulate immune responses and can be used to induce immune regulation. It has been observed in a preclinical trial that regulation of the immune system by small immunosuppressive molecules such as Vitamin D, Dexamethasone, and Curcumin administered under a low-dose regimen and subcutaneously, could be helpful in preventing or treating chronic inflammation.


title: Immunotherapy

text: The body naturally does not launch an immune system attack on its own tissues. Models generally identify CD4+ T-cells at the centre of the autoimmune response. Loss of T-cell tolerance then unleashes B-cells and other immune effector cells on to the target tissue. The ideal tolerogenic therapy would target the specific T-cell clones co-ordinating the autoimmune attack.


title: Immunotherapy

text: Immune tolerance therapies seek to reset the immune system so that the body stops mistakenly attacking its own organs or cells in autoimmune disease or accepts foreign tissue in organ transplantation. A recent therapeutic approach is the infusion of regulatory immune cells into transplant recipients. The transfer of regulatory immune cells has the potential to inhibit the activity of effector.


title: Immunotherapy

text: Creating immune tolerance reduces or eliminates the need for lifelong immunosuppression and attendant side effects. It has been tested on transplantations, rheumatoid arthritis, type 1 diabetes and other autoimmune disorders.


title: Immunotherapy

text: Immunotherapy can also be used to treat allergies. While allergy treatments (such as antihistamines or corticosteroids) treat allergic symptoms, immunotherapy can reduce sensitivity to allergens, lessening its severity.


title: Immunotherapy

text: Immunotherapy may produce long-term benefits. Immunotherapy is partly effective in some people and ineffective in others, but it offers people with allergies a chance to reduce or stop their symptoms.


title: Immunotherapy

text: The therapy is indicated for people who are extremely allergic or who cannot avoid specific allergens.


title: Immunotherapy

text: A promising approach to treat food allergies is the use of oral immunotherapy (OIT). OIT consists in a gradual exposure to increasing amounts of allergen can lead to the majority of subjects tolerating doses of food sufficient to prevent reaction on accidental exposure. Dosages increase over time, as the person becomes desensitized. This technique has been tested on infants to prevent peanut allergies.


title: Immunotherapy

text: Whipworm ova ("Trichuris suis") and Hookworm ("Necator americanus") have been tested for immunological diseases and allergies. Helminthic therapy has been investigated as a treatment for relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis Crohn's, allergies and asthma. The mechanism of how the helminths modulate the immune response, is unknown. Hypothesized mechanisms include re-polarisation of the Th1 / Th2 response and modulation of dendritic cell function. The helminths down regulate the pro-inflammatory Th1 cytokines, Interleukin-12 (IL-12), Interferon-Gamma (IFN-γ) and Tumor Necrosis Factor-Alpha (TNF-ά), while promoting the production of regulatory Th2 cytokines such as IL-10, IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13.


title: Immunotherapy

text: Co-evolution with helminths has shaped some of the genes associated with Interleukin expression and immunological disorders, such Crohn's, ulcerative colitis and celiac disease. Helminth's relationship to humans as hosts should be classified as mutualistic or symbiotic.


title: Ivan Konev

text: Ivan Stepanovich Konev (;  – 21 May 1973) was a Soviet general and Marshal of the Soviet Union who led Red Army forces on the Eastern Front during World War II, responsible for taking much of Axis-occupied Eastern Europe.


title: Ivan Konev

text: Born to a peasant family, Konev was conscripted into the Imperial Russian Army in 1916 and fought in World War I. In 1919, he joined the Bolsheviks and served in the Red Army during the Russian Civil War. After graduating from Frunze Military Academy in 1926, Konev gradually rose through the ranks of the Soviet military. By 1939, he had become a candidate to the Central Committee of the Communist Party.


title: Ivan Konev

text: Following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, Konev took part in a series of major campaigns, including the battles of Moscow and Rzhev. Konev further commanded forces in major Soviet offensives at Kursk, in the Dnieper–Carpathian and Vistula–Oder offensives. In February 1944, he was made a Marshal of the Soviet Union. On the eve of German defeat, Konev's 1st Ukrainian Front was pitted against the armies of Georgy Zhukov in the Race to Berlin. Konev was the first Allied commander to enter Prague, the capital of Czechoslovakia, after the Prague uprising.


title: Ivan Konev

text: He replaced Zhukov as commander of Soviet ground forces in 1946. In 1956, he was appointed commander of the Warsaw Pact armed forces, and led the violent suppression of the Hungarian Revolution and Prague Spring. In 1961, as commander of Soviet forces in East Germany, he ordered the closing of West Berlin to East Berlin during the building of the Berlin Wall. Konev remained a popular military figure in the Soviet Union until his death in 1973.


title: Ivan Konev

text: Konev was born 28 December 1897 in the village of Lodeyno in the Nikolsky Uyezd of Vologda Governorate to a peasant family of Russian ethnicity. Konev graduated from a parish school in the village of Yakovlevskaya Gora in 1906, and later the Nikolo-Pushemsky Zemstvo School in the neighboring village of Schetkino in 1912. At the age of 15, he found work as a forester and lumberjack at Podosinovets and Arkhangelsk.


title: Ivan Konev

text: In the spring of 1916, he was conscripted into the Imperial Russian Army. Konev was sent to the 2nd Heavy Artillery Brigade at Moscow and then graduated from artillery training courses. Posted to the 2nd Separate Heavy Artillery Battalion (then part of the Southwestern Front) as a junior sergeant in 1917, he fought in the Kerensky Offensive in Galicia in July 1917.


title: Ivan Konev

text: When the October Revolution broke out in November 1917, he was demobilized and returned home; in 1918, he joined the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and the Red Army, serving as an artilleryman. During the Russian Civil War of 1917-1923, he served with the Red Army in the Russian Far Eastern Republic. His commander at one time was Kliment Voroshilov, a close colleague of Joseph Stalin, who later became People's Commissar for Defense (in office: 1925-1940). (This connection was the key to Konev's subsequent career and to his protection during the Great Purge of the late 1930s.) In his memoirs, he wrote: "Together with a group of demobilized soldiers, I organized the overthrow of the land administration, the confiscation of agricultural land and the imprisonment of traders." He participated in the violent suppression of the 1921 Kronstadt rebellion.


title: Ivan Konev

text: In 1926 Konev completed advanced officer training courses at the Frunze Military Academy, and between then and 1941 he held a series of progressively more senior commands, becoming head first of the Transbaikal then of the North Caucasus Military Districts in 1940 and 1941, respectively. In 1934 he became commander and political commissar of the 37th Rifle Division. In July 1938, he was appointed commander of the 2nd Red Banner Army. In 1937 he became a Deputy of the Supreme Soviet and in 1939 a candidate member of the Party Central Committee.


title: Ivan Konev

text: When Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, Konev was assigned command of the 19th Army in the Vitebsk region, and waged a series of defensive battles during the Red Army's retreat, first to Smolensk and then to the approaches to Moscow.


title: Ivan Konev

text: He commanded the Kalinin Front from October 1941 to August 1942, playing a key role in the fighting around Moscow and the Soviet counter-offensive during the winter of 1941–42. For his role in the successful defense of the Soviet capital, Stalin promoted Konev to Colonel-General. In the summer of 1942 Konev led the Kalinin Front and later the Western Front in the battle on the Rzhev salient.


title: Ivan Konev

text: Konev held "Front" (army group) commands for the rest of the war. He commanded the Soviet Western Front until February 1943, the North-Western Front February–July 1943, and the 2nd Ukrainian Front from July 1943 (later further the 1st Ukrainian Front) until May 1945.


title: Ivan Konev

text: He participated in the Battle of Kursk, commanding the southern part of the Soviet counter-offensive, the Steppe Front, where he actively and energetically promoted "maskirovka" (the use of military camouflage and deception). Among the "maskirovka" measures he adopted to achieve tactical surprise were the camouflaging of defense lines and depots; dummy units and supply points; a dummy air-defense network; and the use of reconnaissance units to verify the quality of his army's camouflage and deception works. In David Glantz's view, Konev's forces "generated a major portion of the element of surprise".


title: Ivan Konev

text: As a result, the Germans seriously underestimated the strength of the Soviet defenses. The commander of the 19th Panzer division of the "Wehrmacht", General G. Schmidt, wrote that "We did not assume that there was even one fourth [of the Russian strength] of what we had to encounter".


title: Ivan Konev

text: After the Soviet victory (August 1943) at Kursk, Konev's armies retook Belgorod, Odessa, Kharkiv and Kyiv. The subsequent Korsun–Shevchenkovsky Offensive led to the Battle of the Korsun–Cherkassy Pocket which took place from 24 January to 16 February 1944. The offensive was part of the Dnieper–Carpathian Offensive. In it, the 1st and 2nd Ukrainian Fronts, commanded, respectively, by Nikolai Vatutin and by Konev, trapped German forces of Army Group South in a pocket or "cauldron" west of the Dnieper river. During weeks of fighting, the two Red Army Fronts tried to eradicate the pocket; the subsequent Korsun battle eliminated the cauldron. According to Milovan Djilas, Konev openly boasted of his killing of thousands of German prisoners of war: "The cavalry finally finished them off. 'We let the Cossacks cut up as long as they wished. They even hacked off the hands of those who raised them to surrender' the Marshal recounted with a smile."


title: Ivan Konev

text: For Konev's achievements in Ukraine, the Presidium promoted him to Marshal of the Soviet Union in February 1944. Konev was one of Stalin's favorite generals and one of the few senior commanders whom even Stalin admired for his ruthlessness.


title: Ivan Konev

text: During 1944 Konev's armies advanced from Ukraine and Belarus into Poland and later into Czechoslovakia. In May 1944 he participated in an unsuccessful invasion of the Balkans, (the first Jassy–Kishinev Offensive) together with Generals Rodion Malinovsky and Fyodor Tolbukhin.


title: Ivan Konev

text: By July he had advanced to the Vistula River in central Poland, and was awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union. In September 1944 his forces, now designated the Fourth Ukrainian Front, advanced into Slovakia and fought alongside the Slovak partisans in their rebellion against German occupation.


title: Ivan Konev

text: In January 1945 Konev, together with Georgy Zhukov, commanded the Soviet armies which launched the massive winter offensive in western Poland, driving the German forces from the Vistula to the Oder River. In southern Poland his armies seized Kraków (18 January 1945). Soviet historians, and generally Russian sources, claimed that Konev preserved Kraków from Nazi-planned destruction by ordering a lightning attack on the city. Konev's January 1945 offensive also prevented planned destruction of the Silesian industry by the retreating Germans.


title: Ivan Konev

text: In April Konev's troops, together with the 1st Belorussian Front under his competitor, Marshal Zhukov, forced the line of the Oder and advanced towards Berlin. Konev's forces entered the city first, but Stalin gave Zhukov the honor of capturing Berlin and hoisting the Soviet flag over the Reichstag. Konev was ordered to the south-west, where his forces linked up with elements of the United States Army at Torgau (25 April 1945) and also retook Prague (9 May 1945) shortly after the official surrender of the German forces.


title: Ivan Konev

text: After the war the Soviet Union appointed Konev as head of the Soviet occupation forces in Eastern Germany and also Allied High Commissioner for Austria. In 1946 he became Commander-in-Chief of the Soviet Ground Forces and First Deputy Minister of Defense of the Soviet Union, replacing Zhukov. He held these posts until 1950, when he was appointed commander of the Carpathian Military District. He held this post until 1960, when he retired from active service. In 1961–62, however, he was recalled and was again commander of the Soviet forces in East Germany, where he ordered the closing of West Berlin to East Berlin during the construction of the Berlin Wall. He was then appointed to the largely ceremonial post of Inspector-General of the Defense Ministry.


title: Ivan Konev

text: Following the Prague Spring, Konev headed a delegation that visited Czechoslovakia in May 1968 to celebrate the anniversary of the Soviet victory during World War II. After Stalin's death, Konev returned to prominence. He became a key ally of the new party leader Nikita Khrushchev, being entrusted with the trial of the Stalinist police chief Lavrenty Beria in 1953. He was again appointed First Deputy Minister of Defense and commander of Soviet ground forces, posts he held until 1956, when he was named Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Warsaw Pact. Shortly after his appointment he led the suppression of the Hungarian Revolution. It has been claimed that Konev visited military units in Czechoslovakia in order to obtain first-hand information to better assess the situation in the country, but there is no documentary evidence to support this.


title: Ivan Konev

text: The British military historian John Erickson wrote that he was surprised with the extent of personal archives ("lichnye arkhivy") held by former Red Army soldiers of many ranks, and that "there is no substitute for having the late Marshal Koniev (sic) – spectacles perched on nose – read from his own personal notebook, detailing operational orders, his own personal instructions to select commanders and his tally of Soviet casualties. And while on the subject of casualties, Marshal Koniev made it plain that, though such figures did exist, he was not prepared on his own authority to allow certain figures to be released for publication while a number of commanders were still alive."


title: Ivan Konev

text: Konev remained one of the Soviet Union's most admired military figures until his death in 1973. He married twice, and his daughter Nataliya is Dean of the Department of Linguistics and Literature at the Military University of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation.


title: Ivan Konev

text: In 1969, the Ministry of Defence of the USSR published Konev's 285-page war memoir called "Forty-Five". It was later translated into English in the same year and published by Progress Publishers, Moscow. This work discusses Konev's taking of Berlin, Prague, his work with Zhukov, Stalin, his field meeting with General Omar Bradley and Jascha Heifetz. In English, the book was titled "I. Konev – Year of Victory". It was also published in Spanish and French under the titles "El Año 45" and "L'an 45" respectively.


title: Ivan Konev

text: Konev died on 21 May, 1973 at age 75 in Moscow. Following his cremation, his ashes were placed in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis with those of the greatest figures of the USSR, and can still be visited today.


title: Ivan Konev

text: Konev has monuments in Svidník, Kharkiv, Patriot Park (Moscow region), Kirov, Belgorod, Nizhny Novgorod, Omsk, and Vologda.


title: Ivan Konev

text: On 9 January 1991, his memorial sculpture in Kraków was dismantled less than just 4 years after it had been unveiled. The sculpture was given to the Russian city of Kirov. The memorial plaque in front of the apartment building where he lived (three blocks from the Kremlin) is still mounted on the brick wall.


title: Ivan Konev

text: The Konev monument erected by the communist government of Czechoslovakia in Prague 6 (náměstí Interbrigády) in 1980 became a subject of controversy that escalated in 2018, after which the city administration added explanatory text to the monument, noting the participation of its subject in the suppression of the Hungarian Revolution and the Prague Spring. The monument was removed on 3 April 2020, with the Czech president Miloš Zeman criticizing the removal as "an abuse of the state of emergency". Within days, the Investigative Committee of the Russian Federation announced it would begin a symbolic investigation of the alleged "defiling of symbols of Russia's military glory".


title: Legal status of tattooing in the United States

text: In the United States there is no federal law regulating the practice of tattooing. However, all 50 states and the District of Columbia have statutory laws requiring a person receiving a tattoo be at least 18 years old. This is partially based on the legal principle that a minor cannot enter into a legal contract or otherwise render informed consent for a procedure. Most states permit a person under the age of 18 to receive a tattoo with permission of a parent or guardian, but some states prohibit tattooing under a certain age regardless of permission, with the exception of medical necessity (such as markings placed for radiation therapy).


text: In all jurisdictions, individual tattooers may also choose to place additional restrictions based on their own moral feelings, such as refusing "any" clients under a specific age even with parental consent, or limiting the type and/or location of where they are willing to tattoo (such as refusing any work around certain parts of the body). They may additionally refuse to perform specific artwork, including artwork they consider offensive, or refuse to work on a client they suspect may be intoxicated. Tattooers sometimes claim their personal business restrictions are a matter of law, even when it is not true, so as to avoid arguments with clients.


title: Strangling

text: Strangling is compression of the neck that may lead to unconsciousness or death by causing an increasingly hypoxic state in the brain. Fatal strangling typically occurs in cases of violence, accidents, and is one of two main ways that hanging causes death (alongside breaking the victim's neck).


title: Strangling

text: Strangling does not have to be fatal; limited or interrupted strangling is practised in erotic asphyxia, in the choking game, and is an important technique in many combat sports and self-defense systems.


title: Strangling

text: Strangling involves one or several mechanisms that interfere with the normal flow of oxygen into the brain:


title: Strangling

text: Depending on the particular method of strangulation, one or several of these typically occur in combination; vascular obstruction is usually the main mechanism. Complete obstruction of blood flow to the brain is associated with irreversible neurological damage and death, but during strangulation there is still unimpeded blood flow in the vertebral arteries. Estimates have been made that significant occlusion of the carotid arteries and jugular veins occurs with a pressure of around , while the trachea demands six times more at approximately .


title: Strangling

text: As in all cases of strangulation, the rapidity of death can be affected by the susceptibility to carotid sinus stimulation. Carotid sinus reflex death is sometimes considered a mechanism of death in cases of strangulation, but it remains highly disputed. The reported time from application to unconsciousness varies from 7–14 seconds if effectively applied to one minute in other cases, with death occurring minutes after unconsciousness.


title: Strangling

text: Manual strangulation (also known as "throttling") is strangling with the hands, fingers, or other extremities and sometimes also with blunt objects, such as batons. Depending on how the strangling is performed, it may compress the airway, interfere with the flow of blood in the neck, or work as a combination of the two. Consequently, manual strangulation may damage the larynx and fracture the hyoid or other bones in the neck. In cases of airway compression, manual strangling leads to the frightening sensation of air hunger and may induce violent struggling.


title: Strangling

text: Manual strangulation is common in situations of domestic violence, and is regarded by experts as an especially severe form of domestic violence, due to its extremely frightening and potentially lethal nature, and an observed correlation between non-fatal strangulation in domestic violence and future homicide.


title: Strangling

text: Manual strangulation also has a history as a form of capital punishment, during the 18th century, a sentence of "Death by Throttling" would be passed upon the verdict of a Court Martial for the crime of desertion from the British Army.


title: Strangling

text: More technical variants of manual strangulation are referred to as strangleholds, or chokeholds (despite the term "choke" more technically referring to internal airway restriction), and are extensively practised and used in various martial arts, combat sports, self-defense systems, and in military hand-to-hand combat application. In some martial arts like judo, Brazilian jiu-jitsu, and jujutsu, when applied correctly and released promptly after loss of consciousness, strangleholds that constrict blood flow are regarded as a safer means to render an opponent unconscious, when compared to other methods, especially strikes to the head, the latter of which can cause potentially catastrophic or fatal and irreversible brain injuries much more quickly and unpredictably.