title: Feminizing hormone therapy

text: Cisgender men with gynecomastia have not been found to have an increased risk of breast cancer. It has been suggested that a 46,XY karyotype (one X chromosome and one Y chromosome) may be protective against breast cancer compared to having a 46,XX karyotype (two X chromosomes). Men with Klinefelter's syndrome (47,XXY karyotype), which causes hypoandrogenism, hyperestrogenism, and a very high incidence of gynecomastia (80%), have a dramatically (20- to 58-fold) increased risk of breast cancer compared to karyotypical men (46,XY), closer to the rate of karyotypical women (46,XX). The incidences of breast cancer in karyotypical men, men with Klinefelter's syndrome, and karyotypical women are approximately 0.1%, 3%, and 12.5%, respectively. Women with complete androgen insensitivity syndrome (46,XY karyotype) never develop male sex characteristics and have normal and complete female morphology, including breast development, yet have not been reported to develop breast cancer. The risk of breast cancer in women with Turner syndrome (45,XO karyotype) also appears to be significantly decreased, though this could be related to ovarian failure and hypogonadism rather than to genetics.


title: Feminizing hormone therapy

text: Prostate cancer is extremely rare in gonadectomized transgender women who have been treated with estrogens for a prolonged period of time. Whereas as many as 70% of men show prostate cancer by their 80s, only a handful of cases of prostate cancer in transgender women have been reported in the literature. As such, and in accordance with the fact that androgens are responsible for the development of prostate cancer, HRT appears to be highly protective against prostate cancer in transgender women.


title: Feminizing hormone therapy

text: The risks of certain types of benign brain tumors including meningioma and prolactinoma are increased with hormone therapy in transgender women. These risks have mostly been associated with the use of cyproterone acetate.


title: Feminizing hormone therapy

text: Estrogens and progestogens can cause prolactinomas, which are benign, prolactin-secreting tumors of the pituitary gland. Milk discharge from the nipples can be a sign of elevated prolactin levels. If a prolactinoma becomes large enough, it can cause visual changes (especially decreased peripheral vision), headaches, depression or other mood changes, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, and symptoms of pituitary failure, like hypothyroidism.


title: Feminizing hormone therapy

text: Especially in the early stages of feminizing hormone therapy, blood work is done frequently to assess hormone levels and liver function. The Endocrine Society recommends that patients have blood tests every three months in the first year of HRT for estradiol and testosterone, and that spironolactone, if used, be monitored every two to three months in the first year. Recommended ranges for total estradiol and total testosterone levels include but are not limited to the following:


title: Feminizing hormone therapy

text: The optimal ranges for estrogen apply only to individuals taking estradiol (or an ester of estradiol), and not to those taking synthetic or other non-bioidentical preparations (e.g., conjugated estrogens or ethinylestradiol).


title: Feminizing hormone therapy

text: Physicians also recommend broader medical monitoring, including complete blood counts; tests of renal function, liver function, and lipid and glucose metabolism; and monitoring of prolactin levels, body weight, and blood pressure.


title: Feminizing hormone therapy

text: If prolactin levels are greater than 100 ng/mL, estrogen therapy should be stopped and prolactin levels should be rechecked after 6 to 8 weeks. If prolactin levels remain high, an MRI scan of the pituitary gland to check for the presence of a prolactinoma should be ordered. Otherwise, estrogen therapy may be restarted at a lower dosage. Cyproterone acetate is particularly associated with elevated prolactin levels, and discontinuation of cyproterone acetate lowers prolactin levels. In contrast to cyproterone acetate, estrogen and spironolactone therapy is not associated with increased prolactin levels.


title: Feminizing hormone therapy

text: Effective pharmaceutical female sex-hormonal medications, including androgens, estrogens, and progestogens, first became available in the 1920s and 1930s. One of the earliest reports of hormone therapy in transgender women was published by Danish endocrinologist Christian Hamburger in 1953. One of his patients was Christine Jorgensen, who he had treated starting in 1950. Additional reports of hormone therapy in transgender women were published by Hamburger, the German-American endocrinologist Harry Benjamin, and other researchers in the mid-to-late 1960s. However, Benjamin had several hundred transgender patients under his care by the late 1950s, and had treated transgender women with hormone therapy as early as the late 1940s or early 1950s. In any case, Hamburger is said to be the first to treat transgender women with hormone therapy.


title: Feminizing hormone therapy

text: One of the first transgender health clinics was opened in the mid-1960s at the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine. By 1981, there were almost 40 such centers. A review of the hormonal regimens of 20 of the centers was published that year. The first International Symposium on Gender Identity, chaired by Christopher John Dewhurst, was held in London in 1969, and the first medical textbook on transgenderism, titled "Transsexualism and Sex Reassignment" and edited by Richard Green and John Money, was published by Johns Hopkins University Press in 1969. This textbook included a chapter on hormone therapy written by Christian Hamburger and Harry Benjamin. The Harry Benjamin International Gender Dysphoria Association (HBIGDA), now known as the World Professional Association for Transgender Health (WPATH), was formed in 1979, with the first version of the "Standards of Care" published the same year. The Endocrine Society published guidelines for the hormonal care of transgender people in 2009, with a revised version in 2017.


title: Feminizing hormone therapy

text: Hormone therapy for transgender women was initially done using high-dose estrogen therapy with oral estrogens such as conjugated estrogens, ethinylestradiol, and diethylstilbestrol and with parenteral estrogens such as estradiol benzoate, estradiol valerate, estradiol cypionate, and estradiol undecylate. Progestogens, such as hydroxyprogesterone caproate, medroxyprogesterone acetate, and other progestins, were also sometimes included. The antiandrogen and progestogen cyproterone acetate was first used in transgender women by 1977. Its use was standard at the Center of Expertise on Gender Dysphoria (CEGD; Kennis- en Zorgcentrum Genderdysforie, or KZcG) in Amsterdam, the Netherlands by 1985. Spironolactone, another antiandrogen, was first used in transgender women by 1986. These agents were described as allowing the use of much lower doses of estrogen than previously required, and this was considered advantageous due to risks of high doses of estrogens such as cardiovascular complications. Antiandrogens were well-established in hormone therapy for transgender women by the early 1990s. Estrogen doses in transgender women were reduced following the introduction of antiandrogens. Ethinylestradiol, conjugated estrogens, and other non-bioidentical estrogens stopped being used in transgender women in favor of estradiol starting around 2000 due to their greater risks of blood clots and cardiovascular issues.


title: Feminizing hormone therapy

text: In modern times, hormone therapy in transgender women is usually done with the combination of an estrogen and an antiandrogen. In some places however, such as Japan, use of antiandrogens is uncommon, and estrogen monotherapy, for instance with high-dose injectable estradiol esters, is still frequently used.


title: Three Principles of the People

text: The Three Principles of the People (; also translated as the Three People's Principles, San-min Doctrine, or Tridemism) is a political philosophy developed by Sun Yat-sen as part of a philosophy to improve China made during the Republican Era. The three principles are often translated into and summarized as nationalism, democracy, and the livelihood of the people. This philosophy has been claimed as the cornerstone of the nation's policy as carried by the Kuomintang (KMT); the principles also appear in the first line of the national anthem of the Republic of China.


title: Three Principles of the People

text: In 1894 when the Revive China Society was formed, Sun only had two principles: nationalism and democracy. He picked up the third idea, welfare, during his three-year trip to Europe from 1896 to 1898. He announced all three ideas in the spring of 1905, during another trip to Europe. Sun made the first speech of his life on the "Three Principles of the People" in Brussels. He was able to organize the Revive China Society in many European cities. There were about 30 members in the Brussels branch at the time, 20 in Berlin, and 10 in Paris. After the Tongmenghui was formed, Sun published an editorial in "Min Bao" (民報). This was the first time the ideas were expressed in writing. Later on, in the anniversary issue of "Min Bao", his long speech of the Three Principles was printed, and the editors of the newspaper discussed the issue of people's livelihood.


title: Three Principles of the People

text: The ideology is said to be heavily influenced by Sun's experiences in the United States and contains elements of the American progressive movement and the thought championed by Abraham Lincoln. Sun credited a line from Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, "government of the people, by the people, for the people", as an inspiration for the Three Principles. Dr. Sun's Three Principles of the People are inter-connected as the guideline for China's modernization development as stretched by Hu Hanmin.


title: Three Principles of the People

text: The Principle of Mínzú (民族主義, Mínzú Zhǔyì) is commonly rendered as "nationalism". "Mínzú" or "People" describes a nation rather than a group of persons united by a purpose, hence the commonly used and apt translation as "nationalism".


title: Three Principles of the People

text: Sun saw the Chinese Nation as under threat of annihilation by the imperialist powers. To reverse the trajectory of such decline, China needs to become nationally independent both externally and internally.


title: Three Principles of the People

text: Internally, national independence meant independence from the Qing Manchus who ruled China for centuries. Sun thought that the Han Chinese people were the people without their own nation and thus strove for national revolution against Qing authorities.


title: Three Principles of the People

text: Externally, national independence meant independence from imperialist foreign powers. Sun believed China to be threatened by imperialism in three ways: by economic oppression, by political aggression, and by slow population growth. Economically, Sun held the mercantilist position that China was being economically exploited by unbalanced trade and tariffs. Politically, he looked toward the unequal treaties signed by China as the reason of China's decline. Sun envisioned a future China that is strong and capable of fighting imperialists and standing on the same stage as western powers.


title: Three Principles of the People

text: To achieve "national independence", Sun believed that China must first develop a "China-nationalism," "Zhonghua Minzu", as opposed to an "ethnic-nationalism". Sun developed the principles of Five Races Under One Union to unite the five major ethnic groups of China Han, Mongols, Tibetans, Manchus, and the Muslims (such as the Uyghurs) under one "Chinese Nation". This principle is symbolized by the Five Color Flag of the First Republic of China (1911–1928). He believed that China must develop a "national consciousness" so as to unite the Chinese people in the face of imperialist aggression. He argued that "minzu", which can be translated as "people", "nationality", or "race", was defined by sharing common blood, livelihood, religion, language, and customs. Sun also believed in a form of interculturalism that assimilate ethnic minorities into the dominant Han culture, not through brute force, but by a process of naturalization.


title: Three Principles of the People

text: The Principle of Mínquán (民權主義, Mínquán Zhǔyì) is usually translated as "democracy"; literally "the People's power" or "government by the People." To Sun, it represented a Western constitutional government. He divided political life of his ideal for China into two sets of "powers": the power of politics and the power of governance.


title: Three Principles of the People

text: The power of politics () are the powers of the people to express their political wishes and keep administrative officers in check, similar to those vested in the citizenry or the parliaments in other countries, and is represented by the National Assembly. The power of the people is guaranteed by four constitutional rights: the right to election (選舉), recalling (罷免), initiative (創制), and referendum (複決). These may be equated to "civil rights".


title: Three Principles of the People

text: The power of governance () are the powers of the administration to govern the people. He criticized the traditional three-branch democratic government for vesting too much power in the legislative branch. He expanded and reworked the European-American three-branch government and the system of checks and balances by incorporating traditional Chinese administrative systems to create a government of five branches (each of which is called a Yuan ()) in a system known as the Five Power Constitution. The state is divided into five "Yuan"s: Legislative Yuan, the Executive Yuan, and the Judicial Yuan came from Montesquieuan thought; the Control Yuan and the Examination Yuan came from Chinese tradition. (Note that the Legislative Yuan was first intended as a branch of governance, not strictly equivalent to a national parliament.)


title: Three Principles of the People

text: The Principle of Mínshēng (民生主義, Mínshēng Zhǔyì) is sometimes translated as "the People's welfare/livelihood," "Government for the People" or "Socialism" . The concept may be understood as social welfare and as a direct criticism of the inadequacies of unregulated capitalism. He divided livelihood into four areas: clothing, food, housing, and mobility; and planned out how an ideal (Chinese) government can take care of these for its people.


title: Three Principles of the People

text: Sun Yat-sen was influenced by the American thinker Henry George and intended to introduce a Georgist tax reform. The land value tax in Taiwan is a legacy thereof. Sun Yat-sen said that land value tax as "the only means of supporting the government is an infinitely just, reasonable, and equitably distributed tax, and on it we will found our new system."


title: Three Principles of the People

text: Sun proposed a land reform system known as "equalization of land rights", which involves the implementation four different acts: regulation of land price, in which each landowner reports the value of their property sans improvement; taxation of land, which involves a land value tax set on all land properties; purchase of land, which sets up a system where government can purchase land for public use by eminent domain; and profit belongs to the public, in which a 100% tax is levied on all profit gained from trading of land (sans improvement). According to Sun, the existence of land purchase and land taxation guarantees that landowner wouldn't over-report (which would lead to high taxation on land) nor under-report (which would lead to their land being cheaply acquired for eminent domain) their land values.


title: Three Principles of the People

text: However, the Kuomintang failed to achieve any successful land reform Sun envisioned in Mainland China and only succeeded in Taiwan.


title: Three Principles of the People

text: Sun died before he was able to fully explain his vision of this Principle and it has been the subject of much debate within both the Chinese Nationalist and Communist Parties, with the latter suggesting that Sun supported socialism. Chiang Kai-shek further elaborated the Mínshēng principle of both the importance of social well-being and recreational activities for a modernized China in 1953 in Taiwan.


title: Three Principles of the People

text: The most definite (canonical) exposition of these principles was a book compiled from notes of speeches that Sun gave near Guangzhou (taken by a colleague, Huang Changgu, in consultation with Sun), and therefore is open to interpretation by various parties and interest groups (see below) and may not have been as fully explicated as Sun might have wished. Indeed, Chiang Kai-shek supplied an annex to the Principle of Mínshēng, covering two additional areas of livelihood: education and leisure, and explicitly arguing that Mínshēng was not to be seen as supporting either communism or socialism.


title: Three Principles of the People

text: The French historian of Chinese history, Marie-Claire Bergère's view is that the book is a work of propaganda. Its purpose is to appeal to action rather than to thought. As Sun Yat-sen declared, a principle is not simply an idea; it is "a faith, a power."


title: Three Principles of the People

text: The Three Principles of the People were claimed as the basis for the ideologies of the Kuomintang under Chiang Kai-shek, the Reorganized National Government of China under Wang Jingwei, and an inspiration of the Chinese Communist Party under Mao Zedong as the stage of ‘old democracy’. The Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party largely agreed on the meaning of nationalism but differed sharply on the meaning of democracy and people's welfare, which the former saw in Western social democratic terms and the latter interpreted in Marxist and communist terms. The Japanese collaborationist government interpreted nationalism less in terms of anti-imperialism and more in terms of cooperating with Japan to advance theoretically pan-Asian, but in practice, typically Japanese interests.


title: Three Principles of the People

text: There were several higher-education institutes (university departments/faculties and graduate institutes) in Taiwan that used to devote themselves to the 'research and development' of the Three Principles in this aspect. Since the late 1990s, these institutes have re-oriented themselves so that other political theories are also admitted as worthy of consideration, and have changed their names to be more ideologically neutral (such as Democratic Studies Institute).


title: Three Principles of the People

text: In addition to this institutional phenomenon, many streets and businesses in Taiwan are named "Sān-mín" or for one of the three principles. In contrast to other politically derived street names, there has been no major renaming of these streets or institutions in the 1990s.


title: Three Principles of the People

text: Although the term "Sanmin Zhuyi" (三民主義) has been less explicitly invoked since the mid-1980s, no political party has explicitly attacked its principles with practices under the Martial Law ruling era then except the Tangwai movement groups such as Democratic Progressive Party. The Three Principles of the People remains explicitly part of the platform of the Kuomintang and in the Constitution of the Republic of China.


title: Three Principles of the People

text: As for Taiwan independence supporters, some have objections regarding the formal constitutional commitment to a particular set of political principles. Also, they have been against the mandatory indoctrination in schools and universities, which have now been abolished in a piecemeal fashion beginning in the late 1990s. However, there is little fundamental hostility to the substantive principles themselves. In these circles, attitudes toward the Three Principles of the People span the spectrum from indifference to reinterpreting the Three Principles of the People in a local Taiwanese context rather than in a pan-Chinese one.


title: Three Principles of the People

text: The Three Principles of the People has been reinterpreted by the Chinese Communist Party to argue that communism is a necessary conclusion of the Three Principles of the People and thus provides legitimacy for the communist government. This reinterpretation of the Three Principles of the People is commonly referred to as the New Three Principles of the People (also translated as Neo-tridemism), a word coined by Mao's 1940 essay "On New Democracy," in which he argued that the Communist Party is a better enforcer of the Three Principles of the People compared to the bourgeois Nationalist Party and that the new three principles are about allying with the communists and the Russians (Soviets), and supporting peasants and the workers. Proponents of the New Three Principles of the People often point to the fact that Sun's book "Three Principles of the People" acknowledges that the principles of welfare is inherently socialistic and communistic.


title: Three Principles of the People

text: In response to a question from a Reuters reporter in 1945, Mao Zedong, former Chairman of the Communist Party of China, said: "A free and democratic China will be a country in which all levels of government up to the central government are elected by universal, equal, secret suffrage and are accountable to the people who elected them. It would realize Dr. Sun Yat-sen's Three Principles of the People, Lincoln's principles of government of the people, by the people, and for the people, and Roosevelt's Four Freedoms. It will guarantee the country's independence, unity, unification and cooperation with the democratic powers."


title: Three Principles of the People

text: The Vietnam Revolutionary League was a union of various Vietnamese nationalist groups, run by the pro-Chinese Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng. The Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng translates directly into Vietnamese Kuomintang, and it was based on the Chinese Kuomintang party. Its stated goal was for unity with China under the Three Principles of the People, and opposition to Japanese and French imperialists. The Revolutionary League was controlled by Nguyễn Hải Thần, who was born in China. General Zhang Fakui blocked the Communists of Vietnam, and Ho Chi Minh from entering the league, as his main goal was Chinese influence in Indochina. The KMT utilized these Vietnamese nationalists during World War II against Japanese forces.


title: Three Principles of the People

text: The motto of Independence - Freedom - Happiness of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, despite its communist political background, was also taken from the Three Principles of People.


title: Three Principles of the People

text: The pro-Kuomintang and pro-ROC Khamba revolutionary leader Pandatsang Rapga, who established the Tibet Improvement Party, adopted Dr. Sun's ideology including the Three Principles, incorporating them into his party and using Sun's doctrine as a model for his vision of Tibet after achieving his goal of overthrowing the Tibetan government.


title: Three Principles of the People

text: Pandatsang Rapga hailed the Three Principles of Dr. Sun for helping Asian peoples against foreign imperialism and called for the feudal system to be overthrown. Rapga stated that "The Sanmin Zhuyi was intended for all peoples under the domination of foreigners, for all those who had been deprived of the rights of man. But it was conceived especially for the Asians. It is for this reason that I translated it. At that time, a lot of new ideas were spreading in Tibet", during an interview in 1975 with Dr. Heather Stoddard. Dr. Sun's ideology was put into a Tibetan translation by Rapga.


title: Three Principles of the People

text: He believed that change in Tibet would only be possible in a manner similar to when the Qing Dynasty was overthrown in China. He borrowed the theories and ideas of the Kuomintang as the basis for his model for Tibet. The party was funded by the Kuomintang and by the Pandatsang family.


title: Three Principles of the People

text: The establishment of the People's Power Party in May 2015 by opposition politician Goh Meng Seng marks the first time in contemporary Singaporean politics that a political party was formed with the Three Principles of the People and its system of having five branches of government as espoused by Sun Yat-Sen as its official guiding ideology.


title: Three Principles of the People

text: The People's Power Party has adapted the ideas with a slight modification to the concepts of the Five Powers in order to stay relevant to modern contemporary political and social structures. The emphasis is put on the separation of the Five Powers which naturally means the separation of certain institutions from the Executive's control.


title: Three Principles of the People

text: The power of impeachment (originally under the Control Yuan) has been expanded to include various contemporary functional government institutions. Examples include the Corrupt Practices Investigation Bureau, advocacy of the Ombudsman Commission, Equal Opportunity Commission, freedom of the press and freedom of speech.


title: Three Principles of the People

text: The power of examination has been adapted and modified to fit the modern concept of selection for both political leaders as well as civil servants. This involves institutions like the Elections Department and Public Service Commission.


title: Three Principles of the People

text: The People's Power Party advocates that the institutions included in these two powers, namely the power of impeachment and the power of selection, be put under the supervision of Singapore's elected president.


title: Ante Rebić

text: Ante Rebić (; born 21 September 1993) is a Croatian professional footballer who plays as a winger for club AC Milan and the Croatia national team. He can play on both wings, as well as a second striker.


title: Ante Rebić

text: He began his senior career at RNK Split, and in 2013 signed for Serie A club Fiorentina for an undisclosed fee. He spent most of his time there out on loan to RB Leipzig, Hellas Verona, and Eintracht Frankfurt, before joining the later permanently in July 2018. In September 2019, he returned to Italian football, joining AC Milan, initially on a two-year loan, before joining permanently a year later.


title: Ante Rebić

text: Rebić made his senior international debut for Croatia in 2013. That same year, he was voted Croatian Football Hope of the Year. He represented them at the FIFA World Cup in 2014 and 2018, reaching the final of the latter, as well as at the UEFA Euro 2020.


title: Ante Rebić

text: Rebić started his career playing at youth level for Vinjani before he moved to Imotski in 2008, where he spent two seasons. After his good performances at a tournament in Italy in 2010, where he went with Hajduk Split youth team, Rebić was brought to RNK Split by Darko Butorović.


title: Ante Rebić

text: Rebić made his debut for the first team against Dinamo Zagreb on 21 May 2011 in the last round of the 2010–11 Prva HNL as a second-half substitute. The match ended in a 1–1 draw, with Rebić scoring the late equalizer. In August 2011, Rebić signed a professional three-year contract with RNK Split. In the 2011–12 season, Rebić scored 5 league goals in 20 appearances, four of them when coming off the bench. In the 2012–13 season, Rebić scored 10 league goals in 29 appearances.


title: Ante Rebić

text: On 28 August 2013, Rebić signed a five-year contract with Italian side Fiorentina, for an undisclosed fee. Upon passing the medical exams, he was given the number 9 shirt. He made a debut on 30 September, coming on as a 36th-minute substitute for injured teammate Giuseppe Rossi, in a 2–2 home draw against Parma. During his debut he sustained an injury, causing him to be sidelined for three weeks. Rebić made three more appearances for Fiorentina before he scored his first goal on 8 January 2014, starting and scoring the second goal of a 2–0 Coppa Italia last-16 home win against Chievo Verona. On 18 May, he scored his first goal in Serie A in 2–2 draw against Torino at the Stadio Artemio Franchi, two minutes after replacing Manuel Pasqual.


title: Ante Rebić

text: On 3 August 2014, Rebić joined 2. Bundesliga club Leipzig for a season-long loan deal. After his loan spell with Leipzig ended, Rebić returned to Fiorentina and was given the number 11 shirt, previously worn by Juan Cuadrado, and was used primarily on the left wing. He made his European debut with the club on 1 October in a 4–0 defeat of Belenenses in the Europa League. In their next match in that competition, Rebić was sent off for a reckless challenge in stoppage time in a 2–1 defeat to Lech Poznań. On 1 November, he scored his first goal in Serie A, in a 4–1 win against Frosinone.


title: Ante Rebić

text: After only making six appearances and scoring once for Fiorentina, Rebić was loaned to Hellas Verona on 14 January 2016. However, he failed to score in nine appearances, and Verona were relegated to Serie B. On 20 March, on as a halftime substitute for Giampaolo Pazzini, he was sent off for two yellow cards at the end of a 2–1 loss to Carpi in the Stadio Marc'Antonio Bentegodi.


title: Ante Rebić

text: Rebić joined Eintracht Frankfurt on a season-long loan on 11 July 2016, reuniting with former national team manager Niko Kovač. After a short battle with mononucleosis, Rebić made his debut on 17 September against Bayer Leverkusen, coming on as a substitute and assisting Marco Fabián for the winning goal in a 2–1 victory. On 5 February 2017 he scored his first goal for his new team to conclude a 2–0 win over fellow Hesse team SV Darmstadt 98 at the Commerzbank Arena. On 27 May, he equalised in the 2017 DFB-Pokal Final, though Frankfurt lost 2–1 to Borussia Dortmund.


title: Ante Rebić

text: On 31 August 2017, Rebić joined Eintracht a second time on loan for another year with an option to buy. Across all competitions, he scored nine goals and assisted three that season. This included two goals on 19 May in the 2018 DFB-Pokal Final, a 3–1 victory that gave his club their first cup since 1988 and denied Bayern Munich to complete their double. At the conclusion of the season, Eintracht Frankfurt exercised their option to purchase Rebić permanently for €2 million.


title: Ante Rebić

text: On 10 August 2018, Rebić signed a new contract to last until June 2022. He had been tracked by clubs including Manchester United, Tottenham Hotspur, Bayern Munich and Sevilla, and Eintracht had lost several of their star players in addition to Kovač, who joined Bayern. Two days later, Eintracht lost the 2018 DFL-Supercup at home to precisely that team, with Rebić a 64th-minute substitute.


title: Ante Rebić

text: On 11 August 2019, he scored a hat-trick in a DFB-Pokal match against Waldhof Mannheim, which Eintracht won 5–3.


title: Ante Rebić

text: On 2 September 2019, Rebić returned to Italy and signed a two-year loan deal with AC Milan, with André Silva moving in the other direction.


title: Ante Rebić

text: After spending the first half of the season on the bench, having played more minutes for the national team than the club, Rebić scored his first two league goals in a 3–2 victory over Udinese on 19 January 2020, having come on as a half-time substitute for Giacomo Bonaventura. A week later, he continued his super sub goalscoring run with a single goal in a 1–0 away victory over Brescia. On 9 February, he scored the opener in "Derby della Madonnina"; however, the game ended as a 4–2 victory for Inter Milan. Four days later, he scored Milan's only goal in a 1–1 draw with Juventus in Coppa Italia. On 17 February he scored the only goal in a 1–0 victory over Torino. On 12 June, in the club's first game after the COVID-19 pandemic, the second leg of Coppa Italia fixture against Juventus, Rebić was sent off after sixteen minutes due to a rough tackle on Juventus' defender Danilo. On 4 July, he scored the third goal in a 3–0 victory over title contenders Lazio, their first home defeat of the season. On 7 July, he won a penalty, provided an assist and scored in a 4–2 comeback victory over Juventus.


title: Ante Rebić

text: On 12 September 2020, Milan exercised their option to purchase Rebić permanently, and signed the player on a five-year contract. On 27 September, he won a penalty that Franck Kessié successfully converted into the first goal of the 2–0 victory over Crotone; however, in the 58th minute of the game, he fell during a counterattack and dislocated his elbow. He returned to the team on 1 November, coming on for Rafael Leão in the 71st minute of the 2–1 victory over Udinese. On 23 December, he scored his first goal of the season, the opening goal in the 3–2 victory over Lazio. On 6 January 2021, he tested positive for COVID-19 and was ruled out of the derby against Juventus, which Milan lost 3–1, their first defeat of the season. On 28 February, he scored the winning goal in the 2–1 victory over Roma. On 9 May, he scored a spectacular goal in a 3–0 victory over Juventus, winning Milan crucial three points for the Champions League qualification. Three days later, in a 7–0 routing of Torino, he provided Theo Hernandez with an assist for the fourth goal before scoring a hat-trick.


title: Ante Rebić

text: On 12 September 2021, he assisted on both goals in a 2–0 victory over Lazio. Three days later, Rebić made his Champions League debut in a 3–2 defeat to Liverpool, scoring Milan's first goal.


title: Ante Rebić

text: On 19 September, he scored the equalizer against Juventus in a 1-1 draw, his 3rd overall league goal against Juventus.


title: Ante Rebić

text: On 24 November it was reported that Rebic was injured in the training and expected to be out for a month. However he was not back on the pitch again until 9 January 2022 against Venezia.


title: Ante Rebić

text: On 19 February, he scored the equalizer in away game against Salernitana, which ended 2-2, a powerful shot from 25 yards, it was his first goal in 5 months.


title: Ante Rebić

text: On 31 July 2013, Rebić was called up for the first time to the national team, ahead of a friendly away to Liechtenstein. He came on as a 63rd-minute substitute for Ivica Olić in the match, and four minutes later he scored in the 3–2 win. He was praised by manager Igor Štimac after the game.


title: Ante Rebić

text: Upon the arrival of the new national team coach Niko Kovač, his former Croatia U21 coach, Rebić was called up for the decisive World Cup play-off matches against Iceland in November 2013. He came on as a substitute in both games, as Croatia secured their spot in the 2014 FIFA World Cup by winning 2–0 on aggregate.


title: Ante Rebić

text: Rebić was named in Kovač's final 23-man squad for the tournament in Brazil. He took part in the opening match against the hosts in São Paulo, as a late substitute in a 3–1 defeat. He played the same role in the next two matches as the Croatians were eventually eliminated from the group, and lasted only 20 minutes before being sent off versus Mexico in their last match for a studs-up tackle on Carlos Peña.


title: Ante Rebić

text: From June 2015 to November 2017, Rebić was not capped for Croatia. He was named in manager Zlatko Dalić's final squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia. In the second group match against Argentina in Nizhny Novgorod, he volleyed after a mistake by opposing goalkeeper Willy Caballero to open a 3–0 Croatian win. In the Round of 16 match against Denmark, he had a chance to score near the end of extra time but was fouled by Mathias Jørgensen; Luka Modrić missed the resulting penalty but the Croats won in the shootout. Rebić started in the final, and was substituted for Andrej Kramarić after 71 minutes of a 4–2 loss to France at the Luzhniki Stadium.


title: Ante Rebić

text: He scored his third international goal on 24 March 2019 in an upset 2–1 defeat to Hungary in Budapest during Croatia's Euro 2020 qualifying campaign. After he had been benched at the club, his drop in form could also be seen in the qualifying games, which caused a public outcry and endangered his spot in the Euro squad.


title: Ante Rebić

text: After missing the majority of Croatia's 2020–21 Nations League campaign due to injuries, Rebić was included in Dalić's final squad for the UEFA Euro 2020. In Croatia's first two group stage games against England and the Czech Republic, Rebić was deployed by Dalić as a striker rather than a winger with poor results, as Croatia lost 1–0 and drew 1–1 respectively. In the Round of 16 match against Spain, Rebić came off the field in the 38th minute to change his boots. At that moment, Croatia were 1–0 up and Spain were in the attack, resulting in Pablo Sarabia's equalizing goal. Croatia would go on to lose the match 5–3 after extra time. Following the intense criticism he received in his homeland for that gesture, part of which came from Dalić himself, Rebić criticized Dalić and the Croatian Football Federation on his Instagram account saying that "it is a fact that [the national team] have been [shit] for the past two, three years" and that he is "personally sorry that they had nobody to make use of this talented generation". He also went on to ironically criticize Croatian pundits (more precisely Robert Prosinečki, Goran Vlaović and Antun Samovojska), telling them to "let go of spritzer before broadcasts" (alluding to Prosinečki's drinking issues) and to "cheer for Croatia instead". Shortly after, he deleted the posts and deactivated his account. Ahead of the September World Cup qualifiers against Russia, Slovakia and Slovenia, Rebić was omitted from the national team.


title: Ante Rebić

text: Rebić is known for his physical strength and running speed, both on and off the ball; in 2019, he was the second fastest player in the Bundesliga alongside Achraf Hakimi after clocking at 21.81 mph while playing for Eintracht, as well as the fastest player at the 2018 World Cup alongside Cristiano Ronaldo after clocking at 34 km/h. He is good at dribbling, especially in one on one situations, and at protecting the ball with his body strength when challenged. His first touch, however, has been cited as one of the areas of his game that is in need of improvement, with the others being the accuracy of his passing, crossing, and shots from long range, as well as his decision-making in high-pressure situations. Tactically, Rebić is a versatile forward who can operate in several positions across various formations. While he is mainly fielded as a left winger in a 4–3–3 or 4–2–3–1, he can also play as an out-and-out striker or supporting striker in a 4–4–2, while during Eintracht's 2018–19 season he was deployed as an attacking midfielder in a 3–4–1–2, forming a fluid goalscoring triangle with Luka Jović and Sébastien Haller. Aside from his attacking duties, he has been praised for his willingness to participate in his team's defensive plays, including the pressing or counter-pressing of the opposition.


title: Ante Rebić

text: In June 2018, it was reported that Rebić paid off all of the loans of the residents of Vinjani Donji, his childhood village. In February 2021, Rebić donated €10,000 to help fund the building of a new facility for the rehabilitation and education of children in Slavonski Brod.


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: The "Star Wars" space opera universe, created by George Lucas, features some dialogue spoken in fictional languages. The "lingua franca" of the franchise is known in-universe as "Galactic Basic", used to refer to the language of the film or work itself, be it English or a language that the work was dubbed or translated into.


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: Characters often speak languages other than Basic, notably "Shyriiwook" spoken by Chewbacca and other Wookiees, "droidspeak" spoken by R2-D2 and BB-8, "Ewokese" spoken by Ewoks, and "Huttese" spoken by Jabba the Hutt.


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: The fictional languages were approached as sound design and developed largely by Ben Burtt, sound designer for both the original and prequel trilogy of films. He created alien dialogue out of the sounds of primarily non-English languages, such as Quechua, Haya, and Tibetan. This methodology was also used in "" by Sara Forsberg. Lucas also insisted that written text throughout the films look as dissimilar from the English alphabet as possible, and constructed alphabets were developed.


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: Critics contend the languages constructed for the films compared unfavorably with the true constructed languages found in some other fictional works. The usage of heavily accented English for extraterrestrials characters was also criticized as contributing to the suggestion of racial stereotypes.


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: Language development was approached as sound design and was handled by Ben Burtt, sound designer for both the original and prequel trilogies. He created the alien dialogue out of existing non-English language phrases and their sounds, such as Quechua for Greedo in the original "Star Wars" film and Haya for the character Nien Nunb in "Return of the Jedi". He also used English, as in the original Star Wars where he synthesized originally English dialogue from a Western film until it sounded alien. Burtt said of the process: "It usually meant doing some research and finding an existing language or several languages which were exotic and interesting, something that our audience — 99 percent of them — would never understand."


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: This methodology to create the sound of alien languages was carried into production of "". Director J. J. Abrams asked Sara Forsberg, who lacked a professional background in linguistics but created the viral video series "What Languages Sound Like to Foreigners" on YouTube, to develop alien dialogue spoken by Indonesian actor Yayan Ruhian. Forsberg was asked to listen to "Euro-Asian languages", and she drew from Gujarati, Hindi, and other Asian languages as well as Indonesian and Sundanese, Ruhian's native language. She also listened to languages she did not understand to better structure the words and sentences to sound believable.


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: During production of the prequel trilogy, Lucas insisted that written text throughout the films look as dissimilar from the English alphabet as possible and strongly opposed English-looking characters in screens and signage. In developing typefaces for use in , including Mandalorian and Geonosian scripts, graphic artist Philip Metschan created alphabets that did not have twenty-six letters like the English alphabet.


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: Galactic Basic, often simply Basic, is "the language of the work itself" — in-universe, it is the lingua franca predominantly spoken by the inhabitants of the galaxy.


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: Lucas intended to balance American accents and British accents between the heroes and villains of the original film. He also strove to keep accents "very neutral", noting Alec Guinness's and Peter Cushing's mid-Atlantic accents. In critical commentary on , Patricia Williams of "The Nation" felt there was a correlation between accent and social class, noting that Jedi speak with "crisp British accents" while the "graceful conquered women of the Naboo" and "white slaves" such as Anakin and Shmi Skywalker "speak with the brusque, determined innocence of middle-class Americans".


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: To decide on the sound of Nute Gunray, a Neimoidian character portrayed by Silas Carson, Lucas and Rick McCallum listened to actors from different countries reading Carson's lines. Eventually, they chose a heavily Thai-accented English, and Carson rerecorded the dialogue to mimic the Thai actor's accent. Gunray's accent was described by critics to be "Hollywood Oriental" that contributed to criticism of Gunray as an Asian stereotype. Watto's accent was similarly criticized as lending to anti-Semitic and anti-Arab connotations.


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: Yoda characteristically speaks a non-standard syntax of Basic, primarily constructing sentences in object-subject-verb word order rare in natural languages. This sentence construction is cited as a "clever device for making him seem very alien" and characterizes his dialogue as "vaguely riddle-like, which adds to his mystique". This tendency is noted to be written for an English-speaking audience; the word order is retained in Estonian subtitles, where it is grammatical but unusual and emphatic, and Yoda's dialogue is in subject–object–verb word order in Czech dubs.


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: Gungan characters, notably Jar Jar Binks, speak in a heavily accented Basic dialect critics described as a "Caribbean-flavored pidgin", "a pidgin mush of West African, Caribbean and African-American linguistic styles", "very like Jamaican patois, albeit a notably reductive, even infantilized sort", and suggestive of stereotypical African-American culture. This was cited as a trait that led to criticism of the Gungan species as a racially offensive stereotype or caricature.


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: Aurebesh is an alphabet used to represent spoken Galactic Basic (i.e. English) and is the most commonly seen form of written language in the "Star Wars" franchise; its letters correspond to each English letter, plus certain English digraphs.


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: The alphabet was based on shapes designed by Joe Johnston for the original trilogy, which are briefly featured in screen displays in "Return of the Jedi". Johnston's design, called "Star Wars 76", was used to create a font and again used in "Attack of the Clones" by Metschan, who incorporated the font alongside the later Aurebesh version used in the spin-off products.


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: In the early 1990s, Stephen Crane, art director at West End Games, became intrigued with the shapes as they appeared on the Death Star. He sought to develop them into an alphabet to be used in West End Games' licensed "Star Wars" products, primarily to allow players to render their characters' names, and received permission from Lucasfilm to do so as long as it was presented as one of many alphabets in the "Star Wars" galaxy, not the sole and exclusive alphabet. After copying the letters from screenshots by hand, he standardized the letters based on shapes similar to the Eurostile font. He named and assigned a value to each letter, and derived the name "Aurebesh" from the names of the first two letters: aurek and besh. Once Crane completed the alphabet, Lucasfilm requested a copy to distribute to other licensees.


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: In anticipation of the December 2015 release of "The Force Awakens", Google Translate added a feature to render text into Aurebesh in November 2015, which was subsequently removed in February 2016.


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: Archaic speech samples are found in "" Season 3. Mother Talzin, a Witch of Dathomir associated with the Nightsisters, is found speaking Dathomiri while possessing Darth Maul on Dathomir.


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: In April 1994, the then unidentified language first appeared in Dave Wolverton's "The Courtship of Princess Leia", the young Teneniel Djo unleashes a Spell of Storm on Luke Skywalker and Prince Isolder of Hapes. Through retroactive continuity, "" (a 1985 made-for-TV film) was the language's first real appearance. In this story, Charal – a witch later retconned as a Nightsister – was seen incanting spells over a crystal oscillator.


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: Droidspeak is a language consisting of beeps and other synthesized sounds used by some droid characters, such as R2-D2, BB-9E and BB-8. Burtt created R2-D2's dialogue in the original "Star War"s with an ARP 2600 analog synthesizer and by processing his own vocalizations via other effects. In "The Force Awakens", BB-8's dialogue was created by manipulating the voices of Bill Hader and Ben Schwartz with a talkbox running through a sound effects application on an iPad. Although droidspeak is generally unintelligible to the viewing audience, it appears to be understood by characters such as Luke Skywalker.


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: The Ewoks of the forest moon of Endor speak a "primitive dialect" of one of the more than six million other forms of communication that C-3PO is familiar with. Ben Burtt, "Return of the Jedi"’s sound designer, created the Ewok language, or Ewokese.


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: On "Return of the Jedi" DVD commentary track, Burtt identified the language that he heard in the BBC documentary as Kalmyk Oirat, a tongue spoken by the isolated nomadic Kalmyks. He describes how, after some research, he identified an 80-year-old Kalmyk refugee. He recorded her telling folk stories in her native language, and then used the recordings as a basis for sounds that became the Ewok language and were performed by voice actors who imitated the old woman's voice in different styles. For the scene in which C-3PO speaks Ewokese, actor Anthony Daniels worked with Burtt and invented words, based on the Kalmyk recordings. In a previous scene as C-3PO levitates, the Ewoks also spoke words (such as "look", "this", and "beautiful") of Tagalog.


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: Marcia Calkovsky of Lethbridge University holds that Tibetan language contributed to Ewok speech "along" with Kalmyk, starting the story from attempts to use language samples of Native Americans and later turning to nine Tibetan women living in San Francisco area, as well as one Kalmyk woman. The story behide these languages' choices is referenced in Burtt's 1989 telephone interview, and many of the used Tibetan phrases translated. The initial prayer Ewoks address to C-3PO is the beginning part of Tibetan Buddhist prayer for the benefit of all sentient beings and or "brahmavihāra"s (or "apramāṇa"s), there is also the second quarter of a refuge prayer. People of the Tibetan diaspora were puzzled as many phrases understood did not correlate to events on screen.


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: In the original "Star Wars" film, Greedo speaks an unspecified alien language understood by Han Solo, it was later identified as Rodian. Bruce Mannheim described Greedo as speaking Southern Quechua in "morphologically well-formed" phrases with sentences ultimately meaningless. Allen Sonnefrank, a Quechua speaker and linguistic anthropology student at University of California, Berkeley, claimed Lucasfilm contacted him to record Quecha dialogue for the film. He was told the dialogue was to be played backward for the film, Sonnefrank refused to record the dialogue, feeling it to be a "potentially exploitative move best made by one whose first language was Quechua, if at all".


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: A language based on the Quechuan languages, Huttese is a lingua franca in the "Star Wars" Universe. It is spoken by many groups and species. Nal Hutta, Nar Shaddaa, Tatooine and other worlds in and around Hutt Space (the west end of the galaxy's zone name) is illegally controlled by the Hutts and under the language's sphere of influence. In the "Star Wars Legends" continuity, the area covers former Hutt Empire dominions.


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: It is spoken in the films by both non-humans (Jabba the Hutt, Watto, Sebulba and others) and humans. Notably The Max Rebo Band communicate and sing in Huttese. Many Huttese alphabets are featured through the franchise, most notably the Boonta alphabet and Nal Huttese. The one considered "canonical" by fans is one found on promotional Pizza Hut pizza boxes.


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: The Jawas, also found on Tatooine, speak in a high-pitched, squeaky voice. To speak to others of their species, along with speech, they emit a smell showing their emotions. When trading droids and dealing with non-Jawas, they speak without the smell because many consider the smell "foul". A famous exclamation in Jawaese is "Utinni!", as screamed by a Jawa to the others in "A New Hope", shortly after blasting R2-D2.


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: A written form of the Mandalorian language was developed by Metschan for the display screens of Jango Fett's ship "Slave I" in "Attack of the Clones", and it was later reused in "" and "Rebels". Composer Jesse Harlin, needing lyrics for the choral work he wanted for the 2005 "" video game, invented a spoken form, intending it to be an ancient language. It was named ""Mando'a"" and extensively expanded by Karen Traviss, author of the "Republic Commando" novel series.


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: Mando'a is identified as a primarily spoken, agglutinative language lacking grammatical gender in nouns and pronouns. The language is also identified as lacking a passive voice, primarily speaking in an active voice. It is often vague and described as having three grammatical tenses (present, past, and future). Its speakers typically do not use the tenses other than the present. The language is described as having a mutually intelligible dialect called "Concordian" spoken on the planet Concord Dawn, as stated in Traviss's novels "Order 66" and "501st", and a dialect spoken on Mandalore's moon Concordia is heard in "The Mandalore Plot", a season two episode of "The Clone Wars".


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: The Sith language, intended to be spoken by Sith characters, was created by Ben Grossblatt for the "Book of Sith", published in February 2012. Language development and a writing system began in November 2010. Grossblatt sought to create a pronounceable language that was not "cartoonish" and "would conform to the patterns of principles of language". He felt that it needed to "feel martial and mystical" and be a "suitable, aesthetically-pleasing vehicle for communication". He intended the language's sound as "tough—but not barbarous" and as "convey[ing] a kind of confident, elegant cruelty". To achieve "formal, quasi-military" and "imposing, undeniable" qualities, he preferred closed syllables, creating brisk and choppy words. The language is constructed as agglutinative.


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: Shyriiwook, also known as Wookieespeak, is a language consisting largely of roars and growls spoken by the Wookiee species, notably Chewbacca. Non-Wookiee characters are capable of understanding Shyriiwook, such as Chewbacca's friend Han Solo. Chewbacca's dialogue was created from walrus, camel, bear, and badger recordings from Burtt's personal sound library. One of the most prominent elements was an American black bear living in Happy Hollow Park & Zoo, San Jose, California. The sounds were mixed in different ratios to create different roars.


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: Tatooine's Tusken Raiders use a language difficult for non-Tuskens to understand, although The Mandalorian in "The Mandalorian" was able to understand and respond in their sign language. According to the "" video game, they speak a language of their own. In the game, a droid named HK-47 assists the player in communicating with the Tusken Raiders. They commonly utter roars and battle cries when seen in public.


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: The script for "The Mandalorian" episode "" stated that the Mandalorian and a Tusken Raider communicate using a sign language, and a hearing member of the crew who knew sign language encouraged the production to look for a deaf person to consult on the sign language and play the Tusken Raider. Troy Kotsur was cast in the role, and he developed the Tusken Sign Language based on the environment and culture of the Tusken Raiders rather than using American Sign Language. The hand shapes used for the language were kept simple. For example, the sign name for the Mandalorian is a flat handshape based on the letter M to outline the gaps in a Mandalorian helmet and the sign name for Grogu is one's hands on either side of the head to indicate big ears. The Tusken Raiders also converse in Tusken Sign Language in "The Book of Boba Fett".


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: Ubese is a language heard in a "Return of the Jedi" scene where a disguised Princess Leia bargains with Jabba the Hutt through C-3PO as a translator. Leia repeats the same Ubese phrase three times, translated differently in subtitles and C-3PO each time. David J. Peterson, linguist and constructed language creator, cited his attempt as a young fan to reconcile this apparent impossibility as an example of how even casual fans may notice errors in fictional constructed languages. He identified Ubese as a "sketch" of a language rather than a fully developed language and categorized it as a "fake language" intended to "give the impression of a real language in some context without actually being a real language". Ultimately, he was critical of Ubese as "poorly constructed and not worthy of serious consideration".


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: Ben Zimmer labeled the method of language construction in "Star Wars" "a far cry" from that of constructed languages like Klingon, Na'vi, and Dothraki, and he described the use of language as "never amount[ing] to more than a sonic pastiche".


title: Languages in Star Wars

text: Linguistic anthropologist Jim Wilce summarized analyses of language in "Star Wars" conducted through the Society for Linguistic Anthropology's electronic mailing list. David Samuels described the approach to language as instrumental and compared the films to a Summer Institute of Linguistics convention, in which "there are no untranslatable phrases, and everyone can understand everyone else", and pointed out that the "idea that the Force is something that would be understood differently in the context of different grammars is never broached". Hal Schiffmann made five observations about language in "Star Wars": all humans speak English and no other real-world language, there is "mutual passive bilingualism" in which characters speaking different languages understand one another, non-human creatures may have their own languages but are translated by C-3PO, certain non-English vocalizations serve to confuse or amuse the audience rather than serve as language, even non-English speaking characters are expected to understand English. Zimmer supported Schiffmann's claim that untranslated alien languages are not representations of real languages by pointing to the film's script, which describes the language of the Jawas as "a queer, unintelligible language" and that of the Tusken Raiders as "a coarse, barbaric language". Wilce also pointed out discussion on the usage of real non-English to create the "Otherness" of characters such as Jabba the Hutt, Greedo, and the Ewoks.


title: I Heard You Paint Houses

text: I Heard You Paint Houses: Frank "The Irishman" Sheeran and Closing the Case on Jimmy Hoffa is a 2004 work of narrative nonfiction written by former homicide prosecutor, investigator and defense attorney Charles Brandt that chronicles the life of Frank Sheeran, an alleged mafia hitman who confesses the crimes he committed working for the Bufalino crime family.


title: I Heard You Paint Houses

text: The title is in reference to, according to Sheeran, the first conversation he had with Hoffa over the phone, where Hoffa started by saying, "I heard you paint houses"—a mob code meaning: I heard you kill people, the "paint" being the blood splatter from the gunshot.


title: I Heard You Paint Houses

text: The book contains 71 pages of back matter largely detailing independent corroboration of Sheeran's confessions that came to light after the book was first published.


title: I Heard You Paint Houses

text: Sheeran's supposed confessions to killing Jimmy Hoffa and Joe Gallo have been disputed by "The Lies of the Irishman", an article in "Slate" by Bill Tonelli, and "Jimmy Hoffa and 'The Irishman': A True Crime Story?" by Harvard Law School professor Jack Goldsmith, which appeared in "The New York Review of Books". Chip Fleischer, the book's publisher, wrote a reply to Tonelli's piece, also published in "Slate", calling the magazine's decision to run the article with a title he claims is not supported by the facts "irresponsible in the extreme, not to mention damaging."


title: I Heard You Paint Houses

text: The book is the basis for the 2019 film "The Irishman", which was directed by Martin Scorsese and starred Robert De Niro as Frank Sheeran.


title: Network File System

text: Network File System (NFS) is a distributed file system protocol originally developed by Sun Microsystems (Sun) in 1984, allowing a user on a client computer to access files over a computer network much like local storage is accessed. NFS, like many other protocols, builds on the Open Network Computing Remote Procedure Call (ONC RPC) system. NFS is an open IETF standard defined in a Request for Comments (RFC), allowing anyone to implement the protocol.


title: Network File System

text: Sun used version 1 only for in-house experimental purposes. When the development team added substantial changes to NFS version 1 and released it outside of Sun, they decided to release the new version as v2, so that version interoperation and RPC version fallback could be tested.


title: Network File System

text: Version 2 of the protocol (defined in RFC 1094, March 1989) originally operated only over User Datagram Protocol (UDP). Its designers meant to keep the server side stateless, with locking (for example) implemented outside of the core protocol. People involved in the creation of NFS version 2 include Russel Sandberg, Bob Lyon, Bill Joy, Steve Kleiman, and others.


title: Network File System

text: The Virtual File System interface allows a modular implementation, reflected in a simple protocol. By February 1986, implementations were demonstrated for operating systems such as System V release 2, DOS, and VAX/VMS using Eunice.


title: Network File System

text: The first NFS Version 3 proposal within Sun Microsystems was created not long after the release of NFS Version 2. The principal motivation was an attempt to mitigate the performance issue of the synchronous write operation in NFS Version 2. By July 1992, implementation practice had solved many shortcomings of NFS Version 2, leaving only lack of large file support (64-bit file sizes and offsets) a pressing issue. This became an acute pain point for Digital Equipment Corporation with the introduction of a 64-bit version of Ultrix to support their newly released 64-bit RISC processor, the Alpha 21064. At the time of introduction of Version 3, vendor support for TCP as a transport-layer protocol began increasing. While several vendors had already added support for NFS Version 2 with TCP as a transport, Sun Microsystems added support for TCP as a transport for NFS at the same time it added support for Version 3. Using TCP as a transport made using NFS over a WAN more feasible, and allowed the use of larger read and write transfer sizes beyond the 8 KB limit imposed by User Datagram Protocol.


title: Network File System

text: WebNFS was an extension to NFSv2 and NFSv3 allowing it to function behind restrictive firewalls without the complexity of Portmap and MOUNT protocols. WebNFS had a fixed TCP/UDP port number (2049), and instead of requiring the client to contact the MOUNT RPC service to determine the initial filehandle of every filesystem, it introduced the concept of a "public filehandle" (null for NFSv2, zero-length for NFSv3) which could be used as the starting point. Both of those changes have later been incorporated into NFSv4.


title: Network File System

text: Version 4 (RFC 3010, December 2000; revised in RFC 3530, April 2003 and again in RFC 7530, March 2015), influenced by Andrew File System (AFS) and Server Message Block (SMB, also termed CIFS), includes performance improvements, mandates strong security, and introduces a stateful protocol. Version 4 became the first version developed with the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) after Sun Microsystems handed over the development of the NFS protocols.


title: Network File System

text: NFS version 4.1 (RFC 5661, January 2010; revised in RFC 8881, August 2020) aims to provide protocol support to take advantage of clustered server deployments including the ability to provide scalable parallel access to files distributed among multiple servers (pNFS extension). Version 4.1 includes Session trunking mechanism (Also known as NFS Multipathing) and available in some enterprise solutions as VMware ESXi.


title: Network File System

text: NFS version 4.2 (RFC 7862) was published in November 2016 with new features including: server-side clone and copy, application I/O advise, sparse files, space reservation, application data block (ADB), labeled NFS with sec_label that accommodates any MAC security system, and two new operations for pNFS (LAYOUTERROR and LAYOUTSTATS).


title: Network File System

text: One big advantage of NFSv4 over its predecessors is that only one UDP or TCP port, 2049, is used to run the service, which simplifies using the protocol across firewalls.


title: Network File System

text: WebNFS, an extension to Version 2 and Version 3, allows NFS to integrate more easily into Web-browsers and to enable operation through firewalls. In 2007 Sun Microsystems open-sourced their client-side WebNFS implementation.


title: Network File System

text: NFS is often used with Unix operating systems (such as Solaris, AIX, HP-UX), Apple's macOS, and Unix-like operating systems (such as Linux and FreeBSD). It is also available to operating systems such as Acorn RISC OS,<ref name="Sunfish/Moonfish by Alex Waugh"></ref> AmigaOS, the classic Mac OS, OpenVMS, MS-DOS, Microsoft Windows, OS/2, ArcaOS, Novell NetWare, and IBM i.<ref name="OS/400-NFS"></ref> Alternative remote file access protocols include the Server Message Block (SMB, also termed CIFS), Apple Filing Protocol (AFP), NetWare Core Protocol (NCP), and OS/400 File Server file system (QFileSvr.400).


title: Network File System

text: SMB and NetWare Core Protocol (NCP) occur more often than NFS on systems running Microsoft Windows; AFP occurs more often than NFS in Apple Macintosh systems; and QFileSvr.400 occurs more often in IBM i systems. Haiku in 2012 added NFSv4 support as part of a Google Summer of Code project.


title: Network File System

text: Assuming a Unix-style scenario in which one machine (the client) needs access to data stored on another machine (the NFS server):


title: Network File System

text: Note that automation of the NFS mounting process may take place — perhaps using codice_5 and/or automounting facilities.


title: Network File System

text: During the development of the ONC protocol (called SunRPC at the time), only Apollo's Network Computing System (NCS) offered comparable functionality. Two competing groups developed over fundamental differences in the two remote procedure call systems. Arguments focused on the method for data-encoding — ONC's External Data Representation (XDR) always rendered integers in big-endian order, even if both peers of the connection had little-endian machine-architectures, whereas NCS's method attempted to avoid byte-swap whenever two peers shared a common endianness in their machine-architectures. An industry-group called the Network Computing Forum formed (March 1987) in an (ultimately unsuccessful) attempt to reconcile the two network-computing environments.


title: Network File System

text: In 1987, Sun and AT&T announced they would jointly develop AT&T's UNIX System V Release 4. This caused many of AT&T's other licensees of UNIX System to become concerned that this would put Sun in an advantaged position, and ultimately led to Digital Equipment, HP, IBM, and others forming the Open Software Foundation (OSF) in 1988. Ironically, Sun and AT&T had formerly competed over Sun's NFS versus AT&T's Remote File System (RFS), and the quick adoption of NFS over RFS by Digital Equipment, HP, IBM, and many other computer vendors tipped the majority of users in favor of NFS.


title: Network File System

text: NFS interoperability was aided by events called "Connectathons" starting in 1986 that allowed vendor-neutral testing of implementations with each other. OSF adopted the Distributed Computing Environment (DCE) and the DCE Distributed File System (DFS) over Sun/ONC RPC and NFS. DFS used DCE as the RPC, and DFS derived from the Andrew File System (AFS); DCE itself derived from a suite of technologies, including Apollo's NCS and Kerberos.


title: Network File System

text: Sun Microsystems and the Internet Society (ISOC) reached an agreement to cede "change control" of ONC RPC so that the ISOC's engineering-standards body, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), could publish standards documents (RFCs) related to ONC RPC protocols and could extend ONC RPC. OSF attempted to make DCE RPC an IETF standard, but ultimately proved unwilling to give up change control. Later, the IETF chose to extend ONC RPC by adding a new authentication flavor based on Generic Security Services Application Program Interface (GSSAPI), RPCSEC GSS, to meet IETF requirements that protocol standards have adequate security.


title: Network File System

text: Later, Sun and ISOC reached a similar agreement to give ISOC change control over NFS, although writing the contract carefully to exclude NFS version 2 and version 3. Instead, ISOC gained the right to add new versions to the NFS protocol, which resulted in IETF specifying NFS version 4 in 2003.


title: Network File System

text: By the 21st century, neither DFS nor AFS had achieved any major commercial success as compared to SMB-CIFS or NFS. IBM, which had formerly acquired the primary commercial vendor of DFS and AFS, Transarc, donated most of the AFS source code to the free software community in 2000. The OpenAFS project lives on. In early 2005, IBM announced end of sales for AFS and DFS.


title: Network File System

text: In January, 2010, Panasas proposed an NFSv4.1 based on their "Parallel NFS" (pNFS) technology claiming to improve data-access parallelism capability. The NFSv4.1 protocol defines a method of separating the filesystem meta-data from file data location; it goes beyond the simple name/data separation by striping the data amongst a set of data servers. This differs from the traditional NFS server which holds the names of files and their data under the single umbrella of the server. Some products are multi-node NFS servers, but the participation of the client in separation of meta-data and data is limited.


title: Network File System

text: The NFSv4.1 pNFS server is a set of server resources or components; these are assumed to be controlled by the meta-data server.


title: Network File System

text: The pNFS client still accesses one meta-data server for traversal or interaction with the namespace; when the client moves data to and from the server it may directly interact with the set of data servers belonging to the pNFS server collection. The NFSv4.1 client can be enabled to be a direct participant in the exact location of file data and to avoid solitary interaction with one NFS server when moving data.


title: Deer Woman

text: Deer Woman, sometimes known as the Deer Lady, is a spirit in Native American mythology whose associations and qualities vary, depending on situation and relationships. To women, children, and men who are respectful of women and children, she is associated with fertility and love. However, to those who have harmed women and children, she is vengeful and murderous, and known to lure these men to their deaths. She appears as either a beautiful young woman with deer feet or a deer.


title: Deer Woman

text: Deer Woman stories are found in multiple Indigenous American cultures, often told to young children or by young adults and preteens in the communities of the Oceti Sakowin, Ojibwe, Ponca, Omaha, Cherokee, Muscogee, Seminole, Choctaw, Otoe, Osage, Pawnee, and the Iroquois - and those are only the ones that have documented Deer Woman sightings.


title: Deer Woman

text: Some stories and traditions describe the sighting of Deer Woman as a sign of personal transformation or as a warning. Deer Woman is said to be fond of dancing and will sometimes join a communal dance unnoticed, leaving only when the drum beating ceases.


title: Deer Woman

text: The Deer Women show characteristics and traits of both sirens and succubi. The siren, according to the Theoi Project, are monstrous sea nymphs that lure men to their deaths with their song. Succubi, as defined by the Merriam-Webster dictionary, are "demons who take female form who have sexual intercourse with men in their sleep"; constant contact with a succubus can result in failing health or death for the man.


title: Deer Woman

text: Fiura, of the Chiloé region of Chile, causes deformation in anyone who looks upon her and will cast spells to confuse young woodsmen into sleeping with her.


title: Deer Woman

text: La Patasola, literally "one footed", is a shape-shifter from the Antioquia region of Colombia who takes the form of a beautiful woman to lure men with her cries of fear; when the men (who are often causing harm in one way or another to the rain forest) come to her, she drops her beautiful mask and slaughters them in an effort to protect the forest.


title: Deer Woman

text: La Tunda, another nature spirit from Colombia, lures people of all walks of life to them with their song and then drains them of blood; La Tunda can also shape-shift, but she will always have a single leg of a molinillo that she is very careful to hide.


title: Deer Woman

text: The Brazilian Iara are beautiful warrior mermaids who, when found by a man, will charm him with her voice and beauty and either drown him, or turn him into something like her and make him her lover. La Llorona ("the crier"), who is found in Mexico and the Southwest United States, is a female ghost who will kidnap the souls of children, effectively killing them, and whose cries bring irrevocable sorrow. Sighting La Llorona spells death for someone within the week.


title: Deer Woman

text: While all these spirits will lure away and/or hurt others, they also have various physical oddities. The Deer Woman has hooves. Sirens are bird from the chest down. Succubi were originally portrayed as hideous and demonic. La Patasola has no right leg from the pelvis down and her right breast is fused to her arm.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: Alexei Nikolayevich Kosygin (; – 18 December 1980) was a Soviet statesman during the Cold War. He served as the Premier of the Soviet Union from 1964 to 1980 and was one of the most influential Soviet policymakers in the mid-1960s along with General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: Kosygin was born in the city of Saint Petersburg in 1904 to a Russian working-class family. He was conscripted into the labour army during the Russian Civil War, and after the Red Army's demobilization in 1921, he worked in Siberia as an industrial manager. Kosygin returned to Leningrad in the early 1930s and worked his way up the Soviet hierarchy. During the Great Patriotic War (World War II), Kosygin was a member of the State Defence Committee and was tasked with moving Soviet industry out of territories soon to be overrun by the German Army. He served as Minister of Finance for a year before becoming Minister of Light Industry (later, Minister of Light Industry and Food). Stalin removed Kosygin from the Politburo one year before his own death in 1953, intentionally weakening Kosygin's position within the Soviet hierarchy.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: Stalin died in 1953, and on 20 March 1959, Kosygin was appointed to the position of chairman of the State Planning Committee (Gosplan), a post he would hold for little more than a year. Kosygin next became First Deputy chairman of the Council of Ministers. When Nikita Khrushchev was removed from power in 1964, Kosygin and Leonid Brezhnev succeeded him as Premier and First Secretary, respectively. Thereafter, Kosygin formed a troika alongside Brezhnev and Nikolai Podgorny, the Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, that governed the Soviet Union in Khrushchev's place.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: During the early years of the post-Khrushchev troika, Kosygin initially emerged as the most influential figure in Soviet policymaking. In addition to managing the Soviet Union's economy, he assumed a preeminent role in its foreign policy by leading arms control talks with the US and overseeing relations with other communist countries. However, the onset of the Prague Spring in 1968 sparked a severe backlash against his policies, enabling Brezhnev to eclipse him as the dominant force in the Politburo. While he and Brezhnev disliked one another, he remained in office until being forced to retire on 23 October 1980, due to bad health. He died two months later on 18 December 1980.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: Kosygin was born into a Russian working-class family consisting of his father and mother (Nikolai Ilyich and Matrona Alexandrovna) and his siblings. The family lived in Saint Petersburg. Kosygin was baptized (7 March 1904) one month after his birth. He lost his mother in infancy and was brought up by his father.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: He and his father sympathized with the Revolution and Alexei was conscripted into a labour army on the Bolshevik side at the age of 14 during the Russian Civil War of 1917–1922. After demobilization from the Red Army in 1921, Kosygin attended the Leningrad Co-operative Technical School and found work in the system of consumer co-operatives in Novosibirsk, Siberia. When asked why he worked in the co-operative sector of the economy, Kosygin replied, quoting a slogan of Vladimir Lenin: "Co-operation – the path to socialism!" Kosygin stayed there for six years until Robert Eikhe personally advised him to quit, shortly before the repressions hit the Soviet consumer co-operation movement.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: He applied for a membership in the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1927 and returned to Leningrad in 1930 to study at the ; he graduated in 1935. After finishing his studies, Kosygin worked as a foreman and later a manager in a textile mill director. He rose rapidly during the Great Purge, overseen in Leningrad by the provincial communist party boss, Andrei Zhdanov. He was appointed director of the October Textile Factory in 1937, head of the Industry and Transport department of the Leningrad provincial communist party in July 1938, and in October 1938, Chairman of the Executive Committee of the Leningrad City Soviets of Working People's Deputies, ie 'mayor' of Leningrad City. In 1939, he was appointed People's Commissar for Textile and Industry and earned a seat on the Central Committee (CC). In 1940 Kosygin became a Deputy Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: Kosygin was appointed by the State Defence Committee to manage critically important missions during the Great Patriotic War (World War II).


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: As deputy chairman of the Council of Evacuation, he had the task of evacuating industry from territories about to be overrun by the Axis. Under his command 1523 factories were evacuated eastwards, as well as huge volumes of raw materials, ready-made goods and equipment. Kosygin managed clearing of congestions on the railroads in order to maintain their stable operation.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: During the Leningrad Blockade he was sent to his hometown to manage the construction of an ice road and a pipeline across the Lake Ladoga. This allowed to evacuate some half-million people from the besieged and starving city, and to supply fuel to its factories and power plants. He was also responsible for the procurement of locally available firewood.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: In 1943 Alexey Kosygin was promoted to Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars (government) of the Russian SFSR. In 1944 he was appointed to head the Currency Board of the Soviet Union.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: Kosygin became a candidate member of the Politburo in 1946. During the Soviet famine of 1946–47 He headed the foodstuff relief missions to the most suffering regions. He was appointed USSR Minister for Finance in February 1948, and a full member of the Politburo on 4 September 1948, putting him among the dozen or so most ranking officials in the USSR.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: Kosygin's administrative skills led Stalin to take the younger man under his wing. Stalin shared information with Kosygin, such as how much money the families of Vyacheslav Molotov, Anastas Mikoyan, and Lazar Kaganovich possessed, spent and paid their staff. (A Politburo member earned a modest salary by Soviet standards but enjoyed unlimited access to consumer goods.) Stalin sent Kosygin to each home to put their houses into "proper order".


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: Kosygin's patron, Zhdanov, died suddenly in August 1948. Soon afterwards, Zhdanov's old rivals Lavrentiy Beria and Georgy Malenkov persuaded Stalin to let them remove members of the decapitated Zhdanov faction, of whom the three most prominent were Nikolai Voznesensky, then Chairman of the State Planning Committee and a First Deputy Premier, Alexey Kuznetsov, the party secretary with oversight over the security, and Kosygin. During the brutal purge that followed, known as the Leningrad affair, Voznesensky, Kuznetsov and many others were arrested and shot. Kosygin was relegated to the post of USSR Minister for Light Industry, while nominally retaining his membership of the Politburo until 1952. Nikita Khrushchev wrote in his memoirs:


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: Kosygin told his son-in-law Mikhail Gvishiani, an NKVD officer, of the accusations leveled against Voznesensky because of his possession of firearms. Gvishiani and Kosygin threw all their weapons into a lake and searched both their own houses for any listening devices. They found one at Kosygin's house, but it might have been installed to spy on Marshal Georgy Zhukov, who had lived there before him. According to his memoirs, Kosygin never left his home without reminding his wife what to do if he did not return from work. After living two years in constant fear, the family reached the conclusion that Stalin would not harm them.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: In September 1953, six months after Stalin's death, Kosygin was appointed USSR Minister for Industrial Goods, and in December he was reinstated as a Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers, under Malenkov, Stalin's immediate successor, but lost that position in December 1956, during Khrushchev's ascendancy, when he was appointed Deputy Chairman of the State Economic Commission. When the power struggle between Khrushchev and the so-called 'Anti-Party Group came to a head in 1957, Kosygin backed Khrushchev because, as he said later, if Malenkov and his allies had won "blood would have flowed again", but the French journalist Michel Tatu, a close observer who based in Moscow at the time, concluded that "Kosygin did not owe anything to Khrushchev" and that out of the post-1957 leadership "was visibly the least willing to praise the First Secretary", and that Khrushchev was "somewhat reluctant" to promote Kosygin.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: However, despite Khrushchev's reluctance, Kosygin's career made a steady recovery. In June 1957, he was again appointed a Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers (for the third time), and a candidate member of the Presidium Central Committee (the renamed Politburo). In March 1959, he was made Chairman of Gosplan, and on 4 May 1960, he was promoted First deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers, and a full member of the Presidium.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: As First Deputy Premier Kosygin travelled abroad, mostly on trade missions, to countries such as North Korea, India, Argentina and Italy. Since 1959 Kosygin headed Soviet mission to the ComEcon. Later, in the aftermath of the Cuban Missile Crisis, Kosygin was the Soviet spokesman for improved relations between the Soviet Union and the United States. According to Michel Tatu, in 1960–62, Kosygin was one of the 'big four', with Khrushchev, Frol Kozlov and Leonid Brezhnev, who would be present in the Kremlin to greet visiting leaders of East European communist parties, implying, but in November 1962, after Khrushchev complained about the management of Gosplan, and opposed Kosygin's plans for economic reform, he was removed from the inner leadership.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: When Khrushchev was removed from power in October 1964, Kosygin replaced him as Premier in a collective leadership that included Leonid Brezhnev as general secretary and Nikolai Podgorny who ultimately became Chairman of the Presidium. Overall, the new Politburo adopted a more conservative outlook than that under Khrushchev's rule.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: Kosygin, Podgorny and Andrei Kirilenko were the most liberal members, Brezhnev and Arvīds Pelše belonged to the moderate faction while Mikhail Suslov retained his leadership of the party's Stalinist wing.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: In October 1964, at a ceremony in honour of Soviet cosmonauts, Brezhnev called for the strengthening of the Party apparatus. This speech was only the beginning of a large campaign directed against Kosygin. Several newspapers, such as "Pravda" and "Kommunist", criticized the work of the Council of Ministers, and indirectly Kosygin, its chairman, for planning the economy in an unrealistic fashion, and used the highly aggressive rhetoric previously used to condemn Khrushchev against Kosygin.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: Brezhnev was able to criticize Kosygin by contrasting him with Vladimir Lenin, whom Brezhnev claimed to have been more interested in improving the conditions of Soviet agriculture than improving the quality of light industrial goods. Kosygin's support for producing more consumer goods was also criticized by Brezhnev, and his supporters, most notably Konstantin Chernenko, for being a return to quasi First World policies. At the 23rd Party Congress Kosygin's position was weakened when Brezhnev's supporters were able to increase expenditure on defence and agriculture. However, Brezhnev did not have a majority in the Politburo, and could count on only four votes. In the Politburo Kosygin could count on Kiril Mazurov's vote, and when Kosygin and Podgorny were not bickering with each other, they actually had a majority in the Politburo over Brezhnev. Unfortunately for Kosygin this was not often the case, and Kosygin and Podgorny were constantly disagreeing on policy.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: Early during Kosygin's tenure, the Brezhnev–Kosygin attempt to create stability was failing on various fronts. From 1969 to 1970 discontent within the Soviet leadership had grown to such an extent that some started to doubt both former and current Soviet policies. Examples include the handling of the Prague Spring and the later Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia (which Kosygin initially resisted), the decline in agriculture production, the Sino–Soviet border conflict (he advocated restraint), the Vietnam War, and the Soviet–American talks on the limitation of strategic missiles. Two summit conferences between the US and the USSR were held: the Warsaw Pact Summit Conference and the Moscow Summit Conference; both failed to gain support for Soviet policies.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: By 1970 these differences had not been resolved, and Brezhnev postponed the 24th Party Congress and the Ninth Five-Year Plan (1971–1975). The delay in resolving these issues led to rumours circulating in Soviet society that Kosygin, or even Brezhnev, would lose their posts to Podgorny. By March 1971 it became apparent that Brezhnev was the leader of the country, with Kosygin as the spokesman of the five-year plan and Podgorny's position within the collective leadership strengthened.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: Early on in his tenure, Kosygin challenged Brezhnev's right as general secretary to represent the country abroad, a function Kosygin believed should fall into the hands of the head of government, as was common in non-communist countries. This was actually implemented for a short period, which led Henry A. Kissinger to believe that Kosygin was the leader of the Soviet Union. Kosygin, who had been the chief negotiator with the First World during the 1960s, was hardly to be seen outside the Second World after Brezhnev consolidated his position within the Politburo, but also due to Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko's dislike of Kosygin meddling into his own ministerial affairs.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: The Six-Day War in the Middle East had the effect of increasing Soviet–American cooperation; to improve relations even further, the United States Government invited Kosygin to a summit with Lyndon B. Johnson, the President of the United States, following his speech to the United Nations. At the summit, which became known as the Glassboro Summit Conference, Johnson and Kosygin failed to reach agreement on limiting anti-ballistic missile systems, but the summit's friendly and even open atmosphere was referred to as the "Spirit of Glassboro". Relations between the two countries improved further when the 1970 Moscow Treaty was signed on 12 August 1970 by Kosygin and Gromyko and Willy Brandt and Walter Scheel who represented West Germany. In 1971, Kosygin gave an extensive interview to the American delegation that included David Rockefeller, presenting his views on US-Soviet relations, environmental protection, arms control and other issues.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: Kosygin developed a close friendly relationship with the President of Finland Urho Kekkonen, which helped the USSR to maintain active mutual trade with Finland and to keep it away from Cold War confrontation.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: In 1972, Kosygin signed a Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the government of Iraq, building on strong Soviet ties to the Iraqi Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party and previous close relations with Iraqi leader Abd al-Karim Qasim.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: Kosygin protected János Kádár's economic reforms and his position as leader of the Hungarian People's Republic from intervention by the Soviet leadership. Polish leader Władysław Gomułka, who was removed from all of his posts in 1970, was succeeded by Edward Gierek who tried to revitalize the economy of the People's Republic of Poland by borrowing money from the First World. The Soviet leadership approved both countries' respective economic experiments, since it was trying to reduce its large Eastern Bloc subsidy programme in the form of cheap oil and gas exports. During the discussions within the Soviet leadership of a possible Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia Kosygin reminded leaders of the consequences of the Soviet suppression of the 1956 Hungarian revolution. Kosygin's stance became more aggressive later on when he understood that the reforms in Czechoslovakia could be turned against his 1965 Soviet economic reform.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: Kosygin acted as a mediator between India and Pakistan in 1966, and got both nations to sign the Tashkent Declaration. Kosygin became the chief spokesman on the issue of arms control. In retrospect, many of Kosygin's colleagues felt he carried out his work "stoically", but lacked "enthusiasm", and therefore never developed a real taste for international politics.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: The Sino–Soviet split chagrined Kosygin a great deal, and for a while he refused to accept its irrevocability; he briefly visited Beijing in 1969 due to increased tension between the USSR and Maoist China. Kosygin said, in a close-knit circle, that "We are communists and they are communists. It is hard to believe we will not be able to reach an agreement if we met face to face". His view on China changed however, and according to Harold Wilson, former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Kosygin viewed China as an "organized military dictatorship" whose intended goal was to enslave "Vietnam and the whole of Asia".


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: During an official visit by an Afghan delegation, Kosygin and Andrei Kirilenko criticized Afghan leaders Nur Muhammad Taraki and Hafizullah Amin for Stalinist-like repressionist behaviour. He promised to send more economic and military aid, but rejected any proposal regarding a possible Soviet intervention, as an intervention in Afghanistan would strain the USSR's foreign relations with the First World according to Kosygin, most notably West Germany. However, in a closed meeting, without Kosygin, who strongly opposed any kind of military intervention, the Politburo unanimously supported a Soviet intervention.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: The Eighth Five-Year Plan (1966–1970) is considered to be one of the most successful periods for the Soviet economy and the most successful when it comes to consumer production (see The "Kosygin" reform). It became known as the "golden era". The 23rd Party Congress and the Ninth Five-Year Plan (1971–1975) had been postponed by Brezhnev due to a power struggle within the Soviet leadership. At the 23rd Party Congress Kosygin promised that the Ninth Five-Year Plan would increase the supply of food, clothing and other household appliances up to 50 percent. The plan envisaged a massive increase in the Soviet standard of living, with Kosygin proclaiming a growth of 40 percent for the population's cash income in his speech to the congress.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: The Tenth Five-Year Plan (1976–1981) was referred to by Kosygin as the "plan of quality". Brezhnev rejected Kosygin's bid for producing more consumer goods during the Tenth Five-Year Plan. As a result, the total volume of consumer goods in industrial production only stood at 26 percent. Kosygin's son-in-law notes that Kosygin was furious with the decision, and proclaimed increased defence expenditure would become the Soviet Union's "complete ruin". The plan was less ambitious than its predecessors, with targets of national industrial growth no higher than what the rest of the world had already achieved. Soviet agriculture would receive a share investment of 34 percent, a share much larger than its proportional contribution to the Soviet economy, as it accounted for only 3 percent of the Soviet GDP.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: Like Khrushchev, Kosygin tried to reform the command economy within a socialist framework. In 1965 Kosygin initiated an economic reform widely referred to as the "Kosygin reform". Kosygin sought to make Soviet industry more efficient by including some market measures common in the First World such as profit making for instance; he also tried to increase quantity of production, increase incentives for managers and workers, and freeing managers from centralized state bureaucracy. The reform had been proposed to Khrushchev in 1964, who evidently liked it and took some preliminary steps to implement it. Brezhnev allowed the reform to proceed because the Soviet economy was entering a period of low growth. In its testing phase, the reform was applied to 336 enterprises in light industry.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: The reform was influenced by the works of Soviet economist Evsei Liberman. Kosygin overestimated the ability of the Soviet administrative machine to develop the economy, which led to "corrections" to some of Liberman's more controversial beliefs about decentralization. According to critics, Kosygin's changes to Liberman's original vision caused the reform to fail.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: Kosygin believed that decentralization, semi-public companies, and cooperatives were keys to catching up to the First World's contemporary level of economic growth. His reform sought a gradual change from a "state-administered economy" to an economy in which "the state restricts itself to guiding enterprises". The reform was implemented, but showed several malfunctions and inconsistencies early on.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: The salary for Soviet citizens increased abruptly by almost 2.5 times during the plan. Real wages in 1980 amounted to 232.7 rubles, compared to 166.3 rubles before the 1965 Soviet economic reform and the Eighth Five-Year Plan. The first period, 1960–1964, was characterized by low growth, while the second period, 1965–1981, had a stronger growth rate. The second period vividly demonstrated the success of the Kosygin reform, with the average annual growth in retail turnover being 11.2 billion rubles, 1.8 times higher than in the first period and 1.2 times higher than the third period (1981–1985). Consumption of goods and daily demand also increased. The consumption of home appliances greatly increased. Refrigerators increased from a low of 109,000 in 1964 to 440,000 units by 1973; consumption declined during the reversal of the reform. Car production increased, and would continue to do so until the late 1980s. The Soviet leadership, under pressure, sought to provide more attractive goods for Soviet consumers.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: The removal of Khrushchev in 1964 signalled the end of his "housing revolution". Housing construction declined between 1960 and 1964 to an average of 1.63 million square metres. Following this sudden decrease, housing construction increased sharply between 1965 and 1966, but dropped again, and then steadily grew (the average annual growth rate was 4.26 million square metres). This came largely at the expense of businesses. While the housing shortage was never fully resolved, and still remains a problem in present-day Russia, the reform overcame the negative trend and renewed the growth of housing construction.


title: Alexei Kosygin

text: Growing hostility towards reform, the initial poor results, and Kosygin's reformist stance, led to a popular backlash against him. Kosygin lost most of the privileges he had enjoyed before the reform, but Brezhnev was never able to remove him from the office of Chairman of the Council of Ministers, despite his weakened position. In the aftermath of his failed reform, Kosygin spent the rest of his life improving the economic administration through the modification of targets; he implemented various programmes to improve food security and ensure the future intensification of production. There is no proof to back up the claim that the reform itself contributed to the high growth seen in the late-1960s, or that its cancellation had anything to do with the stagnating growth of the economy which began in the 1970s.